Appendix F7: Microconstituents - A Closer Look at

Occurrence, Relevance, and Treatment

Version 1.1
October 2008

Prepared by:
Carollo Engineers, Inc.
Registration No. F-882

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Microconstituents A Closer Look

Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0

Executive Summary .................................................................................................3

2.0

Microconstituents ....................................................................................................4
2.1
2.2

Definition of Microconstituents ...................................................................................... 4

Types of Microconstituents ........................................................................................... 4

3.0

Occurrence of Microconstituents in Surface Water..............................................7

4.0

Effects of Microconstituents on Aquatic Life and Humans .................................8

4.1
4.2

5.0

Relevance to Wastewater Treatment Facilities ...................................................10

5.1
5.2

6.0

Effects on Aquatic Life .................................................................................................. 8

Effects on Humans ........................................................................................................ 8

Attention of the Press.................................................................................................. 10

Federal and State Regulations.................................................................................... 10

Testing and Treatment of Microconstituents ......................................................11

6.1
6.2
6.3

Testing for Microconstituents ...................................................................................... 11

Testing for EDCs ......................................................................................................... 11
Treatment Solutions .................................................................................................... 11

Appendix A

Glossary of Acronyms and Terms............................................................15

Appendix B

References..................................................................................................16

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Microconstituents A Closer Look

1.0

Executive Summary

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Scientific advances in medicine and chemistry has resulted in society embracing "better living through
chemistry." People have become enthusiastic consumers of a variety of manufactured goods, including
pharmaceuticals and personal care products. The manufacture and use of new consumer products has a
direct impact on wastewater treatment facilities (WWTF) by adding previously unknown and undetected
pollutants called microconstituents to the water supply.
Studies from around the world have confirmed that drinking water supplies, as well as treated wastewater
that is discharged to waterways, contain physiologically active levels of chemicals that cause hormonal
changes in fish, frogs, and other aquatic life.
This project will develop a list of recommendations for sampling and testing of microconstituents/
endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). In addition, the capital improvement plan will include allowance
(both land space and hydraulic grade) for potential future treatment requirements for microconstituents.

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Microconstituents A Closer Look

Microconstituents

2.0

MICROCONSTITUENTS

2.1

Definition of Microconstituents

Microconstituents, sometimes known as "emerging pollutants of concern," are chemicals found in a wide
array of household goods, including pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). Some
microconstituents are considered EDCs, which are substances that can interfere with the actions of
hormones in the body. Examples of EDCs include synthetic estrogen, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
dioxin, and some pesticides that may interfere with or modify hormone processes within an organism.
Hundreds of chemicals have been identified as EDCs or potential EDCs, including industrial chemicals,
pesticides, PPCPs, combustion byproducts (natural and anthropogenic), metals, inorganic ions, organic
substances naturally found in plants and fungi, and hormones excreted by humans and other animals.

2.2

Types of Microconstituents

Potable water suppliers and regulatory agencies express concerns over new classes of microconstituents
generated from human activities. These concerns stem from the increased ability to detect
microconstituents at relatively low concentrations and to quantify their adverse health impacts.
Microconstituents include more than 100,000 compounds, such as the following:

Pharmaceuticals (pain relievers, antibiotics, medications)

Personal care products (soap, shampoo)

Flame retardants (polyurethane foam on furniture, electronics, textiles)

Perfluoro-chemicals (non-stick coatings)

Endocrine disrupting chemicals

2.2.1

Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products

According to the EPA, pharmaceuticals and personal care products are found where people or animals
are treated with drugs and people use personal care products. The term "pharmaceutically-active
compounds" (PhACs) is sometimes used in recognition that both the parent compounds and/or their
biologically active degradation products may be found in the environment. PhACs and PCPs are often
grouped together and referred to as "PPCPs."
Most PPCPs are active ingredients or preservatives in cosmetics, toiletries, fragrances, sunscreen lotions,
and insect repellents. Pharmaceuticals include human and veterinary drugs, both prescription and overthe-counter medications. Examples of anthropogenic pharmaceuticals that have been measured in the
environment include antibiotics, antidepressants, heart medications, anti-convulsants, pain relievers, oral
contraceptives, and x-ray contrast media.
PPCPs are found in any water body influenced by raw or treated sewage, including rivers, streams,
ground water, coastal marine environments, and many drinking water sources. PPCPs have been
identified in most places sampled. The major sources of pharmaceuticals are the following:

Human activity including prescription and over-the-counter therapeutic drugs

Veterinary drug use for both pets and farm animals

Residues from pharmaceutical manufacturers and hospitals

People contribute PPCPs to the environment through the following means:

Medication residues pass out of the body and into sewer lines

Externally applied drugs and personal care products are washed down the shower drain

Unused or expired medications are placed in the trash

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Microconstituents A Closer Look

Microconstituents

The wastewater source signature of pharmaceuticals is complex, because pharmaceuticals are used
episodically and routinely to control temporary and chronic symptoms. In addition, the types of
pharmaceuticals used vary, because new compounds and classes are continuously registered for use.
Therefore, the mixtures, composition, and individual concentrations of pharmaceuticals from WWTFs
discharges have the potential to vary continuously. (Ref. 4)

2.2.2

Endocrine Disrupting Compounds

Endocrine disrupting compounds are chemicals that disrupt the natural system of reproduction,
development, growth, and sexual regulation of the endocrine system. Endocrine disruption occurs when
chemicals produced outside the body enter the body and act like hormones. EDCs can block natural
hormones from being received at their natural receptor sites in the body and also mimic natural
hormones, thus influencing the natural signaling between hormone and receptor. Alternatively, they can
alter or modify the production, function, or breakdown of the bodys natural hormones or receptor sites.
EDCs are of particular concern because a number of these compounds can be carcinogenic, mutagenic,
or cause previously unseen health effects.
Known and potential EDCs encompass a wide variety of chemicals and a diversity of structures. They
include both natural and synthetic chemicals. See Table 2-1 for details. EDCs can originate from
numerous sources and enter the environment by many routes. Effluents from municipal WWTFs have
been implicated as major contributors of EDCs to surface waters WWTFs receive EDCs from sources
including plant material, plastics, items treated with fire retardants, cleaning products, pesticides, other
household chemicals and consumer products, hormones excreted by humans, and PPCPs excreted or
washed from the body and flushed to the sanitary sewer. WWTFs might also receive industrial or hospital
effluents and storm water runoff streams that contain EDCs. Although wastewater treatment processes
can remove some EDCs, recalcitrant chemicals may remain at detectable levels in effluents discharged to
surface water or in reclaimed water used for groundwater recharge. These contaminants may be diluted,
sequestered (e.g., in sediment), or degraded by physical or biological processes, but some are detected
in the environment due to their persistence or relatively constant loading. (Ref. 1) Other potential
sources of EDCs in the environment include the following:

Private septic systems

Untreated storm water flows and urban runoff

Industrial effluents

Landfill leachate

Discharges from fish hatcheries and dairy facilities

Fish spawning in natural waters

Runoff from agricultural fields and livestock enclosures

Various EDCs have been reported to occur in WWTF effluents, surface water, groundwater, reclaimed
water, and drinking water, usually at concentrations in the sub-nanogram per liter (ng/L) (0.000000001
g/L) range. In general, EDCs are reported to occur with greater frequency and at higher levels in WWTF
effluents than in reclaimed water or drinking water. Dilution and environmental degradation are
responsible for smaller concentrations and less frequent detections in surface water. The limited data
available to date indicate that EDCs originating from municipal WWTFs generally occur infrequently and
at exceedingly small levels in finished drinking water because they are diluted and undergo degradation
in the environment and then must survive drinking water treatment processes and distribution to remain in
potable water at the tap. (Ref. 1)

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Microconstituents A Closer Look

Microconstituents

Table 2-1: Examples of Known or Potential EDCs

Chemical Class

Representative Chemicals
Naturally Occurring EDCs

Hormones

Estradiol, estrone

Phytoestrogens and plant sterols

Genistein, -sitosterol

Mycoestrogens

Zearalenone

Metals

Arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury

Inorganic ions

Perchlorate, thiocyanate

Combustion byproducts

Dioxins, certain PAHs

Synthetic EDCs

Biocides or their degradates

Atrazine, DDT (or DDE), tributyltin

PPCPs

Ethynylestradiol, trenbolone

Industrial chemicals, intermediates, and

degradates

PCBs, bisphenol-A, octylphenol

Combustion byproducts

Dioxins, certain PAHs

Several advances in the fields of medicine, analytical chemistry, and environmental science have
converged in the last several years to focus on environmental hormones. Several reasons for the
increased research into microconstituents and particularly EDCs are as follows:

Significant medical breakthroughs in understanding the human endocrine system

Significant advances in the ability to detect trace compounds in the environment and animal tissue

Risk analysis criteria set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of 70 years has been met.
Since the mid-1950 literally thousands of new man-made chemicals have been pumped into the
environment and into the human body. Researchers are now beginning to see the results of this fullscale experiment of "better living through chemistry" on the environment and human health.

