ELSEVIER

Electric Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109-118

umec
POLLER
8WSTIIffl8
RR[ CI, I

Overview of the transmission line design process

Robert D. Castro
Transmission Systems Engineering and Research Design and Construction Division, Los Angeles Department o[" Water and Power,
111 North Hope Street, Los Angeles, CA 90012-2694, USA
Received 27 March 1995

Abstract
An overview is presented for the design of overhead high-voltage transmission lines. Since most lines constructed by Los
Angeles Department of Water and Power in recent years have been extra-high-voltage AC, this paper emphasizes the design of
500 kV AC transmission lines built in the southwest United States. Empirically developed practices are presented throughout the
paper.
Keywords: Transmission lines

1. Introduction

3. Conductors

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power

(LADWP) has transmission lines dating from 1915
until the present, and new lines are almost always being
planned. For the AC transmission lines, the voltages
range from 115 to 500 kV with the number of circuits
ranging from one to six per tower.
The design process used by L A D W P in constructing
high-voltage AC transmission lines is presented in this
paper. The design process begins with the required
engineering data, then continues with sections on conductor selection, wind and ice loading, maximum tension determination, transmission towers, insulators,
ruling span determination, spotting towers, magnetic
field effects and environmental criteria.

3.1. Conductor selection

2. Engineering data
The engineering data are obtained from the Transmission Design, Transmission Planning, Resource Planning and Environmental and Governmental Affairs
sections of LADWP. Typical design data are outlined
below:
transmission voltage,
levelized current value,
amortized life (typically 4 0 - 5 0 years),
location of transmission line corridor,
environmental constraints.
0378-7796/95/$09.50 1995 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved
S S D I 0378-7796(95)00996-U

Historically, L A D W P has used standard round-rod

steel reinforced aluminum conductor (ACSR). The reason for ACSR's popularity is its low relative cost and
its high weight-to-strength ratio as compared with other
conductor material. In addition, ACSR is commercially
available in wide ranges of mechanical strength and
electric current capacity ratings.
The most economical conductor size is determined
using Kelvin's law, which states: "The most economical
area of a conductor is that for which the annual cost of
the energy losses is equal to the interest on that portion
of the capital outlay which may be considered as proportional to the weight of the conductor".
The most efficient conductor size is achieved by a
balance between costs from I2R losses, which decrease
as conductor size increases, and installed costs. This is
demonstrated graphically in Fig. 1.
Typically, conductor selection for a new high-voltage
transmission line would be as follows.
(a) A number of different candidate conductors (or
candidate conductor bundles) are selected based on
minimum operational requirements. Minimum operational requirements include thermal capacity (i.e. capacity to carry the maximum anticipated line current for
specified time periods and ambient conditions) and
maximum allowable voltage gradient effects (i.e.

R.D. Castro /Electric Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109 118

ll0

~Total Cost
\

TypicalConduclorSeparationof 18 Inches

.
x., ...
',

'..Opumal Point

ClampCasling*

~
I~

........... ---"

Costs

Boll HeadBreak=

AwayAlterAssembly

'

//

~ _ . ~

Fig. 3. Two-conductorbundle separated by a spacer.

R Losses

"

Costs

]
Conductor Size

.........
I
q

Fig. 1. Determination of the most efficientconductor size.

corona, radio interference, television interference and
audible noise limitations). Conductor temperaturesag-tension characteristics may also be considered.
(b) For each candidate conductor (or conductor bundle) estimates are made of the line construction (installation) cost and the present worth of the I2R losses over
the projected life of the line. These costs are added to
obtain the total estimated cost associated with the
installation and use of each candidate conductor. The
candidate conductor with the lowest total estimated
cost is the selected conductor.

3.2. Conductor configuration

To transmit the large amounts of power required by
modern power systems, two or more single conductors
are bundled to form each phase (or pole) of an AC (or
DC) transmission line (Fig. 2). The bundling of conductors increases the effective radius of the phase conductors. This reduces line reactance, corona losses, radio

interference, television interference and audible noise.

The disadvantages of bundled conductors include increases in complexity, cost, wind and ice loading and
tower requirements. The individual conductors in a
conductor bundle are sometimes referred to as 'subconductors'.
A 10:1, or near 10:1, ratio of subconductor diameter
to subconductor spacing in a conductor bundle is to be
avoided if at all practical to do so. This is because a
10:1 ratio tends to promote wind induced (aeolian)
subspan vibration which can damage the subconductors. LADWP's present design for a two-conductor
bundle is an 18 in. (45.72cm) horizontal separation
between conductors (Fig. 3). Future designs may consider a horizontal separation of up to 25 in. (63.50 cm)
to eliminate any problems due to aeolian vibration.
LADWP's present design for a three-conductor bundle
is a 25 in. horizontal separation with a third conductor
beneath, 18 in. from each conductor.

