Analog Electronics by Godse and Bakhsi PDF

ea er) Analog Electronics 7 Technical Publications Pune”‘Table of Contents : ee Chapter- 1 Feedack Amplifiers 1-1) to (1_- 104) Chapter-2 Oscillators (2 = 1) to (2 - 90) Chapter- 3 Multivibrators and Blocking Oscillators (3 - 1) to (3 - 126) Chapter-4 High Frequency Amplifiers (4 - 1) to (4 - 52) Chapter-§ Tuned Amplifier (5 - 1) to (5 - 54) Chapter-6 Power Amplifiers [Large Signal Amplifiers} (6 - 1) to (6 - 88) Appendix-A Schmitt Trigger using Op-amp (A- 1) to (A- 16) Chapterwise University Questions with Answer (P= 1) to (P--24) (3)Features of Book — |® Use of clear, plain and lucid ‘language making the understanding very easy. |# Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. ‘* Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations. ‘* Important conc#pts are highlighted using Key Points throughout the book. \# Large number of solved examples. |# Approach of the book resembles classroom teaching. l® Book provides detailed insight into the subject. 1 Stepwise oxplanation to mathomatical derivations for casier understanding. Best of Technical Publications a As per Revised Syllabus of RTU - 2006 Course Semester - IV (ECE) “© Electromagnetic Field Theory (4)S et Analog Electronics ISBN 9788184316100 All rights reserved with Technical Publications, Ne part of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and retrigval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : Technical Publications Pune® #1, Amit Revicleney, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, MS. India, Printer : Alet OTPincers Sno. 10/3, Sehayad Read, Pune = 431-041 1H!The importance of Analog Electronics is well known in various engineering fields. Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired us to write this book. The book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Analog Electronics. The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations, practical examples and solved problems. All the chopters in the book are arranged in a proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All care has been taken fo make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of the subject. The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of the subject. This makes the understonding of this subject more clear and makes it more interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also to the subject teachers. The students have to- omit nothing and possibly hove to cover nothing more. We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous cccasions by our whole fomily. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality printing. Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well oppreciated. Authors U. A Bakshi A. P. Godse Dedteated to Gururaj, Neha and RutuvasTable of Contents Chapter-i_Feedback Amplifiers cree _ (1) to (4= 104y, 1.2 Classification of Amplifiers... s 1.2.1 Voltage Amplifier... 0. ses sess cette es ee este ee eee eee teneeeereneneeenssten 1.2.3 Transconductance Amplifier 1.2.4 Transresistance Amplifier 1.3 Block Diagram...... 1.3.1 Sampling Network... . ees cccesnseecree seen eeeneneereeneteeesesereeesecesy 1-4 1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Negative Feedback. 1.4.1 Advantages 1.4.2 Disadvantages... . 00.00. sce eens cece ee eens reeset ees 4-7 1.5 The Four Basic Feedback Topologies...............sssssssssermucsuessueresserssenel 7 1.6.1 Loop Gain........................ 1.6.2 Desensitivity of Gain... 1.7 Cut-off Frequencies with Feedback a Distortion with F . 1.8.4 Frequency Distortion... ... 20... .. sce esses eee sees este eee eee sees VN1.9 Input and Output Resistances....... 4.9.1 Input Resistance oo... .. cscs cee e eee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseueeeseres 1.10 Summary of Effect of Negative Feedback on Amplifier... 1.11 Method of Identifying Feedback Topology and Analysis of a Feedback 1.12.1.1 Transistor Emitter Follower 0 he 1.12.1.2 FET Source Follower 1-29 1.12.1.3 Voltage Series FeedbackPair 1-3 1.42.2 Curent Series Feedback. 1.12.2.1 Common Emitter Configuration with UnbypassodR, oss 1-35 4.12.2.2 Cammon Source Configuration wihR,Unbypassed . J... . 1-37 1.12.3 Current Shunt Feedback... 1.42.4 Voltage Shunt Feedback... .....cse cesses esses eevee nese sees seeeeeeees - 1.13 Nyquist Criterion for Stability of Feedback Amplifiers... Examples with Solutions... Exercise Problems on Feedback Amplifier:2.4.3 Based on the Range of Operating Frequency ..........0scceeeueeseeeeeeeeeeee 2-8 2.5.5 Advantages. 2.5.6 Disadvantages 2.5.7 Phase Shift Oscillator using Op-amp_ ilk 2.6 Wien Bridge Oscillator 2.5.1 Derivation for Frequency of Oscillations.......- 2-20...) )eeeeeeeee ee 2.6.2 Transistorised Wien Bridge Oscillator ...............0............e.00 ss 2.6.3 Wien Bridge Oscillator using Op-aMp ......eeeee esses ees seer ee eeeneneneere 2.6.4 Wien Bridge Oscillator using FET, ........- 2... 2.7 Comparison of RC Phase Shift and Wien Bridge Oscillators...... 2.9.2 Derivation of Frequency of Oscillations .........--.......) eee 2-39 2.9.3 FET Hartley Oscillator... 2.2... es eee eee eee eee ees 2-44 2.9.4 Hartley Oscillator using Op-amp.. es esses eeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeseaueee 2-45 2.10 Colpitts Oscillator. 2.10.1 Transistorised Colpitts Oscillator... .. os eee eee eee 2-47 2.10.2 Derivation of frequency of Oscillations... ....... cece e eee sess ceeeseeeeetes 2-48 2.10.3 Colpitts Oscillator using Op-amp .2.10.4 Colpitts Oscillator using FET 0.0... 00. cccecceeereeeeneeneeeeeeesanenes 2.11 Clapp Oscillator 2.14.1 Derivation of Frequency of Oscillations ...... . 2.11.2 Advantages. . . 2.12 Tuned Collector Oscillator 2D 2.13 Frequency Stability of Oscillator... 2-61 2.13.1 Factors Affecting the Frequency Stability... 0.0... seeseeserssseeseeeeereeeee 2-61 2.14 Crystal Oscillators. 2-62 2.14.1 Constructional Details... sees et 2 BG 2.44.2 AC, Equivalent Circuit . 2.14.3 Series and Parallel Resonance . aeeesensese Do BG 2.14.4 Crystal Stability. ... .. cee eee eee eee eee eee 2-66 2.14.5 Pierce Crystal Oscillator... 0.6.00. e eee e eee sees ees s crete seen res 2°66 2.14.6 Miller Crystal Oscillator... o.oo eee eee eee ete eee te ee eee enter ees 2-67 2.15 Amplitude Stabilization... Examples with Solutions. BA AOD UCL aac ee EE 3.2 Types of Multivibrators ........ 3-1 3.2.1 Bistable Muttivibrator oo. ss ses eset settee ete teeee sts ete eeee eee DAk 3.2.2 Monostable Multivibrator......... we 3-2 3.3.2 Loading Considerations . . . 33.24 Design of Ftd Bas stale Miao. 3.3.3 Self Biased Transistor Bistable Multivibrator . . 1.3.3.1 Design of Self Biased Bistable Multivibrator . . be ee 3-183.3.4 Speed-up Capacitors or Commutating Capacitors . 3.3.5 Appli 3.4 Collector Coupled Monostable Multivibrator.... 3-21 3.4.1 Pulse Width of Collector Coupled Monostable Multivibrator....................- 3-22 t 7 3-24 3.4.3 Applications 3.5 Emitter Coupled Monostable Multivibrato! B51 Waveforms 4.5.2 Extreme LimitsofVo 3.5.3 Gate Width of Emitter Coupled Monoshot................-....--....... -- 3-33 3.6 Triggering of Monostable Multivibrator ...... 0... SBA 3.7 Collector Coupled Astable Muttivibrator ...... sores B= 3D 4.7.4 Applications ....... Pperervedrsd?r?rttt??s eee eee eee ee eee 2 3-dt 3.8 Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator ........ 3.8.1 Operation and Mathematical Analysis... 2... 0.0... sc. e eee sees eee GHAR 3.8.2 Expression for Time Period 3.8.3 Practical Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator . . 1.8.4 Advantages of Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator. 18.5 Disadven of Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator ...................00. 909 3.9 Schmitt Trigger Circuit 3.9.1 Operation of the Circuit... eee eee eee cee eee eee cee es OBR 39.2 Hysteresis ... 3.9.3 Applications 3.9.4 Function of C;. 3.9.5 Designing the Schmilf Trigger .......-..ceeseeseeeseceeeseeeseesessese ees O° OB 3.10 Introduction to Blocking Oscillators 00... eee ee ceed = 5B Urheberrechtlich geschiitztes Material3.11 Pulse Transformer 3.11.1 Practical Equivalent Circuit 3.11.2 Pulse Response Characteristics . 3.11.3 Applications of Pulse Transformer... ......1.eseeserecesserevereressseesenes 3-62 3.12 Monostable Blocking Oscillator using Base Timing..........000 3.12.1 Operation and Mathematical Analysis of the Circuit............scsceeseeeeeeue 9.12.2 Expression for Pulse Width 3.13 Monostable Blocking Oscillator using Emitter Timing 3.13.1 Mathematical ANAIYSIS....6000. cc cscccececeeeeeeeees 3.13.2 Expression for Pulse Width... 0.0.1 cs cece eee e eee ee sees sere eeeeeeeeeeee 3.43.3 Limiting Value Of Ry... se ees esses esse eceee esse eee eese ss eereeeeseeeeee 3.13.4 Effect of Saturation Voltages Of tp... 1.0.0. ceseeteeeeeeseserteereeneeenense 3.13.5.1 Necessity ofDamping. we 3.13.6 Loading Considerations. ....................00 3.13.7 Triggering Cireuit for Monostable Blocking Oscillator . 3.13.8 Other Methods of Controlling the Pulse. o 3.13.8. Common Base Coafguaton. pee ee 3.13.8.4 Shorted Delay Line Method _. 3.15 Diode Controlled Transistorized Astable Blocking Oscillator. 3.15.1 Mathematical Analysis....................+ . 3.15.3 Mark-Space Ratio and Duty Cycle 3.16 RC Controlled Transistorized Astable Blocking Oscillator...... 3.16.1_ Operation of Circuit with Ry C, in Emitter... 0.0.0.2... ee eee 3.46.2 Limitations of Low Duty Cycle .......secsccsccveveeesssesssssessessesees 3.16.3 Comparison of Astable Blocking Oscillator Circuits... ..ceessssscseesseees3.17 Applications of Blocking Oscillator..... Examples with Solutions..... 4.2 Hybrid - x Common Emitter Transconductance Model... <1 4.2.1 Elements in the Hybrid- mModel.........-sseesseeese evens reese seer e eee 24-2 4.2.2 Hybrid - Parameter Values... 1... -- ese v sees ee esse esses veer eres 22.43 rid-« Conductances 4.3 Determination of Hi 4.3.1 Transistor Transconductance gm. 4.3.2 The input Conductance give... 4.3.3 The Feedback Conductance Gig cscs .seecescscsecsscecseeseeesseseseeres we 4-7 4.3.4 The Base Spreading Resistance ry ....-----seressee eset ereesesereeeer ete 4-8 4.3.5 The Output Resistancege, ........-----....-s eee wee eee AB 4.3.6 Summary... . 4.4 Hybrid-n Capacitance: 4.5 Validity of Hybrid-z Model 4.6 Variation of Hybrid Parameters with | I. |, | Vce | and Temperature.........4-12 4.7 High Frequency Analysis of CE Ampplifier..........0.....cusscmsscsssereenenh = 13 11CE Short-Circuit c Gai “ta 47.44 Parameterfy ..-.-.-- wee eee 4-15 4TA2Parameterfg oe eee 4-16 4713Parameterf .. 1... ese eee ee sess 4-16 4.7.2 Current Gain with Resistive Load 4-48 4.7.3 Current Gain Including Source Resistance... ........s.seseeeeesssseeeeeres 4-22 4.7.4 Voltage Gain Including Source Resistance... ........ 4.7.5 The Cut-off Frequency Including Source Resistance . . . 4.8 Gain Bandwidth Produtt snl = 24 4.8.1 Gain Bandwidth Product for Voltage... 2.2... ss eee ee ee eee teeter BF een TESTE Series ty4.8.2 Gein Bandwidth Product for Current . .. 4.9 Emitter Follower at High Frequencies 4.9.1 Nodal Equations 4.9.2 Single Pole SolUHON ...... 02... sssessseseeeeeseeesseseensseseeseeseneees Examples with Solutions. 5.5 Analysis of Single Tuned Amplifier....... 5.6 Primary Tuned Amplifier with BJT... 5.7 Tuned Secondary FET Amplifier 5.8 Double Tuned Transformer Coupled Amplifier ..............s:ss00: 5.9 Stagger Tuned Amplifier. 5.10 Effact of Cascading Single Tuned Amplifiers on Bandwidth 5.11 Effect of Cascading Double Tuned Amplifiers on Bandwidth . 5.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Tuned Amplifiers....... 5.13 Applications of Tuned Amplifiers 5.14 Comparison between Tuned Circuits ..... 5.15 Pulse Response of Tuned Amplifiers 5.16 Bandwidth Requirements for Pulse Amplification ............1...+:s1ssssee BAT Shunt Peaking Circuits for Increased Bandwidth . Examples with Solutions.6.1 Concept of Large Signal Amplification... 6-4 6.2 Features of Power Amplifiers ...... 6-2 6.3 Classification of Large Signal Amplifiers .. 6-2 6.3.1 Class A Amplifiers .... 6.3.2 Class B Amplifiers .. 6.3.3 Class C Amplifiers... _ 6.3.4 Class AB Amplifiers oo. esse nese ee eee eet eee eee ees 6.4 Class D Amplifiers 0.0... cece cece eccceeceseeseescceceesenseceueseeeeeesseeceneesetiee 6.5 Comparison of Amplifier Classes oes eecee ee cece cee eee eee eeeeceeeceneeseee 6.6 Analysis of Class A Amplifiers... 6.7 Series Fed, Directly Coupled Class A Amplifier 6.7.1 D.C. Operation. 6.7.2 D.C. Power Input. 6.7.3 AC. Operation... 0... see e ss ce eee reese e eens eee e eet eee ees eee es 6.7.4 AC. Power Output. 67.5 Efficiency... sce eee eee ce cee eee cee eee eee 6.7.6 Maximum Et 6.7.7 Power Dissipation . . 6.7.8 Advantages and Disadvantages 6-17 6.8 Transformer Coupled Class A Amplifier ........ 6-18 6.8.1 Properties of Transformer. .. ce eee ee eneeeeseeee se eeeeeeeeeseneseres 6219 6.8.2 Circuit Diagram of Transformer Coupled Amplifier. . eee eeeeeessts renee GH 24 6.8.3 D.C, Operation . 6-22 6.8.4 D.C Power Iny 8.8.5 A.C. Operation .. .. 6-23 G.BGAC. Output Power... ...ssecssereseeeeeeestenerererereteteesesrseneres 6-23 Urheberrechtlich geschiitztes Material6.9.3 Second Harmonic Distortion (Three Point Method) ............sssseeeeeeeeenes G9 31 6.9.4 Power Output Due to Distortion ...........sssseseseeseesseeeseeseeeeeeeees 6.9.5 Higher Order Harmonic Distortion (Five Point 6.9.6 Power Output Due to Distortion .. 6.10 Analysis of Class B Amplifiers... 6.11 Push Pull Class B Amplifier 6.44.1 D.C. Operation... ssisee sees esses sees ee terete ee ee sree eeee sees 641.2 0.0, Powerfnput oo... eee ee eee ee sete eerste eset ete nee eee teens 6.11.3 AC. Operation 6.11.4 A.C. Power Output 6.11.5 Efficiency ......... 6.11.6 Maximum Efficiency 0... eee sees ee eee see ee eee ee nese eee seen 6.11.7 Power Dissipation... oo... eee eee eee eee eee eee eee sees es B43 6.12 Complementary Symmetry Class B Amplifier 6.12.1 Mathematical Analysis....................... 6.12.2 Advantages and Disadvant 6.13 Comparison of Push Pull and Complementary Symmetry Circuits ....... 6-55 6.14 Class A Push Pull Amplifier6.16.2 Complementary Symmetry Class B Amplifier. 6.17 Complementary Symmetry Single Supply Version 6.18 Complementary Symmetry Class B with Driver Stage ..... 6.19 Quasi - Complementary Push Pull Amplifier .......... A.2 Basic Comparator using Op-amp............... A.2.1 Basic Non-inverting Comparator ......sssssesssstseteereeeeeseseeeeeeeenees A2.2 Basic Inverting Comparator...... A.2.3 Limitations of Op-amp Comparator A.3 Inverting Schmitt Trigger...... A.4 Non-inverting Schmitt Trigger...... A.5.1 Schmitt Triggers for Eliminating Comparator Chatter A.5.2 Schmitt Triggers in ON/OFF Controllers... A.6 Comparison of Schmitt Trigger and Comparator. A? Schmitt Trigger with Different UTP and LTP Levels .........000+ A7.1 Another Method of Obtaining Different Trigger Levels... . 2... sseesereeereenees Raview estions A- 5Feedback Amplifiers 1.1 Introduction Feedback plays an important role in almost all electronic circuits. It is almost invariably used in the amplifier to improve its performance and to make it more ideal. In the process of feedback, a part of output is sampled and fed back to the input of the amplifier. Therefore, at input we have two signals ; Input signal, and part of the output which is fed back to the input. Both these signals may be in phase or out of phase. When input signal and part of output signal are in phase, the feedback is called positive feedback. On the other hand, when they are in out of phase, the feedback is called negative feedback. Use of positive feedback results in oscillations and hence not used in amplifiers. In this chapter, we introduce the concept of feedback and show how to modify the characteristics of an amplifier by combining a portion or part of the output signal with the input signal. We also study the analysis of various feedback amplifiers. 1.2 Classification of Amplifiers Before proceeding with the concepts of feedback, it is useful to understand the classification of amplifiers based on the magnitudes of the input and output impedances of an amplifier relative to the source and load impedances, respectively. The amplifiers can be classified into four broad categories : voltage, current, transconductance and transresistance amplifiers. 