Vectors

May 2, 2009

Abstract
Vectors are those mathematical structures that have magnitude and
direction associated with them. To master vectors is to think them as
coordinates in 3D geometry.

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

Contents
I Theory, Discussion & Formulae

1 Vectors & Scalars

2 Types of Vectors
3 Length of a vector
4 Equality of vectors
5 Collinear vectors
6 Coplanar vectors
7 Addition of two vectors
8 Linear combination of vectors
9 Linear Independence & Dependence.
10 Points in Vector space
11 Product in Vectors
11.1 Scalar Multiplication of a vector
11.2 Scalar Product or Dot product

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.3 Vector Product or Cross product

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.3.1 In cartesian coordinate system

4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
7
7
7

8
8

. . . . . . . . . .

11.3.2 Generalised properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.4 Scalar Triple product or Box product . . . . . . . . . . .

11.5 Vector Triple product

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.5.1 How to Derive this?

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12 Projection & Component of Vectors

13 Solving Problems-Part I

10
10

14 Useful Formulae
15 Area & Volume of geometrical structures
16 Vector Geometry

11
12
12

13.1 Solving Vectors Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16.1 Equation of a line in Vector form . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

12

16.2 Skew lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

16.3 Equation of angle bisector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

16.4 Vector equation of a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

16.4.1 Normal form

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16.4.2 Point-two vector form

13

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

16.4.3 Three point form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

16.5 Section made by a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

17 Reciprocal system of Vectors

14

II Problems

15

18 Level I Problems
19 Level 2 problems

15
15

5 COLLINEAR VECTORS

Part I

Theory, Discussion & Formulae

1 Vectors & Scalars

A vector is a dened as that mathematical structure that has magnitude and

direction associated with it. Scalars are those mathematical structures that
have only magnitude no direction.

2 Types of Vectors

Any vector AB is a vector in the direction joining the points A & B in

the vector space, which can be expressed in form of basic vectors called as
position vectors.
Position vectors specify the position of a point with respect to origin.
Any vector joining two points can be written in terms of position vectors

of those two points. Like AB = b a

Notation : I prefer to denote any vector i + j + k as (1, 1, 1) and assume

to have the i,j & k. It saves lot of time and things are clear with this way of
writing vectors.

3 Length of a vector
Length of a vector or Modulus of a vector say |a| which is the position vector

is distance of the point from origin. Or if for any vector AB , |AB| is distance
between the points A & B.
Given position vector a
= a1i + a2 j + a3 k then |
a| =

p
a21 + a22 + a33

|AB| = |b a
|
Given any vector joining A & B points,
p
= (b1 a1 )2 + (b2 a2 )2 + (b3 a3 )2

4 Equality of vectors
Two vectors are equal if have same direction and magnitude.

5 Collinear vectors
Two vectors are collinear if they have the same direction.
If they turn to have the same magnitude as well then they become equal
vectors.
4

8 LINEAR COMBINATION OF VECTORS

6 Coplanar vectors
Two vectors are coplanar if they lie in the same plane. Any two vectors are
always coplanar if they have the same starting point.

7 Addition of two vectors

Addition of two vectors is given by Triangle law or Parellogram law.
Vector addition is associative a
+ (b + c) = (
a + b) + c
Vector addition is Cummutative a
+ b = b + a

8 Linear combination of vectors

If vectors a & b are two position vectors of A & B points. What will be
c =
a + b?
c above is produced by linear combination of two vectors. Now there are
two cases to this problem
If a
& b are non-collinear vectors then the linear combination will be

guided by the parellogram law.

If a
& b are collinear vectors. i.e. they are having the same direction,

then any linear combination is going to give another vector of dierent

length in the same direction.

This analysis above shows that linear combination has the power to

produce new vectors. If both the vectors are in line means collinear
then the linear combination will produce the new vector in the same
line. But here two vectors are not really required. So
 to produce a new vector in the same line linear combination is a
 to produce a new vector in the plane containing two vectors. If
these two vectors lie in the same line means are collinear then the
linear combination will produce another vector in the same line.
But we want to produce another vector in the plane. So we need
two non-collinear vectors. Hence a + b will produce the new
vector in the plane. And for dierent values of & any vector
in that plane containing a & can be produced.
 to produce a new vector in the 3D space containing three vectors.
If these three vectors are coplanar then the linear combination will
produce a new vector in the plane containing these three vectors.
Hence a + b + c will produce the new vector in the 3D space
if all three vectors are non-coplanar.

9 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE & DEPENDENCE.

