Summary 0 6.16 Tipe oflee —-Formofce Thickness inem lee Photograph Nanber New fee ici ee Grease ive $25 5.6 Slush Shuga 617 Nilas Dark & light <0 26 Iee sind <5 1s These types of ice are selatively soft and pliable and will not normally eral. Can block cooling water intakes Young Tee Grey ice 10-18 Grey-white ee 15.30 Firstyear lee Thin Medium Thick 210 Old Lee Second-year ice 2250 year ie 2300 ¢ forms Remarks For lurther information soe Ice Glossary. Ive spicules, ‘Soupy layer on sea surface giving matt appearance. 28, oF viscous floating ‘mass in wate after a snowfall ‘Sponey white ice lumps. Thin elastic crust of ice with matt surface [Buitle shiny crust of ie. damage the hull of moder st 1 vessels except small Less elastic than is andl breaks on sve, Usually rafls under pressure, Dark prey or Tight grey, hecoming whiter with age More likely 1o ridge than tora, Sill containing some salt and relaively sof, but growing thicker and sgtadually beooming harder. Generally white or milky-white in colour Gradually changes colour as it becomes older and acquires greenish tin: aler about | year depending ‘on temperatures, Thicker than first-year ice so stands higher out of the water, Most features smoother than first-y Regular patiorn of small puddles produced hy summer selting Hammocks even smoother than second-year ice, Almost sal-fiee, Large interconnecting te pues produced by summer melting: All old ice has a green oF greenish Cint changing to blue-green, or intense blue with age as in the case of bare muli-year ive ‘The ise navigator should heware of ice of this eolour, I js extremely Floating Tee Pancake ice so B lee cake ry Flee » Poehere Fhoebit Ike Breccia Brashice Ieeberg 250 78,17 Bergy bit Los 1,17,19,21 Grover <10 6.17 tard and very da wwerous to shipping, including ive brenkers, Circular pieces of floating ive 30 em 103 min diameter with raised rims, Formed from grease fee, Slush. shuga, las orice tind Flat piece of floating ice less dan 20 m across, Flat picce of floating ice 20 m or more across Massive piece of sea ive composed of a hummock or group of hammocks frozen wgether, separated from ie surroundings and protruding up 10 5 m alxve sea level. Similar to Mosher hur smaller, normally not more than 10.m across, lee at il stages of development frozen together. Accumulations of floating ice made up of fragments ‘hot mote than 2 m across, Opaque white or fat white on the sueface, green-bhue ware, Vriualy a as or intense blue where ‘multi-year ie.ICEBERGS: General information 617 Teobergs (Photographs 7 outing ice derived from Moating glacier tongues ar from ive shelves. The density of icehers ice varies with the amount of imprisoned aie and the mean value las not been exactly determined, but it is assumed to be abaut O900g/em as compared with OI6g/em* for pare fresh water ive, ie approximately 9/10 of the volume of an iceberg is submerged. The depth of an iceberg under water, compared with its eight above the water varies with different types of iecbergs Teebergs diminish in size in dee different ways: by calving, when a piece breaks off, by meliing or by erosion ‘An iceberg is so balanced chat calving, or merely melting of the undersurface, will disturb is equilibrium, so that it may Moat at a different angle or it may capsize When lage sectious are calved, they may fall into the water and bob up w the surface again. with great force, lien a considerable distance away, Vessels and boats should therefore keep well clear of icebergs that show signs and 8) are ta of disintegrating In warm waier an iceberg melts mainly trom below and calves. frequently Erosion is caused by wind and tain, Cautions. Techergs: may. possess underwater spars and ledges at a considerable distance trom the visible portions, and should be given a wide berth at all times, Where the seabed is uneven or jagged. Feebergs may be driven by wind or cusrent against pinnacle rocks. It should not therefore be assuaned from theie appearance that when aground they ate necessarily sumrounded by deep water Arctic icebergs ns and movements 618, In the Areti, iccherws originate mainly in the glaciers of the Greenland ice cap which contains approximately 0% fof the land ise of the N_ hemisphere, produced from the E coast laciers. particularly in the tegion of Scoresby Sund, are carried S in the East Greenland current (Diagram 6.13), Most of those surviving this journey dri. round Kap Farvel and melt in the Davis rail, but some follow Sor SE wicks trom Kap Farvel particularly inthe winter half of the year so that the maximum Timit of ieebergs (accurring in April inthis region) lies over 4D0iles SE of Kap Fusvel. However, & much larger crap of ieshergs is derived (rom the: glaciers which terminate in Baffin Bay, Tt has been estimated that more than 4900 icebergs may be present in Baffin Bay at any one time: by fir the greatest number being located close in to the Greenland coast between Disko Bugt and Mebille Bugi where mos of the major parent