IE-301 Fundamentals of Work Study and Ergonomics 1. Work Study: Objectives

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr.
Adham MACKIEH
IE-301
Fundamentals of Work Study and Ergonomics
1. Work Study:
Objectives:
1- The elimination of unnecessary work,
2- The design of methods and procedures which are most effective,
3- The design of methods and procedures which require the least
effort,
4- The design of methods and procedures, which are suited to the
person who uses them.
The techniques of Work Study that will be covered in this course are:
1- Method Study,
2- Charting Techniques,
3- Time Study,
4- Work Place Design principles,
5- Job Evaluation and Compensation.
2. Ergonomics (or Human Factors Engineering):
Objective:
Designing for Human Use.
The subjects of Ergonomics that will be covered in this course are:
1- Human physiology and Anthropometry,
2- Fatigue assessment,
3- Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene,
4- Human Information Retrieval and Control,
5- Fundamental of Industrial product design.
Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH
PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity is a term that has a number of different meanings although
it is most commonly associated with labor effectiveness in industry.
In a broad sense, productivity is the ratio of output to some or all of the
resources used to produce the output.
Output
Productivity = ---------Input
Examples:
Labor productivity = units produced / hours worked
Capital productivity = output / capital input
Material productivity = output / material input
Increased productivity makes it possible to pay good wages to
employees, provide satisfactory dividends to stockholders and to sell
products and services at low prices.
Many companies compute their labor productivity index annually and
keep a continuous record, making comparisons with other companies in
their industry and with the national index.
The ideal objective of an organization might be to provide adequately
for employees and stockholders and to sell products at lower and lower
prices. This would serve to increase the standard of living and reduce
inflation.
Work Study, Definition and scope

Definitions:
1- Motion study: Work methods design-for finding the preferred method
of doing work. That is, the ideal method or the one nearest to it.
2- Time study: Work measurement- for determining the standard time to
perform a specific task.
3- Motion and Time Study: The systematic study of work systems with the
purposes of:
1)- developing the preferred system and method, usually the one with
the lowest cost;
2)- standardizing this system and method;
3)- determining the time required by a qualified and properly trained
person working at a normal pace to do a specific task or operation; and
4)- assisting in training the worker in the preferred method.
1- Developing the Preferred Method (or Work Methods Design).
Every business and industrial organization is concerned with the creation of
goods and services in some form- utilizing workers, machines, and
materials. In a manufacturing plant (as example), the production process
might include the procurement of the raw materials, the machining and
fabrication of the parts, and the delivery of the finished product.
In designing, such a manufacturing process, consideration would be given to
the entire system and to each individual operation, which would go to make
up the system or process.
The design of such a process employs the general-problem-solving
approach (i.e. the systematic approach, or scientific method, or
engineering approach).
Methods design, therefore starts with the consideration of the purpose or
goal- to manufacture a specific product.
Therefore, the objective is to design a system, a sequence of operations and
procedures that make up the preferred solution.
Certain tools and techniques have evolved over the years to assist in
developing preferred work methods. These are shown in the figure 1, below.
Work Methods
Design
Finding the
Preferred-MethodThe Most
Economical Way
a Method
b Materials
c Tools and
Equipment
d Working
Conditions
Use Of The Problem-Solving Process:

1.Define the problem state objectives, purposes and set goals.
2. Analyze the problem. Examine specifications and restraints.
3. Search for possible solutions. Determine basic cause. Use systematic
logic and lateral thinking. Use creative imagination, brainstorming.
4. Evaluate alternatives. Make mock-up. Pilot run simulation.
Determine ideal solution or preferred practical solution.
5. Recommendations for action. Prepare full report and concise summary.
Eliminate
Unnecessary
Work.
Combine
Operations.
Change
Sequence.
Simplify
necessary
operations
Process Analysis
Operation analysis
Activity chart
Process Chart
Motion study
Man and
Machine
chart
Flow diagram
Cursory analysis
Gang process chart
Detailed analysis by
elements
Operation chart
Detailed analysis by
Therbligs
Micromotion study
Principles of
motion
economy
Human
factors
2- Standardizing the Operation-Written Standard Practice.

After the best method for doing the work has been determined, this should
be standardized. Ordinarily, the work is broken into specific jobs or
operations which are described in detail. The particular set of motions, the
size, shape, and quality of material, the particular tools, jigs, fixtures,
gauges, and the machine or piece of equipment should be definitely
specified. All these factors, as well as the conditions should be definitely
specified. The conditions surrounding the worker, must be maintained after
they have been standardized.
A written standard practice giving a detailed record of the operation and
specifications for performing the work is the most common way of
preserving the standard.
A job cannot be measured until it has been defined.
Standardizing
the operation
Written
standard practice
a Methods
B Materials
c Tools and
equipment
d Working
conditions
Standardization
Instruction sheet
Motion pictures
written std practice
Standard practice
SIMO chart and
Written std. Practice
Videotap
e
3- Determining the time standard-Work Measurement

Motion and time study may be used to determine the standard number of
minutes that a qualified, properly trained, and experienced person should
take to perform a specific task or operation when working at a normal pace.
This time standard may be used for planning and scheduling work, for cost
estimating, or for labor cost control, or it may serve as the basis for a wage
incentive plan.
Work
Measurement
Determining
the Time
Standard
Stop-Watch Study
Micromotion
Studies
Predetermined
Time System
Electronic Time
Study
Work Sampling
Activity and
Delay Studies
Time Standard
Time Standard
Standard Data
Equipment
Decimal stop-Watch
Selecting the
operator
Observation board
Formulas
Electronic data collection
Recording information
Takin g the
study
Dividing operation
into elements
Taking and recording
data
Rating operator
performance
Making the
calculations
Determination of
selected time
Applying the rating
factor
Personal
Applying the
allowances
Fatigue
Delay
Determination of time
standard
4. Training the Operator

A carefully developed method of doing work is of little value unless it can
be put into effect. It is necessary to train the operator to perform the work in
the prescribed manner.
The supervisor, the motion and time study analyst, a special instructor, or a
skilled operator may act as the teacher.
The industrial engineers serve as teachers and consultants to supervisors and
to worker group.
HISTORY OF MOTION AND TIME STUDY

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Fredrick W. Taylor,
He is generally conceded to be the founder of modern Time Study.
However, Time studies were conducted in Europe many years before
Taylors time. In 1760, Jean Rodolphe Perronet, a french engineer,
made extensive Time Studies in manufacturing, while 60 years later,
an english economist, Charles W. Babbage, conducted Time Study in
manufacturing.
Taylor began his Time Study work in 1881 at the Midvale Steel
Company in Philadelphia.
Taylor proposed that the work of each employee be planned out by the
Management at least one day in advance. Workers were to receive
complete written instructions describing their tasks in detail and
noting the means to accomplish them. Each job was to have a
Standard Time, determined by Time Studies made by experts.
In june 1903, at the Saratoga meeting of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Taylor presented his famous paper,
Shop Management which included the elements of scientific
management: Time Study, Standardization of all tools and tasks, use
of planning department, use of slide rules and similar time saving
implements, instruction cards for workers, bonuses for successful
performance, differential rates, mnemonic systems for classifying
products, routing systems, and modern cost systems.
Taylors technique were well received by many factory managers.
In 1917, 59 out of 113 plants that installed this Scientific
Management were comletely successful.
Taylor died in 1915 at the age of 59.
Frank and Lilian Gilbreth,
They were the founders of the modern Motion Study Technique,

which may be defined as the study of the body motions used in
performing an operation, to improve the operation by eliminating
unnecessary motions, simplifying necessary motions, and then
establishing the most favorable motion sequence for maximum
efficiency.
They studied body motions to increase production, reduce fatigue, and
instruct operators in the best method of performing an operation.
They developed the technique of filming motions to study them, in a
technique known as Micro-motion Study.
Additionally, they developed the Cyclegraphic analysis and
Chronocyclegraphic Analysis techniques for studying the motion
paths made by an operator.
After the death of Gilbreth (at the age of 55), Lilian, who had received
a PhD in Psychology and had been a more than equal collaborator,
continued on her own, advancing the concept of work simplification
especially for the physically handicapped.
Lilian was dead in 1972 at the age of 93.
Carl G. Barth,
Developed a production slide rule for determining the most efficient
combinations of speeds and feeds for cutting metals of various
hardness, considering the depth of cut, size of tool, and life of the tool.
Investigated also the number of foot-pounds of work a worker could
do in a day.
Harrington Emerson,
Applied scientific methods to work on the Santa Fe Railroad and
wrote a book, Twelve Principles of Efficiency, in which he made an
effort to inform management of procedures for efficient operation.
Reorganized the company, integrated its shop procedures, installed
standard costs and a bonus plan.
His effort, resulted in excess of $1.5 mililion.