Linear combination is the method by which we produce new
vectors.

9 Linear Independence & Dependence.

The idea of linearly independent vectors is generalized way of speaking about
collinearity or coplanarity of two or three vectors respectively.
In 1 dimensional space (i.e. line), how many vectors are sucient to

produce a new vector using linear combination?

 Only one vector is enough to produce any other vector in 1D space

(i.e. line) using linear combination a
In 2 dimensional space (i.e. plane), how many vectors are sucient

to produce a new vector using linear combination & what condition

should they satisfy?

 Only two vectors are sucient to produce a new vector in 2D space

provided these two are non-collinear. Since if they are collinear
they will again produce a new vector in 1D space. i.e. line containing both the lines.
In 3 dimensional space (i.e. space), how many vectors are sucient

to produce a new vector using linear combination & what condition

should they satisfy?

 Only 3 vectors are sucient to produce a new vector in 3D space

provided these vectors are non-coplanar. Since if they are coplanar then their linear combination will produce a new vector in the
plane and not in 3D space.

NOTE: Number of vectors under some condition required for producing new
vectors is always equal to the dimension of the space.
Now we come to the point of denining what is linear independence?

Linear-Independence - Given vectors are linearly independent if one cannot be produced from the other.
Linear-Dependence - Given Vectors are said to be linearly dependent if
one can be produced from the other.

So this denition is nothing but in

1 dimensional space (i.e. line) we require only one linearly independent

vector to produce a new vector.

11 PRODUCT IN VECTORS
2 dimensional space (i.e plane) we require two linearly independent vec-

tors to produce a new vector. So two vectors are linearly independent

in 2D space means they are non-collinear

3 dimensional space (i.e. space) we require three linearly independent

vectors to produce a new vector. So three vectors are linearly independent in 3D space means they are non-coplanar.

So now you should know why the idea of linear independence is constructed
? or why we study that ?
Purely since we want to know what is that condition that is required to
produce new vectors in n-dimensional space! And how we can extend the
idea of non-collinear & non-coplanar into higher dimension. So ultimately is
nothing but non-collinearity & non-coplanarity.

10 Points in Vector space

Any point in vector space can be uniquely represented by its position vector.
1. Three points B,C & D are collinear i
(a) there exists x,y,z not all zero such that
i. xu + yv + z w = 0
ii. x + y + z = 0 ( this is directly evident from section formula)

(b) BC = CD
2. Four points A,B,C & D are coplanar i
(a) there exists x,y,z & w not all zero such that
i. xa + yb + zc + wd = 0
ii. x + y + z + w = 0

(b) There exists , not both zero such that AB + AC = AD is
true.

11 Product in Vectors

11.1 Scalar Multiplication of a vector

Any vector multiplied by a scalar (a real number) is dened as scalar multiplied to a vector.
Geometrically, the length of the vector is increased scalar times. i.e.

a = b tells |
a| = |b| and another crucial info of they both pointing in
the same direction. Whenver we have vectors thinking of them in terms of
lines containing those vectors helps. So two vectors are collinear means lines
containing these two vectors is parellel.
7

11.2 Scalar Product or Dot product

11 PRODUCT IN VECTORS

11.2 Scalar Product or Dot product

Dened as a b = |a||b| cos
So a
b = 0 |
a| = 0 or |b| = 0 or cos = 0
a
b is a scalar quantity
a

a=a
2 = |
a|2 ; this is a very important identity that allows movement

from vectors to real numbers.

a
b = b a
; dot product is commutative
We cant talk about associativity since three vectors having dot product

doesnt make sense. Why??

11.3 Vector Product or Cross product

Dened as a b = |a||b| sin n , where n : is perpendicular both a & b
11.3.1 In cartesian coordinate system

1. i j = k, i k = j Note: if in alphabetic (cyclic) order then positive

else negative.
2. i i = j j = k k = 0
3. When
a
& b  when represented in terms of i, j, k then a
b =







i j k 

a1 a2 a3 
b1 b2 b3 

11.3.2 Generalised properties

a
b is perpendicular to both a
& b
a
& b are parallel to each other
a b = 0
a
b = b a

|
a b|2 + (
a b)2 = |
a|2 |b|2 Lagrange's identity. Relation between cross

and dot product.