3.3. Ground-wire configuration

A ground wire is used to prevent the flashover of a
conductor to ground during lightning storms. It is
usually made from extra-high-strength stranded steel
1
cable, with a diameter of ~ or 5in.
(1.11 or 1.27 cm).
L A D W P uses two ground wires. The ground wires
should be located above the conductors in such a way
that a line through a ground wire and the outside
conductor on the same side of the tower makes an
angle with the vertical not exceeding 15 .
Ground wires should be segmented about every two
miles and grounded to the tower every mile after the
segmentation. Studies performed indicate that this will
lower power losses due to induced voltage on the
ground wire.

4. Wind and ice loading

Fig. 2. Illustration of a two-conductor bundle. (Provided by Stanley

G. Flagg Co., Stowe, PA.)

A wind and ice loading estimate is necessary to

determine at what conditions the loaded design tension
will occur. For California, General Order 95 (G.O. 95),
Rule 43 on temperature and loading applies. For the
rest of the US the National Electrical Safety Code
(NESC) Section 23 on clearances applies, as well as any

R.D. Castro/Electric Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109 118

111

towers. Historically, LADWP towers used fbr AC lines

are of the lattice steel self-supporting type. Other utilities sometimes use guyed towers which have a lower
weight than the self-supporting type, and this weight
can be further reduced by the use of aluminum instead
of steel.

6.1. Tower configuration

Fig. 4. General loading m a p of the continental United States for

loading o f overhead lines.

regulations imposed by the state. A general loading

map for overhead lines is illustrated in Fig. 4.
As an example, assume a transmission line is to be
built in Mono County, CA. Appendix A of G.O. 95
shows this to be a heavy loading area, so Rule 43.1 on
heavy loading must be followed. This gives a wind
loading of 6 lbf/ft 2 (28.1 N/m 2) in conjunction with ice
of radial thickness in. (1.27 cm) at 0 F ( - 17.8 C).
NESC provides similar loading estimates.

5. Maximum tension determination

Based on the conductor type selected, the maximum

(loaded) design tension is determined. The loaded design
tension (i.e. the tension of the conductor with wind and
ice loading) is typically specified to be 33%-35% of the
ultimate strength under loaded conditions. Unloaded
conductor sagged-in tension (60 F (15.5 C), no wind,
no ice) is typically 20%-22% of the ultimate strength.
For example, assume the conductor selected was a
2312 kcmiP ACSR 'Thrasher'. The ultimate strength of
a 'Thrasher' conductor is approximately 5500060 000 lbf (245-267 kN) depending on the galvanization of the core. The loaded design tension is 33% of
60 000 lbf, i.e. 20 000 lbf (89 kN). This tension would
occur under the loaded conductor conditions specified
in the example above in Section 4 (i.e. 6 lbf/ft 2 wind,
1 in. ice, at 0 F).

6. Transmission towers

Tower loading information based on the loaded conductor and overhead ground wire design tensions,
along with the conductor-to-steel electrical clearance, is
given to the structural design engineer to design the
t kcmil = 1000 circular mils; 1 c m i l = 5.0671 x 10 - 4 m m z.

The configuration of a tower is determined by both

the transmission engineer, who is responsible for meeting the electrical requirements, and the structural design
engineer, who is responsible for the structure's adequacy and efficiency. Typical circuit configurations are
horizontal, vertical and delta. Generally, the horizontal
configuration produces the minimum-height towers, the
vertical configuration produces the minimum-width
right of way, and the delta configuration minimizes
electrical line losses and magnetic field effects for singlecircuit towers. A typical single-circuit suspension tower
of horizontal configuration is illustrated in Fig. 5. Typical tower height (as measured from top of footings to
conductor attachment point) configurations for towers
used by LADWP are given in Table 1.
The tower legs are generally designed in increments
of 3 ft (0.9 m). Preferred practice is to use the shortest
legs possible to make up a tower of the required height.
Body extensions are generally available in increments of
18 ft (5.5 m). It is desirable to keep the overall height of
the highest tower below 200 ft (61 m) to avoid having
to provide lights and other special FAA requirements
for towers above 200 ft.