His effort was recognized as the term Efficiency Engineering.
Henry Laurence Gantt,
Developed simple graphs that would measure performance while
visually showing projected schedules.
Invented a Wage Payment sytem that rewarded workers for abovestandard performance, eliminated any penalty for failure, and offered
the boss a bonus for every worker who performed above standard.
Emphasized Human Relations and promoted Scientific Managemet as
more than an inhuman Speed up of labor.
Motion and Time Study received added stimulus during World War II.
In Summary we may consider the followings;
Frederick W. TAYLOR, originated the Time study in year 1881.
TAYLORs real contribution to industry was his scientific method, his
substitution of fact-finding for rule of thumb procedure.
He understood that he was dealing with a human problem as well as with
materials and machines. He approached the human side of his investigations
with an understanding of its psychological aspects.
TAYLOR, explained his objectives (known as TAYLORs Principles of
Management) in the following way:
First. The development of a science for each element of a mans work,
thereby replacing the old rule of thumb methods.
Second. The selection of the best worker for each particular task and then
training, teaching, and developing the workman; in place of the former
practice of allowing the worker to select his own task and train himself as
best he could.
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Third. The development of a spirit of hearty cooperation between the

management and the men, in the carrying on of the activities in accordance
with the principles of the developed science.
Fourth. The division of the work into almost equal shares between the
management and the workers, each department taking over the work for
which it is the better fitted; instead of the former condition, in which almost
all of the work and the greater part of the responsibility were thrown on the
men.
FRANK, B. GILBRETH and his wife LILLIAN, M. GILBRETH, originated
the Motion study.
Mr. GILBRETH, saw how to make improvement, in methods, by analyzing
the motions used by workmen. He substituted shorter and less fatiguing
motions for longer and more tiring ones.
The photographs, he made, for his worker in motion, aided him to
investigate the motion study.
Mr. and Mrs. GILBRETH, developed the technique of Micromotion study.
Micromotion study is the study of the fundamental element or subdivisions of an operation by means of a motion picture camera and a timing
device which accurately indicates the time intervals on the motion picture
film.
GILBRETHs were concentrating on finding the very best way for doing
work. They wished to determine the shortest possible time in which the work
would be performed.
They used timing devices of great precision and selected the best operators
obtainable as subjects for their studies.
F. GILBRETH, also, developed two techniques, cyclegraphic and
chronocyclegraphic analysis, for the study of the motion path of an
operator.
It is possible to record the path of motion of an operator by attaching a small
electric light bulb to the finger, hand, or other part of the body and
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photographing, with a still camera, the path of light as it moves through

space. Such a record is called a cyclegraph.
If an interrupter is placed in the electric circuit with the bulb, and if the light
is flashed on quickly and off slowly, the path of the bulb will appear as a
dotted line with pear-shaped dots indicating the direction of the motion. The
spots of light will be spaced according to the speed of the movement, being
widely spaced when the operator moves fast and close together when the
movement is slow. From this graph it is possible to measure accurately time,
speed, acceleration, and retardation, and to show direction and the path of
motion in three dimensions. Such a record is called a chronocyclegraph.
From the chronocyclegraph, it is possible to construct accurate wire models
of the motion paths. GILBRETH used these records to aid in improving
methods, to demonstrate correct motions, and to assist in teaching new
operators.
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The General Problem-Solving Process

Methods design, is a form of creative problem solving.
The following five steps, of the general problem solving process, are useful
in the logical and systematic approach to solving almost any problem.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Problem definition
Analysis of problem
Search for possible solutions
Evaluation of alternatives
Recommendation for action.
1.Problem definition
METHODS DESIGN WORKSHEET
Problem Definition-Statement of purpose, goal or objective-Formulation
of the problem
a- Criteria-Means of judging successful solution of problem
b- Output requirements:
1) Maximum daily output
2) Seasonal variations
3) Annual volume
4) Expected life of product, shape of volume growth and
decline curve
c- Completion date and time available:
1) to design,
2) to install and try out facilities,
3) to bring output up to full production
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2. Analysis of the Problem
METHODS DESIGN WORKSHEET

Analysis of Problem (No evaluation is to be made at this step)
1- Specifications or constraints, including any limits on original capital
expenditures
2- Description of present method if operation is now in effect. This might
include:
1). Process charts,
2). Flow diagrams,
3). Trip frequence diagrams,
4). Man and machine charts,
5). Operation charts, and
6). Simo charts.
3- Determination of activities that man probably can do best and those that the
machine can do best and man- machine relationships.
4- Re-examination of problems and determination of subproblems.
5- Re-examination of criteria.
Notes:
Evaluation of the facts should not be made during the analysis stage.
Critical judgment should be deferred until later in the problem-solving
process.
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3. Search for Possible Solutions

The basic objective of course is to find the preferred solution that will meet
the criteria and the specifications that have been established.
This suggests that several alternative solutions be found and then the
preferred solution can be selected from these.
Note:
It is wise to take a broad and idealistic view in considering possible solutions
to the problem.
4. Evaluation of Alternatives
We may have accumulated a large number of ideas bearing on the problem.
Some of these can be eliminated rather quickly and the remaining solutions
can be considered more carefully.
An examination can be made to determine to what extent each solution
meets the criteria and conforms to the original specifications.
It frequently is desirable to select three solutions:
1)- The ideal solution,
2)- the one that is preferred for immediate use, and
3)- possibly another that might be used at some future time or
under different condition.
The evaluation of the preferred solution requires careful consideration of
future difficulties that might be encountered, such as time and cost to
maintain and repair the equipment, the adjustment to widely varying sizes or
product mix, etc.
The recommended solution may be the one that is most likely to be accepted
and put into effect rather than the ideal solution.
5. Recommendation for Action
In many cases, the person who solves the problem is not the one who will
either use the recommended solution or give final approval for its adoption.
Therefore, after the preferred solution has been found, it must be
communicated to other persons.
The most common form of communication is the written or oral report.
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In some cases, a formal and carefully prepared presentation is needed,

including the use of charts, diagrams, photographs, three-dimentional
models, or working models.
In any event, the presentation should be made in a logical and straitforward
manner. It should be easy to follow and to understand. The source of all
facts should be indicated, and any assumptions should be clearly stated.
A concise written summary should be a part of every report.
In the industrial situation, the complete cycle might include a follow-up to
ensure that the proposed solution has actually been put into effect. Then an
audit or a check from time to time might be made to determine what
difficulties were being encountered and to evaluate the over-all results of the
installation.
It is desirable to know whether the actual operating method is producing the
results claimed for it in the proposal.
To continue further, a re-evaluation or restudy of the method might be made
with the purpose of finding further possibilities for improvement, and so the
problem-solving cycle would be repeated.
In most business and industrial operations there is no final solution to a
problem. A given solution may be put into effect and used until a better one
can be found.
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WORK METHODS DESIGN

The over-all process of putting a new product into production can be divided
into three parts or phases:
1. Planning.
2. Pre-production.
3. Production.
1. Planning: There are six basic planning functions.
1)- The design of the product results in drawings showing the size,
shape, weight, material, and ultimate use.
2)- The design of the process consists of determining the production
system- the operations required and their sequence; dimensions and
tolerances, machines, tools, gauges, and equipment required.
3)- The design of work method consists of the establishment of
operator-job relationships by determining how the person is to
perform the operation, the work place, flow, and economic evaluation.
4)- The design of tools and equipment consists of determining the jigs,
fixtures, dies, gauges, tools, and machines which will be needed to
perform the operations.
5)- The design of the plant layout consists of determining the total
space required in terms of overall location of equipment, stock supply,
service centers, work space, material-handling equipment, and the
operator-machine relationship.
6)- The determination of the standard time for the operation consists
of measuring the work content of the job.
Planning is a decision-making process in that a goal or objective has been
determined and a choice has been made from alternatives. The result is a
specific product or part and specifications for its actual manufacture.
2. Pre-production
This is the transition phase. The planning information is transferred to the
production organization.
Tools, machines, and equipment are purchased, installed, and tried out.
The routing for labor control is released.
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Operators are selected and trained for specific tasks.