1.2.1 Voltage Amplifier Fig. 1.1 shows a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of an amplifier. If the amplifier input resistance R, is large compared with the source resistance R, then V, = V,. If the external load resistance R, is large compared with the output resistance R, of the amplifier, then V, = A, Vj = A, V,. Such amplifier circuit provides a voltage output proportional to the voltage input, and the proportionality factor does not depend on the magnitudes of the source and load resistances. Hence, this amplifier is called voltage amplifier. An ideal voltage amplifier must have infinite input resistance R; and (1-4)Analog Electronics 41-2 Feedback Amplifiers RoR, ~ R>>Ry Fig. 1.1 Thevenin's equivalent circuits of a voltage amplifier zero output resistance R,. For practical voltage amplifier we must have R, >> R, and R, >> R,. 1.2.2 Current Amplifier Fig. 1.2 shows Norton‘s equivalent circuit of a current amplifier. If amplifier input resistance R, — 0, then I, =1,. If amplifier output resistance R, — , then I, = A;J,. Such amplifier provides a current output proportional to the signal current, and the proportionality factor is independent of source and load resistances. This amplifier is called current amplifier. An ideal current amplifier must have zero input resistance R, and infinite output resistance R,. For practical current amplifier we must have R, <>R,. RaDorReeRy Rice Ror Ry 160 Fig. 1.2 Norton's equivalent circuits of a current amplifier 1.2.3 Transconductance Amplifier Fig, 1.3 shows a transconductance amplifier with a Thevenin’s equivalent in its input circuit and Norton’s equivalent in its output circuit. In this amplifier, an output current is Proportional to the input signal voltage and the proportionality factor is independent of the magnitudes of the source and load resistances. Ideally, this amplifier must have an infinite input resistance R; and infinite output resistance R,. For practical transconductance amplifier we must have R; >> R, and R, >> Ry.Analog Electronics 1-3 Feedback Amplifiers RoR, RPSR, Fig. 1.3 Transconductance amplifier 1.2.4 Transresistance Amplifier Fig. 1.4 shows a transresistance amplifier with a Norton’s equivalent in its input circuit and a Thevenin’s equivalent in its output circuit. In this amplifier an output voltage is Proportional to the input signal current and the proportionality factor is independent on the source and load resistances. Ideally, this amplifier must have zero input resistance R; and zero output resistance R,. For practical transresistance amplifier we must have R, < |A|, the feedback is termed positive or regenerative. 1.6.1 Loop Gain The difference signal, Xy in Fig. 1.8 is multiplied by A in passing through the amplifier, is multiplied by B in transmission through the feedback network, and is multiplied by - 1 in the mixing or difference network. A path of a signal from input terminals through basic amplifier, through the feedback network and back to the input terminals forms a loop. The gain of this loop is the product -Afi This gain is known as loop gain or return ratio. The difference between unity and the loop gain is called return difference D = 1 + AB. The amount of feedback introduced into an amplifier can be expressed in decibels. It is given by N = AB of feedback = 20 log "| = 20 tog |" For negative feedback, N will be negative. 1.6.2 Desensitivity of Gain The transfer gain of the amplifier is not constant as it depends on the factors such as operating point, temperature, etc. This lack of stability in amplifiers can be reduced by introducing negative feedback.Analog Electronics 1-10 Feedback Amplifiers We know that, . A 1° T+pAa Differentiating both sides with respect to A we get, dA, _ (1+BA)1 A dA (1+Ba)? = 1. (+B)? dA dA, = ——— i a+pay? Dividing bath sides by A, we get, dA, dA = —dA_ yt G+pay Ay . aA BAY -_A $4 1 a oe IZ |G +BA)| 8 Where aA, . : fication wi x = Fractional change in amplification with feedback ae SA = Fractional change in amplification without feedback Looking at equation (3) we can say that change in the gain with feedback is less than the change in gain without feedback by factor (1+fA). The fractional change in amplification with feedback divided by the fractional change without feedback is called the sensitivity of the transfer gain, Hence the sensitivity is The reciprocal of the 1 (1+Bay sensitivity is called the desensitivity D. It is given as D=1+fA Therefore, stability of the amplifier increases with increase in desensitivity. IfBA >> 1, then A A 1 At = ERK“ BA"B . 4) and the gain is dependent only on the feedback network.Analog Electronics. 1-11 Feedback Amplifiers Since A represents either A,, G,, A, or Ry and A, represents the corresponding transfer gains with feedback either Aj, Guy, Ayp OF Ry the equation signifies that : = For voltage series feedback Ay = $ Voltage gain is stabilized a @) «For current series feedback Gu, = 3 Transconductance gain is stabilized oe ® « For voltage shunt feedback Rue = 3 Transresistance gain is stabilized wi « For current shunt feedback Ay = 3 Current gain is stabilized 1 @ 1.7 Cut-off Frequencies with Feedback We know that, a= WS * TEA Using this equation we can write, = Aria Aema = TPAwe += (1) = Atow Atm = TBA “8 A and = — 7 + G) A th ~ Teas Now we analyse the effect of negative feedback on lower cut-off and upper cut-off frequency of the amplifier. Lower cut-off frequency We know that, the relation between gain at low frequency and gain at mid frequency, is given as, .. (4)Analog Electronics 1-12 Feedback Amplifiers Substituting value of A,,, in equation (1) we get, Dividing numerator and denominator by (1+ A... B) we get, Amis T+A wa fow | iran Def me = ft ve Ap mid Amit, . T+ Ania B = 3) Lower cut-off frequency with feedback w+ (6) From equation (6), we can say that lower cut-off frequency with feedback is less than lower cut-off frequency without feedback by factor (1+ A.,;, B). Therefore, by introducing negative feedback low frequency response of the amplifier is improved.Analog Electronics 1-13 Feedback Amplifiers Upper Cut-off Frequency We know that, the relation between gain at high frequency and gain at mid frequency is given as, A bien _ 1 Ava ._4 0% “(i Lo Awa = me ” -fr] Substituting value of Ajjgh in equation (11) we get, A; high = A ova = A mia Dividing numerator and denominator by (1+ A,,,, B) we get, Ania 1+A nia A Arhigh = 14 f “leone “| Aim A Arhigh = = © Atm = TB . f tl oR apr, | Where upper cut-off frequency with feedback is given as 9 From equation (8), we can say that upper cut-off frequency with feedback is greater than upper cut-off frequency without feedback by factor (1+A,, {). Therefore, by introducing negative feedback high frequency response of the amplifier is improved.Analog Electronics 41-14 Feedback Amplifiers Bandwidth The bandwidth of the amplifier is given as BW = Upper cut-off frequency - Lower cut-off frequency +. Bandwidth of the amplifier with feedback is given as f, L “TF. ~- 9) BWy = Fay ~ fle = + Ags BD fy It is very clear that (fjy-f,,) > (fy-f,) and hence bandwidth of amplifier with feedback is greater than bandwidth of amplifier without feedback, as shown in Fig. 1.10. Gain Anni 0.707 Amig 0.707 ama Fig. 1.10 Effect of negative feedback on gain and bandwidth Key Point : Since bandwidth with negative feedback increases by factor (1 + AB) amd gain decreases by same factor, the gain bandwidth product of an amplifier does not altered, when * negative feedback is introduced. 1.8 Distortion with Feedback 1.8.1 Frequency Distortion From equation (8) of previous section 1.7 we can say that if the feedback network does not contain reactive elements, the overall gain is not a function of frequency. Under such conditions frequency and phase distortion is substantially reduced. If Bis made up of reactive components, the reactances of these components will change with frequency, changing the [i As a result, gain will also change with frequency. This fact is used in tuned amplifiers. In tuned amplifiers, feedback network is designed such that at tuned frequency B + 0 and at other frequencies > :. As a result, amplifier provides high gain for signal at tuned frequency and relatively reject all other frequencies.Analog Electronics 1-15 Feedback Amplifiers 1.8.2 Noise and Nonlinear Distortion Signal feedback reduces the amount of noise signal and nonlinear distortion. The factor (14B.A) reduces both input noise and resulting nonlinear distortion for considerable improvement. Thus, noise and nonlinear distortion also reduced by same factor as the gain. 1.9 Input and Output Resistances 1.9.1 Input Resistance If the feedback signal is added to the input in series with the applied voltage (regardless of whether the feedback is obtained by sampling the output current or voltage), it increases the input resistance. Since the feedback voltage V, opposes V,, the input current J, is less than it would be if V, were absent, as shown in the Fig. 1.11. Hence, the input resistance with feedback R,, Amplifier is greater than the input resistance without feedback, for the circuit shown in Fig, 1.11. On the other hand, if the Fig, 4.12 feedback signal is added to the input in shunt with the applied voltage (regardless of whether the feedback is obtained by sampling the output voltage or current), it decreases the input resistance. Since [, =|, +1,, the current I, drawn from the signal source is increased over what it would be if there were no feedback current, as shown in the Fig, 1.12. Hence, the input resistance with feedback R,, = is decreased for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.12. Now we sce the effect of negative feedback on input resistance in different topologies (ways) of introducing negative feedback and obtain R,, quantitatively. Voltage series feedback The voltage series feedback topology shown in Fig. 1.13 with amplifier is replaced by Thevenin’s model. Here, A, represents the open circuit voltage gain taking R, intoAnalog Electronics 1-16 Feedback Amplifiers account. since throughout the discussion of feedback amplifiers we will consider R, to be part of the amplifier and we will drop the subscript on the transfer gain and input resistance (A, instead of A,, and Ry instead of R,, }. Fig. 1.13 Look at Fig. 1.13 the input resistance with feedback is given as R= ve (I) Applying KVL to the input side we get, Vy-R,-Y = 0 Vv, = 1,2, +, = 1 RY @ The output voltage V, is given as = Ay MRL Yo = R,+R, = AIR, = AyV - QB) Where Ay = fi <= AYR, Ry +R, Key Point : A, represents the open circuit voltage gain without feedback and A, is the voltage gain without feedback taking the load R, into account. Substituting value of V, from equation (3) in equation (2) we get, Y= LR +BAY TR, v Tt RBA,Analog Electronics 41-47 Feedback Amplifiers Current series feedback The current series feedback topology is shown in Fig. 1.14 with amplifier input circuit is represented by Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and output circuit by Norton’s equivalent circuit. Fig. 4.14 Looking at Fig. 1.14 the input resistance with feedback is given as Ry = “i Applying KVL to the input side we get, v,-1,R,-V, = 0 Ve = 1B, +, = R481 6) The output current I, is given as = GmViRo _ k= Ree, 7 oui + © Where 2 GRy Cu = R+R, Key Point : G,, represents the open circuit transconductance without feedback and Gy, is the transconductance without feedback taking the load R, into account. Substituting value of ], from equation (6) into equation (5) we get, V, = 1,R, +B Gy V, = LR, 4+BG1R, ~ Y=hRAnalog Electronics 1-18 Feedback Amplifiers B= RU +BGy) MR, (4BG,) = @) Currant shunt feedback Fig. 1.15 The curredt shunt feedback topology is shown in Fig. 1.15 with amplifier input and output circuit replaced by Norton's equivalent circuit Applying KCL to the input node we get I, = +], = 1,481, (8) The output current I, is given as en a =A], ws 9) Whee Ae nt Key Point : A, represents the open circuit current gain without feedback and A, is the current gain without feedback taking the load R, into account. Substituting value of 1, from equation (9) into equation (8) we get, 1, = 1, +BA(, = 1, (+BA,) The input resistance with feedback is given as =” ¥, Ry = 1, “TargaAnalog Electronics 1-19 Feedback Amplifiers + (10) Voltage shunt feedback The voltage shunt feedback topology is shown in Fig, 1.16 with amplifier input circuit is represented by Norton’s equivalent circuit and output circuit represented by Thevenin’s equivalent. Fig. 1.16 Applying KCL.at input node we get, l= +k = 1,4+BV, v= (11) The output voltage V, is given as ves (12) Key Point : R,, represents the open circuit transresistance without feedback and Ry is the transresistance without feedback taking the load R., into account Substituting value of V,, from equation (12) into equation (11) we get, R= W +h Ry] = 1, +B Ry) The input resistance with feedback Ry is given as v y, ay I, a+ i Ry)Analog Electronics Feedback Amplifiers: (13) 1.9.2 Output Resistance The negative feedback which samples the output voltage, regardless of how this output signal is returned to the input, tends to decrease the output resistance, as shown in the Fig. 1.17. + Fig. 1.17 On the other hand, the negative feedback which samples the output current, regardless of how this output signal is returned to the input, tends to increase the output resistance, as shown in the Fig. 1.18. Fig. 1.18 Now, we see the effect of negative feedback on output resistance in different topologies (ways) of introducing negative feedback and obtain R,, quantitatively. Voltage series feedback In this topology, the output resistance can be measured by shorting the input source V, = 0 and looking into the output terminals with R, disconnected, as shown in the Fig. 1.19.Analog Electronics 41-21 Feedback Amplifiers ee AN v RL Ret Re Fig. 4.19 Applying KVL to the output side we get, A.W +IR,-¥ = 0 V-AY, Ils = . (14) The input voltage is given as Vi = -V,=-BV +¥=0 we (15) Substituting the V; from equation (32) in equation (31) we get, V+A,BV_ V(l+ BAY) “ROR Vv Ror vu (16) Key Point : Here A, is the open loop voltage gain without taking R, in account, R, © ’ Roy XR te =}: Be Ry = Ry DR, = gt = of F RL R, +R. 4+pa,) ot - RR. - RR ~ RoR, C+BA,) ~ R,+R, +BA,R, Dividing numerator and denominator by (R, +R.) we get RR we, = etRr = TAR 1+ AVR R +R, (17) Key Point : Here A, is the open loop voltage gain taking Ry into account.Analog Electronics 1-22 Feedback Amplifiers Voltage shunt feedback In this topology, the output resistance can be measured by shorting the input source V, = 0 and looking into the output terminals with R, disconnected, as shown in the Fig, 1.20. Ror Fig. 1.20 Applying KVL to the output side we get, R,1,+1R,-V = 0 v- ” p= YoRal ea (18) ‘The input current is given as i, = -,=-$V. ves (19) Substituting I, from equation (19) in equation (18) we get, p= VtRabY_ VO+RB) = type ope vs [20 (a)] Key Point : Here, R.,, is the open loop transresistance without taking R, in account. _ Rypx Ry = RoR, = Rot Ry R xR. - TRB | R, Re TR RF RL FRB Ter, pt Dividing numerator and denominator by R, +R, we get, RR, RL +R, re, = othe “f 4 P Re Ri R,+R,Analog Electronics 1-23 Feedback Amplifiers + 38) Key Point: Here, R,, is the open loop transresistance taking R, in account. ‘Current shunt feedback In this topology, the output resistance can be measured by open circuiting the input source I, = 0 and looking into the output terminals, with R, disconnected, as shown in the Fig, 1.21, Ror Fig. 1.21 Applying the KCL to the output node we get, l= il ae (21) The input current is given as = -l=fl, + l=0 = pl . -> (22) Substituting value of 1, from equation (22) in equation (21) we get, v T= ras BI 1d4+A,— = . of TTR AHhAYD + 23) Key Point : Here, A; is the open loop current gain without taking R, in account. RXR, Ry = Ry HR, = gt ee Rot Ry _ Ry G+BA IR, RAR, U+BA,) ~ RUG+BA FR, RS+R,+BA, R,Analog Electronics 1-24 Feedback Amplifiers Dividing numerator and denominator by R, +R, we get, R, R, (1+BA,) R,+R, TBARS Ra = R,+R, Key Point: Here, A, is the open loop current gain taking R, in account. Current series feedback In this topology the output resistance can be measured by shorting the input source V, = 0 and looking into the output terminals with R, disconnected, as shown in the Fig. 1.22. Fig. 1.22 Applying KCL to the output node we get, I (25) The input voltage is given as v = Bl vde-l .. (26) Substituting value of V; from equation (26) in equation (25) we get, Vv Pe -GaBI 1(14#G,6) = & © R R, (1+6G,,B) vs Q7)Analog Electronics 1-25 Feedback Amplifiers Kay Point : Here, G,, is the open loop transconductance without taking R, in account. Ry xR, R Ry +Ry oe = Roe A Rye _ RR, C+BG)R, RR, +BG,,) ~ RLCeBG,)*R, BR, 486, R, Dividing numerator and denominator by R, +R, R, R, (1+8G,,) We get Key Point : Note that here, G,, is the open loop current gain taking R, in account. 