6.2. Tower design strength

All towers must be built strong enough to support
the conductors and ground wire, including ice loading,
Table 1
Typical tower height configuration (in feet a)
Tower Tower Body
Tower Tower Tower Body
Tower
height body
extension leg
height body
extension leg
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
100
103
106
109

64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
18
18
18
18

" 1 ft = 0.3048 m.

6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
15
18
21
24
27

112
115
118
121
124
127
130
133
136
139
142
145
148

64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64

18
36
36
36
36
36
36
54
54
54
54
54
54

30
15
18
21
24
27
30
15
18
21
24
27
30

112

R.D. Castro Electric Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109 118

t02'

27"

I_

2r'

-I

~.TWO CONDUCTORS
PERPHASE
BODY

35'

PHASESPACING

BODY
EXTENSION

TOWER
LEIS
ROUND FOOTING

I~

I-

36'

SQUARE

-[

Fig. 5. Typical single-circuit 500 kV AC suspension tower. (Dimensions in ft.)

during the maximum assumed wind loading. In addition, broken-wire capability must be designed into towers. The broken-wire capability designed into towers
used by L A D W P is as follows:
Single-circuit dead-end towers (Fig. 6) are typically
designed for all cables intact on one side of the tower
and any combination of broken conductors and ground
wires on the other side under normal wind speeds and
temperatures.
Multicircuit dead-end towers are typically designed
for all cables intact on one side of the tower and one
ground wire and any combination of conductors broken in one circuit on the other side under normal wind
speeds and temperatures.
Suspension towers are typically designed for any
one conductor or bundle broken in combination with
one ground wire broken under normal wind speeds and
temperatures. Suspension towers are only used in
straight sections of the line.

Typical dimensions for 500 kV single-circuit towers

are given in Fig. 5.

7. Insulators
The basic electrical requirement of any insulator
assembly is that the insulator should sustain a lightning
strike without forming a conductor path over the insulator surface. The basic mechanical requirement is that
the insulator be able to support the wind and ice
loading of the conductor and to withstand lightning,
power surges and mechanical abuse without dropping
the conductor.
The operational performance of a transmission line is
largely determined by the insulation. Selecting the insulation levels requires careful analysis. Insulators near
refineries, along the seashore or in areas of light rainfall
may become so contaminated that considerable overin-

R.D. Castro/Electric' Power SFstems Research 35 (1995) 109 118

sulation is required. Under normal conditions, the assembled insulator should have a dry flashover of five
times the nominal operating voltage and a leakage path
of twice the shortest air-gap distance.
The standard insulator is a porcelain insulator with a
10in. (25.4cm) diameter and a spacing of 5~in.
(14.6 cm) from center to center. In recent years silicone
polymer insulators have been installed in many new
lines. The advantage of using polymer insulators is that
contamination is less of a problem than with porcelain
insulators, which reduces line maintenance. The disadvantage of polymer insulators is that they deteriorate
much faster than porcelain and need replacement
sooner.

8. Ruling span determination

The ruling span may be defined as the span length in
which the tension in the conductor, under changes in
temperature and loading, will most nearly agree with
the average tension in a series of spans of varying
lengths between dead-end towers.
To determine the design ruling span, a study involving different tower configurations (e.g. large spans with
large towers versus short spans with small towers) in
the established right of way is performed to determine
the best balance between material costs (larger spans
require stronger towers and hardware) and labor costs
(shorter spans require more labor and maintenance).
Because of the numerous necessary iterations, the
ruling span determination is accomplished using computers. First, the right-of-way terrain and tower cost

113

data are entered into the spotting program and a

reasonable ruling span is estimated. The spotting program is run to generate the most economic combination
of towers using the catenary constant generated from
the estimated ruling span. A resultant ruling span is
then calculated from the proposed tower placement.
The analysis is then rerun with the resultant ruling span
value being input as the estimated ruling span. This
process is continued until the difference between the
estimated and resulting ruling span is minimal
(LADWP typically accepts a 2"/o differential). This resulting ruling span is called the design ruling span.
These iterations to minimize the ruling span differential are necessary because a large differential indicates
that the tensions and clearances calculated using the
estimated ruling span's catenary constant may not accurately reflect the resultant ruling span's tension and
clearances.
After the terrain is staked by the survey crew, the
actual ruling spans for each dead-end to dead-end line
segment will be used to calculate conductor sags and
tensions. The actual ruling spans are calculated as
follows:
//LI 3 + L2 3 -+- L3 3 + . . .