ghiiers are situated, Some of this vast number of iceberg ssrounded in the vieinily of their birhplace where they slowly decay: ethers drift out into the open waters Gn summer) of Ballin Bay and sicadily decay there, but a significant proportion each year is carried by. the predominant current pater in an anti-clockwise direction around the head of Ballin Bay. OF these some ground in Melville Bugt and along the B coast of Butlin Island and there slowly decay. The remainder slowly drili $ with the Canadian and Labrador cusreats, their numbers contigually dooreasing by grounding, of, in summer, melting inthe Large numbers open sea. The number of ischergs passing S of the 48th paralle] in the vicinity of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland varies considerably from year to year. Between 1946 and 1970 tse number of icebergs sighted of A8°N in that area varied from Lin 1958 10 931 in 1957, and averaged 213 per year: usualy sighted in April, May and June: none were sighted between September and January. Little i known about the production of icebergs in European and Asiaic longitudes. With the exception of laciers in Ostrova De Long, it is probable not a single iceborg is produced along the North Siberian coast E of Proliy. Borisa Vi ktskogo. Severnaya Zemlya probably produces. more icehergs than Svalfund or Zemlya Franist Tosita: icebergs from its E coast are eumried by the current S wo Proliv Borisa Vikitskogo and down the E side of Poluostrov Taymyrshiy. ‘The small icebergs typical of Zemlya Frans Tosifa and Svalbard whieh donot reac height of more than about 1Sm-are probably not caried fr by the Weak currents of this region, though some may emer the East. Gr Svalbard ice probahly those from the E cast of Nordausilandet, also Ui SW in the Spitshergen and Bear Island eurrenis and fre usually found in small numbers inthe Bjermnya neighbourhuod from May 10 October. The N half of Novaya Zemlya produges some iceherys, mainly smal the greatesi_number were small enna current Characteristics of icebergs 6.19 Tn the Aretie, the imegular glavier iceberg of varying shape constitutes the largest class. The eight of this icoherg varies greatly and frequently reaches 70m ‘occasionally this is exeveded and one of 167m. fas been measured, "These figures refer 0 the height soon after calving, ut the height quickly The largest joeherg so far measured Sof Newioundand! as 80m high, and ube longest 517m, Glacier icebergs exceeding Thm have been seen farther N. The following table has ‘een derived from actual measurements of glucier ieeherss S of Newlouniand by the International lee Paral Tipe of leeberg Proportion Exposed:Submerged Rounded 1 Picturesque” Greenland 13 Pinnacled and ridged 12 Last stages, horned and winged 1 An entiely diferent form of iceberg is the blocky iecherg, luctopped und precipitous-sided, which is. the nearest counterpart in the tabular Teehergs of the Antarctic (see below). These ivebergs may originate either fin a lage glacier tongue or from an ive Sl 1 of the later origin, they: are true tabular decbergs, but in either case they are tabular in form, Blocky icebergs encountered Sof Newfoundland usually have submerged Siimes the amount exposed The colour of Arctic icebergs is an opaque fat white, with soft hues of green or blue, Many shows seins of soil or debris; due probably to diatonis, Much air is imprisoned in ice in the form of bubbles permeating its whole sirucwre. The White appearance is caused by suriaee wealherin depth of 5 10 SO centimetres or more and also 10 the effect bof the sun's cays, which release innumerable air bubbles. Arctic 10 the gre clhers have yellowish or brown stains in place wa620 Tee island (Photograph 22) is a na Ueseribe a rave form of tabular iceberg found in the Arctic. lee iskuds originate by breaking of from ice shelves hicly are found principally in North Ellesmere Island and Nowh Greenland. ‘They are usually characterised by a regularly undulating. surface which gives a ribbed ance (om the ait, and stand about Sam out of the water, They bave a total thickness af about 30 10 50m, an may exceed 150square miles in ares: the labular icebergs of the Antarciie commonly stand about 30m cut of the water, having a wial thickness oF about 200m, The larger ice islands have hitherto been found only in the Arctic Ocean where they drift with the sea ice al an average rate of front 1 to 3 miles per day. The best known named T3 or Fleteher’s Ice Island, was sighted in 1947 and has been occupied by United States scientific parties on several occasions for periods of up to 2 years. Since it was Fist discovered. and probably for many years previously, T3 has been difting in a clockwise direction in the saufort 8 Sinall ice islands have been sighted in the waters of the islands of the Canadian Arctic and off Greenland, where they have been carried out of the Arctic Ocean by wind and current. In addition, tabular icebergs. some of whic ‘may well be small ice islands, have