1.10 Summary of Effect of Negative Feedback on Amplifier Table 1.1 summarizes the effect of negative feedback on amplifier. Current series. Current shunt Voltage shunt Re G, Ai = HBG, Aa SBR Rat = TEPRy Ss Gar = Input resistance | Ry = RHPA) | Rye R(1+h Gy) increases. increases: R, Ry = RI+hG,) | Ry = RUI+BA) ‘Output resistance Be TERS a ROG ee decreases Table 4.4Analog Electronics 1-26 Feedback Amplifiers 1.11 Method of Identifying Feedback Topology and Analysis of a Feedback Amplifier To analyse the feedback amplifier it is necessary to go through the following steps. Step 1: Identify Topology (Type of feedback ) a) To find the type of sampling network 1. By shorting the output ie. V, = 0, if feedback signal (x,) becomes zero then we can say that it is “Voltage Sampling”. 2. By opening the output loop ie. I, = 0, if feedback signal (x,) becomes zero then we can say that it is “Current Sampling”. b) To find the type of mixing network 1. If the feedback signal is subtracted from the externally applied signal as a voltage in the input loop, we can say that it is “series mixing”. 2. If the feedback signal is subtracted from the externally applied signal as a current in the input loop, we can say that it is “shunt mixing”. Thus by determining type of sampling network and mixing network, type of feedback amplifier can be determine. For example, if amplifier uses a voltage sampling and series. mixing then we can say that it is a voltage series amplifier. Step 2: Find the input circuit 1. For voltage sampling make V, = 0 by shorting the output 2. For current sampling make I, = 0 by opening the output loop. Step 3: Find the output circuit. 1. For series mixing make 1; = 0 by opening the input loop. 2. For shunt mixing make V, = 0 by shorting the input Step 2 and step 3 ensure that the feedback is reduced to zero without altering the loading on the basic amplifier. Step 4: Optional. Replace each active device by its h-parameter model at low frequency. Step 5: Find the open loop gain (gain without feedback), A of the amplifier. Step 6: Indicate X; and X, on the circuit and evaluate fi = X; X- Step 7: From A and f, find D, Ap, Ry Ry and RB).Analog Electronics 1-27 Feedback Amplifiers Characteristics Voltage shunt Voltage Current Sampling signal X, Current Mixing signal Current Current Voltage To find input loop. set To find output loop. set Single source Ro(1+BGm) | Ro(1+BA) . Ri (1B) T+ fGy, RHR AD i+Ba, Table 1.2 1.12 Analysis of Feedback Amplifiers 1.12.1 Voltage Series Feedback In this section, we will see two examples of the voltage series amplifier, First we will analyse transistor emitter follower circuit and then source follower using FET. 1.12.1.1 Transistor Emitter Fellower Fig. 1.23 shows the transistor emitter follower circuit. Here feedback voltage is the voltage across R,, and sampled signal is V, across R,Analog Electronics 1-28 Feedback Amplifiers Analysis Step 1: Identify Topology By shorting output voltage (V,=0), feedback signal becomes zero and hence it is voltage sampling. Looking at Fig. 1.23 we can see that feedback signal V, is subtracted from the externally applied signal V, and hence it is a series mixing. Combining two conclusions we can say that it is a voltage series feedback amplifier. Fig. 1.23 Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit To find the input circuit, set V, = 0, and hence V, in series with R, appears between B and E. To find the output circuit, set 1, = 1, = 0, and hence R, appears only in the output loop. With these connections we obtain the circuit as shown in the Fig. 1.24. Fig. 1.24 Step 4: Replace transistor by its h-parameter equivalent circuit Fig. 1.25 Transistor replaced by its approximate h-parameter equivalent circuit Step 5: Find open loop voltage gain Ay = pa eeAnalog Electronics 1-29 Feedback Amplifiers Applying KVL to input loop we get , = 1,(R,+h,,) Substituting value of V. we get hye R, 50x 100 — be Re _ - Av = Ron, TR+ti kK 238 Step 6 ; Indicate V, and V, and calculate 8 Mv, We have B= r =1 “ both voltage present across R, Step 7: Calculate D, A,, .R, Ry, and Ry, D = 14BAy = 1+1 238 Ave = = 07 R= Ry+ he = IK+11K=21K k, = 8, D = 21K 3.38 = 7.096 K R, = of = Ry = ‘ Ris 1.12.1.2 FET Source Follower Fig, 1.26 shows the FET source follower circuit. Here feedback voltage is the voltage across R, and sampled signal is Vg across R,.Analog Electronics Fig. 1.26 Step 2 and Step 3: 594i t Lit. Fig. 1.27 Step 4: G D 1-30 Feedback Amplifiers. Analysis : Step 1: Identify Topology By shorting output voltage V, = 0, feedback signal becomes zero and hence it is voltage sampling. Looking at Fig. 126 we can see that feedback signal V, is subtracted from the externally applied signal V, and hence it is a series mixing. Combining two conclusions we can say that it is a voltage series feedback amplifier. Find input and output circuit To find the input circuit, set V, = 0, and hence V, appears between G and S. To find the output circuit, set 1, = 1, = 0, and hence R, appears in the output loop. With these connections we obtain the circuit as shown in the Fig. 1.27. Replace FET by its equivalent circuit Fig. 1.28 Step 5 : Find open loop voltage gain ay = Bee = tel Ve .@ = HR VHB Ty + Q) eR,Analog Electronics 1-31 Feedback Amplifiers Step 6: Indicate V, and V, and calculate both voltages present across Rg Step 7: Calculate D, A.,, Ry, R,, and Ri, D = 1+PaA, =1+1x4.44 .@ Aye = 44d = say = 0816 ; = wand hence R, =R; D= oA) R, = 1, =40kQ - ny = hee OK ga5K «6 . RL Re =o Where RL = Ril, _ Ryy _ 5K || 40K ~ Ber, 5k], Kt K wi, = HK gz 0) 1.12,1,3 Voltage Series Feedback Pair Fig. 1.25 shows two cascaded stages. The output of second stage is connected through feedback network to the input of first stage in opposition to the input signal V,. Fig. 1.29 Voltage series feedback pairAnalog Electronics 41-32 Feedback Amplifiers Analysis : Step 1: Identify topology By shorting output voltage V, = 0, feedback signal becomes zero and hence it is voltage sampling. Looking at Fig, 1.29 we can see that feedback signal V, is subtracted from the externally applied signal V, and hence it is a series mixing. Combining two conclusions we can say that it is a voltage series feedback amplifier Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit To find input cireuit, set V, = 0 and hence R, appears in parallel with R, at first emitter. To find the output circuit, set I = 0 and hence R, appears in series with R, across output. The resulting circuit is Fig. 1.30 shown in Fig. 1.30. For this circuit, feedback factor can be calculated as =e _*® Be v-RaR, ~@ nm Example 1.1: Transistors in the feedback amplifier shown in Fig. 1.31 are identical and their “h’ parameters are h,, = 11009, hy, = 100, ht, = h,,= 0 Neglect capacitances of all capacitors. i) State topology with justification. 48) Calculate B Ay, Ayys Rips Ryy and Ry.Analog Electronics 1-33 Feedback Amplifiers Solution : Step 1; Identify topology The feedback voltage is applied across the resistance R,, and it is in series with input signal. Hence feedback is voltage series feedback. Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit To find input circuit, set V, = 0 (connecting C, to ground), which gives parallel combination of R, with R, at E,. To find output circuit, set 1, = 0 (opening the input node E, at emitter of Q,), which gives series combination of R, and R,, across the output. The resultant circuit is shown in Fig. 1.32. Fig, 1.32 Stop 4 : Find open loop voltage gain (A,) R,, = 47K] (100+ 10K) = 321 k2 = -h,, = -100 = h, = 1000 AgR,, — -100x 3.21K Ry Tod 12 fe 7 > = -291.82 -h,, = 100 Ro, WR, WRz | Ri = 22 K |] 220 K |] 22 K | 1100 = 9952 h,+(+h,)R,Analog Etectronics 41-34 Feodback Amplifiers = 1100 + (1 + 100) (100. || 10K) = 11,099 k2 Ay Ry, _ _=100« 995 A = = 11.099 10* = — 8.96 The overall gain without feedback is given as A, = AXA, = 2918 ¥ = 2614.7 The overall gain taking R, in account is given as A, =e Step 5: Calculate B Looking at Fig. 1.33 p = e100 Vy NV, 100+10 10% 10K = 0.0099 D = 1+BAy = 14+0.0099x 2591.35 y gta = 26.65 4 = . a a Ay 2 259135 . aye D 36-65 Fig. 4.33 = 97.23 Ry = Ry D = 11.099% 10" x 26.65 = 295.788 Ik? Ri, = Ry || R, || Ry = 295.788 K || 220 K || 22K = 18.73 kQ R,. ane Ra = Dp pe : RK, : : Ry = ap where R=, 3 : i, = 22bd0" _ pods 0Analog Electronics 1-35 Feedback Amplifiers 1.12.2 Current Serles Feedback In this section, we will see twa examples of the current series feedback amplifier. First ‘we will analyse transistor common emitter circuit with unbypassed emitter resistance and then common source with unbypassed source resistance. 1.12.21 Common Emitter Configuration with Unbypassed R , Fig. 1.34 shows the common emitter circuit with unbypassed R,. The common emitter circuit with unbypassed R, is an example of current series feedback. In this configuration resistor R, is common to base to emitter input circuit as well as collector to emitter output circuit and input current ], as well as output current I, both flow through it. The voltage drop across Ry, Vy = ly + 1) = 1, R, = de Re = - 1, R- This voltage drop shows that the output current I, is being sampled and it is converted to voltage by feedback network. At input side voltage V; is subtracted from V, to produce V,. Therefore, the feedback applied in series. Analysis Step 1: Identify topology By opening the output loop, (output current, 1, = 0), feedback signal becomes zero and hence it is current sampling. Looking at Fig. 1.34 we can see that feedback signal V, is subtracted from the externally applied signal V, and hence it is a series mixing. Combining two conclusions we can say that it is a current series feedback amplifier. Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit To find input circuit set I, = 0, then R, appears at the input side. To find output circuit set 1, = 0, then R, appears in the output circuit, The resulting circuit is shown in the Fig. 1.35.Analog Electronics 1-36 Feedback Amplifiers Step 4: Replace transistor with its approximate h-parameter equivalent circuit Fig, 1.36 shows the approximate h-parameter equivalent circuit Fig, 1.36 Approximate h-parameter equivalent circuit Step 5 : Find open loop transfer gain Gy = ge Et 9) L1K+12K Step 6: Indicate 1, and V, and calculate 6 B= 2 . tis (19) = met eR, wI,=-1, = -12K Step 7: Calculate D, Gy, Ay / Ry. Ry and R’, D = 1+PG, =1+(-1.2K)x(-0.015) —... (11) = 19.18 Gy _ -0.015 Me DF TF = (2) = -0.782x107Analog Electronics 1-37 Feedback Amplifiers The voltage gain Ay, is given as 1,R, ‘ % , a. Ay type ahs Gan 2 Gy = Es (3) = -0.782x10 2.2K = -L7 Looking at Fig. 1.36 R, can be given as R, = Roth, +R, ve (14) = 1K+1IK+12K=33K Ry, = R, D=3.3Kx19.18 ve (15) = 63.294 K Looking at Fig. 1.36 R, is given as R, = we (16) Ry = RB, D=e - (17) Rip = Ry Ry ++ (18) = Rp TR = = 22K 1.12.2.2 Common Source Configuration with R, Unbypassed Fig. 1.37 shows the common source circuit with unbypassed R,. Here, the feedback signal is a voltage across R, and the sampled signal is the load current 1,,. Analysis Step 1: identify topology By setting V, = 0, drain current does not become zero therefore feedback does not become zero. Hence this is not voltage sampling. On the other hand, by setting I, = 0, we have V,=0. Hence this is current sampling. The feedback voltage V, is mixed in series with the input source. Hence the topology used is a current series feedback. Fig. 1.37Analog Electronics 1-38 Feedback Amplifiers Step 2 and step 3: Find input and output circuit To find input circuit set 1, = 0, then R, appears at the input side. To find output circuit set I, = 0, then R, appears in the output circuit. The resulting circuit is shown in the Fig. 1.38, Fig. 1.38 Step 4: Replace FET with its equivalent circuit Fig, 1.39 shows the equivalent circuit Fig. 1.39 FET replaced by its equivalent circuit Step 5 : Find the open loop transconductance G. < — te Vita m= FR TR, % = (19) = - (20) Step 6: Calculate B pe oot Ry (21)Analog Electronics 1-39 Feedback Amplifiers Step 7: Calculate D, Guy» Ayy p Ry » Ry and Ri, D = 1+PG, .- (22) = 14 (-1K) (-1.09x10%) = 2.09 = -0.5215x107 Aw = ee “e = Gy Ry (eae = (24) \% = (-0.5215x10)x(4.7 K) = -2.45 Looking at Fig. 1.39 R, can be given as Ri = & (25) R) = Rk, D== +» (26) Looking at Fig. 1.39 R, can be given as R, = 4 +R, =40K+1K=41K + (27) Ry = R, +8G,,) where G, = RT 0 Gye 1. (28) 1spG,, = toon r+ (1 +p)R, Rye = 64 R, EE = yt (ley), .. (29) = 40K+(1+50)x1K=91K Ri, = Ry Ry .. (30) ” 47K {91K = 447K We have seen that the R’, is most easily calculated as R, jj R,,. The same result may be obtained from the expression in Table 1,2 with R, = R, || R,,. Thus R’ or = 148G,, “DOAnalog Electronics 1-40 Feedback Amplifiers where R, = RAR, (ty +ROR, = (rg +ROIR, = FR, Re eR, and. D = 1+8GM = -R,) —— STS CR SSR, rR, * ry +R, +R, _ tytR, ++, ry +R, +R, Substituting the values of Rand D we have Ros (ra +RJR, ry t@+DR, ory +R, +R, of ry +R +R, tratR, ory +R, +(e +1)R, Ry [ry + +R, Wek, GR, 4.7K [40 K+(1+50)x1 K] 40 K+4.7 K+ (1+50)x1K = 447K 1.12.3 Current Shunt Feedback Fig. 1.40 shows two transistors in cascade connection with feedback from second emitter to first base through resistor R’. Here, the feedback network formed by R’ and Ry divides the current I, Since I, = - I, the feedback network gives current feedback. At input side, we see that I, = I, - Jj, i.e. I; is shunt subtracted fram I, to get J;. Therefore, this configuration is a current shunt feedback. Fig. 1.40Analog Electronics 1-44 Feedback Amplifiers Step 1: Identify topology By shorting output voltage (V, = 0), feedback signal does not become zero and hence it is not voltage sampling. By opening the output loop (1, = 0), feedback signal becomes zero and hence it is a current feedback. The feedback signal appears in shunt with input Gg, -I,}.hence the topology is current shunt feedback amplifier. Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit The input circuit of the amplifier without feedback is obtained by opening the output loop at the emitter of Q, (I, = 0). This places R’ in series with R, from base to emitter of Q,. The output circuit is found by shorting the input node (the base of Q,), ie. making ¥, = 0. This places R’ in parallel with R,. The resultant equivalent circuit is shown in Fig, 141. Fig. 1.41 Step 4: Find open circuit transfer gain AL = a BI 1 Iya la tay qT, 6 ) ‘We know that, 5 = Ag = hp =- 50 and w 32) im f= Ay =- hye = - 50 i = 50 .. (33)Analog Electronics 1-42 Feedback Amplifiers. Looking at Fig. 141 we can write Ig | _tRa Ty, 7 RatRa BH Where Riz = hye + (1 + fgg) (Reg |} R’) = 1l¢ a ins = 355K 1 -3K th = = 1, 3K+355RK 0.457 Looking at Fig. 1.41 we can write by R = ju, RL oo 8 1, * Reh, ‘98) WhereR = RI(R’ 1.2 Kx1.25K I 0.612 K bl = T, = Oelae Lik = 9558 ls Substituting the numerial values obtained from equations (32), (33), (34) and (35) in equation (31) we get, Ay = (~50)X(-0.457} (50) x (0. 358) = 406 Step 5: Calculate Looking at Fig. 1.41 we can write, = ceRe R,+R’ ai. Ro R, +R’ 1, Re Ry+R hy Re _ __50Analog Electronics 1-43 Feedback Amplifiers Step 6: Calculate D, Ry Ri, Ay Avg Ry Ror D = 1+BA,=1 + (0.04)x 406 = 172 A, _ 406 Au = Dp a7 = 23.6 = we. cle Re At = = ER = Aw Ra R, = (23.6) (500) 12K = 9.83 0.612 Kx 11K R= Rill = gage 11k = 0.394 K R, _ 0.394 K Ri = p= = BOQ R == wo Nye = 0 Ry = Ry Dao RL = Ry ll Re = =|] 500 = 5002 From calculation for Ay we note that A, is independent of the load Ry, = Ro. Hence tim ARR, Oe A Ry = pe LBA, ~ Rapa, =R,=Ro = 5002Analog Electronics. 