+ Lx3~ 12

where LR is the actual ruling span and L x is the

individual span length.
The use of a design ruling span appreciably different
from the actual ruling span results in unpredictable sags
and tensions. Using lower than predicted tensions may
cause clearance problems. Higher than predicted tensions may cause aeolian vibration or uplift problems.
Typical actual ruling spans on the LADWP system
are as follows:
In the City of Los Angeles and for voltages of
230kV or less, ruling spans are 600-1000ft (183305 m). This distance is often governed by the right-ofway width available to accommodate a 30 side swing
of the conductor under wind.
For 230-287 kV lines outside the city, spans are
900 1200 ft (274-366 m).
For 500 kV lines outside the city, spans are 12001500 ft (366-457 m).

9. Spotting towers
Towers are spotted or located using computer programs. Listed below are the necessary inputs for the
programs.
9.1. Topographical data

Fig. 6. Dead-end tower.

Topographical data are obtained from the field personnel who survey the line with aerial photography.

114

R.D. Castro~Electric Power Systems Research .35 (1995) 109 118

Table 2
Conductor clearances adopted by LADWP for 500 kV AC transmission lines
Description

Accessible to pedestrians only

Accessible to vehicles
Above railroad tracks
Above major highways
Vertical clearance above buildings, bridges, etc.
(clearance above buildings upon which men may walk)
Horizontal clearance from buildings, bridges, etc.
(clearance from buildings upon which men may work)
Radial separation from guy wires and cables
from adjoining structures
Radial separation from guy wires and cables
supported on same tower
From communications conductors
(e.g. telephone lines)
From conductors of other lines
From conductors of same line

Clearance
(~)

(m)

30
35
39
40
35

9.1
2.7
11.9
12.2
2.7

15

4.6

18.17

5.5

11.33

3.5

25

7.6

25
19.17

7.6
5.8

Specifically, centerline and certain off-centerline elevation profile data are required.

Th
SW
D = ~ cosh 2Th

9.2. Conductor data and configuration

where D is the conductor sag at midspan, W the loaded

weight of the conductor, Th the horizontal component
of the conductor tension, and S the horizontal length of
the conductor span.
This equation can be approximated to a high degree
of accuracy by the use of Maclaurin's infinite series:

Refer to Section 3 on conductors.

9.3. Loaded design tension

In addition to the loaded design tension, the conditions at which the loaded design tension occurs are also
required. Refer to Section 5 on maximum tension determination.

9.4. Conductor clearances

The clearances required vary with the area being
traversed. In California, the clearances must meet the
specifications outlined in California General Order 95
(G.O. 95), Rules for Overhead Line Construction (Section III, Rules For All Lines, Rules 37 and 38 on
clearances). In the rest of the United States the clearances must meet the specifications outlined in the National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) (Part 2. Safety
Rules for the Installation and Maintenance of Overhead Electric Supply and Communication Lines, Section 23 on clearances).
The conductor low point must never violate the
clearance levels specified above. The curve shape assumed by a conductor when suspended between towers
is very close to a catenary. The equation for the conductor low point (i.e. the conductor sag at midspan,
assuming suspension points at equal elevations) using
hyperbolic functions is

WS 2

W {WS2~ 2

( W~2(WS2~ 3

This is the basic equation used by most spotting programs for determining the conductor clearance.
In general, L A D W P bases its clearance requirements
on G.O. 95, since its regulations are more stringent
than NESC requirements and most of our lines are
built in California. Conductor clearances used by
L A D W P for 500 kV lines are given in Table 2.

9.5. Tower data

Tower data outlining relevant information (e.g. costs)
on the types of towers are required. Typical tower types
for a given line may be as follows:
Standard suspension (LS)
Heavy suspension (HS)
Angle suspension (AS)
Dead end (D1)
Dead end (D2)
Dead end (D3)

1
1
up
up
up
up

line angle allowed

line angle allowed
to 20 line angle allowed
to 30 line angle allowed
to 60 line angle allowed
to 90 line angle allowed

The loading on these towers varies from the LS tower

type which carries the smallest loads to the D3 tower

R,D. Castro/Electric Power S~,stems Research 35 (1995) 109-118

I 15

Table 3
Typical design loading requirements (in kips ~) for 500 kV single-circuit AC towers
Tower type

Uplift

Compression

Lateral

LS
HS
AS
D1
D2
D3

115
145
220
293
405
450

15,0
200
290
350
460
540

40
45
81
127
159
186

1 kip = 100 lbf = 4448.2 N.

type which is designed to carry the largest loads. Table

3 outlines typical design loading requirements for
500 kV single-circuit AC towers.

