Study Note 1:

Ultrasonic Testing

Source: http://www.ndted.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultra
sonics/cc_ut_index.htm

Content:
Section 1: Introduction
1.1: Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
1.2: Advantages and Disadvantages
1.3: Limitations

Content: Section 2: Physics of Ultrasound

2.1: Wave Propagation
2.2: Modes of Sound Wave Propagation
2.3: Properties of Acoustic Plane Wave
2.4: Wavelength and Defect Detection
2.5: Sound Propagation in Elastic Materials
2.6: Attenuation of Sound Waves
2.7: Acoustic Impedance
2.8: Reflection and Transmission Coefficients (Pressure)
2.9: Refraction and Snell's Law
2.10: Mode Conversion
2.11: Signal-to-Noise Ratio
2.12: Wave Interaction or Interference
2.13: Inverse Square Rule/ Inverse Rule
2.14: Resonance
2.15 Measurement of Sound
2.16 Practice Makes Perfect

Content: Section 3: Equipment & Transducers

3.1: Piezoelectric Transducers
3.2: Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers
3.3: Radiated Fields of Ultrasonic Transducers
3.4: Transducer Beam Spread
3.5: Transducer Types
3.6: Transducer Testing I
3.7: Transducer Testing II
3.8: Transducer Modeling
3.9: Couplants
3.10: Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMATs)
Continues Next Page

3.11: Pulser-Receivers
3.12: Tone Burst Generators In Research
3.13: Arbitrary Function Generators
3.14: Electrical Impedance Matching and Termination
3.15: Data Presentation
3.16: Error Analysis
3.17: Transducer Quality Factor Q
3.18: Testing Techniques
3.19: UT Equipment Circuitry
3.20: Further Reading on Sub-Section 3

Content: Section 4: Calibration Methods

4.1: Calibration Methods
4.2: The Calibrations
4.2.1: Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)
4.2.2: Finding the probe index
4.2.3: Checking the probe angle
4.2.4: Calibration of shear waves for range V1 Block
4.2.5: Dead Zone
4.2.7: Transfer Correction
4.2.8: Linearity Checks (Time Base/ Equipment Gain/ Vertical Gain)
4.2.9: TCG-Time Correction Gain
4.3: Curvature Correction
4.4: Calibration References & Standards
4.5: Exercises
4.6: Video Time

Content: Section 5: Measurement Techniques

5.1: Normal Beam Inspection
5.2: Angle Beams
5.3: Reflector Sizing
5.4: Automated Scanning
5.5: Precision Velocity Measurements
5.6: Attenuation Measurements
5.7: Spread Spectrum Ultrasonics
5.8: Signal Processing Techniques
5.9: Scanning Methods
5.10: Scanning Patterns
5.11: Pulse Repetition Rate and Penetration
5.12: Interferences & Non Relevant Indications
5.13: Entry Surface Variables
5.14: The Concept of Effective Distance
5.15: Exercises

Content: Section 6: Selected Applications & Techniques

6.1: Defects & Discontinuities
6.2: Rail Inspection
6.3: Weldments (Welded Joints)
6.4: Pipe & Tube
6.5: Echo Dynamic
6.6: Technique Sheets
6.7: Material Properties-Elastic Modulus Measurements
6.8: High Temperature Ultrasonic Testing
6.9: TOFD Introduction

Content: Section 7: Reference Material

7.1: UT Material Properties
7.2: General References & Resources
7.3: Video Time
Content: Section 8: Ultrasonic Inspection Quizzes
8.1: Ultrasonic Inspection Quizzes
8.2: Online UT Quizzes

Section 1: Introduction

1.1:

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION is a nondestructive method in which beams of

high-frequency sound waves are introduced into materials for the detection of
surface and subsurface flaws in the material. The sound waves travel through
the material with some attendant loss of energy (attenuation) and are
reflected at interfaces. The reflected beam is displayed and then analyzed to
define the presence and location of flaws or discontinuities. The degree of
reflection depends largely on the physical state of the materials forming the
interface and to a lesser extent on the specific physical properties of the
material.

For example, sound waves are almost completely reflected at metal/gas

interfaces. Partial reflection occurs at metal/liquid or metal/solid interfaces,
with the specific percentage of reflected energy depending mainly on the
ratios of certain properties of the material on opposing sides of the interface.
Cracks, laminations, shrinkage cavities, bursts, flakes, pores, disbonds, and
other discontinuities that produce reflective interfaces can be easily detected.
Inclusions and other in-homogeneities can also be detected by causing partial
reflection or scattering of the ultrasonic waves or by producing some other
detectable effect on the ultrasonic waves.

In ultrasonic testing, the reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical

signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the
reflected signal strength is displayed versus the time from signal generation to
when a echo was received. Signal travel time can be directly related to the
distance that the signal traveled. From the signal, information about the
reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be
gained.

http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/ultrasoundInspection.swf

Basics of Ultrasonic Test- Contact Pulse Echo Method

http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/faa-casr/engineers/Supporting%20Info/Supporting%20Info%20Pages/Ultrasonic%20Pages/Ultra-principles.html

Immersion Method- Figure below shows an immersion UT setup with CRT

or computer screen display. IP indicates the initial pulse while FW and BW
indicate the front and back wall of the specimen, respectively.

Amplitude

Display / CRT

Water path

Time / Distance

Basics of Ultrasonic Test- A-Scan

1.2: Source-1: The advantages of ultrasonic testing include

Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some of the
advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:
It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to
other NDT methods.
Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is
used.
It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size
and shape.
Minimal part preparation is required.
Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw
detection.

Source-2: The advantages of ultrasonic testing include

It can be used to determine mechanical properties and microstructure.

It can be used for imaging and microscopy.
It is portable and cost effective.
It can be used with all states of matter except plasma and vacuum.
It is not affected by optical density.

Source-3: Advantages and Disadvantages

The principal advantages of ultrasonic inspection as compared to other
methods for nondestructive inspection of metal parts are:
Superior penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in
the part. Ultrasonic inspection is done routinely to thicknesses of a few
meters on many types of parts and to thicknesses of about 6 m (20 ft) in
the axial inspection of parts such as long steel shafts or rotor forgings
High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws
Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining the
position of internal flaws, estimating their size, and characterizing their
orientation, shape, and nature
Only one surface needs to be accessible

 Operation is electronic, which provides almost instantaneous indications of

flaws. This makes the method suitable for immediate interpretation,
automation, rapid scanning, in-line production monitoring, and process
control. With most systems, a permanent record of inspection results can
be made for future reference
Volumetric scanning ability, enabling the inspection of a volume of metal
extending from front surface to back surface of a part
Nonhazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on
equipment and materials in the vicinity
Portability
Provides an output that can be processed digitally by a computer to
characterize defects and to determine material properties

The disadvantages of ultrasonic inspection include the following:

Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians.
Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of
inspection procedures.
Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
Discontinuities that are present in a shallow layer immediately beneath the
surface may not be detectable.
Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave
energy between transducers and parts being inspected.
Reference standards are needed, both for calibrating the equipment and
for characterizing flaws.

1.3:

Limitations (Disadvantages)

As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which
include:
Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound
energy into the test specimen.
Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin
or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to
low sound transmission and high signal noise.
Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the
characterization of flaws.