The planned operator method is carefully checked against the method being
used, and the actual time taken is checked against the original estimate.
This is a period during which the individual operations that go to make up
the over-all manufacturing activity are tried out.
3. Production
It is the continuing operation of the manufacturing activity established in the
planning and pre-production phases.
It involves the use of operators, machines, and materials for the most
effective manufacture of the product.
There is necessity of (1) preventing the methods from deteriorating or
deviating adversely from the planned methods, and (2) constantly examining
the current methods for improvement and, when a better method is found,
putting it into effect.
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WORK METHODS DESIGN

DEVELOPING A BETTER METHOD
Experience shows that there is no perfect method.
There are always opportunities for improvement.
Search for Possible Solutions-Develop the Preferred Method
The following approaches should be considered in developing possible
solutions from which the preferred work method will be selected:
A. Eliminate all unnecessary work.
B. Combine operations or elements.
C. Change the sequence of operations.
D. Simplify the necessary operations.
A. Eliminate all unnecessary work:
In many instances the job or the process should not be a subject for
simplification or improvement, but rather it should be eliminated entirely.
The Procter and Gamble Company, established a formal procedure for work
elimination, it is called Cost Elimination. This approach goes as follows:
1)- Select the cost for questioning. It is suggested that a major cost
should be selected first in order to get the greatest money returns. If the
major cost is eliminated, this will often lead to the elimination of many
smaller operations as well. Labor costs, materials costs, clerical costs, and
overhead costs of all kinds are possible subjects for elimination. Efficient
operations can be eliminated just as easily as those not as well done.
2)- Identify the basic cause. A search should be made to determine
the basic cause, which makes the cost necessary. The basic cause is that
factor which controls the elimination of the cost. The key question is, this
cost could be eliminated if it were not for what basic cause?
At this stage we do not ask such a question as Why is this operation
necessary? or How could this operation be done better? These questions
are avoided because they tend to justify and defend the jobs continued
existence. Instead the objective is to find the basic cause.
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Operations for which there is no basic cause, or for which a basic cause no
longer exists, can be eliminated at once.
3)- Question the basic cause for elimination. If the basic cause has
been identified, then it can be questioned in two ways.
a. Disregard the basic cause and consider what would happen if the
operation were not done. If the same results or better results can be
obtained without the operation, then consideration should be given to
eliminating it at once. However, disregarding the basic cause can be
dangerous. In this connection it is necessary to consider two points:
(1) determine the area of influence of the basic cause and what else
might happen if this basic cause were eliminated? And (2) determine
the associated price tag of the basic cause. Is there a proper return
on the money spent to obtain the desired results? If the basic cause
cannot be disregarded, the second opportunity for elimination is b.
b. Apply why? questioning. If the job under consideration seems to be
necessary, can the job immediately preceding it be eliminated, thus
perhaps making all succeeding jobs unnecessary? If complete
elimination is not possible, try for partial elimination.
It is often desirable to undertake cost elimination on a department-wide or
plant-wide basis. Thus several qualified members of supervision working as
a group can help identify basic causes of specific costs selected for study.
Benefits of Work Elimination: If a job can be eliminated, there is no need
to spend money on installing an improved method. No interruption or delay
is caused while the improved method is being developed, tested, and
installed. It is not necessary to train new operators on the new method. The
problem of resistance to change is minimized when a job or activity that is
found to be unnecessary is eliminated.
B. Combine Operations or Elements
It is sometimes possible to make the work easier by simply combining two
or more operations, or by making some changes in method permitting
operations to be combined.
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C. Change the Sequence of Operations

When a new product goes into production it frequently is made in small
quantities on an experimental basis. Production often increases gradually,
and in time output becomes large, but the original sequence of operations
may be kept the same as when production was small. For this and for other
reasons it is desirable to question the order in which the various operations
are performed.
D. Simplify the Necessary Operations
One of the best ways to approach the problem of methods improvement is to
question everything about the job- the way the job is being done, the
materials that are being used, the tools and equipment, the working
conditions, and the design of the product itself.
Assume that nothing about the job is perfect. Begin by asking the questions:
What? Who? Where? When? How? Why?
Question each element or hand motion. Just as in an analysis of the process
we tried to eliminate, combine, and rearrange the sequence of operations, so
in the single operation we try to eliminate motions, combine them, or
rearrange the sequence of necessary motions in order to make the job easier.
Tools for Methods Improvement
Because several different methods of visualizing a process or an operation
are widely used, each of them will be fully described later. Of course, not all
of these different methods would be used on any one job. For example, it
may be found that a process chart or flow diagram is all that is needed.
If a single operation is the subject for study, then the operation chart may be
used. The activity chart and the man and machine chart are also useful, and
occasionally it may be worthwhile to make a micromotion analysis of the
job, particularly if the cycle is short and a large number of people are
employed on it.
Note: It should be clearly understood, however, that the process chart, flow
diagram, activity chart, man and machine chart, operation chart, and simo
chart are merely tools to be used as needed.
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PROCESS ANALYSIS
The entire system or process of doing work should be studied before
undertaking a thorough investigation of a specific operation in the process.
Such an over-all study will ordinarily include an analysis of each step in the
manufacturing process or system.
Process Charts:
The process chart is a device for recording a process in a compact manner,
as a means of better understanding it and improving it.
The chart represents graphically the separate steps or events that occur
during the performance of a task or during a series of actions.
The chart usually begins with the raw material entering the factory and
follows it through every step, such as transportation to storage, inspection,
machining operations, and assembly, until it becomes either a finished unit
itself or a part of a subassembly.
The process chart might, of course, record the process through only one or a
few departments.
A careful study of such a chart, giving a graphic picture of every step in
the process through the factory, may suggest improvements.
It is frequently found that
- certain operations can be eliminated entirely or that a part of an
operation can be eliminated,
- that one operation can be combined with another,
- that better routes for the parts can be found,
- more economical machines used,
- delays between operations eliminated, and
- other improvements made,
all of which serve to produce a better product at a lower cost.
The process chart assist in showing the effects that changes in one part of the
process will have on other parts or elements.
Moreover, the chart may aid in discovering particular operations, in the
process, which should be subjected to more careful analysis.
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The process chart, like other methods of graphic representation, should be

modified to meet the particular situation. For example, it may show in
sequence the activities of a person, or the steps that the material goes
through. The chart should be either the man type or material type and the
two types should not be combined.
Many years ago the Gilbreths devised a set of 40 symbols which they used
in making process charts.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers has established as standard
the five symbols listed below. This set of symbols is a modification of the
four most widely used symbols of Gilbreths, in that the arrow replaces the
small circle and a new symbol has been added to denote a delay.
Operation: An operation occurs when an object is intentionally

changed in one or more of its characteristics. An operation represents
a major step in the process and usually occurs at a machine or work
station.
Transportation: A transportation occurs when an object is moved
From one place to another, except when the movement is an integral
part of an operation or an inspection.
Inspection. An inspection occurs when an object is examined for
identification or is compared with a standard as to quantity or quality.
Delay. A delay occurs when the immediate performance of the next

planned action does not take place.
Storage. A storage occurs when an object is kept under control such
that its withdrawal requires authorization.
Combined Symbols. Two symbols may be combined when activities are

performed at the same work place or when they are performed
concurrently as one activity.
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Flow Diagram
Sometimes a better picture of the process can be obtained by putting flow
lines on a plan drawing of the building or area in which the activity takes
place. This is called a flow diagram.
Sometimes, both a process chart and a flow diagram are needed to show the
steps in a manufacturing process, office procedure, or other activity.
Process Chart for an Office Procedure
In the office the process chart might show the flow of a time card, a material
requisition, a purchase order, or any other form, through the various steps.
The chart might begin with the first entry on the form and show all the steps
until the form is permanently filed or destroyed.
Assembly Process charts
A special type of process chart, sometimes called an assembly process chart,
is useful for showing such situations as the following:
when several parts are processed separately and are then assembled and
processed together;
when a product is disassembled and the component parts are further
processed,
when it is necessary to show a division in the flow of work, such as separate
action on different copies of an office form.
Gang Process Charts
The gang process chart is an aid in studying the activities of a group of
people working together. This chart is a composite of individual member
process charts, arranged to permit thorough analysis.
Those operations which are performed simultaneously by gang members are
indicated side by side.
The basic purpose of the chart is to analyze the activities of the group and
then compose the group so as to reduce to a minimum all waiting time and
delays.
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Construction( Gang Process Charts)