Area of a parellogram = |
a b|
Area of a Triangle =

|
ab|
2

11 PRODUCT IN VECTORS11.4 Scalar Triple product or Box product

11.4 Scalar Triple product or Box product

Dened as a (b c)
a
(b c) = a
b c - bracket doesn't makes sense since the output is

a scalar (hence called scalar triple product).



 a1 a2 a3 


If a
, b, c are represented using i, j, k then a
b c =  b1 b2 b3 
 c1 c2 c3 
a
b c = a
b c -interchange the & values remains same.
[
a b c] = a
b c
[
a b c] = [b c a
] = [
ca
b] = [
a c b] change them cyclically and they

all have same value, the order is changed and the sign changes.

Geometrically [
a b c] represents volume of a parellopiped with edges

a
, b & c
So 0 = [
a b a
] represents area of a parellopiped with edges which are

complanar making volume zero.

For any four coplanar points (note this are points and not vectors)
ab] + [db
ca
given by position vector a,
b, c & d we have [
ab
c] = [d
c] + [d
]

(can be proved by the fact that vectors AB, AC, & AD are coplanar.

11.5 Vector Triple product

Dened as a (b c) = (a c)b (a b)c
Also (a b) c = (a c)b (b c)a

Way to remember :
in the bracket.

a
(b c)

lies in the plane of vectors

11.5.1 How to Derive this?

Let r = a (b c).

r a
& r b c
i.e. r lies in the plane of b & c
i.e. r = b + c
i.e. a r = 0 = (a b) + (a c)
ac = ab = k (assume)
r = k(
a c)b + k(
a b)
c = k((
a c)b (
a b)
c)
Value of k can be found out by trying values of a = i, b = j & c = i
= j
r = a
(b c) = i (j i) = i (k)
r = k((i i)j (i j)i) = k(j 0) = kj
Equating r we get k = 1

13 SOLVING PROBLEMS-PART I

12 Projection & Component of Vectors

We have two vectors a & b, each non-zero then
Projection of a
along b =
Projection of a
b =

a
b

|b|

|
ab|
|b|

Component of a
along b =
Component of a
b =

(
ab)b
|b|2

b(
ab)
|b|2

=a

(
ab)b
|b|2

13 Solving Problems-Part I
13.1 Solving Vectors Equations

1. (IITJEE-2009) Angle between

the vectors a & b where a, b and c are

unit vectors satisfying a + b + 3c = 0

Solution : We need to nd the angle between a & b, So we need to
arrange the given info such that we are able to produce just that
and rest others is given to us.

a
+ b = 3
c

|
a + b| =| 3
c|
2
2
|
a + b| =| 3
c|

(
a + b) (
a + b) =3
c c
|
a|2 + |b|2 + 2
a b =3|
c|2
2 + 2
a b =3
1
|
a||b| cos =
2

=
3

Alternate-Solution
: Another way to look this problem is by sym
metry. In a + b + 3c = 0 terms a & b are very symmetric. Given
|
a| = |b| = 1 So the problem is problem of statics. The forces
are all balanced hence
Therefore we get,
along one component.

|a| cos + |b| cos = 3|c| 2 cos = 3 = 6 . Therefore

angle between a& b is 2 = 3

10

14 USEFUL FORMULAE

14 Useful Formulae
1. |a b|2 + (a b)2 = |a|2 |b|2
LHS = |ab|2 +(ab)2 = |a|2 |b|2 sin2 +|a|2 |b|2 cos2 = |a|2 |b|2 =RHS

2. |a b| |a||b|
Solution : |a b| = |a||b| | sin ||n| |a||b|

3. |a b| |a||b|
Solution : |a b| = |a||b|| cos | |a||b|

 c a
d
= a
4. (a b) (c d)
 b d b d

Solution :Let n = c d
LHS = a
b n

=a
b n

=a
b (
c d)
c (b c)d}

=a
{(b d)
a c) (b c)(

= (b d)(
a d)
= RHS

5.

= [
c [
(
a b) (
c d)
a b d]
a b c]d
b [b c d]
a
= [
a c d]

Solution :Let n = a b

LHS = n
(
c d)
c (
= (
n d)
n c)d
c [
= [
a b d]
a b c]d

6. Let r be any vector & a, b & c be non-zero, non-coplanar vectors then

r =

[
r b c]
a

[
a b c]

[
r c a
]
r a
b]
b + [
c
[
a b c]
[
a b c]

(a) Solution: Let r = 1 a + 2b + 3 c as a, b & c are non-coplanar.