been reported in the Vivinity of Svalbard and in waters N-of Russia, e popularly used to in contra current system, Antarctic Leebergs Oriel 621 ‘The breaking away of ice from the Antaretie continent takes place on a scale quite unknown in the Arctic, so that vast numbers af igebergs ane found in the adjacent waters Teebergs ae formed by the calving of masses of fee from ice shelves or tongues, from a glacier face, or from -2 on land nour the coast, fed by the Flow from wo or more glaciers sand form, ns of Antarctic iesbergs ate of several distinctive forms. The following deseriptions should be re those terms which are Tikely 10 be of use to the m iiled as covering only Tabular icebergs This is the most common form (Phetagrap 7) andl is the Iypical iccherg of the Antartie, to which there is no « nthe Arctic. These icebergs. are largely, but_not all, derived from ice shelves and show a eh horizontal banding. Tabular iveherss are Mlat-wpped and rectangular in shape, with a peculiar white colour and lusire, aS if formed of plaster of paris, dae to their relatively large air content, They may be of great size, in any other type of ieeberg found in either of the polar regions. Such icehergs exceeding 500m in length byecur in hundreds, Some hive been mewured up 19 20 or 30 miles in Tength, while iecheres of more than wwige this, lengih have been reported, The largest ivebery authentically reported is one about 90 miles Tong, observed by the whaler Odd Fon Tih Janvary 1927, about SO miles NE of Clarence Island, South Shetland Islands, ‘This great tabular iceberg was about 35m high. The majority seen on Scott's last expedition varied in height from 10 measured being 42m, 0 35:m, the highest "The number of icebergs set free varies in different years for periods of years. There appears to have been an unusual break-up of ive shelf in the Weddell Sea region during the years 1927-1933, when the number and size of the tabular Jecbergs in that region was exceptional. The giant icshens above described was one of these, Heights up 10 50 or ‘601m were measured during this period. There were ais Signilicam, break-ups in the S Weddell region in tie 1980's and in the Larson ice shelf in the 1990's, Glacier icebergs 623 These are usually of an 0 wque Mat white colour, with en or blue, bul appear dazaling white under certain conditions of light. The whiteness is caused by soft hues of gr surface weathering to a depth of a few centimetres oF more, and also by the effect of the sun's ays which release innumerable ait bubbles fnegular surface than the tabular ieobergs and Broken up hy crevasses. into sharp ki koowa as series. They frequently show si bands of sand and debvis, Glacier icehorgs are of higher density than the abular ones and so are more resistam to weathering Weathered icebergs 624 ‘This name is given 1 any iceberg in an advanced state of disintegration (Photograph 8), Large variations. occur The lenglh of life ofan icebers is determined pally by the ime spemt on the ice before it emerges into the open sea, Thereafter its period of survival is determined largely by the rapidity of its transport of lower lastudes, If stranded, an iceberg may oxcasionally survive as long as 3 years ot ‘move, but normally an iceberg stranded throu has disintegrated sufficiently to clear the shoal as soon as the sea ice has broken out in the following spring Melting of the underwater surface is a continuous process and this, aided by the mechanical action of the sea, produces caves or spurs near the waterline. This finally Jeals to the calving of a ponion of the iceberg or 10 a change in its equilibrium, whereby tiling or even complete thus presenting new surfaces to the The presence of crevasses, earth They usually have a more sea and the weal particles or tock debris. greally euhanees the process of melting or evaporation and produces planes of weakness, along which further calvi a much crevasse iucherg may be wrecked, Otber icebergs. in passing over a shoal may dey op strain cracks, which Tater accelerate their weathering Capsized icebergs 623 Xe unierwater section af most ieehergs is smooth and rounded, ofien with well defined blue stripes layered into ‘the natural opaque colouration, A unique fom of capsized ieeberg of « dark colour, called black and white ieeberg, has Deen observed N and E of the Weddell Sea, They ane cof wo kinds, which it is: difficult w distinguish at a Uistanee: meraini, in which the dark portion is Wack and page wd and stones: and boitle-green, in whiei the containing dark part is of a deep green colour and translucem, mud and stones appearing 1 be absent In hoth Kinds the demarcation of the white and dark pats is a clear-cut plane, and the dark portion és invariably smoothly rounded by water action, Such icebergs. have Frequently een mistaken for rocks; hefore reporting a suspectell above-water rock a close examination should be made, preferably with soundings round it, © ensure tat it ig not-an iceberg,