1- The same symbols are used as for ordinary process charts.
2- A process chart covers the cycle or routing followed by each member
of the gang. Member charts are placed side by side, with steps are
performed simultaneously shown on the same horizontal line.
3- Symbols of member charts may be placed close together, the various
steps are given code numbers rather than entering descriptions beside
each symbol. Numbers are entered in the center of each symbol and
corresponding explanations are placed at the side of the chart. This
eliminates repetition of the description when similar steps are
repeated, and at the same time permits the member charts to be placed
close together.
4- Attention must be paid to entering simultaneous steps side by side. It
may be found that an operation performed by one member of the
group continues while another is performing more than one operation.
In such instances, the symbol is repeated at each step for the operation
which occupies the larger number of steps.
5- The chart should cover a complete cycle for the member performing
the largest number of steps. Other gang members usually repeat their
cycles during the largest member cycle.
6- Elements, which do not occur in every cycle, may be omitted from the
chart. This includes preparatory work, which is done before a cycle is
started, such as obtaining supplies for an entire shop. On the other
hand, if an operational step occurs at periodic intervals within the
cycle, it should be included on the chart. If such an operation occurs
every two or three cycles, enough cycles should be shown to include
the operation.
7- Steps per unit before and after study are used in gang chart
summaries. This ratio is obtained by dividing the total steps on the
chart by the total units handled for the cycles represented on the chart.
8- A chart should not be constructed from observation of a single cycle.
A number of cycles should be observed, as the amount of waiting time
may vary from cycle to cycle. The average condition should be
reflected by the chart.
25
Analysis of the Gang Process Charts

Four steps are followed in analyzing a gang process chart.
First, the six questions what, who, where, when, how, and why are
asked of the entire process.
Second, each operation and inspection is analyzed by utilizing the
same six questions.
Third, the remaining transportations and storage are studied.
Fourth, the how question should be applied in a new way after
refinements have been completed under step1, 2, and 3. This question is
asked: How should the gang be composed to reduce waiting time to
minimum? The following will assist the analyst to balance the gang
under step 4:
1. Determine the class of operator having the largest amount of waiting
time per cycle, and the class having the least.
2. Adjust the gang by decreasing number of operators least busy and
increasing number of operators most busy. Generally, it is preferable
to work toward a smaller rather than a larger gang.
Steps to be Followed in Making a Process Chart and Flow Diagram
1. Determine the activity to be studied. Decide whether the subject to be
followed is a person, product, part, material, or printed form. Do not
change subjects during the construction of the process chart.
2. Choose a definite starting point and ending point in order to make
certain that you will cover the activity that you want to study.
3. Draw the process chart on a sheet of paper of sufficient size to allow
space for the heading, description, and summary. The heading should
identify the process being studied.The body of the process chart
should contain a column for Travel (distance in feet), Symbol,
Description, and possible Time. The five process chart symbols
should be used. Every step in the process should be shown if the
analysis is to be of real value. Unnecessary steps and inefficiencies in
the work must first be seen before they can be eliminated.
4. Include on the process chart a tabular summary showing the number
of operations, number of moves of each kind, distance the part was
moved, number of inspections, and number of storages and delays.
After improvements have been made, a combined summary should be
compiled giving this information for the old method, the proposed
method, and the difference.
26
5. Obtain floor plans of the department or the plant, showing location of

machines and equipment used in making the part. It is frequently
desirable to mount the floor plans on a drawing board or table, cut out
cardboard templates the size of the machines (Use a proper scale), and
use these when new arrangements for the equipment are suggested.
Sometimes three-dimensional scale models of machines and
equipment are used instead of templates.
6. Draw on the floor plans in pencil the path of the part through the
plant, noting the direction of travel by means of arrows. The flow
diagram should be made on location and not from memory at a desk.
Distances should be measured or paced off.
27
ACTIVITY CHARTS; MAN AND MACHINE CHARTS

Although the process chart and the flow diagram give a picture of the
various steps in the process, it is often desirable to have a breakdown of the
process or of a series of operations plotted against a time scale. Such a
picture is called an activity chart.
MAN AND MACHINE CHARTS
The operator and the machine work intermittently on some types of work.
That is, the machine is idle while the operator loads it and while he or she
removes the finished work from it, and the worker is idle while the machine
is in operation. It is desirable to eliminate idle time for the worker, but it is
equally important that the machine be kept operating as near capacity as
possible.
The first step in eliminating unnecessary waiting time for the operator and
for the machine is to record exactly when each works and what each does.
Such a record is called Man & Machine chart. Many operations consist of
three main steps: (1) GET READY, such as putting material in the machine;
(2) DO (doing the work), such as drilling a hole; and (3) Waiting for an
operation to be completed or Idle.
Very often a clearer picture of the relationship of the operators working
time and the machine time can be obtained by showing the information
graphically to scale.
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OPERATION ANALYSIS
The over-all study of the process should result in a reduction in the amount
of travel of the operator, materials, and tools, and should bring about orderly
and systematic procedures.
The man and machine chart often suggests ways of eliminating idle
machine time and promotes a better balancing of the work of the operator
and the machine.
After such studies have been completed, it is time to investigate specific
operations in order to improve them.
The purpose of motion study is to analyze the motions used by the worker
in performing an operation, in order to find the preferred method. A
systematic attempt is made to eliminate all unnecessary motions and to
arrange the remaining necessary motions in the best sequence.
It is when we come to the analysis of specific operations that motion study
principles and techniques become most useful.
The extent to which motion study, as well as the other phases of motion and
time study, should be carried will depend largely upon the anticipated
savings in cost.
Operation Charts (or the left- and right- hand chart)
It is very simple and effective aid for analyzing an operation.
No timing device is needed, and on most kinds of work the analyst is able to
construct such a chart from observations of the operator at work.
The principal purpose of such a chart is to assist in finding a better way
of performing the task, but this chart also has definite value in training
operators.
Two symbols are commonly used in making operation charts:
1)- The small circle: indicates a transportation, such as moving the hand to
grasp an article, and
29
2)- The large circle denotes such actions as grasping, positioning, using, or
releasing the article.
The first step in making an operation chart is to draw a sketch of the work
place, indicating the contents of the bins and the location of tools and
materials.
Then watch the operator and make a mental note of his or her motions,
observing one hand at a time.
Record the motions or elements for the left hand on the left-hand side of a
sheet of paper, and then in a similar manner record the motions for the right
hand on the right-hand side of the sheet.
Because it is seldom possible to get the motions of the two hands in proper
relationship on the first draft, it is usually necessary to redraw the chart.
Check Sheet for Operation Analysis
One approach to the problem of finding a better way of doing the work is to
subject the operation to specific and detailed questions. If several persons
interested in the job consider these questions together, a more satisfactory
solution is likely to result.
In addition to studying the motions used in performing an operation, it is
also desirable to give consideration to materials, tools, jigs, fixtures,
handling equipment, working conditions, and other factors affecting the job.
Finding the best way is not always easy, and considerable imagination,
ingenuity, and inventive ability are required. Therefore, the cooperation of
the supervisor, the tool designer, and the operator is of decided value to the
analyst.
After recording all that is known about the job, the various phases of the
operations should be considered:
I. Materials
1. Can cheaper material be substituted?
30
2. Is the material uniform and in proper condition when brought to