Now take dot product with b c and nd 1 similarly nd the
other constants by taking dot product with other symmetric cross
products.
7. [a b b c c a] = [abc]2
11

16 VECTOR GEOMETRY

15 Area & Volume of geometrical structures

Area of a parellogram
with adjacent sides given by a
& b = |
a b|

 with diagonals d1 & d2 = 12 |d1 d2 |

Area of a Triangle :

 a & b are the edges of the triangle then Area = 12 |a b|

 If a, b & c are the position vectors of the vertices A,B & C then
Area = 12 |a b + b c + c a|
Volume of a parellopiped : [
a b c]
Volume of a tetrahedron :

1
a
6 [

b c]

Volume of a triangular prism :

1
a
2 [

b c]

16 Vector Geometry

16.1 Equation of a line in Vector form

Two point form : Equation of line passing through the points A(
a) & B(b)

is derived as

r = a
+ AB = a
+ (b a
) = (1 )
a + b
Slope point form : Equation of a line passing through the point A(
a)

and parellel to the vector b

r = a
+ b

16.2 Skew lines

Any two lines which are neither intersecting nor parellel are called skew lines.
This will happen in 3D space.
Note: Two lines that are parallel never intersect and if they are
not parallel then they always intersect- this happens only in a
2D space. If we expand this property to hold true in 3D space it
is not true in form of skew lines. But if u take this analogy to 3D
space you have to increase the property by one dimension. Like
- Two planes if they are parallel then they never interesect and
if they are not parallel then they always intersect in a line.
So if line L1 : r = a
+
c & L2 : r = b + d. If L1 , L2 are skew lines

then shortest distance between the lines is p = [a|cbd|c d]

12

16 VECTOR GEOMETRY

16.3 Equation of angle bisector

16.3 Equation of angle bisector

Equation of angle bisector of angle shown by sides parallel to b & c and
passing through point A(a)


c
b
r = a
+
c|
|b| |
to specify the internal and external bisector of the angle.

16.4 Vector equation of a plane

16.4.1 Normal form1

Vector equation of a plane at a distance of p units from origin and n being

normal to it is given as
r n
= p

16.4.2 Point-two vector form

Equation of plane passing through point A(a) and containing b & c on it is

(
ra
) b c = 0

or
[
r b c] = [
a b c]

16.4.3 Three point form

Equation of a plane containing 3 points A(a), B(b) & C(c) is

[
ra
b] + [
rb
c] + [
rca
] = [
ab
c]

or
r (
a b + b c + c a
) = a
b c
1

Any equation of the form

plane from origin since

dividing by

r n
= p

(Note here p is not the distance between the

is not the unit normal) can be converted to have unit normal by

p

on both sides to get the vector equation. So |

represent the distance of
n|
this plane from origin.

|
n|

13

16.5 Section made by a plane17 RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS

16.5 Section made by a plane

Let A(a) & B(b) are two points outside a plane r n = p. We will use basic
proportionality theorem used in schools to nd the ratio in which plane
divides line joining AB.
Plane parallel to r n = p and passing through point A & B are given
by r n = a n & r n = b n . Let us see the transverse section of
these three planes passing through the point of section and points A & B.

So here the section made by the plane r n = p is

geometry we know using basic proportionality theorem,

AZ
ZB .

Using school

AZ
AY
p1 p0
a
n
p0
=
=
=
ZB
AX
p0 p2
bn
p0

17 Reciprocal system of Vectors

p, q & r are reciprocal system of three non-coplanar vectors a
, b & c if
p =

b c
c a

a
b
,
q

=
&
r

=
[
ab
c]
[
ab
c]
[
ab
c]

Properties we get out of these system are

p a
= q b = r c = 1
p b = p c = q a
= q c = r a
= r b = 0
p a
+ q b + r c = 3
[
ab
c][
pqr] = 1
Any vector v = (
va
)
p + (
v b)
q + (
v c)
r = (
v p)
a + (
v q)b + (
v r)
c

14

19 LEVEL 2 PROBLEMS

Part II

Problems

18 Level I Problems
1. Which of the following makes sense?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

b) c
(a
a
b c
a
(b c)
(
a b)
c

(
a b)
c

e
(
a b) (
c d)

2. Given r = a b which of the statements makes sense

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

r a
& r b
r a
or r b
r & a
b are collinear vectors

none of these

3. Maximum value of [a b c] where a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors is

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

1
abc

0
none of these

19 Level 2 problems
1. Derive following in triangles using vectors
(a) a cos B + b cos A = c
(b) a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A
(c) sina A = sinb B = sinc C
(d) = 12 bc sin A
2. Prove pythogoras theorem
(a) i.e. prove if angle A is 2 then b2 + c2 = a2
(b) and also prove the converse of the theorem.
15