1-44 Feedback Amplifiers 1.12.4 Voltage Shunt Feedback Fig. 142 shows a common emitter amplifier with a resistor R’ connected from the output to the input. g*Vec Step 1: Identify topology The feedback current 1, is given as Vv. -V, Woe apt But V, > BV. = R lL = 1 By shorting output voltage (V,=0), feedback reduces to zero and hence it is a voltage sampling. As 1, =I, -1,, the mixing is shunt type and topology is voltage shunt feedback amplifier. Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit. To find input circuit, set V, = 0, this places R’ between base and ground. To find output circuit, set ¥ = 0, this places R’ between collector and ground. The resultant circuit is shown in Fig. 1.43.Analog Electronics: 1-45 Feedback Amplifiers The feedback signal is the current I, in the resistor R’ which is in the output circuit as shown in the Fig. 1.43. We have seen that l= yey 1 -l ite pelt v R R, 1 - Ru! o Rye = TB Ry 7B Y BRy >> 1 = -R an ONO TR, Step 4: Find the open circuit transresistance Vo Io Re | ~1 Re Ry = poe See + (36) Where Ro = R,YR'=4K 140K = 3.636 K and Ay=— hp =~ 50 and a OF) hl oR Where R = Rg | ’ = 10K | 40K = 8K 1, 7 Gh, reR= Rs R= - ty _ 8K 1, ~ BKel1K = 0.879 ++» (38) Substituting values of equation (37) and (38) in equation (36) we have TERE ate Tay pe i Ru = (- 50) x (0.879) x 3.636 K 159.8 K 4Analog Electronics 1-46 Step 5: Calculate B = -2.5x10% Step 6: Calculate D, Rye Ayes Rips Ror and Ri, D = 14+ BRy = 1+ (-2.5%107) (-159.8x10*) = 4.995 _ Ry _ -159.8K Rue = p= 5 Looking at Fig. 1.43-we can write = BKe1. 1K 087K _ R,_ 0.967K Re = = 995 = 193592 R, == “thy = 0 Ry = BEF R, = Roll Ry = © |j 3.636 K = 3.636 K 3.636 K D 4,995, = 7282Analog Electronics 1-47 Feedback Amplifiers 1.13 Nyquist Criterion for Stability of Feedback Amplifiers A negative feedback amplifier designed for a particular frequency range may break out into oscillation at some high or low frequency. This stability problem arises in feedback amplifiers when the loop gain has more than two real poles. The existence of pole with a positive real part result in a disturbance increasing exponentially with time. When such transient disturbance persists indefinitely or increases, the system becomes unstable. Hence, the condition which must be satisfied, if a system is to be stable, is that the poles of the transfer function must all lie in the left-hand half of the complex-frequency plane. If the system without feedback is stable, the poles of A do lie in the left-hand half plane. Therefore, from equation Ay = A/1 + Af we can say that the stability condition requires that the zeroes of 1 + AB all lie in the left-hand half of the complex-frequency plane. The Nyquist criterion forms the basis of a steady-state method of determining whether or not an amplifier is stable. The Nyquist criteria. express condition for Negative feedback stability in terms of the steady-state, or frequency response, characteristics. Let us see the Nyquist criterion. TAAB) ‘, Since the product AB is a complex number, it may be Increasing frequency represented as a point in the complex plane where the real Fig. 1.44 Locus of |1 + Aff =1 component being plotted along the X axis and the j component along the Y axis. We know that, the AB is a function of frequency. Consequently, points in the complex plane are obtained for the values of AB corresponding to all values of f from — ~ to + =. The locus of all these points forms a closed curve. The criterion of Nyquist is that the amplifier is unstable if this curve encloses the point - 1 + j0, and the amplifier is stable if the curve does not enclose this point. (See Fig. 1.44).Analog Electronics 1-48 Feedback Amplifiers The Fig. 144 shows the locus of |1 + AB] = 1. It is a circle of unit radius, with its center at - 1 + jO. If for any frequency, AB extends outside this circle, the feedback is negative since |1 + AB| > 1. If, however, AB Hes within this circle, then [1 + AB] <1, and the feedback is positive. An example of the Nyquist criterion is illustrated in Fig. 1.45. The locus in Fig. 1.45 (a) is stable since it does not enclose the - 1 + jO point, whereas the locus shown in Fig. 1.45 (b) is unstable since the curve does enclose the = 1 + j0 point. Increasing f Increasing £ {a) Stable (b) Unstable Fig. 1.45 Stability condition using Nyquist criterion Examples with Solutions ium Example 1.2: A feedback amplifier has an open loop gain of 600 and feedback factor B= 0.01. Find the closed loop gain with negative feedback, Solution : = fe Au = T+Ap ~ T+600x0-01 = 85714 tim Example 1.3: The distortion ir an amplifier is found to be 3%, when the feedback ratio of negative feedback amplifier is 0.04. When the feedback is removed, the distortion becomes 15 %. Find the open and closed loop gain. Solution : Given : fi = @.04 Distortion with feedback = 3 %, Distortion without feedback = 15% Ds= Beas Where D=1 + Af=5 5 = 1+ABS1+A« 0.04 A = 100Analog Electronics 1-49 Feedback Amplifiers mum Example 1.4: An amplifier has mid-band voltage gain (A...) } of 1000 witht, =50 Hz and fyy = 50 kHz, if 5 % feedback is applied then calculate gain f,, and fy with feedback. Solution : Given B= >. = 0.05, f, = 50, fy, = 50 kHz and A,.ig = 1000 a) Gain with feedback A Avni 1000 vmidy TF BAL gaa 1005x1000 = 19.6 _ f _ 50 ») fu = T+BA vg 1 +0.05% 1000 = 0.98 Hz 3 fue = Ay OC+BA, gy) = 50% 104 x (1 + 0.05 x 1000) = 255 MHz tam Example 1.5: An amplifier with open loop vollage gain of 1000 delivers 10 W of power output at 10 % second harmonic distortion when ifp is 10 mV. If 40 dB negative feedback is applied and output power is to remain at 10 W, determine required input signal V, and second harmonic distortion with feedback. Solution : Given A, = 1000, Output power = 10 W, . . 1 a) fi: -40 = 20 toe [ra] 1+PpA = 100 BA = 99 = 9 _ B= jqgg = 9-099 Gain of the atuplifier with feedback is given as a wo T+pay i 3 3 A =10 3] b) To maintain output power 10 W, we should maintain output voltage constant and to maintain output voltage constant with feedback gain required V, is Ve = Vo 100 = L0mV>« 100 =1VAnalog Electronics 1-50 Feedback Amplifiers ¢) Second harmonic distortion is reduced by factor 1+ A. Dy = oa joa 7 0.001 = 01% mp Example 1.6: An amplifier with open loop gain of A = 2000 + 150 is available. It is necessary to have the amplifier whose voltage gain varies by not more than + 0.2 %. Calculate Band A ,. Solution : a) We know that day | 1 dA A; 14fA A. o2 1, 150 Too ~ T+pA * 2000 1+BA = 375 BA = 365 _ 365 B= spay = 001825 = 1.825 % byAp: Ap = A 2000 1+BA 1+ 0.01825 x 2000 > Example 1.7: if an amplifier has a bandwidth of 300 kHz and voltage gain of 100; what will be the new bandwidth and gain if 10 % negative feed back is introduced? What will be the gain bandwidth product before and after feed back? What should be the amount of feedback if the bandwidth is to be limited to 800 kHz. . Solution : The voltage gain of the amplifier with feedback is given as Aw = Tg Where = 0.1 and A = 100 100 Ave = Tyiooxoi 9.09Analog Electronics 1-51 Feedback Amplifiers The bandwidth of an amplifier with feedback is given as f Byp = (1+Ania B) fx ~ Aad Assuming fy >> f, we have By = fy and By = (1+ Ania B By Bye (1+100%0.1)x 300 KHz = 3300 kHz The gain bandwidth product before feedback can be given as Gain bandwidth product = A, By = 100x300 kHz = 30x10° Gain bandwidth product after feedback = Ay By; 9.09% 3300 kHz 30x108 If bandwidth is to be limited to 800 kHz we have fyyp = 800 kHz assuming fy >>f We know that But = Ais BD fy 800K = (1+1008) 300 K 800 - OL B = 20 = oot im Example 1.8: For the feedback amplifier whose block diagram is shown in Fig. 1.46 compute the changes in AA, when i) Ay changes by an amount AA, and Hi) Ay changes by an amount &AyAnalog Electronics 1-52 Feedback Amplifiers Solution : For above circuit voliage gain with feedback is given as Ay ale | Ay = Ar wale mi - 2 | waarmee] i) AAS = - x 2 HHA, -aA he, al 1A, ~AAd| | WT —AA,|XB ii) AA, = _ +/Az~AA,|XB, Az lA 2 1+A,|———— |B _—__ ‘IFA, 7 | \ a Bs tm Example 1.9: An amplifier has a voltage gain of 4000. It's input impedance is 2 K and output impedance is 60 K. Calculate the voltage gain, input and output impedance of the circuit is 5% of the feedback is fed in the form of series negative voltage feedback. Solution : The voltage gain with feedback can be given as A 4000 Au = TER § 7 Teabooxo0s = 199 Ina voltage series feedback input resistance with feedback is given as Ry = RUB AY) = 2 K(1+0.05x 4000) = 402 kQ In a voltage series feedback output resistance with feedback is given as R, 60K ~ Bs _ Rot = Tapa, ~ Te00sx4000 = 29850 ium Example 1.10: An amplifier without feedback gives a fundamental output of 36 V with 7 % second harmonic distortion when the input is 0.028 V. i) If 1.2 percent of the output is fedback into the input in a negative voltage series feedback circuit, what is the output voltage ii) If the fundamental output is maintained at 36 V but the second harmonic distortion is reduced to 1 percent what is the input voltage?Analog Electronics 1-53 Feedback Amplifiers Solution : The voltage gain of amplifier can be given as \, A= ye <| ae 0.028 = 1285.7 i) B= 0012 +. The gain of the amplifier with feedback is given as Ay Ar” TeAWB _ 12857 “ T+12857x 0012 = 78.26 ‘The output voltage with feedback is given as Vy = Ag Vig =78.26 x 0.028 = 219V ii) If the output remains constant at 36 V, then the distortion produced within the active devices of the amplifier is unchanged. However, since the distortion at the output is less than in part i) by a factor of 7, it follows that the feedback now increased by 7 and hence, the voltage gain decreased by 7. Thus, the input signal required to produce the same output (as in part i) without feedback must be: Vin = 7 (0.028 V) = 0.196 V iam Example 1.11: Ar amplifier having a voltage gain of 60 dB uses %o"" of it output in negative feedback, Calculate the gain with feedback, the percentage change in gain without and with feedback consequent ort 50 % change in Sup Solution : i) The gain of the amplifier is given as 60 dB = 20 log Ye 7 No = <= 1000 AB ae 1 B = 55 = 005Analog Electronics 1-54 Feedback Amplifiers: «. The gain of amplifier with feedback is A v Aw * eBay = 00 1+0.05%1000 = 19.6 ii) The gain of the amplifier is directly proportional to the g,.. Therefore, the gain of the amplifier without feedback changes as same amount as g,, changes A, = Ay £05Ay = 1000 +500 ‘The gain of the amplifier with feedback is now given as 1000+500 1000+500 Ave = TNS C000E50) 1+ 60225) = 19.23 or 19.73 i> Example 1.12: A single stage RC coupled amplifier has a midband gain of 1000 is made into a negative feedback amplifier by feeding 10 % of the output voltage in series with input opposing. i) What is the ratio of half power frequencies with feedback to those without feedback? ii) If f, = 20 Hz and f,, = 50 kHz for the amplifier without feedback, Find the corresponding values after feedback is incorporated, Solution: A, = 1000 and fp=0.1 5) fr apa, Hn = 140.1 1000 = 101 fie 8 i 1 and 4 7 TSpAy > T +01 «1000 _ ~ TOT = 0.0099 ii) With f,, = 20 Hz and fy = 50 kHz fur = 20x 0.0099 = 0,198 Hz and fy = 50 kHz x 101 = 5.05 MHzAnalog Electronics 1-55 Feedback Amplifiers. ‘mm Example 1.13: An amplifier without feedback gives an output of 50 V into 6 % second harmonic distortion when the input is 0.2 V. if the negative feedback is applied to amplifier so that the second harmonic distortion is reduced to 1%. What value of feedback ratio neust be used? What input voltage will be required to produce the same output vollage of 50 V? Solution : The voltage gain of the amplifier is given as B gle 44. 89x 10? +(1+ 40) (10K |] 200) = - 28.59 Ay = ~28.59x-18.237 = 521.39 Step 6: Calculate 6 Be Me 200 Ve 10x10° = 0.02 Step 7: Calculate D, Ayp Ry Ry D = 1+BA, =1+ 0.02% 521.39 = 11.4278 Ay _ 521.39 Aut = “py * qrama = 34 R = Rg=1M0 Ry = Rx D=1x10°% 11.4278 = 11.4278 MQ Ri, = ry ii Ry = 10K | 838K = 4559 ko Roe Ri 4.559«10° of SD T4278 = 3990 imu Example 1.18: The circuit shows three stage FET amplifier. The identical FETs have following parameters 142 8KQ, gy, = 5 mA, Ry = 1 MO, Ry = Ry + Ry Ry = SOK, Ry = kD Calculate voltage gain including feedback.Analog Electronics 1-64 Feadback Amplifiers: Fig. 1.56 Solution : Here, output voltage is sampled and fed in series with the input signal. Hence the topology is voltage series feedback. ‘The open loop voltage gain for one stage is given as Ay = 8m Reg Where Req = Tall Ra fl (Ry + Ry) = 8 K |] 40 K |] (1 My = 662 kt Ay = -5% 10° «6.62% 10° = -33.11 Overall voltage gain = |Ay mal? = |= 33.11|° = ~ 36306 pe ae = Ri +R, 1x10° = 5x10% D = 1+B|A,] =14 (x 10) x (36306) = 2.8153 aul = hE 36308 2.8153 = 12.895 x 10° Ayy = - 12.895 x 107Analog Electronics 1-65 Feedback Amplifiers ump Example 1.19: In the Ex. 1.18, if output is taken between point B and ground, calculate Ag Solution : We know that Ay = -33.11 Here pn MeN Moy Me Ve Vo Vo Vo Where Vz and Vc are voltages at point B and C, respectively y, v, V, B= yix Aya * Av2 v Te 7 Avs and ye = Ave B = 5x 10% (-3311)x (© 33.11) = 0.0548 Avy 33.11 lQvel = Ty5iag[ 7 TeOopaoeas.an = 1176 Ay = - 1176 iam Example 1.20: For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.57. Voc Fig. 4 57 i) Identify topology used in feedback anrplifier ii) Show that voltage gain with feedbackAnalog Electronics 1-66 Feedback Amplifiers Solution : Step 1: Identify topology By shorting output (V, = 0), feedback voltage does not become zero. By opening the output loop feedback becomes zero and hence it is current sampling. The feedback is applied in series with the input signal, hence topology used is current series feedback. Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit To find input circuit, set |, = 0. This places R, in series with input. To find output circuit I, = 0. This places R, in the output side. The resultant circuit is shown in Fig. 1.58. Fig. 1.58 Step 4: Replace transistor with its h-parameter equivalent Step 5: Find open loop transfer gain From equation (13) of section 1.12 we have Ave = 1B Ga R Vi _ A, Ry, Rth, +0+h JR, Here RL = RR, || Ry = R,WR, wR, = Ry I Rp Vo 2 Moy Ms VO VOW vi Re Where vy ” ORG,Analog Electronics 41-67 Feedback Amplifiers y, ah Ry ~ Be ~ Vv, * ROFR+0+h OR,” R.+R, Dividing both numerator and denominator by R, + R, we get R, = — he Ay = VoL MRR wR = VES VO Rhein oR, Ot We Example 1.21: Identify the topology of feedback in the circuit of Fig. 1.60 giving justification. Two transistors are identical with hy = 2 K and lig = 100, Calculate i) Ry fi) Aj it) Ayy Ri Fig. 1.60 Solution : Step 1 : Identify topology Making output voltage zero (V, = 0); feedack does not become zero and hence it is not voltage sampling. By opening the output loop feedback becomes zero and hence it is a current sampling. As I; = 1, - Jy the feedback current appears in shunt with the input signal and hence the topology is current shunt feedback. Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit To find input circuit, set I, = 0. This gives series combination of resistors 20 K and 1 K across of the input of the first transistor. To find output circuit, set V, = 0. This givesAnalog Electronics 1-68 Feedback Amplifiers. parallel combination of resistors 20 K and 1 K at emitter of the second transistor, The resultant circuit is shown in Fig. 1.61. Fig. 1.64 Step 4: Find open circuit current gain cle Ap = 2 s hy = - 100 -R, = ct Ry +R = hy + (1 + hg) R= 2% 10° + (1 + 100) (1 K fj 20K) = 98.19 K la ~12K iak+e8. 9K ~~ O18 ots hy = 100 _ _IKIQOKHK 1, hy, +KQ0K+1K = 0328 Ay = (= 100) x (= 0.109) x (100) x (0.323) = 352 Step 5: Calculate B - ke. Re ___4K Be Taye 7 TK+20KAnalog Electronics 1-69 Feedback Amplifiers 0.1667 D = 1+BA,=1 + (0.1667) x 352 59.67 A Ay _Ar_ 352 i TPA, D 59.67 5.90 R = 1K|)QK+20K) Ry TK W2LK 2K vRy= hy = 2K 646.0 R, - Ry 1+BA, 10.82 2 R, = = o Rose “lige = 0 RL = RylRe=eh4kK=4K . OBA) Ru © (PFfia,y = Re = AK Ave 23.6 um Example 1.22 : For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.62, Calculate Ayp Rig and Ryp Transistor parameters are hip = 1 K, hg =100, li, = 0. 