the operator?
3. Is the material of proper size, weight, and finish for most
economical use?
4. Is the material utilized to the fullest extent?
5. Can some use be found for scrap and rejected parts?
6. Can the number of storages of material and of parts in process be
reduced?
II. Materials handling
1. Can the number of times the material is handled be reduced?
2. Can the distance moved be shortened?
3. Is the material received, moved, and stored in suitable containers?
Are the containers kept clean?
4. Are there delays in the delivery of material to the operator?
5. Can the operator be relieved of handling materials by the use of
conveyors?
6. Can backtracking be reduced or eliminated?
7. Will a rearrangement of the layout or combining of operations
make it unnecessary, to move the material?
III. Tools, Jigs, and Fixtures
1. Are the tools the best kind for this work?
2. Are the tools in good condition?
3. If metal-cutting tools, are the cutting angles of the tools correct,
and are they ground in a centralized tool-grinding department?
4. Can tools or fixtures be changed so that less skill is required to
perform the operation?
5. Are both hands occupied by productive work in using the tools or
fixtures?
6. Can slide feeds, ejectors, holding devices, etc., be used?
7. Can an engineering change be made to simplify the design?
IV. Machine
A. Setup
1. Should the operator set up his or her own machine?
2. Can the number of setups be reduced by proper lot sizes?
3. Are drawings, tools, and gauges obtained without delay?
4. Are there delays in making inspection of first pieces
produced?
B. Operation
1. Can the operation be eliminated?
2. Can the work be done in multiple?
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3. Can the machine speed or feed be increased?

4. Can an automatic feed be used?
5. Can the operation be divided into two or more short
operations?
6. Can two or more operations be combined into one? Consider
the effect of combinations on the training period.
7. Can the sequence of the operation be changed?
8. Can the amount of scrap and spoiled work be reduced?
9. Can the part be pre-positioned for the next operation?
10. Can interruptions be reduced or eliminated?
11. Can an inspection be combined with an operation?
12. Is the machine in good working condition?
13. Can structural adhesives be used?
V. Operator
1. Is the operator qualified to perform this operation?
2. Can unnecessary fatigue be eliminated by a change in tools,
fixtures, layout, or working conditions?
3. Is supervision satisfactory?
4. Can the operators performance be improved by further
instruction?
VI. Working Conditions
1. Are the light, heat, and ventilation satisfactory on the job?
2. Are washrooms, lockers, restrooms, and dressing facilities
adequate?
3. Are there any unnecessary hazards involved in the operation?
4. Is provision made for the operator to work in either a sitting or a
standing position? Do they meet the needs of the employees?
5. Are the lengths of the working day and the rest periods set for
maximum economy?
6. Is good housekeeping maintained throughout the plant?
This list of questions, although by no means complete, shows some of the
elements that enter into a thorough consideration of the problem of finding
the best way of doing work.
This list is typical of a check sheet that can be prepared for use in a specific
plant.
Another approach to the problem is to divide the job into the three
phases: (1) get ready; (2) do the work (or use); and (3) put away or clean
up.
32
The second phase is the primary object of the work. Often the get-ready
and the cleanup can be shortened and simplified without impairing the do or
use phase of the operation.
33
FUNDAMENTAL HAND MOTIONS

Most work is done with the two hands, and all manual work consists of a
relatively few fundamental motions that are performed over and over again.
Frank B. Gilbreth, in his early work in motion study, developed certain
subdivisions or events which he thought common to all kinds of manual
work. He coined the word therblig in order to have a short word with which
to refer to any of these 17 elementary subdivisions of a cycle of motions.
The experienced analyst has no difficulty in using these therbligs in
industrial applications.
Although the word therblig is familiar to industrial engineers, the term
motion or hand motion is preferred when discussing the subject of
micromotion study with factory and office personnel.
Definitions of Fundamental Hand Motions
1. Search (Sh): that part of the cycle during which the eyes or the hands
are hunting or groping for the object. Sh begins when the eyes or
hands begin to hunt for the object, and ends when the object has been
found.
2. Select (St): the choice of one object from among several. In many
cases it is difficult if not impossible to determine where the
boundaries lie between search and select. For this reason it is often the
practice to combine them, referring to both as the one therblig select.
Then the broader definition of select refers to the hunting and
locating of one object from among several. St begins when the eyes
or hands begin to hunt for the object, and ends when the desired object
has been located
3. Grasp (G): taking hold of an object, closing the fingers around it
preparatory to picking it up, holding it or manipulating it. G begins
when the hand or fingers first make contact with the object, and ends
when the hand has obtained control of it.
4. Transport empty (TE): moving the empty hand in reaching for an
object. It is assumed that the hand moves without resistance toward or
away from the object. TE begins when the hand begins to move
without load or resistance, and ends when the hand stops moving.
5. Transport loaded (TL): moving an object from one place to another.
The object may be carried in the hands or fingers, or it may be moved
34
from one place to another by sliding, dragging, or pushing it along.

Transport loaded also refers to moving the empty hand against
resistance. TL begins when the hand begins to move an object or
encounter resistance, and ends when the hand stops moving.
6. Hold (H): retention of an object after it has been grasped, no
movement of the object taking place. H begins when the movement
of the object stops, and ends with the start of the next therblig.
7. Release load (RL): letting go of the object. RL begins when the
object starts to leave the hand, and ends when the object has been
completely separated from the hand or fingers.
8. Position (P): turning or locating an object in such a way that it will be
properly oriented to fit into the location for which it is intended. It is
possible to position an object during the motion transport loaded. P
begins when the hand begins to turn or locate the object, and ends
when the object has been placed in the desired position or location.
9. Pre-position (PP): locating an object in a predetermined place, or
locating it in the correct position for some subsequent motion. PP is
the same as position except that the object is located in the
approximate position that will be needed later.
10. Inspect (I): examining an object to determine whether or not it
complies with standard size, shape, color, or other qualities previously
determined. The inspection may employ sight, hearing, touch, odor, or
taste. Inspect is predominantly a mental reaction and may occur
simultaneously with other therbligs. I begins when the eyes or other
parts of the body begin to examine the object, and ends when the
examination has been completed.
11. Assemble (A): placing one object into or on another object with
which it becomes an integral part. A begins as the hand starts to
move the part into its place in the assembly, and ends when the hand
has completed the assembly.
12. Disassemble (DA): separating one object from another object of
which it is an integral part. DA begins when the hand starts to
remove one part from the assembly, and ends when the hand has
separated the part completely from the remainder of the assembly.
13. Use (U): manipulating a tool, device, or piece of apparatus for the
purpose for which it was intended. U begins when the hand starts to
manipulate the tool or device, and ends when the hand ceases the
application.
14. Unavoidable delay (UD): a delay beyond the control of the
operator. UD may result from either of the following causes: (a) a
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failure or interruption in the process; (b) an arrangement of the

operation that prevents one part of the body from working while other
body members are busy. UD begins when the hand stops its
activity, and ends when activity is resumed.
15. Avoidable delay (AD): any delay of the operator for which he or she
is responsible and over which he or she has control. It refers to delays,
which the operator may avoid if desired. AD begins when the
prescribed sequence of motions is interrupted, and ends when the
standard work method is resumed.
16. Plan (Pn): a mental reaction, which precedes the physical movement
that is, deciding how to proceed with the job. Pn begins at the point
where the operator begins to work out the next step of the operation,
and ends when the procedure to be followed has been determined.
17. Rest for overcoming fatigue (R): a fatigue or delay factor or
allowance provided to permit the worker to recover from the fatigue
incurred by the work. R begins when the operator stops working,
and ends when work is resumed.
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MICROMOTION STUDY
Micromotion study provides a technique for recording and timing an
activity. It consists of taking motion pictures of the operation with a clock in
the picture or with a motion picture camera or video camera operating at a
constant and known speed. The film becomes a permanent record of both
method and time and may be re-examined whenever desired.
Purposes of Micromotion Study
1. As an aid in studying the activities of two or more persons on group
work,
2. As an aid in studying the relationship of the activities of the operator
and the machine,
3. As a means of timing operations (instead of time study),
4. As an aid in obtaining motion-time data for time standards,
5. As a permanent record of the method and time of activities of the
operator and the machine,
6. For research in the field of motion and time study.
However, its two most important uses are:
1. To assist in finding the preferred method of doing work,
2. To assist in training individuals to understand the meaning of motion
study and, when the training is carried out with sufficient
thoroughness, to enable them to become proficient in applying motion
economy principles.
Micromotion Study as an Aid in Improving Methods
The procedure consists of:
1)- filming the operation to be studied,
2)- analyzing the film,
3)- charting the results of the analysis, and
4)- developing an improved method through the problem-solving process.
Note: Micromotion study, although not prohibitive in cost, does require
special motion picture equipment, film, and considerable time for the
analysis. Therefore, it can be used when it is economical to do so.
It might profitably be utilized in the investigation of short-cycle operations
that are highly repetitive or largely manual in character, of work produced in
large volume, or of operations performed by large numbers of workers.
37
In fact, a micromotion study is often the last resort. Sometimes in a complex

operation it is difficult to get the motions of the two hands balanced without
the aid of the simo chart, which is a graphic picture of the motions on paper.
38
PRINCIPLES OF MOTION ECONOMY

