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Limits: Calculus Cheat Sheet
Limits: Calculus Cheat Sheet
Limits
Definitions
Precise Definition : We say lim f ( x ) = L if
Limit at Infinity : We say lim f ( x ) = L if we
x a
x a
x -
x a
x a
x a
x a
x a
x a +
x a
x a
Properties
Assume lim f ( x ) and lim g ( x ) both exist and c is any number then,
x a
x a
1. lim cf ( x ) = c lim f ( x )
x a
x a
2. lim f ( x ) g ( x ) = lim f ( x ) lim g ( x )
x a
xa
x a
3. lim f ( x ) g ( x ) = lim f ( x ) lim g ( x )
x a
x a
x a
f ( x)
f ( x ) lim
4. lim
= x a
provided lim g ( x ) 0
x a
x a g ( x )
g ( x)
lim
x a
n
n
5. lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x )
x a
x a
6. lim n f ( x ) = n lim f ( x )
x a
xa
2. lim ln ( x ) =
x
lim e x = 0
x-
&
lim ln ( x ) = -
x 0 +
b
=0
xr
4. If r > 0 and x r is real for negative x
b
then lim r = 0
x - x
3. If r > 0 then lim
5. n even : lim x n =
x
x -
x -
Evaluation Techniques
Continuous Functions
LHospitals Rule
f ( x) 0
f ( x)
If f ( x ) is continuous at a then lim f ( x ) = f ( a )
x a
If lim
= or lim
=
then,
x a g ( x )
x a g ( x )
0
x a
lim f ( g ( x ) ) = f lim g ( x ) = f ( b )
x a
x a
Polynomials at Infinity
p ( x ) and q ( x ) are polynomials. To compute
p ( x)
factor largest power of x in q ( x ) out
x q ( x )
lim
x+6 8
= lim
= =4
x2
x
2
Rationalize Numerator/Denominator
3- x
3- x 3+ x
lim 2
= lim 2
x 9 x - 81
x 9 x - 81 3 +
x
9- x
-1
= lim
= lim
2
x 9
( x - 81) 3 + x x9 ( x + 9 ) 3 + x
Piecewise Function
-1
1
=(18)( 6 ) 108
Combine Rational Expressions
1 1
1
1 x - ( x + h)
lim
- = lim
h 0 h x + h
x h0 h x ( x + h )
1 -h
1
-1
= lim
=
lim
=
h 0 h x ( x + h )
h0 x ( x + h )
x2
x 2 3 - 42
3 - 42
3x 2 - 4
3
x
lim
= lim 2 5
= lim 5 x =
x - 5 x - 2 x 2
x - x
x
2
x -2
x -2
x 2 + 5 if x < -2
lim g ( x ) where g ( x ) =
x -2
1 - 3x if x -2
Compute two one sided limits,
lim- g ( x ) = lim- x 2 + 5 = 9
x -2
x -2
x -2+
x -2
lim g ( x ) = lim+ 1 - 3 x = 7
Derivatives
Definition and Notation
f ( x + h) - f ( x)
If y = f ( x ) then the derivative is defined to be f ( x ) = lim
.
h 0
h
If y = f ( x ) then all of the following are
equivalent notations for the derivative.
df dy d
f ( x ) = y =
=
= ( f ( x ) ) = Df ( x )
dx dx dx
If y = f ( x ) then,
change of f ( x ) at x = a .
the object at x = a .
( c f ) = c f ( x )
2.
( f g ) = f ( x ) g ( x )
3.
( f g ) =
f
4.
g
d
(c) = 0
dx
d n
6.
x ) = n x n-1 Power Rule
(
dx
d
7.
f ( g ( x )) = f ( g ( x )) g ( x )
dx
This is the Chain Rule
5.
f g + f g Product Rule
f g - f g
Quotient Rule
=
g2
Common Derivatives
d
( x) = 1
dx
d
( sin x ) = cos x
dx
d
( cos x ) = - sin x
dx
d
( tan x ) = sec2 x
dx
d
( sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx
d
( csc x ) = - csc x cot x
dx
d
( cot x ) = - csc2 x
dx
d
1
sin -1 x ) =
(
dx
1 - x2
d
1
cos -1 x ) = (
dx
1 - x2
d
1
tan -1 x ) =
(
dx
1 + x2
d x
a ) = a x ln ( a )
(
dx
d x
e ) = ex
(
dx
d
1
ln ( x ) ) = , x > 0
(
dx
x
d
1
( ln x ) = x , x 0
dx
d
1
log a ( x ) ) =
, x>0
(
dx
x ln a
f ( x)
d
7.