9+Vcg Fig. 1.62Analog Electronics 1-70 Feedback Amplifiers Solution : Step 1: Identify topology V = 0, does not make feedback zero, but I, = 0 makes feedback to become zero and hence it is current sampling. The feedback is fed in shunt with the input signal, hence topology is current shunt feedback. Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit To find input circuit, set 1, = 0. This gives series combination of Ry and 10 K across the input. To find output circuit, set V, = 0. This gives parallel combination of Rey and 10 K at E,, The resultant circuit is shown in Fig, 1.63. Fig. 1.63 Step 4: Replace transistor with its h-parameter equivalent Fig. 1.64 h-parameter equivalent circuit Step 5: Find open loop current gainAnalog Electronics I, Ty Jan tao gtk ytd ti dea Where Ra Tyg Ty ty in Ar Step 6: Calculate § 8 Step 7: Calculate D, Ay, Ry, Rog and Aye D Ay Ry = Feedback Amplifiers hy. + (1 + hy) (1 K 1/10 K} 1K + (1+ 100) (1K {| 10K) 92.618 K 100% 2,2%105 92.818% 10% +2.2%10 2315 LK |](1K+10 Ky hy, +1K | dok+ TR) 0.478 (100) (- 2.315) x 0.478 110.7 =o = 0.09 1+ B Ay = 1+ (0.09) (110.7) 11.063 Ay _ A, 110.7 T+BpA, D ~ 11.063 10 1K) QOK+1K)|| Ry KIMI KK vRy=h.=1K 478.2 R, 478 D * ir065 = 8208Analog Electronics 1-72 Feedback Amplifiers . Ry = R,D== vh.=0 R, = 22k2 R, = R Q+fA,) © (1+BA,) 22kQ wm Example 1.23: For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.65 has following parameters : hy, = 100 hy, = 1.1 K, and h,, and h,, = 0. Determine i) Ay = vs tv) Roy Fig. 1.65 Solution : Step 1: Identify topology Here output voltage is sampled and fed in shunt with the input signal, such that, 1,- I, = I; hence topology is voltage shunt feedback. Step 2: Find input and output circuit To find input circuit, set V, = 0. This places resistor R across the input. To find output circuit, set V, = 0. This places resistor R across the output. The resultant circuit is shown in Fig. 1.66.Analog Electronics 1-73 Feedback Amplifiers Ry Ror Fig. 1.66 h-parameter equivalent circuit Step 4: Replace transistor with its h-parameter equivalent circuit = c —!, B 11k Grebe 6) R =82K 0 820 2 R, RF Ry R, Fig. 1.67 Step 5: Find the open circuit transresistance Ry = psp = ee it - |. chiR _-109%82%10° R+R, 82x107+12x10° = - 8723 = —PullR RATRFRy Where Ry = hy + (1+ hg) Ry = 11x10? + (101) 820Analog Electronics 1 -74 Feedback Amplifiers Step 6: Calculate Pp Step 7: Calculate D, Ruy Ayp Ry and Ri, D 83.92 K (1<10°)||(82 10") x10) ||(62x105) +83.92x107 0.0116 Vv. rr = 12% 10° x (- 87.23) x 0.0116 5 - 12.142 K 1+BRy 14 (1.22% 10) (- 12.142 x 10°) 1.148 “12.142 K_ = Time 77 087K = vy - IR, _ 10.57 10% Rape we ~ txts MF, - 10.57 R, || Rll Ry = 1 Kil 82 K || 83.92 K 0.976 K _ BR, _ 0.976x109 _ ~ De” Tide — = 8502 = BBY Nye =O R. R= 12K 82KAnalog Electronics 4-75 Feedback Amplifiers. 10.468 K a Ri, _ 10.468%10* a) 1.148 9.118 K 1 map Example 1.24: The two stage amplifier shown in the Fig. 1.68 has identical transistors with parameters hj, = 2 K, hy = 100, and h,, = 0. Calculate a) Ay b) Ry ©) RY Fig. 1.68 Solution : Step 1: Identify topology Here output voltage is sampled and fed in shunt with the input signal such that, 1,-1; = I, hence topology is voltage shunt feedback. Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit Fig. 1.69Analog Electronics 4-76 Feedback Amplifiers To find input circuit, set V, = 0. This places resistor R across the input. To find output circuit, set V, = 0. This places resistor R across input. The resultant circuit is as shown in the Fig. 1.69. The circuit shows voltage source replaced by current source. Step 4: Replace transistors with their h-parameter equivalent circuits. Met (14Rhellyy tea. Fig. 1.70 h-parameter equivalent circuit Step 5: Find open loop transfer gain _ _7100x2.2%10° R+Rq 2.2x107+5.1x10° = - 30.137 (+h JRea | 10L1 110% Ry th 1axio?+2x10° = 35.84 R,IIR @RITR)+R iy = hy + (1 + hy) Re = 2x10? + (101)x 11x 103 = 131k 1 103]]2.2%105 = 6.04% 10% = 5.1 x 10° x (- 30.137) x 35.84 x 6.04 x 107 = ~ 33.599 KAnalog Electronics. Step 6: Step 7: 1-77 Feedback Amplifiers Calculate B Iv, -Vv, =k MoM Be pe VR -1 = wVA> Vy - -——L_. 2.2x105 = = 4545x104 Calculate D, Ry Ayp Ry and R’, D = 14fRy = La ( 4.545 x 10) (- 33.539 x 10°) = 16.245 3.539% 109 Ru = tas Ave = Ry -2.065%107 ~ RE ax10% = - 2065 R= RW RYRy = 1K 22K | 1131 K = 6382 R, _ 683 Ris Dia = 420 R= AR = 5 R, = Ri Rg = 22x 10° 951% 10° = 1537 kt? x Ri, | 1.537*10* ot Dy 6.245 94.61 2Analog Electronics 1-78 Feedback Amplifiers ‘> Example 1.25: In the FET amplifier shown in Fig. 1.71 has the following parameters ¥g= 40 KQ., Spy = 2.5 mA/V. Assume all capacitors to be arbitrarily large. Calculate D. Rup Avy Rip Ropand Ri, Fig. 1.71 Solution : Step 1: Identify topology By making V,, = 0, feedback current becomes zero. Hence it is a voltage sampling. The feedback is fed in shunt with the input signal and thus the topology is voltage shunt feedback. Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit. To find input circuit, set V, = 0. This places resistor R across the input. To find output circuit, set V, = 0, This places resistor R across output. The resultant circuit is shown in Fig. 1.72.Analog Electronics 1-79 Feedback Amplifiers Step 4: Replace FET with its equivalent circuit GS yy 40K 1 200K Fig. 1.73 Step 5: Find open loop transresistance Ry = Where Ra = and Va = Ru = Step 6: Calculate p B= Step 7: Calculate D, Rags Ayg: Rog and Ry D= Ba\pRey I ta li RI Rp = 40 Kf] 200K 10K 7.69 I, R=i*R, i IMIR 1, 10 K jj 1M || 200 K 9.43 x 10° I, Bm 9.43% 1051, x7 .69x10 1, 's = 25 x 10 x 9.43 x 10° x 7.69 x 10° + 181.29 K 1+BRy 14+ (- 5 10) (- 181.29 x 10°) 19Analog Electronics Rus Ave Rot mum Example 1.26 : Assume hy = 50 and Iie = 1.2 19. 1-80 Feedback Amplifiers Ry _ -181.29 K Sp Ta = - 95.415 K — Yo, Vo _ Ruy _ ~95.415%10* Ve LR, Ry 10x10° = = 95415 = R,||M||R=10Kj1M jj 200K = 943 x 10° = 4963.0 = Rer= tall Ri Rp = 40K 200K 10K = 7.69 kd Ri, _ 7.69«104 D 19 = 4k For the feedback amplifier shown in Fig. 1.74, calculate Ap Rip Rep o+10V Fig. 1.74Analog Electronics 1-81 Feedback Amplifiers Solution : Step 1: Identify topology The feedback voltage is applied across the resistance R,, and it is in series with input signal. Hence feedback is voltage series feedback. Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit To find input circuit, set V, = 0, which gives parallel combination of R,, with R, at E, as shown in the Fig. 1.75. To find output circuit, set I, = 0 opening the input node E, at emitter of Qy, which gives series combination of R, and R,, across the output. The resultant circuit is shown in Fig. 1.75. Fig. 4.75 Step 4: Find open loop voltage gain (A,) Ry =Ry ll Rp+R,y) = 22K || GLK + 15K) = 21K Ay = “hy =—50 Ry = b= 12k Ay = Apa . Sona = = 87.91 Rup = Re Ry =O MI 12K = 1185 K -h, =- 50Analog Electronics Feedback Amplifiers = h,+(l+h, dR, = 12K + (1+ 50) (15K |] 51K) = 751K AaR, = ot 50 1,185K 75.51K = - 0784 The overall gain without feedback is given is Ay = AG X Ay = (-0.784)> (-87.91) = 6892 vy Step 5: Calculate § stk B= ts aKeISK i, : = 0.0285 ‘ 18K Step 6: Calculate D, Ay Ry and Roy D = 1+BAy Fig. ye = 14(0.0285) x 68.92 = 2.968 = 2325 R, = Ry | R= 7551 K || (0.2 M + (270 | 330) = 7551 K || 200.1485 K = 482K Ry = RyxD = 54.82 Kx 2.964 = 162.48 K R= he = 8 RL = Ry ll Re || Bp + Rey) = Ry i Rio = of) 211K = 211KAnalog Electronics 1-83 Feedback Amplifiers = 712Q ‘mm Example 1.27: For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.77. a. Identify the topology of feedback with proper reasoning b, Find Ay Aye Ry Ryp Ap The transistor Qy and Qs have the following h-parameters : hj, = 1.5 K and hy, = 50. Assume C to be large enough to act as short at operating frequency. Fig. 1.77 Solution : Step 1: Identify topology The feedback is given from emitter of Q, to the base of Q,. If I, = 0 then feedback current through 5 K register is zero, hence it is current sampling. As feedback signal is mixed in shunt with input, the amplifier is current shunt feedback amplifier. Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit The input circuit of the amplifier without feedback is obtained by opening the output loop at the emitter of Q, (I, = 0). This places R’ (5 K) in series with R, from base to emitter of Q). The output circuit is found by shorting the input node, ie, making V, =0. This places R’ (SK) in parallel with R,. The resultant equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 1.78.Analog Electronics 1-84 Feedback Amplifiers Step 4; Find open circuit transfer gain Ay = We know that = zt = Ai =~h,, = 50 " Ly lL = 50 ly Looking at Fig. 1.77 we can wrile ly = wRa I 7 R, +R, Where Rip = bye * (1+ hye) (Reg [i R’) = 15K + (1 + 50) (600 | 5 K) = 26,82 K -2K 2K+28.82 K = - 0.0649Analog Electronics 1-85 Feedback Amplifiers Looking at Fig. 1.78 we can write Where R= Ry f (R +R) = AAAS = 848.2 and Ry = hig + (1+ hye) Ra = 15K + (1 + 50)x 400 = 219 K Ty _ __ 848 1, > BBF209K = 0.0372 Substituting the numerical values obtained in equations of Ay we get, Ay = (50) x (~ 0.0649) x (60) x (0.0372) Step 5: Calculate f Step 6: Calculate D, Aip A ys Ry» Roy D = 1+PA; =1+ (0.107) x6 = 1642 A 6 au = “Dee = 3.654 Vv, ae Ay, = wee teRe ve 3 1,R, _ (3.654) (2K) 1K R, = RUPRy = 8489219 KAnalog Electronics 41-86 Feedback Amplifiers = 816.382 a. = Fi 516.38 it D 1-642 = 497.20 R, == ye = 0 Ro = Ry D= = R, = RoRa =e 12K = 12K R. « 1HBAy =R)=Rg=12K of No TERA, i> Example 1.28: For feedback amplifier shown in Fig. 1.79, identify the feedback topology with proper justification. The transistors used are identical with the following parameters : Iige = 200, Ih = 2 1, bye = 108, gg = 107 © A/V Calculate i) Ay it) Ri iii) Ry Fig. 1.79 Solution : Step 1: Identify topology The feedback voltage is applied across R,, = 1.5 K, which is in series with input signal. Hence feedback is voltage series feedback.Analog Electronics 1-87 Feedback Amplifiers Step 2 and Step 3: Find input and output circuit To find input circuit, set V, = 0, which gives parallel combination of R,, with R, at E, as shown in the Fig. 1.80. To find output circuit, set 1, = 0 by opening the input node, E; at emitter of Q,, which gives the series combination of R; and R,; across the output. The resultant circuit is shawn in Fig. 1.80. R, Ry Raa Me Fig. 1.80 Step 4: Find the open loop voltage gain (Ay) Ria = Rel (Ry + Re) = 22K]} (66% + 15K) = 2119K Since hye Ry. = 10° ® x 2.119 K = 0.002119 is less than 0.1 we use approximate analysis Ru = — hy = — 200 he = 2D AgRy, _ -200%2,119K Ry aK - 27119 Roy | Ry = 120K || 2K 1.967 K Since hye Ryy = 10” ® x 1.967 = 0.001967 is less than 0.1 we use approximate analysis Aa = Ry = ~ hye = - 200 Ie + (+ high ReAnalog Electronics 4-88 Feedback Amplifiers = 2K + (1 + 200) (1.5 K || 56K) = 29863 K AuRy _ ~200x1.967K An = “= 355 6K = -133 The overall gain without feedback is Ay = Ay, X Ay = © 1.33) x (- 211.9) = 281.82 Ve Step 5: Calculate fi 56K pos Me Na = —I5K Vy 1.5K 56K+15K = 0.026 = Step 6: Calculate D, Ay,, Ry, Rug Fig. 1.81 D = I+PAy = 1+ (0.026) x 281.82 = 8.327 = 33.84 R, = Ry |] R = 295.63 K || 150 K = 995K Ry = R)x D = 99.5 x 8.327 = 828.53 K R= gos = 1MQ 120K Ry = Roll Rea Re + Re) = Ro I RiaAnalog Electronics 1-89 Feedback Amplifiers = 1M[j2119K = 215 K RL = R, _ 2.1145K oD eae = 242 => Example 1.29: For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.82, calculate : i) Ay ti) Ry tii) Ry where these parameters have their usual meaning. The transistor parameters are : hy = 1K hy, =0, ity = 100 and h, = 0. 10K Fig. 1.82 Solution : This is a current shunt feedback amplifier open circuit transfer gain. Fig. 1.83Analog Electronics A Caleulation of B: 1-90 Feedback Amplifiers 100 hy +(1+h,,)(Ry Il R') = 1K+(101)(0.1 K || 10K) uk 7Ra Ra +(Ria+ Rp) =22K 22K+(11 K+1 K) — 0.155 —R R+h,, R, || (R+R,)=1K || (10K+0.1K) 909.9 2 909.9 909.941 K 0.476 (-100)x (0.155) (100) (0.476) = 737.8 Ra te Re RatR = R,+R 1, Ra atk Ro _ 100 R,+R i00+10K ‘9 14BA, =14(9.9x107 )x737.8 83Analog Electronics Ay = Ay = A\, = 195.558 Ry = Res Bes Ry = Rg =22kQ ‘m> Example 1.30 : volatge is 40 mV. Determine : i) Voltage gain with feedback ii) Feedback voltage tii) Output voltage Solution : Given: A= 100, B = 0.02, V, = 40 x 10° V i) Voltage gain with feedback Where, ii) Feedback voltage iii) Output voltage = 57.352 Ag = D Ay Feedback Amplifiers R | hj, = 909.9 {| 1000 = 476 2 In a negative feedback amplifier A = 100, fh = 0.02 and input signal Ay D 1+BA,=1+0.02 x 100 =3 100 3° 33.33 BV, = Bx Ayg x Vj 0.02 x 33.33 x 40 x 10° 26.66 mV Ay; * Vj = 33.33 x 40 x 107 1333 VAnalog Electronics 1-92 Feedback Amplifiers dum Example 1.34: Determine the voltage gain, input and output impedance with feedback for voltage series feedback having A = - 100, Rj = 10k 2, R, = 20 k Q for feedback of (a) i= — 0.1 and (b) B= - 0.5. Solution : For B= - 0.1,D = 1+ Av =1 + (0.1) 100) = 11 i) Voltage gain Ay = & Ay = a0 == 9.09 ii) Input impedance Ry = RD=10x11=110K0 iii) Output impedance Roe = * = 38 = 181 ka For B=-05,D=14BA,=1+(05) © 100) = 51 i) Voltage gain = a sa = 1.96 ii) Input impedance Ry = RD = 10x 51 = 510k iii) Ouput impedance Ry = Be = 20K. o392 en D Si ium Example 1.32: Which is the most commonly used feedback arrangement in cascaded amplifiers and why ? Solution . Voltage series feedback is the most commonly used feedback arrangement in cascaded amplifiers. Voltage series feedback increases input resistance and decreases output resistance, Increase in input resistance reduces the loading effect of previous stage and the decrease in output resistance reduces the loading effect of amplifier itself for driving the next stage. im Example 1.33: Voltage gain of an amplifier without feedback is 60 dB. It decreases to 40 dB with feedback. Calculate the feeback factor. Solution : Given A, = 60dB and Ay = 40 dB We know that, At = EBAY Ayw+BAy Ay = AyAnalog Electronics 1-93 Feedback Amplifiers p= AvtAu _ 0-10 ALA, OOxd0 3.33 x 107 um Example 1.34: An R-C coupled amplifier has 2 mid frequency gain of 400 and lower and upper 3 dB frequencies of 100 Hz and 15 kHz. A negative feedback with [b= 0.01 is incorporated into amplifier circuit. Calculate : (i) Gain with feedback (ii) New bandwidth Solution : Given ; A, = 400, F,, = 100 Hz, fyy = 15 kHz B = 001 . A 0 Au * Tea," T(Go1ca06 * * » fu = rates rainy 2 iti) far = fy * +BA,) = 15x 10° x [1+(0.01x400)] = 75 kHz iv) New Bandwidth = fy - fy = 75 kHz - 20 Hz = 74,980 kHz Review Questions 1. What do you mean by voltage amplifier and current amplifier ? Give their equivalent cirewit. 2. Draw the equivalent circuit of a transconductance amplifier. 3, Explain the sampling and mixing networks. 4, Define the feedback factor B. 5. Define negative and positive feedback. 6. Give topology for various types of feedback amplifiers. 7. Using a block diagram, derive the closed leap form transfer ratio of a feedback system in terms of the open gain. 8. Using a block diagram, derive the expression of closed loop forward transfer ratio with positive and negative feedbacks introduced in an amplifier. 9, Draw the block schematic of amplifier with negative feedback.Analog Electronics 1-94 Feedback Amplifiers 10, Tl. In 13. 14, 15. 16. 17. 18, 19. 20, 21. 