As Related To The Use Of The Human Body
1. The two hands should begin as well as complete their motions at the
same time.
2. The two hands should not be idle at the same time except during rest
periods.
3. Motions of the arms should be made in opposite and symmetrical
directions, and should be made simultaneously.
4. Hand and body motions should be confined to the lowest
classification with which it is possible to perform the work
satisfactorily.
5. Momentum should be employed to assist the worker whenever
possible, and it should be reduced to a minimum if it must be
overcome by muscular effort.
6. Smooth continuous curved motions of the hands are preferable to
straight-line motions involving sudden and sharp changes in direction.
7. Ballistic movements are faster, easier, and more accurate than
restricted (fixation) or controlled movements.
8. Work should be arranged to permit easy and natural rhythm wherever
possible.
9. Eye fixations should be as few and as close together as possible.
As Related To The Work Place
10. There should be a definite and fixed place for all tools and materials.
11. Tools, materials, and controls should be located close to the point of
use.
12. Gravity feed bins and containers should be used to deliver material
close to the point of use.
13. Drop deliveries should be used whenever possible.
14. Materials and tools should be located to permit the best sequence of
motions.
15. Provision should be made for adequate conditions for seeing. Good
illumination is the first requirement for satisfactory visual perception.
16. The height of the work place and the chair should preferably be
arranged so that alternate sitting and standing at work are easily
possible.
39
17. A chair of the type and height to permit good posture should be
provided for every worker.
As Related To The Design Of Tools And Equipment
18. The hands should be relieved of all work that can be done more
advantageously by a jig, a fixture, or a foot-operated device.
19. Two or more tools should be combined wherever possible.
20. Tools and materials should be pr-positioned whenever possible.
21. Where each finger performs some specific movement, such as in
typewriting, the load should be distributed in accordance with the
inherent capacities of the fingers.
22. Levers, hand wheels and other controls should be located in such
positions that the operator can manipulate them with the least change
in body position and with the greatest speed and ease.
40
TIME STUDY: TIME STUDY EQUIPMENT;

MAKING THE TIME STUDY
Time study, predetermined time systems, standard systems, standard data,
and work sampling are used for measuring work in industry.
Time study is the most versatile and the most widely used.
Time standards obtained from these data are used as the basis for companywide wage incentives.
Definition: Time study is used to measure work. The result of time is the
time that a person suited to the job and fully trained in the specified method
will need to perform the job if he or she works at a normal or standard
tempo. This time is called the standard time for the operation.
Uses for Time study:
Although time study originally had its greatest application in connection
with wage incentives, it and the other methods of measuring can be used for
many other purposes including:
1. Determining schedules and planning work.
2. Determining standard costs and as an aid in preparing budgets.
3. Estimate the cost of a product before manufacturing it. Such
information is of value in preparing bids and in determining selling
price.
4. Determining machine effectiveness, the number of machines which
one person can operate, and as an aid in balancing assembly lines and
work done on a conveyor.
5. Determining time standards to be used as a basis for the payment of a
wage incentive to direct labor and indirect labor.
6. Determining time standards to be used as a basis for labor cost
control.
Time study equipment:
The equipment needed for time study work consists of a timing device and
an observation board.
The devices most commonly used for measuring work are:
1. Stop watch or electronic timer (i.e. decimal stop watch).
2. Motion picture camera (with constant-speed motor drive or with a
micro-chronometer in the picture to indicate time).
3. Electronic data collector and computer.
41
Other equipment:
A speed indicator, or tachometer, is needed where machine-tool operations
are studied. The analyst should check speeds and feeds in making a time
study, even though the machine has a table attached which gives this
information for each setting of the speed and feed-control levers.
Making the Time study:
The exact procedure used in making time studies may vary somewhat,
depending upon the type of operation being studied and the application that
is to be made of the data obtained.
These eight steps, however, are usually required:
1. Secure and record information about the operation and operator being
studied.
2. 2. Divide the operation into elements and record a complete
description of the method.
3. Observe and record the time taken by the operator.
4. Determine the number of cycles to be timed.
5. Rate the operators performance.
6. Check to make certain that a sufficient number of cycles have been
timed.
7. Determine the allowances.
8. Determine the time standard for the operation.
Request for a Time study:
A Time study is not made unless an authorized person requests it. Usually, it
is the supervisor who requests that a study be made, but the plant manager,
chief engineer, production control supervisor, cost accountant, or other
member of the organization may make such a request.
- It is the supervisors responsibility to make certain that the
operation is running satisfactorily before requesting the study.
- The supervisor should also see that the operators have
thoroughly learned the job and they are following the
prescribed method.
- The supervisor should inform the operators in advance that a
Time study is to be made, stating the purpose of the study.
42
Is the job ready for Time study?

The analyst should go over the job with the supervisor of the department. As
they discuss each element of the operation, the analyst asks the questions:
1. Can the speed or feed of the machine be increased without affecting
optimum tool life or without adversely affecting the quality of the
product?
2. Can changes in tooling be made to reduce the cycle time?
3. Can materials be moved closer to the work area to reduce handling
time?
4. Is the equipment operating correctly, and is a quality product being
produced?
5. Is the operation being performed safely?
Note: The time standard for a job will not be correct if:
1. The method of doing the job has changed.
2. The material does not meet specifications.
3. The machine speed has changed.
4. Other conditions of work are different from those that were present
when the Time study was originally made.
The Time study analyst therefore, examines the operation with the
purpose of suggesting any changes that he or she thinks should be
affected before the Time study is made.
It is expected that the Time study analyst will be trained in Motion study and
will bring all possible knowledge in this field to bear on the operation about
to be studied.
Any suggested changes that the supervisor wishes to adopt should be made
before the study is started.
The supervisor of course makes the decision as to the way the job is to be
done, but the analyst and the supervisor should discuss each element of the
operation and should agree that the operation is ready for a time study.
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Making the Time study:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Recording information.
Dividing the operation into subdivisions or elements.
Listing the elements in proper sequence.
Timing the elements with the stopwatch and recording the readings.
Determine the number of cycles to be timed.
Noting and recording the operators tempo.
Making a sketch of the part and the work place.
Reasons for element breakdown:

1. One of the best ways to describe an operation is to break it down into
definite and measurable elements and describe each of these
separately. These elements of the operation that occur regularly are
usually listed first, and then all other elements that are a necessary
part of the job are described. The beginning and end points for each
element may be specifically indicated.
2. Standard time values may be determined for the elements of the job.
This makes possible, to determine the total standard time for an
operation.
3. A Time study may show that excessive time is being taken to perform
certain element of the job or that too little time is being spent on the
element. Also the analysis of an operation by elements may show
slight variations in method that could not be detected so easily from
an overall study.
4. An operator may not work at the same tempo throughout the cycle. A
Time study permits separate performance ratings to be applied to each
element of the job.
Rules for dividing an operation into elements:
All manual work may be divided into fundamental hand motions or
therbligs. These subdivisions are short in duration to betimed with a
stopwatch. A number of them, therefore, must be grouped together into
elements of sufficient length.
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The following rules should be followed:

1. The elements should be as short in duration as can be accurately
timed.
2. Handling time should be separated from machine time.
3. Constant elements should be separated from variable elements.
Taking and recording data:
The three most common methods of reading and stopwatch are:
1. Continuous timing.
2. Repetitive timing.
3. Accumulative timing.
Number of cycles to be timed:
If precision is 5%:
N = [40 (N x2 ( x)2) / x ]2
If precision is 10%:
N = [20 (N x2 ( x)2) / x ]2
Rating:
As the time study analyst records the data, the analyst is also evaluating the
operators speed in relation to his opinion of normal speed for such an
operation. Later, the rating factor will be applied to this representative
time to obtain the normal time for the element.
A common method is for the analyst to determine a rating factor for the
operation as a whole.
Selecting the operator to be timed:
If more than one person is performing the same operation, the Time study
analyst, as a custom, times the operator working at nearest to normal pace.
Because a rating factor is used to evaluate the operators speed, theoretically
it makes no difference whether the slowest or fastest operator is timed.
However, it is admittedly more difficult to rate correctly the performance of
a very slow operator.
It is not desirable to time a beginner, because the method is seldom the same
as it will be when he/she has attained greater proficiency through experience
on the job.
45
TIME STUDY: DETERMINING THE RATING FACTOR

After the time study has been taken the next step is to subtract successive
watch readings in order to get the time for each element.
Selecting time values:
It now becomes necessary to select from these data a time value, for each
of the elements that will be representative.
Occasionally there may be an abnormally high or low time value, which may
require special attention.
The fact that there is considerable variations in successive times for certain
elements, however, does not mean that all high and low elements should be
thrown out. In many cases there are good reasons for such data (e.g. An
occasional hard casting may require longer drilling time). If such time values
are typical or representative of what may be expected on the job, they should
not be eliminated from the study. It is a good policy not to eliminate any
reading unless there is a definite reason for doing so.
Many organizations use the arithmetical average of the stopwatch readings
in determining the representative time for the element.
The modal method consists of taking the time that occurs most frequently
for the element. High and low time values will have less effect upon the
selected time by this method than by the average method.
Determining the rating factor:
Perhaps the most important and the most difficult part of time study is to
evaluate the speed or the tempo at which the person is working while the
study is being made. The time study analyst must judge the operators speed
while making the time study. This is called rating.
Definition of rating:
Rating is that process during which the time study analyst compares the
performance (speed or tempo) of the operator under observation with the
observer own concept of normal performance. Later this rating factor will be
applied to the selected time value to obtain the normal time for the job.
Systems of rating:
1. Skill and effort rating: Around 1916, Charles E. Bedeaux introduced the
Bedeaux system of wage payment and labor control. His plan was based on
time study, and his time standards were expressed in points or Bs. A point
or B was simply another name for what we now call a standard minute. His
time study procedure included the rating of the operators skill and effort
and the use of a standard table of fatigue allowances. Bedeaux used 60
points equal to standard performance. In other words, an operator working at
46
a normal pace was expected to produce 60 Bs per hour and it was expected
that the average incentive pace would be around 70 to 85 points per hour.
Before Bedeaux, the performance rating was mainly selecting the stopwatch
readings, from the data of the time study. Thus, if an operator were judged to
be working at a fast tempo, a watch reading considerably above average
would be selected as the representative time for the element.
2. Westinghouse system of rating:
A four-factor system, for rating the operator performance, was developed at
Westinghouse and it was originally published in 1927. These four factors are
(1) skill, (2) effort, (3) conditions, and (4) consistency. A scale of numerical
values for each factor was supplied in tabular form, and the selected time
obtained from time study was normalized or leveled by applying the sum of
the ratings of the four factors.
+0.15
+0.13
+0.11
+0.08
+0.06
+0.03
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-0.16
-0.22
+0.06
+0.04
+0.02
0.00
-0.03
-0.07
Skill
A1
A2
B1
B2
C1
C2
D
E1
E2
F1
F2
Conditions
A
B
C
D
E
F
Super skill +0.13

+0.12
Excellent
+0.10
+0.08
Good
+0.05
+0.02
Average
0.00
Fair
-0.04
-0.08
Poor
-0.12
-0.17
Ideal
Excellent
Good
Average
Fair
Poor
+0.04
+0.03
+0.01
0.00
-0.02
-0.04
Effort
A1
A2
B1
B2
C1
C2
D
E1
E2
F1
F2
Consistency
A
B
C
D
E
F
Excessive
Excellent
Good
Average
Fair
Poor
Perfect
Excellent
Good
Average
Fair
Poor
Example:
Let;
Selected time = 0.50 minutes,
Excellent skill, B2 +0.08
Therefore,
Good effort, C2
+0.02
Normal time=0.50 x 1.13 = 0.565 minutes. Good condition, C +0.02
Good consistency, C +0.01
Total= +0.13
47
3. Synthetic rating:
Evaluate operators speed from predetermined time values.
The procedure is to make a time study in the usual manner, and then
compare the actual time for as many elements as possible with
predetermined time values for the same elements. A ratio can be established
between the predetermined time value for the element and the actual time
value for that element. This ratio is the performance index or rating factor
for the operator insofar as that one element is concerned.
R= P/A
where,
R: Performance rating,
P: Predetermined time
A: Average actual time
4. Objective rating:
First the operators speed is rated against a single standard pace which is
independent of job difficulty. The observer merely rates speed of movement
or rate of activity, paying no attention to the job itself.
After the pace rating is made, an allowance or a secondary adjustment is
added to the pace rating to take care of the job difficulty.
Job difficulty is divided into six classes, and a table of percentages is
provide for each of these factors. The six factors or categories are (1)
amount of body used, (2) foot pedal, (3) bimanualness, (4) eye-hand
coordination, (5) handling requirements, and (6) weight of the job.
5. Physiological evaluation of performance level:
Heart rate in beats per minute and oxygen consumption in calories per
minute can be used to measure physiological work. Moreover, electronic
equipment is available for monitoring and recording such information with a
minimum of interference with the activity of the person.
The increase in the heart rate and the increase in oxygen consumption above
the resting level is an indicator of the physiological cost of the work
performed.
Assume that an operator works on a job for which there is a time standard
and that the number of pieces produced shows that his or her performance
level is 100 percent. During this same time the operators heart rate in
beats/minute and oxygen consumption in calories/minute are measured. If
the same operator work on another job, we can judge from either heart rates
or oxygen consumption on his/her performance rate.
6. Performance rating:
The most widely used system of rating is that of rating a single factoroperator speed, pace, or tempo. This system is called performance rating.
48
The rating factor may be expressed in percentage, in points/hour, or in other

units. Here we shall use the percentage system (with normal performance
equal to 100 percent).
The range of human capacities:
In a factory, if a large group of people did exactly the same manual task
using the same method, the fastest operator would produce approximately
twice as much in a given time as the slowest operator.
This range 1 to 2 would be expected only if we consider a large sample of
people just as they would be found in a factory.
Frequency distribution:
With the range of working speeds or operators tempo, we are interested in
knowing what the distribution would be for a group of factory workers all
doing the same job.
Graphical representation, such as the frequency distribution, can help us to
find out the distribution of observations.
Establishing a standard as the basis for rating:
The data obtained by a time study show the actual time taken by operator to
perform a series of consecutive elements of work. They tell nothing of the
pace at which the operator worked while the study was being made. It is
necessary to consider the operators speed in order to determine a standard
that will permit an operator working at a normal pace to do the task in the
time set for the job.
The need for rating has been pointed out, and the way the rating is used has
been indicated. It is obvious however, that some bench mark or some
standard of comparison is required if rating is to be used as a measuring
device. We must define our normal or standard. To say that normal speed is
that speed expected of a qualified person working without incentive or at a
day-work pace, using a standardized method, does define the term
adequately. However, normal speed or normal rate of movement can be
demonstrated; motion pictures can be made of typical factory jobs with the
operator working at a normal tempo or at a known level above or below
normal. Almost any person can be taught to rate operator tempo in terms of
the established standard.
e.g.
-Walking on the level at 3 miles/hour is a normal tempo.
-Dealing a deck of cards into 4 equal piles (0.50minutes) is a normal tempo.
Rating film:
Perhaps the most common form of rating film is made, by having
experienced operators performing the same operation, work at a number of
different speeds. Then the several section of film are placed together,
49
separated from each other by a few feet of blank film, and each selection is
identified by a code.
The relation of Normal Pace to Average Incentive Pace:
Because time standards are often used as the basis for some form of wage
incentive plan, we are interested in the relationship between normal pace and
the average pace expected of those on incentive.
The performance of the great majority of workers on incentive should be
fairly close to the average for the group.
Note: There is considerable evidence to show that if the working speed of
each member of a large group of people, such as would be found in a
factory, were arranged along the base line according to magnitude in percent
of normal, and if the vertical scale indicated frequency, the shape of the
curve would fit fairly closely the normal bell curve.
Note: It is not expected, of course, that any group of workers would exactly
fit the normal curve.
50
Establishing a company standard:

After the basic reasoning back of rating is fully understood, each company
should establish a standard for its own use. Agreement should be reached as
to what the normal or standard tempo, or performance level, should be in the
plant.
Then, some simple operations from the plant, which can be performed by
anyone, should be selected for demonstration.
The method should be standardized, and the time for each job, with the
operator working at normal pace, should be established.
Thus, a library of standard films can be built up over a period of time for use
as a bench mark for rating in plant. Not only can time study analysts be
taught to rate, but also managers, supervisors, and the operators themselves
can do this; and they are doing it in many plants today.
Rating scales:
There are several different rating scales in general use, and undoubtedly a
competent and well-trained time study analyst can obtain satisfactory results
with any one of them.
A survey shows that the percentage (scale A) has greatest use and the point
system comes next.
Speed and method as they affect output:

There are two main factors that affect the number of units of work that a
person on manual operations can produce in a given time. They are:
1)- Speed of muscular movements,
2)- Method of doing the task.
51
TIME STUDY: DETERMINING ALLOWANCES AND TIME

STANDARD
Determining Allowances:
The normal time for an operation does not contain any allowances. It is
merely the time that a qualified operator would need to perform the job if
he/she worked at a normal tempo. However, it is not expected that a person
will work all day without some interruptions. The operator may take time
out for personal needs, for rest, and for reasons beyond his or her control.
Allowances for such interruptions to production may be classified as
follows: (1) personal allowance, (2) fatigue allowance, or (3) delay
allowance.
The standard time must include time for all the elements in the operation and
in addition it must contain time for all necessary allowances. Standard time
is equal to the normal time plus the allowances.
Allowances are not a part of the rating factor, and best results are obtained if
they are applied separately.
Personal Allowances:
Every worker must be allowed time for personal needs. The amount of this
allowance can be determined by making all-day time studies or work
sampling studies of various classes of work. For light work, where the
operator works 8 hours per day without organized rest periods, 2 to 5 percent
(10 to 24 minutes) per day is about all that the average worker will use for
personal time.
Although the amount of personal time required will vary with the individual
more than with the kind of work, it is a fact that employees need more
personal time when the work is heavy and done under unfavorable
conditions, particularly in a hot humid atmosphere. Under such conditions,
more than 5% allowance should be made for personal time.
Fatigue Allowance:
In the modern well-managed plant so many steps have been taken to
eliminate fatigue. In fact, fatigue is of such little consequence in some kinds
of work that no allowance is required at all. There are many reasons for this.
The length of the working day and the length of the working week have been
shortened; machinery, mechanical handling equipment, tools, and fixtures
have been improved so that the days work is more easily done and the
employee works in greater physical comfort than formerly.
There are, of course, some kinds of work that still involve heavy physical
exertion and are performed under adverse conditions of heat and humidity,
52
and therefore require rest for the operator. Fatigue results from a large
number of causes, some of which are mental as well as physical.
There is no fully satisfactory way of measuring fatigue. Physiological
measurements are the most objective means of determining the time and
duration of periods of work and rest during the day.
The problem of determining the amount of time to be allowed for rest is very
complex. Time needed for rest varies with the individual, with the length of
the interval in the cycle during which the person is under load, with the
conditions under which the work is done, and with many other factors.
Organized rest periods, during which time all employees in a department are
not permitted to work, provide one solution to the problem. The optimum
length and number of rest periods should be determined. Perhaps, the most
common plan is to provide one rest period during the middle of the morning
and one during the middle of the afternoon. The length of these periods
ordinarily varies from 5 to 15 minutes each.
If no wage incentive plan is used, employees are paid for the rest periods at
their regular hourly base rate.
If a wage incentive plan is used and if fatigue allowances have been
incorporated in the time standard, employees are not paid for the rest periods
as such. Workers merely take their fatigue allowance during the specified
rest period rather than at intervals during the day at their own choosing.
Fatigue allowance does not need to be made for much light factory work and
organized rest periods, during the day, provide sufficient rest for another
group of factory operations.
Delay Allowance:
Delays may be avoidable or unavoidable.
Intentional delays will not be considered in determining the time standard.
Unavoidable delays do occur from time to time, caused by the machine, the
operator, or some outside force.
It is expected that machine and equipment will be kept in good repair. When
there is a breakdown or when repairs are necessary, the operator is usually
taken off the job and such delays do not enter into the time standard. In
such cases the operator is usually paid for waiting time at the hourly base
rate.
Sometimes, there are minor adjustments, breakage of tools such as drills
and taps, or lost time due to occasional variation in material and
interruptions by supervisors, and there must be included in the time
standard.
The analyst, and the supervisor should consider each unavoidable delay as a
challenge, and every effort should be made to eliminate these delays.
53
The kind and amount of delays for a given class of work can best be
determined from all-day time studies or work-sampling studies made over a
sufficient period of time to give reliable data.
Applying the Allowances:
Personal allowance is applied as a percentage of the normal time, and effects
both handling time and machine time alike. For convenience, fatigue
allowance is sometimes applied in the same way, although some believe that
this allowance should apply only to those elements during which the
operator works, and not to the machine time during which the machine
works.
Delays are applied as a percentage of the normal time, or if entirely a
machine-delay allowance, then on the machine elements only.
If these three allowances are applied uniformly to all elements, they may be
added together and applied together, necessitating but a single computation.
Although, allowances have traditionally been applied as a percentage of the
normal time to be added to the normal time to obtain the standard time, there
is a trend toward considering allowances in terms of minutes allowed per
working day. Thus, instead of referring to personal allowances as 5 percent,
it would be referred to as 24 minutes per 8-hour day (480x0.05=24). If this
were the only allowance made, the working time in this case would be 456
minutes per day (480-24=456).
Standard Time = Normal time +(Normal time x Allowance in %)
= Normal time x [(100 + Allowance in %)/100]
Although this equation is used, it is not absolutely correct.
A better equation:
Standard Time = Normal time x [(100)/(100 Allowances in %)]
Example:
See your textbook, pages 308-309.
54

IE-301 Fundamentals of Work Study and Ergonomics 1. Work Study: Objectives

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Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr.

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

Work Study, Definition and scope

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

Use Of The Problem-Solving Process:

Gang process chart

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

2- Standardizing the Operation-Written Standard Practice.

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

3- Determining the time standard-Work Measurement

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

4. Training the Operator

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

HISTORY OF MOTION AND TIME STUDY

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

They were the founders of the modern Motion Study Technique,

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

His effort, resulted in excess of $1.5 mililion.

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

Third. The development of a spirit of hearty cooperation between the

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

photographing, with a still camera, the path of light as it moves through

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

The General Problem-Solving Process

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

2. Analysis of the Problem

METHODS DESIGN WORKSHEET

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

3. Search for Possible Solutions

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

In some cases, a formal and carefully prepared presentation is needed,

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

WORK METHODS DESIGN

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

Operators are selected and trained for specific tasks.

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

WORK METHODS DESIGN

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

C. Change the Sequence of Operations

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

The process chart, like other methods of graphic representation, should be

Operation: An operation occurs when an object is intentionally

Delay. A delay occurs when the immediate performance of the next

Combined Symbols. Two symbols may be combined when activities are

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

Construction( Gang Process Charts)

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

Analysis of the Gang Process Charts

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

5. Obtain floor plans of the department or the plant, showing location of

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

ACTIVITY CHARTS; MAN AND MACHINE CHARTS

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

2. Is the material uniform and in proper condition when brought to

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH

3. Can the machine speed or feed be increased?

Prepared by: Asst. Prof. Dr. Adham MACKIEH