9.6. Ruling spans

Refer to Section 8 on ruling span determination.
Once the required information is input, the spotting
program selects the tower types, locations, and heights
to be used and the sag and tensions of the lines, using
an iterative process that determines the most economical tower type/location that meets the input requirements. The survey crew then goes out into the field and
stakes the proposed tower locations.
The design engineer inspects the proposed locations
to see if there are any conflicts with field conditions.
For example, if a proposed tower location is in a wash
it needs to be moved. The survey crew then restake the
tower locations as needed. The construction contractor,
under the supervision of a quality assurance engineer,
installs the tower footings at the markings laid out by
the survey crew. Generally, a long line in relatively flat
terrain averages a ratio of twelve suspension towers to
one dead-end tower.
As-built elevations are then measured by the survey
crew. Based on these footing elevations and previously
determined tower heights, revised sag/tensions are then
calculated by the sag/tension program and clearance
levels checked.

10. Environmental criteria

An important aspect of any large transmission line

under construction is satisfying the required environmental regulations. For rights of way (ROW) on federal
government land, the project is supervised by the Bureau
of Land Management (BLM) Division of the US Department of the Interior. For ROW on national forest
land, the project is supervised by the US Department of
Forestry. Usually, most utilities contract out the environmental work to environmental contracting firms.

Fig. 7. Environmental concerns have become an important aspect of

transmission line design. (Graphic provided by BioSystems Analysis,
Inc.)

10.1. Environmental impact study

Once the ROW grant has been issued by the appropriate agency an environmental impact study (EIS) is
performed, usually by an environmental contractor.
The EIS is a draft environmental report that includes a
cursory study of the area, an intensive literature search
on the area and the environmental impact of the project. The EIS also calls for additional studies to be done
to assess the full environmental impact (Fig. 7) of the
project, such as a seasonal plant survey. In case of an
endangered animal, such as the desert tortoise in the
southwest, the EIS calls for a biological opinion from
the US Fish and Wildlife Department.
In addition, the EIS also outlines the mitigation
measures to be followed during construction and operation of the line. These mitigation measures include, but
are not limited to, possible biological, botanical, cultural, anthropological and paleontological effects of the
project.

10.2. Environmental impact report

When the EIS has been released, hearings are held on
the project to allow public opinion to be gathered. An
environmental impact report is published as a response
to these opinions.

10.3. Environmental licensing services

Environmental licensing services become necessary
once the tower locations have been determined. The

116

R.D. Castro/Electrie Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109 118

environmental contractor does an intensive survey of

each section of the transmission corridor. The sections
are typically 8-12 miles (13-19 km) in length.
The design engineers use this survey information to
generate a plan and profile drawing of the section that
details tower locations, spans, restricted areas, access
routes, and other pertinent survey information. The
design engineers also use this information to generate
site prescription forms that outline construction layouts
to be adhered to during construction. The plan and
profile drawings and site prescription forms are reviewed by the BLM, which then issues a 'notice to
proceed' for the construction of that section. The plan
and profile drawings and site prescription forms are
made available to the construction contractor at least
60 days prior to construction of that section.

11. Field effects of transmission lines

The popular press has recently focused public attention on the controversy in the scientific community as
to whether there are any adverse health effects from the
electromagnetic fields (EMFs) of transmission lines
(Fig. 8). As a result, most utilities have begun incorporating methods of reducing EMFs as part of the design
process of building transmission lines.
Below are specific practices that have been found to
lower EMF levels at the edge of a transmission line's
right of way. For comparative purposes, magnetic field
reduction levels have been illlustrated for a single-circuit AC line carrying 1000 A with a ROW extending
100 ft (30 m) from the centerline. All values (i.e. percent
reduction levels) refer to magnetic field levels at the
edge of the ROW. The voltage level of the line is

immaterial (i.e. it does not affect the magnetic field),

but the dimensions chosen are appropriate for a 500 kV
line.

11.1. Increasing R O W width

Since the EMF is inversely proportional to the distance from a line source, substantially increasing the
ROW width does reduce EMF levels. In general,
though, this alternative is not economically feasible.

11.2. Increasing tower height

The EMF can be reduced dramatically directly under
the transmission lines by increasing the tower height,
but the impact is minimal at the edge of the ROW. For
example, doubling the tower height from 30 to 60 ft
(9-18 m) only reduces the magnetic field by 20%.