22 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 31. “The gain bandwidth product of an amplifier is not altered, when negative feedback introduced". Justify the statement, What are the effects of negative feedback ont distortion and gain of an amplifier ? What are the advantages of negative feedback in amplifiers ? Explain the consequences of introducing negative feedback in small signal amplifier. Define desensitivity D ? For large values of D what is Ay ? What is the significance of this result ? Discuss the effects of negative feedback on the frequency response of an amplifier. Define 'Desensitivity’ of transfer gain. Compare the frequency response characteristics of an amplifier with and without negative feedback. What are the steps to be carried out for the complete analysis of a feedback amplifier ? With typical example compare current series and voltage shunt feedback amplifiers. Draw the equivalent circuit of a voltage amplifier. A feedback amplifier has an open loop gain of 600 and feedback factor fi = 0.01. Find the clased loop gaint with negative feedback ‘The gain and distortion of an amplifier are 100 and 4% respectively. If a negative feedback with = 0.2 is applied, find the new distortion in the system. List out the steps that are carried out in obtaining the complete analysis of a feedback amplifier. Write a note on voltage series feedback circuits, Write a note on current series feedback circuits. Write a note on current shunt feedback circuits, Write a note on voltage shunt feedback circuits, The distortion in an amplifier is found to be 3%, when the feedback ratio of negative feedback amplifier is 0.04. When the feedback is removed, the distortion becomes 15%. Find the open loop and closed loop gain. Derive using a block diagram the closed loop forward transfer ratio Ay of a feedback system, |. Derive the input impedance Riy of a voltage series and current shunt feedback amplifiers. For the amplifier circuit given in Fig, 1.84 with hg = 50, hig = 1.1 KQ, hye = ge = 0. i) Identify the type of negative feedback present, it) Obtain the basic amplifier circuit. iii) Caleselate the voltage gain, input resistance and output resistance of the given amplifier.Analog Electronics 1-95 Feedback Amplifiers Fig. 1.84 32, The circuit given in Fig. 1.85 has the following parameers Ro = 4k Q, Rg = 10k Q, hy, = 1.1 K, fe 50 ad lige = hgg = O. Find Ayg, Ryand Rog Veo Fig. 1.85 33. What is Nyquist criterion for stability of feedback amplifier ?Analog Electronics. 1-96 Feedback Amplifiers Exercise Problems on Feedback Amplifiers 1. Determine Ay, for a feedback amplifier shown in Fig. 1.86 in which transistors used are identical and h,, = 2K, hg = 50, h,, and h,. negligible. Mec 40K 2K —el, Fig, 1.86 {Ans Ay = 19771 2. Calculate By Ay, Aye + Rugs Rag + Rig for the feedback amplifier shown in Fig, 1.87. Given: b= HOOD, h, = 30, b= 253x104, hy = 210% AM. Fig, 1.87 (Ans, : ) B= 0.0099, ii) A, = 1177, iii) A, = 93.04, iv) Ry = 77.8 KV) Ry =~, vi Ry = 2530)Analog Electronics 1-97 Feedback Amplifiers 3. For the feedback amplifier shown in Fig. 1.88, R, = 0. hy = 50h, = 11 Kh, sh. =O and transistors are identical. Calculate A,,, Ry, R Fig. 1.88 (Ans. Ay, = 47.5, i) Ry = 244.9, iii) Ry = 106 K) 4. Determine Avy, Ryy and R'y for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.89. Given: K, hg = 50, hy and h,, negligible Vee Fig. 1.89 (Ans.: i) Ay, = 99, ii) Ry = 294K, iii) Ry, = 374.0)Analog Electronics 1-98 Feedback Amplifiers 5. For the circuit shown in fig. 190 R= 3K Ry = 5000, Ry = 50M R= R= 12K, hy, = 50, hj, = 11K and 1/h,, = 40 K. Caleulate PAL aN /\ ii Ry iii Resistance seen by the source iv} Ay, (Ans. : i) A =~ 525 fi) Ry = 20 iti) Resistance seen by the source = 1.22 K, iv) Ay, = 9.3) 6. The feedback amplifier is shown in Fig. 1.91 The transistors are identical and hy, = 100, i = LOK, b,, and h,, are negligible, reactences of all capacitors are negligible. Calculate : Fig. 1.91 (Ans. : ) Ay, = 30.14 il) Ry = 345.43 IC iii) Ray = oo iv) Ry = 456.2)Analog Electronics 1-99 Feedback Amplifiers 7. For the voltage shunt negative feedback circuit, Ro = 4K, Reg = 40K, Ry = 10K, b= 12 K hy = 50, 1, = 40K. Caleulate, i) Ay, ce Hi) Resistance seen by V,, #2) Ayy. (Ans, :i) A, = -166 ii) Ry, = 2009 iii) Resistance seen by V,, iv) Ay, = - 3.26.) 8. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.92, A = A, = - 1000, B = V,/V, = 1/100, R= R, by #1 KD, hg = 100 and hy. by Find i) \, as a function of V, and \, (Assume that the inverting amplifier input resistance is infinite. ), H) Aye = VIM = AMIN, =1kQ, are negligible. inverting amplifier If Fig. 1.92 (Ans. i) V, = -50 (V, - ay Hi) Ayy = 100.) 9, The two-stage amplifier using JFET is shown in Fig. 1.93 Given : ry = 10 K, gw =30. Ayg, Rig and Ri. Fig. 1.93 (Ans. : i) Ay, = 30.65, ii) Ry = 1MQ iii) Ri, = 498 2)Analog Electronics 1-100 Feedback Amplifiers 10, For the current series feedback amplifier an overall transconductance gain of ~1 mA/V, a voltage gain of —4 (a) desensitivity of 50, R, = 1K, hg = 150, Find Ry Ry, and Ry. (Ans. i) R, = 1K, ii) R, =-4 K, ili) Ry = 150 K) 11. For the two stage amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 1.94, the transistors are identical, hg = 50, thy, = 2 K, hy and hye negligible, re i Aig ® lolly and Aye = VY, (Ans. : Ay = 15.5, B = 04, Aye = 2.15, Ry = 650.2, Rig = 90.27 2, Ay = 21.5) 12, For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.95 hy = 50, hy = 1.1K, h,, and h,, are negligible. Find Aye, Ay, Rip Reg and Roy Fig. 1.95 (Ans: i) Ay, = 9.79, ii) Ay = 235, iii) Ry = 22.6.9, iv) Ry, = v) Rig = 500.9)Analog Electronics Feedback Amplifiers 13. For the two stage amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 1.96. hy = 50h, = 2K bh, and h,, are negligible and transistors are identical. Find v, =f iD Rip vy, wf (Ans. : i} Ay, = 8.69, ii) Ry, = 80.22 lil) Ay, = 86.9, iv) Riy = 10 K} 14, For the voltage shunt feedback amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 1.97. hg =100,h,=1K and h,.,h,, negligible, Ay 2b Hi) Ry Hil) Ay = Calculate: i) Rap =% i) Avy -% fii) Ryy and fo) Rig , A Vee Fig. 1.97 (Ans. : i) Rygy = - 81.98 K ii) Ay, = - 82 iil) Ry = 90.92 iv) Ry = 1.63 K)Analog Electronics 4-102 Feedback Amplifiers 15, For the current shunt feedback amplifier shown in Fig. 1.98, hi, =1K,hy = 100,h,, and h,, negligible. Calculate Ay; , Rip and Ry. Fig. 1.98 (Ans. :i) Ay, = 3414 i) Ry = 33.28 0 iii) Ry = ©) 16. For the CE amplifier shown in Fig. 1.99, Ry = 10 MQ R, = 16 MQ, R, = 8 K, Voc = 20 V and hy, = 100, Calculate Rye Fig. 1.99 (Ans. : Ryy = ~ 733.19 K) 17, For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.100 transistors are identical with hg = 100, by, =2Kh, and hy negligible. Calculate Avy, Rip» Rig. (Ans. : i) Ay 3-229 i) Ry = 23.350 iii) Ry = 483.0)Analog Electronics 1-103 Feedback Amplifiers Fig, 1.100 18. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.101 Caleulate Rup = Vy, Aye = VylVye Ry and Ry. Given: hy = 100, hy, = 1K h,, and b,_ negligible. Fig. 1.101 (Ans. £1) Ry = — 8.031 K fi) Ay = — 8.08 di) Ry = 9015.9 iv) Ry = 8.36 K) o00Oscillators 2.1 Introduction The operation of the feedback amplifiers in which the negative feedback is used, has been discussed carlier. In this chapter, a device which works on the principle of positive feedback is discussed. The device is called an Oscillator. Key Point : An oscillator is a circuit which basically acts as a generator, generating the output signal which oscillates with constant amplitude and constant desired frequency. An oscillator does not require any input signal. An electrical device, alternator generates a sinusoidal voltage at a desired frequency of 50 Hz in our nation but electronic oscillator can generate a voltage of any desired waveform at any frequency. An oscillator can generate the output waveform of high frequency upto gigahertz. In short, an oscillator is an amplifier, which uses a positive feedback and without any external input signal, generates an output waveform at a desired frequency. This chapter explains the various types of oscillator circuits. 2.2 Basic Theory of Oscillators The feedback is a property which allows to feedback the part of the output, to the same circuit as its input. Such a feedback is said to be positive whenever the part of the (>> 0” phase shift Output signal Mo — Feedback signal Input and feedback are in phase with each other Fig. 2.1 Concept of positive feedback 2-1)Analog Electronics 2-2 Oscillators output that is fed back to the amplifier as its input, is in phase with the original input signal applied to the amplifier. Consider a non-inverting amplifier with the voltage gain A as shown in the Fig. 2.1, Assume that a sinusoidal input signal (voltage) V, is applied to the circuit. As amplifier is non-inverting, the output voltage V, is in phase with the input signal V,. The part of the output is fed back to the input with the help of a feedback network. How much part of the output is to be fed back, gets decided by the feedback network gain B. No phase change is introduced by the feedback network. Hence the feedback voltage Vy is in phase with the input signal V,. Key Point: As the phase of the feedback signal is same as that of the input applied, the feedback is called positive feedback. 2.2.1 Expression for Gain with Feedback The amplifier gain is A i.e, it amplifies its input V,, A times to produce output V,. A= |< This is called open loop gain of the amplifier. For the overall circuit, the input is supply voltage V, and net output is V,. The ratio of output V, to input V, considering effect of feedback is called closed leop gain of the circuit or gain with feedback denoted as Ay. The feedback is positive and voltage V; is added to V, to generate input of amplifier V;, So referring Fig. 2.1 we can write, wef) ‘The feedback voltage V; depends on the feedback element gain fb. So we can write, 2) Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), Vi = Vo+BV, V, = Vi-BY, 6 @) Substituting in expression for Ay, ae 1 VBAnalog Electronics 2-3 Oscillators Dividing both numerator and denominator by V;, 4%) TBI) Ag = was A= |< Now consider the various values of fi and the corresponding values of Ay for constant amplifier gain of A = 20. 20 20 20 20 Table 2.1 Conclusions : The above result shows that the gain with feedback increases as the amount of positive feedback increases. In the limiting case, the gain becomes infinite. This indicates that circuit can produce output without external input (V, = 0), just by feeding the part of the output as its own input. Similarly, output cannot be infinite but gets driven into the oscillations. In other words, the circuit stops amplifying and starts oscillating. Key Point : Thus without an input, the output will continue to oscillate whose frequency depends upon the feedback network or the amplifier or both. Such a circuit is called as an oscillator. It must be noted that f the feedback network gain is always a fraction and hence fi < 1. So the feedback network is an attenuation network. To start with the oscillations AB > 1 but the circuit adjusts itself to get AB = 1, when it produces sinusoidal oscillations while working as an oscillator. 2.3 Barkhausen Criterion Consider a basic inverting 180° Phasa shift amplifier with an open loop gain A. The feedback network attenuation factor P is less than unity. As basic amplifier is inverting, it produces a phase shift of 180° between input and output as shown in the Fig. 2.2. Fig. 2.2 Inverting amplifierAnalog Electronics: 2-4 ‘Oscillators Now the input V; applied to the amplifier is to be derived from its output V, using feedback network. But the feedback must be positive i.e. the voltage derived from output using feedback network must be in phase with V;. Thus the feedback network must introduce a phase shift of 180° while feeding back the voltage from output to input. This ensures positive feedback. The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 2.3. 3 180° Phase shift 2 sane, = ° 180" Phase shin == Fig. 2.3 Basic block diagram of oscillator circuit Consider a fictitious voltage V, applied at the input of the amplifier. Hence we get, (1) The feedback factor [i decides the feedback to be given to input, oof) Substituting equation (1) into equation (2) we get, oul) For the oscillator, we want that feedback should drive the amplifier and hence Vy must act as V;. From equation (3) we can write that, Vy is sufficient to act as V, when, eal)Analog Electronics 2-5 Oscillators And the phase of V, is same as V, ie. feedback network should introduce 180° phase shift in addition to 180° phase shift introduced by inverting amplifier. This ensures positive feedback. So total phase shift around a loop is 360°. In this condition, Vy drives the circuit and without external input circuit works as an oscillator. The two conditions discussed above, required to work the circuit as an oscillator are called Barkhausen Criterion for oscillation. The Barkhausen Criterion states that : 1. The total phase shift around a loop, as the signal proceeds from input through amplifier, feedback network back to input again, completing a loop, is precisely 0° or 360°. 2. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier (A) and the magnitude of the feedback factor Bis unity ie. | AB | = 1. Satisfying these conditions, the circuit works as an oscillator producing sustained oscillations of constant frequency and amplitude. In reality, no input signal is needed to start the oscillations. In practice, AB is made greater than 1 to start the oscillations and then circuit adjusts itself to get AB =I, finally resulting into self sustained oscillations. Let us see the effect of the magnitude of the product AP on the nature of the oscillations. 23.4 [ABR] >1 When the total phase shift around a loop is 0° or 360° and | Afi | > 1, then the output oscillates but the oscillations are of growing type. The amplitude of oscillations goes on increasing as shown in the Fig. 2.4. Fig. 2.4 Growing type oscillations 23.2|AB,=1 As stated by Barkhausen criterion, when total phase shift around a loop is 0° or 360° ensuring positive feedback and | AB | = 1 then the oscillations are with constant frequency and amplitude called sustained oscillations.Analog Electronics. 2-6 Such oscillations are shown in the Fig. 2.5. Output Time Fig. 2.5 Sustained oscillations 2.3.3] AB] <1 When total phase shift around a Output loop is 0° or 360° but |A B] <1 then the oscillations are of decaying type ie. such oscillation amplitude decreases exponentially and the oscillations finally cease. Thus cirewit works as an amplifier without oscillations. The decaying oscillations are shown in the Fig. 2.6. So to start the oscillations Fig. 2.6 Exponentially decaying oscillations without input, |AB| is kept higher than unity and then circuit adjusts itself to get | AB | = 1 to result sustained oscillations. 2.3.4 Starting Voltage It is mentioned that no external input is required in case of oscillators. In the earlier analysis also, the input V; is assumed as fictitious input and practically no such input is required. The oscillator output supplies its own input under proper conditions. The obvious question is if no input is required, how oscillator starts 7? And where does the starting voltage come from ? Every resistance has some free electrons, Under the influence of normal room temperature, these free electrons move randomly in various directions. Such a movement of the free electrons generate a voltage called noise voltage, across the resistance. Such noise voltages present across the resistances are amplified. Hence to amplify such small noise voltages and to start the oscillations, | A B | is kept greater than unity at start. Such amplified voltage appears at the output terminals. The part of this output is sufficient to drive the input of amplifier circuit. Then circuit adjusts itself to get | AB | = 1 and with phase shift of 360° we get sustained oscillations.Analog Electronics. 2-7 Oscillators _ 6 ye Example 2.1: In a certain oscillator circuit, the gain of the amplifier is | “ | and 10° [2x103 +jeo]?” for the sustained oscillations. Also find the frequency at which circuit will oscillate. the feedback factor of the feedback network is Verify the Barkhausen Criterion Solution : From the given information we can write, 16x10° _ 108 jo [210° + ja)? To verify the Barkhausen condition means te verify whether | AB | = 1 ata frequency for which 4 Af = 0°. Let us express, AG in its rectangular form. 16x10% «105 16x10? ap = ~Fo[2«107 + feo}? ~~ jeof4x 10" +4% 107 jor (od) . 16x10" a2 = -— ast s-1 jo[ 410° + jadx 10° - a? | ! _. 16x10" © 43108 jot ja? 4x10? jo? =. 16«10° jal 410% —w?]