( sec [ f ( x)]) = f ( x) sec [ f ( x)] tan [ f ( x)]
3.
ln f ( x ) =
dx
dx
f ( x)
f ( x)
d
d
tan -1 f ( x ) =
8.
2
4.
sin f ( x ) = f ( x ) cos f ( x )
dx
1 + f ( x )
dx
Implicit Differentiation
2 x -9 y
3 2
Find y if e
+ x y = sin ( y ) + 11x . Remember y = y ( x ) here, so products/quotients of x and y
will use the product/quotient rule and derivatives of y will use the chain rule. The trick is to
differentiate as normal and every time you differentiate a y you tack on a y (from the chain rule).
After differentiating solve for y .
e 2 x -9 y ( 2 - 9 y ) + 3 x 2 y 2 + 2 x3 y y = cos ( y ) y + 11
2e
2 x -9 y
- 9 ye
( 2 x y - 9e x
3
2 x -9 y
2 -9 y
+ 3x y + 2 x y y = cos ( y ) y + 11
2
- cos ( y ) ) y = 11 - 2e2 x -9 y - 3x 2 y 2
11 - 2e 2 x -9 y - 3x 2 y 2
y = 3
2 x y - 9e2 x -9 y - cos ( y )
Absolute Extrema
1. x = c is an absolute maximum of f ( x )
if f ( c ) f ( x ) for all x in the domain.
Extrema
Relative (local) Extrema
1. x = c is a relative (or local) maximum of
f ( x ) if f ( c ) f ( x ) for all x near c.
2. x = c is an absolute minimum of f ( x )
if f ( c ) f ( x ) for all x in the domain.
Fermats Theorem
If f ( x ) has a relative (or local) extrema at
x = c , then x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) .
Extreme Value Theorem
If f ( x ) is continuous on the closed interval
f (b) - f ( a )
.
b-a
Newtons Method
If xn is the nth guess for the root/solution of f ( x ) = 0 then (n+1)st guess is xn +1 = xn provided f ( xn ) exists.
f ( xn )
f ( xn )
Related Rates
Sketch picture and identify known/unknown quantities. Write down equation relating quantities
and differentiate with respect to t using implicit differentiation (i.e. add on a derivative every time
you differentiate a function of t). Plug in known quantities and solve for the unknown quantity.
Ex. A 15 foot ladder is resting against a wall.
Ex. Two people are 50 ft apart when one
The bottom is initially 10 ft away and is being
starts walking north. The angle q changes at
0.01 rad/min. At what rate is the distance
pushed towards the wall at 14 ft/sec. How fast
between them changing when q = 0.5 rad?
is the top moving after 12 sec?
Optimization
Sketch picture if needed, write down equation to be optimized and constraint. Solve constraint for
one of the two variables and plug into first equation. Find critical points of equation in range of
variables and verify that they are min/max as needed.
Ex. Were enclosing a rectangular field with
Ex. Determine point(s) on y = x 2 + 1 that are
500 ft of fence material and one side of the
closest to (0,2).
field is a building. Determine dimensions that
will maximize the enclosed area.
Minimize f = d 2 = ( x - 0 ) + ( y - 2 ) and the
2
1
2
, 32 and -
1
2
, 32 .
Integrals
Definitions
Anti-Derivative : An anti-derivative of f ( x )
Definite Integral: Suppose f ( x ) is continuous
on [ a, b] . Divide [ a, b ] into n subintervals of
Indefinite Integral : f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + c
*
i
Then
where F ( x ) is an anti-derivative of f ( x ) .
f (x )D x .
a f ( x ) dx = nlim
i
b
*
i
=1
v( x )
dx
a
dx
d u( x)
Part II : f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b ] , F ( x ) is
f ( t ) dt = u ( x ) f [ u ( x ) ] - v ( x ) f [ v ( x ) ]
dx v( x )
an anti-derivative of f ( x ) (i.e. F ( x ) = f ( x ) dx )
b
then f ( x ) dx = F ( b ) - F ( a ) .