11.3. Phase spacing

Reducing the distance between conductor phases
would increase the magnetic field and phase current
interaction, lowering the field level at the ROW edge.
For example, reducing the phase spacing in a horizontal configuration from 45 ft (13.7 m) to 25 ft (7.6 m) can
reduce magnetic levels by 50%. However, noise and
interference performance suffer when phases are placed
closer together.

11.4. Line configuration

A horizontal line configuration has a higher level of
EMF at the ROW edge than either a vertical or delta
configuration. A vertical or delta configuration has 50%
lower magnetic field emissions than a similar horizontal
configuration. The difference between vertical and delta
configurations is minimal at the ROW edge.

11.5. Shielding wires

Shield or ground wires placed over lines for lightning
protection have little effect on the EMF.
Installing shield wires below transmission lines can be
made to reduce EMF levels by inducing currents that
minimize the resulting magnetic field. This method can
be implemented by placing a wire loop around a section
of the transmission line on wooden poles placed between
the transmission line and the ROW edge. The wire loop
is grounded at one point, and a series capacitor is
inserted (Fig. 9). By optimizing the current phase and
magnitude, the magnetic field may be reduced by 80%.

11.6. Effect of earth resistivity

Fig. 8. Methods of reducing EMF have been incorporated into
transmission line design. (Graphic provided by Positron Industries,
Inc., Montreal, Canada.)

Lowering the resistivity of the earth actually raises

the EMF levels slightly. For example, a resistivity of

R.DI Castro / Electric Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109-. 118

times the magnetic field levels of a low-reactance

configuration.

II

12. Material specifications

Fig. 9. Shielding power lines with wire loops (cross section).

A.
B,

I 17

,A

A=
B

=C

B,

Once the design information is determined, specifications are required for the various materials and services
needed for construction. Specifications for the following
are required: conductors, ground wires, insulators,
hardware, accessories, danger signs, tower steel, and
construction specifications (Fig. 11).

,B

Acknowledgements
C,

. C

Suparbundla

[t~)c - ABCl

C,

,A

I would like to thank Mr Tom R. Taylor of the Los

Angeles Department of Water and Power for his contributions and suggestions.
L o w - Reactance

pz3c - C B ~

Fig. 10. Double-circuit phasing can drastically lower EMF levels at

right-of-way edge.

5 ~ / m is associated with a 15% higher magnetic field

than a 100 ff~,/m resistivity.

11.7. Effect ?f double-circuit phasing

Configuring a double-circuit vertical line with a lowreactance configuration of A - B C C - B - A can drastically reduce E M F levels over a superbundle
( A - B - C A - B - C ) configuration (Fig. 10). For example, assuming a current of 1000A for each circuit,
going in the same direction, a superbundle has three

Bibliography
[1] J.G. Anderson (ed.), Transmission Line Rejerenee Book: 3 4 5 k V
and Above, Electric Power Research Institute, Pah> Alto, CA, 2nd
edn., 1982.
[2] Transmission Line Re/erence Book: Wind Induced Conductor
Motion, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA,
1979.
[3] Electrical Transmission and Distribution Rejerenee Book, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, East Pittsburgh, PA, 4th edn., 1950.
[4] H.H. Farr, Transmission Line Design Manual, US Department of
the Interior, Water and Power Resources Service, Denver, CO,
1980.
[5] National Eleetrical Safety Code, IEEE, New York, 1987 edn.,
1986.
[6] Rules jor Overhead Line Construction, General Order 95, Public
Utilities Commission of the State of California, Mar. 1981.

7O
200

66

175

5t
! 50
41
125
3O

100
75

2O

50
I0

ZT)
230 kV
Slmgle Circull
'*'Flap

"F 500 kV DC
Single Circuit

500 kV
Single Cif cult
"Della"

500 kV

1100 kV

Double Circuit
"Stlsckm

Sinolg C~'~i!
"Experlmerda!
Oellu"

Fig. 11. Configurations of typical transmission towers.

118

R.D. Castro~Electric Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109 118

[7] Bonneville Power Administration, Electrical and Biological

Effects of Transmission Lines: A Review, US Department of
Energy, Washington, DC, June 1986.
[8] C.A. Powel, Principles of Electrie Utility Engineering, MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA, 1956.

[9] H. Rustebakke (ed.), Electrie Utility Systems and Practice, Wiley, New York, 4th edn., 1983.
[10] D.G. Fink and J.M. Carroll (eds.), Standard Handbook jor
Electrical Engineers, McGraw-Hill, New York, 10th edn.,
1968,