—[w* x 4107] Rationalising the denominator function we get, Ap=- 16109 [-4x105 «wo? ~jax 4x 108 -a?)] { (4105 «0*) + jeo(4 x 10° ~ AK 3B And value of K for minimum hy is 2.7 hence minimum h;, = 44.5. So transistor with hye less than 44.5 cannot be used in phase shift oscillator. But for most of practical circuits, the expression for the frequency is considered as, 2.5.3 Derivation for the Frequency of Oscillations Replacing the transistor by its approximate h-parameter model, we get the equivalent oscillator circuit as shown in the Fig. 2.10. c c Cc R R : Fig. 2.10 Equivalent circuit using h-parametar modei Practically Ry is used such that h,, of transistor alongwith Rj completes the need of R.Analog Electronics 2-13 Oscillatora Note : If the resistances R, and R, are not neglected then the input impedance of the amplifier stage becomes as, Ry = Rill Rollie vo In such a case, the value of R, must be so selected that Similarly we can replace, the current source hy, 1, by its equivalent voltage source. And assume the ratio of the resistance Rc to R be K. The modified equivalent circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.11. Ro =KR c c c Fig. 2.11 Modified equivalent circuit Applying KVL for the various loops in the modified equivalent circuit we get, For Loop 1, u 2° -1, Re-Fae I,-I, Re Iz R-hg Ty Re Replacing Re by KR and jaby s we get, +1, (K+) R+LI-1R = -h, i, KR . @) For Loop 2, ~8e 1) -1pR-1,R+hR+1jR = 0 1 ~hRel,[2R+4]-15R " ° + 4)Analog Electronics 2-14 Oscillators For Loop 3, 1 agg7hR-LR+LR = 0 -1,R+1,/2R+4.] = 0 © 2R+1, a on ‘Using Cramer's Rule to solve for I; 1 (K+) R+3 8 0 D= -R R+e oR 0 -R 2R+ wfiK+ R43] (K+ Re ors LY 2 fare x || sc aC 1)sRC+ 1] _ [sRC (K+ 1)+ 1] [2sCR+ IP _R? (2sCR+1)_R - sc sc sc First term can be written as, [sKRC + sRC +1] [452 C2 R24 45RC 4 1/8 Co W489 KRC+4e RIC+4 CR 449° kK RC +45? ROC + 4sRC+ sKRC+ RCH ~ oo Pre Second and the Third term can be combined to get, ~R? [KsRC + sRC+ 1] -R?(1+2sRC] . sc -[2R? + 3sR° C+ KsR3C} rr Combining the two terms and taking LCM as s°C° we get, Dw 2 RK 4 41+ 8? CR? (AK + B]+ SRCIS+ K}¢ 1127+ 3 8 R°C+Ks R? Cs? C ~ sc s? C3 R3 (3K+1)+s? C? R? [4K+6]+ sRC[5+K]+1 2 OR BR ee sR LR ol sRCT + Ke 6) sc Now 1 (K+ R45 “R hy, 1, KR) D; = -R IR+as 0 sC 0 -R 0Analog Electronics 2-15 Osciliators = ~R the}, KR) = -KR he ly aac) Ds he 2 eee Og s* C3 R® (3K+1]+s? C? R? [4K+ 6]4 sRC [5K+ 1]41 Now 1, = Output current of the feedback circuit 1, = Input current of the amplifier I, = hy }, = Input current of the feedback circuit Output of feedback ci Input to feedback circuit Output of amplifier circuit 1, Input to amplifierdrcuit I, ~ 1 1 AB = ~-2—xh, = aw 9) heh hy Using equation (9) we get, ~ KR? h, 8° C AB fo 8 = OEE ee «-{10} s* C RS [3K+ 1]+5? C? R? [4K + 6]+ sRC [5K+ 1]+1 09) Substituting s = jw, s* =j'a" = - a, s° = j'o* = — jo? in the equation (10) we get, ~jo® KR? Ch, A= ~jo* C® RS [3K+ 1]-o C? R? [K+ 6] + joRC [5+ K]+1 Separating the real and imaginary parts in the denominator we get, -jo? KR? C*h, ‘B= [l- 4K C? R? - 607 C? R?]-jo[3K o R* C?+a* R? C? —5RC -KRC] Dividing numerator and denominator by jo* R? C°, Kh, (1—4Kat C? R?-6or C? R2)]_ [jof3K a" R® C3407 R® C?—5RC—KRC] (Sere ee | AB= Replacing -1/j = j.Analog Electronics 2-16 Oscillators Kh, . 1 4K 6 5 K ifaere Re me-ancf (Ks RC wR at 1 SRE 7 & for simiplicity Replacing Kh, Bey we (11 a6 (3K+1-50? -Ka*]+jla*-4Ka-6a] ) As per the Barkhausen Criterion, < Af = 0°. Now the angle of numerator term kh, of the equation (11) is 0° hence to have angle of the AB term as 0°, the imaginary part of the denominator term must be 0. a>-4Ka-6a = 0 a(o? -4K-6) = 0 2 a? = 4K +6 neglecting zero value a= J4K+é6 1 arc = ViK+6 © 1 C44 K+ 6 Foe eee 12) 2nRCJGK+6 ~Al2) This is the frequency at which ¢ AB = 0°. At the same frequency, | AB | = 1. Substituting o = J@K+6 in the equation (11) we get, AB = qe Khe = Ke 3K+1-(4K+ 6) [5+K] 3K+1-20K—30-4K* -6K = Khy AK? - 23K-29 Now [As] = 1: Kh, ~4K? —23K—29 K hy = 4K? +23K+29 bye = 4K + 234-3 =A) This must be the value of hy, for the oscillations.Analog Electronics 2-47 Oscillators 2.5.4 Minimum Value of h,, for the Oscillations To get minimum value of hy, dhy, = ihe Sg d 29 &; [teva =0 | 2] - 0 z 29 R= = k = 2.6925 far minimum hy ae) Substituting in the equation (13), _ 2 thidnin = 426505) + 234 Key Point : Thus for the circuit to oscillate, we must select the transistor whose (ge) min should be greater than 44.54. By changing the values of R and C, the frequency of the oscillator can be changed. But the values of R and C of all three sections must be changed simultaneously to satisfy the oscillating conditions. But this is practically impossible. Hence the phase shift oscillator is considered as a fixed frequency oscillator, for all practical purposes. wm Example 2.2: Find the capacitor C and ly, for the transistor to provide a resonating frequney of 10 kHz of @ transistorised phase shift oscillator. Assume R, = 25 kQ, R,=57kQ, Re = 20kD, R= 7.1 kM and hy, = 1.8 kD Solution : Referring to equation (1), Ri = Ry Rell ye = 25 KM STR ISKA Bw ” tats . Ri = 1631kQ Now R{+R, = RK R, = R-Rj = 71-1631 = 547 kQAnalog Electronics 2-18 Oscillators 20 k R 71* 2816 1 N fe ——t__ ow 2RRCV6+ dk 1 1Oxl* = nx? 1x10" Cx [6+4x2, B16 C = 539.45 pF hye 2 4k +2342 Refer equation (13) he 2 $x2.816423+ 550 ne hye 2 44.562 2.5.5 Advantages ‘The advantages of RC phase shift oscillator are, 1. The circuit is simple to design. 2. Can produce output over audio frequency range. 3, Produces sinusoidal output waveform. 4. It is a fixed frequency oscillator. 2.5.6 Disadvantages By changing the values of R and C, the frequency of the oscillator can be changed. But the values of R and C of all three sections must be changed simultaneously to satisfy the oscillating conditions. But this is practically impossible. Hence the phase shift oscillator is considered as a fixed frequency oscillator, for all practical purposes. And the frequency stability is poor due to the changes in the values of various components, due to effect of temperature, aging etc. imp Example 2.3: In a RC phase shift oscillator, the phase shift network uses the resistances each of 4.7 kQ and the capacitors each of 0.47 uF. Find the frequency of oscillations. Solution : The given values are, R=4.7kQ and C=047 pF 1 1 f * SeERG” TeléxdPodo™ xo dal = 29.413 Hz a> Example 2.4: Estimate the values of R and C for an output frequency of 1 kHz in a RC phase shift oscillator. Solution : f = 1 kHz I Ni f = ———_ ow 2nV6RCAnalog Electronics 2-19 Oscillators Choose C = 01pF 1 1x103 = -—~——_--____ * in JeRx0.1x10* ve R = 649.747 2 Choose R = 6809 © standard value 2.5.7 Phase Shift Oscillator using Op-amp The phase shift oscillator circuit can be realised by using operational amplifier instead of transistorised amplifier. The operational amplifier is available in integrated circuit version (IC). It provides a stabilised gain setting. The feedback circuit used is same as used in the transistorised phase shift oscillator. The op-amp is used in inverting mode to provide 180° phase shift. The output of op-amp is fed to three section Re network which provides the needed 180° phase shift. The gain of the op-amp is adjusted with the help of the resistances Ry and R;, shown in the Fig. 2.12. The gain is so adjusted that the product of gain of op-amp (A) and the feedback network gain (f) is slightly greater than one, to get the required oscillations. The basic circuit of the phase shift oscillator using op-amp, is shown in the Fig. 2.12. Vo Op-amp used as an ' phase shift Feedback network J ——-. c c c ve Feedback voltage Fig. 2.12 Phase shift oscillator using op-amp Let us find the transfer function of the RC feedback network. Fig. 2.43Analog Electronics 2-20 Applying KVL to various loops we get, Oscillators [Rego )-BR =v, 5) 1 “HR h(aRe Fe) bR =0 wn (16) L 0-ER+b(>Rr Fe] = (17) Replacing jm by s and writing the equations in the matrix form, 1 Rte mo 0 y v, “Ro Rt e b = ° ves (18) _ AV 0 Ro R+e Using the Cramer's rule to obtain Iz, 14+sRC LR Q p-| -p 1tare -R 1+2sRC 0 -R = _. (+sRC)(1+2sRC)?_R* (1+ 2sRC)_ R71 +sRC) a 3oe sc. sc _ (+sRC) (14 4sRC+ 45? C? R?)-R? 5? C? [14 2sRC+ 14 sRC] - sc? 1+5sRC + 8s? C* R? +48°C* R¥-3s R°C* -2R*s7C? BSCE 1+5sRC + 6s? C? “ct RF = = —ee 5 S (8) 1+sRC e sane ‘ Is D, =| -R = 0 -R 0 = VR +. (20) 1 - Dae v R's C 3° D” 145sRC +657 CR 45°C R® 263 C3 Now Vo = W=R Vike e es (21) * THESRC +68 COR 48°C R®Analog Electronics 2-21 Oscillators Vv, R's? C8 B= ve -. (2) | 145sCRe 6s CR +55 OR Replacing s by jw, s* by - 0", s° by - ja? RC? 1+5joCR -608C? R?-jw'C? R? Dividing numerator and denominator by ~jw°R'C* and replacing — by o we get, p= 1 1+6j0-507 + (23) To have phase shift of 180°, the imaginary part in the denominator must be zero. a(6-a2) = 0 a? = 6 neglecting zero value ws (24) This is the frequency with which circuit oscillates. At this frequency, 1 B = a 1-3x(J6) Negative sign indicates phase shift of 180° -. (25) Now to have the oscillations, |AB| 21Analog Electronics 2-22 Oscillators IAL IB] > 1 1 [BI JA] = -+ (26) Key Point : For te oscillations to occur, the gain of the op-amp must be equal to or greater than 29, which can be adjusted using the resistances Ry and Rj. 2.5.8 FET Phase Shift Oscillator The practical circuit of FET phase shift oscillator is shown in the Fig. 2.14. Forward path Fig. 2.14 FET phase shift oscillator For the amplifier stage FET is used. It is self biased with a capacitor bypassed source resistance Rg and a drain bias resistance Rp. The important parameters of FET are g,, and rq: From FET amplifier theory we can write, IAL = Sm Rt ++ 7)Analog Electronics 2-23 Oscillators Where Ry, is the parallel equivalent of Rp and ry. Rp ta Rr, + (28) Key Point : The input impedance of the FET amplifier stage can be conveniently assumed as infinite, as long as the operating frequency is low enough to neglect the capacitive impedances. ‘The feedback network is again three stage Rc network having gain, 1 Il = 35 [A] 2.29 +o (29) Hence the condition on gain of the amplifier is same as in case of op-amp, the frequency of the oscillator is given by, ++ BO) wm Example 2.5: A phase shift oscillator is to be designed with FET having g,= 5000 1S, 1g = 4kQ while the resistance in the feedback circuit is 9.7 kQ. Select the proper value of C and Rr to have the frequency of oscillations as 5 kHz. Solution : Using the expression for the frequency 1 2nRCVE 1 5x10 —_ 27x 9.7x109 xCxf6 it Cc = 134nF Now using the equation (27), IAL = &mRi JA| 2 29 Sm Rp 2 29 29 29 2 258ka Sm —5000x10Analog Electronics 2-24 Oscillators With value of Ry = 6.8 kx, . Rots R= Rp +tq . 6.8109 = Ro 40x 10% Rp +40 x10° os Rp+40x10° = 5.8823 Rp 4.8823 Rp = 40x10° “ Rp = 812k2 While for minimum value of | Ry = 58kQ Rp = 6.79kQ 2.6 Wien Bridge Oscillator Generally in an oscillator, amplifier stage introduces 180° phase shift and feedback network introduces additional 180° phase shift, to obtain a phase shift of 360° (2x radians) around a loop. This is required condition for any oscillator. But Wien bridge oscillator uses a noninverting amplifier and hence does not provide any phase shift during amplifier stage. As total phase shift required is 0° or 2 nm radians, in Wien bridge type no phase shift is necessary through feedback. Thus the total phase shift around a loop is 0°. Let us study the basic version of the Wien bridge oscillator and its analysis. A basic Wien bridge used in this oscillator and an amplifier stage is shown in the Fig. 2.15. The output of the amplifier is applied between the terminals 1 and 3, which is the input to the feedback network. While the amplifier input is supplied from the Fig. 2.15 Basic circuit of Wien bridge oscillator diagonal terminals 2 and 4, which is the output from the feedback network. Thus amplifier supplied its own input through the Wien bridge as a feedback network.Analog Electronics 2-25 Oscillators Fig. 2.16 Feedback network of Wien bridge oscillator The two arms of the bridge, namely Ry C, in series and R,, C, in parallel are called frequency sensitive arms, This is because the components of these two arms decide the frequency of the oscillator. Let us find out the gain of the feedback network. As seen earlier input Vj, to the feedback network is between is 1 and 3 while output V; of the feedback network is between 2 and 4. This is shown in the Fig. 2.16. Such a feedback network is called lead-lag network. This is because at very low frequencies it acts like a lead while at very high frequencies it acts like lag network. 2.6.1 Derivation for Frequency of Oscillations Now from the Fig. 2.16, as shown, % = Rit yay . 1 2 = Rall jac __® ~ T#joR, Cy Replacing jo = s, 14sR, G % BC; R, and 4 * TRS = _*n T= a7 and Vy = 1Zy 1 _ 1+jaR,C, jag, (1)Analog Electronics 2-26 Oscillators Fig. 2.17 Simplified circuit Vin Za vel) Substituting the values of Z, and Zp, R, 1+5R,C, R, |r| = sc, Ry ~ (sR, C\(+sR, C,}+sC, R, = SG, Ry 14s(R, C, +R, C,}+s? RB, R, C, C, +8C, Ry sC, Ry 148(R, C, +R, C) +C,R, )+s? RR,C,C, Replacing s by jo, 8,=-¢ p= joc, C-@ RR, C+], C, +R, C,+C.R) Rationalising the expression, joC,R, [(1-aP R,R,C,Cz)-ja(R,C, +R,C, +,Ra)] (1-@R,R,C,C, )* +07(R,C, +R C2 +C,Ry + @ B= _ @ C, R, (R,C, +R,C, +C,R, )+ joC, R, (I-@ RyR,C,C, ) , (I-@ R,RC,C,)" +0" (RC, +R,C; +CRy)* . AAnalog Electronics 2-27 Oscillators To have zero phase shift of the feedback network, its imaginary part must be zero. 2 @(1- oF RRC\C) = 0 1 ., dé = HERGC, Meslecting zero value. This is the frequency of the oscillator and it shows that the components of the frequency sensitive arms are the deciding factors, for the frequency. In practice, Ry = Ry = R and C, = C, = C are selected. r-—L 2nf R? C? 1 {> ERC “O) At Ry = R, = Rand C, = C, =C, the gain of the feedback network becomes, « RCGRC)+jaRC (1-@°R*C") © (nar? 2) +0? BRO? " 1. 1 Substituting f= aecie O= Re: ‘we get the magnitude of the feedback network at the resonating frequency of the oscillator as, p= —,+__ - 0+ _ —7* GRC) elu The positive sign of B indicates that the phase shift by the feedback network is 0°. Now to satisfy the Barkhausen criterion for the sustained oscillations, we can write, [aa] 24 w= 2Analog Electronics Oscillators This is the required gain of the amplifier stage, without any phase shift. If R, # Ry and Cy # Cy then Substituting in the equation (4) we get, B= CR, “RG FRC, +GR) JAB] 21 ae PG R2Cy +CiRy + (8) Key Point : Another important advantage of the Wien bridge oscillator is that by varying the two capacitor values simultaneously, by mounting them on the common. shaft, different frequency ranges can be provided. Let us see the transistorised version of the Wien bridge oscillator. 2.6.2 Transistorised Wien Bridge Oscillator In this circuit, two stage common emitter transistor amplifier is used. Each stage contributes 180° phase shift hence the total phase shift due to the amplifier stage becomes 360° i.e. 0° which is necessary as per the oscillator conditions. The practical, transistorised Wien bridge oscillator circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.18. EGREEEEEE Forward path includes two stages tee (.) * Stage 2 Fig. 2.18 Transistorised Wien bridge oscillatorAnalog Electronics 2-29 Oscillators The bridge consists of R and C in series, R and C in parallel, R, and Ry. The feedback is applied from the collector of Q, through the coupling capacitor, to the bridge circuit. The resistance R, serves the dual purpose of emitter resistance of the transistor Q, and also the element of the Wien bridge. The two stage amplifier provides a gain much more than 3 and it is necessary to reduce it. To reduce the gain, the negative feedback is used without bypassing the resistance R,. The negative feedback can accomplish the gain stability and can control the output magnitude. The negative feedback also reduces the distortion and therefore output obtained is a pure sinusoidal in nature. The amplitude stability can be improved using a nonlinear resistor for R,. Due to this, the loop gain depends on the amplitude of the oscillations. Increase in the amplitude of the oscillations, increases the current through nonlinear resistance, which results into an increase in the value of nonlinear resistance Ry. When this value increases, a greater amount of negative feedback is applied. This reduces the loop gain. And hence signal amplitude gets reduced and controlled. 