a
f ( x ) g ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx g ( x ) dx
b
b
b
a f ( x ) g ( x ) dx = a f ( x ) dx a g ( x ) dx
Properties
cf ( x ) dx = c f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
b
b
a cf ( x ) dx = c a f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
a f ( x ) dx = 0
b
c dx = c ( b - a )
f ( x ) dx f ( x )
a
a f ( x ) dx = -b f ( x ) dx
b
dx
f ( x ) dx 0
a
If m f ( x ) M on a x b then m ( b - a ) f ( x ) dx M ( b - a )
a
k dx = k x + c
n
n
1
x dx = n+1 x + c, n -1
x dx = x dx = ln x + c
a x + b dx = a ln ax + b + c
ln u du = u ln ( u ) - u + c
e du = e + c
+1
-1
Common Integrals
cos u du = sin u + c
sin u du = - cos u + c
sec u du = tan u + c
sec u tan u du = sec u + c
csc u cot udu = - csc u + c
csc u du = - cot u + c
2
tan u du = ln sec u + c
sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c
u
a + u du = a tan ( a ) + c
u
1
a - u du = sin ( a ) + c
1
-1
-1
g b
using
1 5x
cos ( x3 ) dx
1 5x
cos ( x3 ) dx =
u = x 3 du = 3x 2 dx x 2 dx = 13 du
5
cos
1 3
8
= 53 sin ( u ) 1 =
x = 1 u = 1 = 1 :: x = 2 u = 2 = 8
3
a u dv = uv
b
a
5
3
( u ) du
xe
u=x
xe
-x
-x
dx
Ex.
dv = e- x
du = dx v = -e - x
dx = - xe + e dx = - xe - e
-x
-x
-x
-x
+c
3 ln x dx
u = ln x
5
dv = dx du = 1x dx v = x
ln x dx = x ln x 3 - dx = ( x ln ( x ) - x )
5
= 5ln ( 5) - 3ln ( 3) - 2
Products and (some) Quotients of Trig Functions
For sin n x cos m x dx we have the following :
For tan n x sec m x dx we have the following :
1. n odd. Strip 1 sine out and convert rest to
1.
2
2
cosines using sin x = 1 - cos x , then use
the substitution u = cos x .
2. m odd. Strip 1 cosine out and convert rest
2.
to sines using cos 2 x = 1 - sin 2 x , then use
the substitution u = sin x .
3. n and m both odd. Use either 1. or 2.
4. n and m both even. Use double angle
3.
and/or half angle formulas to reduce the
4.
integral into a form that can be integrated.
Trig Formulas : sin ( 2 x ) = 2sin ( x ) cos ( x ) , cos 2 ( x ) =
tan
sin5 x
cos x dx
(sin x ) sin x
sin x
sin x sin x
cos x dx = cos x dx = cos x dx
(1- cos x ) sin x
=
dx
( u = cos x )
cos x
= - (1-u ) du = - 1-2u +u du
u
u
Ex.
( u = sec x )
= 17 sec7 x - 15 sec5 x + c
2 2
Trig Substitutions : If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and
formula to convert into an integral involving trig functions.
a 2 - b 2 x 2 x = ab sin q
b 2 x 2 - a 2 x = ba sec q
cos 2 q = 1 - sin 2 q
Ex.
16
2
4 -9 x 2
tan 2 q = sec 2 q - 1
dx
x = 23 sin q dx = 23 cos q dq
sec2 q = 1 + tan 2 q
16
4 sin 2 q ( 2cosq )
9
4 - 9x = 2 cos q .
2
( 23 cos q ) dq = sin122 q dq
= 12 csc 2 dq = -12 cot q + c
2
2
4 - 9x 2 = 4 - 4sin q = 4 cos q = 2 cos q
a 2 + b 2 x 2 x = ab tan q
16
2
4 -9 x 2
dx = - 4
4 -9 x 2
3x
4 -9 x 2
x
. So,
+c
P( x )
Q ( x ) . Factor denominator as completely as possible and find the partial fraction decomposition of
the rational expression. Integrate the partial fraction decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the
denominator we get term(s) in the decomposition according to the following table.