2.6.3 Wien Bridge Oscillator using Op-amp If the amplifier circuit using transistors is replaced by the amplifier circuit using op-amp, with basic feedback network remains as the Wien bridge circuit, the oscillator is called Wien bridge oscillator using op-amp. The Fig. 2.19 shows the Wien bridge circuit using op-amp. SEE Feedback path i Forward path Fig. 2.19 Wien bridge oscillator using cp-amp The resistance R and capacitor C are the components of frequency sensitive arms of the bridge. The resistance R; and Ry form the part of the feedback path. The op-amp output is connected to bridge input points a and c while bridge output points b and d are connected {o the op-amp input. The gain of the op-amp can be adjusted by using the resistances R; and Ry. The gain of the op-amp is given by,Analog Electronics 2-30 Oscillators ++ (9) According to the oscillating conditions, A 23. Rs 1+ R 23 ~- (10) Thus the ratio of Rj and Ry greater than or equal to two, will provide sufficient loop gain for the circuit to oscillate at the frequency calculated as, Key Point ; The op-amp is used in the non-inverting amplifier configuration to ensure the zero phase shift. mum Example 2.6 : Determine whether the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.20, will work as an oscillator er not. If yes, determine the frequency of the escillator. Ra Vo R #510 Cc =0.001pF Ry =6kQ Ry=2kQ Fig. 2.20 Solution : The circuit is Wien bridge oscillator using op-amp. The gain of the op-amp is = Rs 1,8 A=l+ Ro l+5-4 So A> 3Analog Electronics 2-34 Oscillators This satisfies the required oscillating condition. The feedback is given to non-inverting terminal ensuring the zero phase shift. Hence the circuit will work as the oscillator. 1 1 f= po = 2nRC ~ 2nx5.1x10°x0.001x10% 31.2068 kHz This will be the frequency of oscillations. 2.6.4 Wien Bridge Oscillator using FET As a single stage FET amplifier gives a phase shift of 180° and it is required to have 360° phase shift from amplifier stage, the two stages of FET amplifier is the feature of the Wien bridge oscillator using FET. The basic feedback network of Wien bridge remains same. Hence the condition of the oscillations, remains same. The practical circuit of Wien bridge oscillator using two stage FET amplifier is shown in the Fig. 2.21. EEE Forward path [Includes two stages} Fig. 2.21 FET Wien bridge oscillator The RC series and parallel combination forms the frequency sensitive arms of the Wien bridge. The resistances R; and R, form the part of the feedback path. The unbypassed source resistance Ry provides the negative feedback required for gain stabilization. The amplifier gain is the product of the gains of the two stages. The operation of the circuit is similar to the Wien bridge oscillator circuit with op-amp. Key Point: All the conditions derived earlier for the oscillating conditions are equally applicable to this circuit.Analog Electronics. 2-32 Oscillators mp Example 2.7: The frequency sensitive arms of the Wien bridge oscillator uses Cy =C,= 0.001 WF and Ry = 10k while Ry is kept variable, The frequency is to be varied from 10 kHz to 50 kHz, by varying Ry. Find the minimum and maximum values of Ry. Solution : The frequency of the oscillator is given by, 1 f= —1__ Ing RRC, For f = 10 kHz, 10x10? = ————___ 2x y(10x108 xR, x(0.001x10-°)? * Ry = 2533k2 For f = 50 kHz 50x10 = 1 2ny (10107 * Ry x(0.001x10)? L R, = 1013k0 So minimum value of R, is 1.013 kQ while the maximum value of R, is 25.33 kQ. 2.7 Comparison of RC Phase Shift and Wien Bridge Oscillators The similarities and the differences between the two oscillators are given in the Table 2.2. | | RC Phase Shift Oscillator Wien Bridge Oscillator It is a phase shift oscillator used for low | It is also @ phase shift oscillator used for low frequency range. frequency range. The feedback network is RC network with | The feedback network is lead-lag network which three RC sections. is called Wien bridge circuit. The feedback network introduces 180°] The feedback network does not introduce any phase shift. phase shitt Amplifier circuit introduces 160° phase shift. | Amplifier circuit does not introduce any phase shift ‘The frequency of oscillations is, 1 eRe The amplifier gain condition is, JA} 23 Mounting the two capacitors on common shaft and varying thelr values, frequency can be varied. ‘Tha frequency of oscillations is, 1 t= 2eRCSe ‘The amplifier gain candition is, IAL 2 29 The frequency variation is difficult. Table 2.2Analog Electronics 2-33 Oscillators. 2.8 Tuned Oscillator Circuits The oscillators which use the elements L and C to produce the oscillations are called LC oscillator or tuned oscillators. The circuit using elements L and C is called tank circuit or oscillatory circuit, which is an important part of LC oscillators. This circuit is also referred as resonating circuit, or tuned circuit. These oscillators are used for high frequency range from 200 kHz upto few GHz. Due to high frequency range, these oscillators are often used for sources of RF (radio frequency) energy. Let us study the basic action of LC tank circuit first. 2.8.1 Operation of LC Tank Circuit The LC tank circuit consists of elements L and C connected in parallel as shown in the Fig. 2.22. Charging ‘Let capacitor is initially a charged from a dc. source c L pct ttle with the polarities as shown Source, === in the Fig. 2.23. ~ When the capacitor gets Fig. 2.22 LC tank circuit Fig. 2.23 Initial charging charged, the energy gets stored in a capacitor called electrostatic energy. When such a charged capacitor is connected across inductor L in a tank circuit, the capacitor starts discharging through L, as shown in the Fig. 2.24. The arrow indicates direction of flow of conventional current. Due to such current flow, the magnetic field gets set up around the inductor L. Thus inductor starts storing the energy. When capacitor is fully discharged, maximum current flows through the circuit. At this instant all the electrostatic energy get stored as a magnetic energy in the inductor L. This is shown in the Fig. 2.25. Capacitor Magnetic field starts a discharging around L c L Fig. 2.24 Fig. 2.25 Now the magnetic field around L starts collapsing. As per Lenz's law, this starts charging the capacitor with opposite polarity making lower plate positive and upper plate negative, as shown in the Fig. 2.26.Analog Electronics 2-34 Oscillators After some time, capacitor gets fully charged with opposite poleritics, as compared to its initial polarities. This is shown in the Fig. 2.27. The entire magnetic energy gets converted back to electrostatic energy in capacitor. C gets ‘oppositaly charged Fig. 2.26 Fig. 2.27 Now capacitor again starts discharging through inductor L. But the direction of current through circuit is now opposite to the direction of current earlier in the circuit. This is shown in the Fig. 2.28. Again electrostatic energy is converted to magnetic energy. When capacitor is fully discharged, the magnetic field starts collapsing, charging the Fig. 2.28 capacitor again in opposite direction. Key Point: Thus capacitor charges with alternate polarities and discharges producing alternating current in the tank circuit. Capacitor starts discharging This is nothing but oscillatory current. But every time when energy is transferred from C to L and L to C, the losses occur due to which amplitude of oscillating current keeps on decreasing everytime when energy transfer takes place. Hence actually we get exponentially decaying oscillations called damped oscillations. These are shown in the Fig. 2.29. Such oscillations stop after sometime. Current thax f= TimeAnalog Electronics 2-35 Oscillators Key Point : In LC oscillator, the transistor amplifier supplies this loss of energy at the proper times. The care of proper polarity is taken by the feedback network. Thus LC tank circuit alongwith transistor amplifier can be used to obtain oscillators called LC oscillators. Due to supply of energy which is lost, the oscillations get maintained hence called sustained oscillations or undamped oscillations. The frequency of oscillations generated by LC tank circuit depends on the values L and C and is given by, where L is in henries and C is in farads. 2.8.2 Basic Form of LC Oscillator Circuit As stated earlier, LC tuned circuit forms the feedback network while an op-amp, FET or bipolar junction transistor can be active device in the amplifier stage. The Fig. 2.30 (a) shows the basic form of LC oscillator circuit with gain of the amplifier as A,. The amplifier output feeds the network consisting of impedances Z,, Z, and Z;. Assume an active device with infinite input impedance such as FET or op-amp. Then the basic circuit can be replaced by its linear equivalent circuit as shown in the Fig. 2.30 (b). Amplifier stage Fig. 2.30 (a) Basic form of LC oscillatorsAnalog Electronics 2-36 Oscillators Fig. 2.30 (b) Equivalent circuit Amplifier provides a phase shift of 180°, while the feedback network provides an additional phase shift of 180°, to satisfy the required condition. i) Analysis of the amplifier stage As input impedance of the amplifier is infinite, there is no current flowing towards the input terminals. Let R, be the output impedance of the amplifier stage. As I = 0, Z;, Z; appears in series and the combination in parallel with Z,. The equivalent be Z, ie. load impedance. So circuit can be reduced, as shown in the Fig. 2.31. = ~AvY Us eZ, A) While Vy = 12, «@ — rAvM 2. Vo = “RS Fz ¥, Zz Vi R, +2, + @) where A is the gain of the amplifier stage. ii) Analysis of the feedback stage For the feedback factor (®) calculation, consider only the feedback circuit as shown in the Fig. 232.Analog Electronics 2-37 Oscillators From the voltage division in parallel circuit, we can write, Zy Vy = Vo [zs ) ae Zi ay B= 747, - & But as the phase shift of the feedback network is 180°, 6) Obtain an expression for - AB as basic Barkhausen condition is — AB = 1. Refer equation (4) of the (section 2.3). ‘This is the required loop gain. Now Z, can be written as (Z,+Z3)]Z; ie. z, = BGsta 0 [BSB a, 29 Dividing numerator and denominator by a _ -Ay Z, 2, See a2, |e, +25) ~Ay Z,Z, .o “RoW, +2, 42; +2, 2, +25) ‘As Z, Z, and Zy are the pure reactive elements, Z, = iM, Z,= 7X and Zy = XG where X = wL for an inductive reactance -1 and X= oe for a capacitive reactance.Analog Electronics 2-38 Oscillators _aB = ~Ay GX1)GX;) BR, OX, #8, +IXy) 4X OX FIR) .- (10) To have 180° phase shift, the imaginary part of the denominator must be zero. XXX = 0 QD) Substituting in the equation (10), aR — ave %2 4B = TER) But from the equation (11), X; + X3 = — Xq -ap = Avs Aye + ay[Z] --Al2) According to the Barkhausen criterion, - AB must be positive and must be greater than or equal to unity. As Ay is positive, the — AB will be positive only when X; and X, will have same sign. This indicates that X, and X, must be of same type of reactances either both inductive or capacitive. While from the equation (11), we can say that X;=—(X, + X3) must be inductive if X, X_ are capacitive while X, must be capacitive if X,, Xj are inductive. Table 2.3 shows the various types of the LC oscillators depending on the design of the reactances Xj, Xz and X,. Oscillator type Reactance elements in the tank circuit % [|__| mgeme [ot] [coon omer |e | Table 2.3 2.9 Hartley Oscillator As seen earlier, a LC oscillator which uses two inductive reactances and one capacitive reactance in its feedback network is called Hartley Oscillator. 2.9.1 Transistorised Hartley Oscillator The amplifier stage uses an active device as a transistor in common emitter configuration. The practical circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.33.Analog Electronics 2-39 ‘Oscillators Amplifier produces ===> 180° phase shift Veo Tank circuit adds further 180° phase shift Fig. 2.33 Transistorised Hartley oscillator The resistances R, and Ry are the biasing resistances. The RFC is the radio frequency choke. Its reactance value is very high for high frequencies, hence it can be treated as open circuit. While for d.c. conditions, the reactance is zero hence causes no problem for d.c. capacitors. Hence due to RFC, the isolation between a.c. and d.c. operation is achieved. Rg is also a biasing circuit resistance and Cy is the emitter bypass capacitor. Co, and Co are the coupling capacitor. The common emitter amplifier provides a phase shift of 180°. As emitter is grounded, the base and the collector voltages are out of phase by 180°. As the centre of L, and L, is grounded, when upper end becomes positive, the lower becomes negative and viceversa. So the LC feedback network gives an additional phase shift of 180°, necessary to satisfy oscillation conditions. 2.9.2 Derivation of Frequency of Oscillations The output current which is the collector current is hygh, where J, is the base current. Assuming coupling condensers are short, the capacitor C is between base and collector. e Input to The inductance Ly is Input to feotback ° the amplifier between base and emitter — — while the inductance L, Ply Te is between collector and emitter. The equivalent circuit of the feedback network is shown in the = Fig. 2.34. Fig. 2.34 Equivalent circuitAnalog Electronics 2-40 Oscillators As hj, is the input impedance of the transistor. The output of the feedback is the current k, which is the input current of the transistor. While input to the feedback network is the output of the transistor which is J, = hyl,, converting current source into voltage source we get, e ~ (I) Now L, and hy, are in parallel, so the total current I drawn from the supply is, -V, DS cance oo TR +X + 1X Bgl @ Key Point : Negative sign, as current direction shown in opposite ta the polarities of Vo. Now Xi2+ Xe = jal, a ~ _i@L, hi, and Xue = Gorcr) Substituting in the equation (2) we get, abel, j@l, I= [iets + ! ~@) Replacing jaby s, -sh lL, i sLhy bttic]* acai -sh,1,L, (l+s?L C] sLh, sc GL, +h.)Analog Electronics 2-41 Oscillators. . ~shgl,L3(sC)(sL, +h.) {l+s*L, C]{sL, +h] +6C) (sL,h,) -shgl,L,C(sL, +h,) sL,L,C+sL, +h), +87L, Ch, +8°L,Chy, -s?h,I,L,C(sL, +h,.) 3L,L,C+4s7C h, (L, +L, )+sL, +h, According to current division in parallel circuit, I, = Ix = xj ~ Gol, +h,) (4) Substituting value of I from equation (3) in equation (4), -s*hgl,LyC(sk, thy) sL, = — x » * (@CL,0) #s°C h, (1, +L, )+sL,+h,] GL, +h) -s*h,I,CL,L, s3(L,L,C)+s7Ch(L, +L )+sLyhy. -sh,CL,L, = a - 8 8? (LyL,C)+s*Ch (Ly +L, )+sL, +h, ® Substituting s = ja,s* = - 0”, s° = - ja? we get _ jo'h,CL,L, =jo°L,L,C-o Ch, (L, +L, )+joL, +h, joth, CLL, = (6) (h,,-@Ch,.(L, +L, )]+jaL, (1-@L,C) Rationalising the R.H.S of the above equation, _ Ja*h CLL thy, -oFCh,,(L, +L, )- jal, (I-w* LO) th, -@°Ch, (Ly +L, })? #0" Li (1-o LCP ot Rg Li Ly CU? Ly © + jo*hygl LaC fhe -@* CH igl La +12) fh, -@Ch,(L, +L2)}? +or Li (1-or L} LQ? “AAnalog Electronics 2-42 Oscillators To satisfy this equation, imaginary part of R. H. S. must be zero. 1 8 hye LLC Tye ~ ney + LI 4 a hy hylyLgC [1-07 C (L, +L) = 0 1-0 C(Ly+L,) = 0 20 1 °° G+) ~ 8) This is the frequency of the oscillations. At this frequency, the restriction of the value of hy, can be obtained, by equating the magnitudes of the both sides of the equation (7). _ ofh, GL, CO-w LC) tox 1 * “Sed L,c; °” Jeet) te helt te d-w LQ VC. +03) hye Ly = Peeks ~ ye bat UG CiL, +13) This is the value of hy, required to satisfy the oscillating conditions. For a mutual inductance of M, ws (9B) Now L, + L, is the equivalent inductance of the two inductances L, and L,, cofmected in series denoted as a)Analog Electronics 2-43 ‘Oscillators Hence the frequency of oscillations is given by, vee (11) So if the capacitor C is kept variable, frequency can be varied over a large range as per the requirement. In practice, L; and L; may be wound on a single core so that there exists a mutual inductance between them denoted as M. In such a case, the mutual inductance is considered while determining the equivalent inductance Lyq- Hence, If Ly and Ly are assisting each other then sign of 2M is positive while if Ly and L, are in series opposition then sign of 2M is negative. The expression for the frequency of the oscillations remain same as given by (11). A practical circuit where the mutual inductance exists between L, and Ly of transistorised Hartley oscillator is shown in the Fig. 2.36. Tank circuit Fig. 2.36 Another form of transistorised Hartley oscillator ma} Example 2.8; In a transistorised Hartley oscillator the two inductances are 2 mH and 20uHT while the frequency is to be changed from 950 kHz to 2050 kHz. Calculate the range over which the capacitor is to be varied. + Solution : The frequency is given by, 1 Anca)

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