Factor in Q ( x )
Ex.
ax + b
A
ax + b
ax 2 + bx + c
Ax + B
2
ax + bx + c
( ax + b )
( ax
( x -1)( x
7 x2 +13 x
( x -1)( x2 + 4 )
Ak x + Bk
A1 x + B1
+L +
k
2
ax + bx + c
( ax 2 + bx + c )
7 x2 +13 x
dx
+4)
( x -1)( x + 4 )
dx = x4-1 + 3xx2++164 dx
= x4-1 +
Ak
A1
A2
+
+L +
2
k
ax + b ( ax + b )
( ax + b )
+ bx + c )
7 x2 +13 x
Term in P.F.D
3x
x2 + 4
16
x2 + 4
dx
= 4 ln x - 1 + 23 ln ( x 2 + 4 ) + 8 tan -1 ( x2 )
Here is partial fraction form and recombined.
x -1
+C
+ Bx
=
x2 + 4
A( x2 + 4) + ( Bx + C ) ( x -1)
( x -1)( x 2 + 4 )
An alternate method that sometimes works to find constants. Start with setting numerators equal in
previous example : 7 x 2 + 13x = A ( x 2 + 4 ) + ( Bx + C ) ( x - 1) . Chose nice values of x and plug in.
For example if x = 1 we get 20 = 5A which gives A = 4 . This wont always work easily.
Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus notes.
Applications of Integrals
Net Area :
x-axis with area above x-axis positive and area below x-axis negative.
Area Between Curves : The general formulas for the two main cases for each are,
y = f ( x) A =
b
a
upper function
- lower
function dx
& x = f ( y) A =
d
c
right function
- left
function dy
If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be found individually. Here are some
sketches of a couple possible situations and formulas for a couple of possible cases.
A = f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx
a
A = f ( y ) - g ( y ) dy
A = f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx + g ( x ) - f ( x ) dx
g ( y ) , A ( y ) and dy.
g ( y ) , A ( y ) and dy.
g ( x ) , A ( x ) and dx.
Ex. Axis : y = a 0
Ex. Axis : y = a 0
outer radius : a - f ( x )
outer radius: a + g ( x )
radius : a + y
inner radius : a - g ( x )
inner radius: a + f ( x )
radius : a - y
width : f ( y ) - g ( y )
width : f ( y ) - g ( y )
These are only a few cases for horizontal axis of rotation. If axis of rotation is the x-axis use the
y = a 0 case with a = 0 . For vertical axis of rotation ( x = a > 0 and x = a 0 ) interchange x and
y to get appropriate formulas.
Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus notes.
b
1
b-a a
f ( x ) dx
Arc Length Surface Area : Note that this is often a Calc II topic. The three basic formulas are,
b
L = ds
where ds is dependent upon the form of the function being worked with as follows.
( )
1+ ( )
ds = 1 +
dy
dx
ds =
dx
dy
( dxdt )
( )
dx if y = f ( x ) , a x b
ds =
dy if x = f ( y ) , a y b
ds = r 2 + ( ddrq ) dq if r = f (q ) , a q b
dy
dt
dt if x = f ( t ) , y = g ( t ) , a t b
With surface area you may have to substitute in for the x or y depending on your choice of ds to
match the differential in the ds. With parametric and polar you will always need to substitute.
Improper Integral
An improper integral is an integral with one or more infinite limits and/or discontinuous integrands.
Integral is called convergent if the limit exists and has a finite value and divergent if the limit
doesnt exist or has infinite value. This is typically a Calc II topic.
Infinite Limit
1.
3.
f ( x ) dx = lim f ( x ) dx
t
2.
f ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx +
f ( x ) dx = lim
t -
f ( x ) dx
t
Discontinuous Integrand
b
1. Discont. at a: f ( x ) dx = lim+ f ( x ) dx
a
t a
2. Discont. at b : f ( x ) dx = lim- f ( x ) dx
t b
xp
and
f ( x ) dx Dx f ( x ) + f ( x ) + L + f ( x ) , xi
b
*
1
*
2
*
n
is midpoint [ xi -1 , xi ]
Dx
f ( x ) dx 2 f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + +2 f ( x ) + L + 2 f ( x ) + f ( x )
b
n -1
Dx
f ( x ) dx 3 f ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + L + 2 f ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) + f ( x )
b
n-2
n -1