There are a number of ways that EDCs can enter our water supplies. In the case of human contribution,
it typically comes from our wastewater. Many pharmaceuticals do not fully metabolize in the body and are
eliminated through urination or other means.
Other common EDCs in water supplies are estrogen and estrogen-like compounds. While estrogen is a
naturally occurring hormone in humans, scientists in the United Kingdom (UK) and elsewhere have found
significant quantities of natural steroid hormones and synthetic hormones in wastewater effluent. These
compounds are excreted from women either naturally or as a result of taking medicines such as the
contraceptive pill or hormone-replacement therapy. (Ref. 2)
Other ways that EDCs can enter our waterways include the discharge (intentional or otherwise) of
pesticides, herbicides, plasticizers, and other chemicals with estrogen-like properties that bind to the
same receptors as estrogen.

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3.0

Section 3.0
Occurrence of Microconstituents in Surface Water

OCCURRENCE OF MICROCONSTITUENTS IN SURFACE WATER

Contaminants are often present in the sub-nanogram per liter concentration, which requires challenging
and costly analytical techniques for identification. Often occurring in domestic wastewater effluent,
microconstituents can accumulate in raw water supplies. These contaminants can pass in detectable
qualities through conventional potable water treatment plants to consumers. In addition, an increased
movement towards indirect potable reuse could create larger concentrations of microconstituents in raw
water supplies. Through ongoing research, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has determined that
most surface water bodies have some evidence of microconstituents.
Acetaminophen is the most widely used pain reliever in the United States. A study of 139 streams by the
USGS found that it was one of the most frequently detected manmade chemicals. Chemists at the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) investigated chemical reactions involving
acetaminophen when the drug is subjected to typical wastewater processing. The NIST scientists found
that the drug readily reacts in chlorine disinfection (a common step in wastewater treatment) to form at
least eleven new products, two of which are known to be toxic. (Ref. 3) However, the USGS study found
a median concentration of 0.00011 mg/L. At this concentration, a person would have to drink nearly six
million liters of water to equal a common single 650 mg dose of acetaminophen.
Ibuprofen is another leading pain medication that is commonly taken in doses of 400 mg. The median
concentration found in the USGS study was 0.0002 mg/L. Lincomycin, an antibiotic, is normally
administered in doses of 500 mg. The USGS study reported a median concentration of 0.00006 mg/L.
Others studies confirm that these compounds are found at concentrations that are orders of magnitude
less than normal doses.

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Microconstituents A Closer Look

4.0

Section 4.0
Effects of Microconstituents on Aquatic Life and Humans

EFFECTS OF MICROCONSTITUENTS ON AQUATIC LIFE AND

HUMANS

The anecdotal evidence is everywhere. Fish biologists working in the Potomac River say that up to as
many as 100 percent of the male smallmouth bass that they have pulled from the water showed female
sexual characteristics. In Florida, polluted effluent from paper mills that discharge into the Fenholloway
River is being blamed for species of mosquito fish changing sexes from female to male. Human sperm
counts have dropped by more than 40 percent in the last 50 years. Fertility rates in the United States
have dropped in the last fifteen years from one in eight couples, which is defined as one year of trying to
become pregnant, to one in five couples today. Testicular cancer has increased by more than 60 percent
and breast cancer has increased by more than 30 percent over the last 25 years. Girls are reaching
puberty sooner than they did just ten years ago, while boys have shown increased delays in reaching
puberty over the same time period. (Ref.5 and Ref. 6)

4.1

Effects on Aquatic Life

There is a substantial and growing body of evidence indicating that EDCs at levels found in some WWTF
effluents can cause endocrine disruption in fish and other aquatic life, with the literature suggesting that
some EDCs at or above 0.1 ng/L can induce endocrine-mediated changes in aquatic life. This issue first
gained public attention when male fish collected downstream of WWTFs in the UK were found to have
elevated levels of vitellogenin, a female-specific egg yolk protein, in their blood. Vitellogenin induction in
male fish is a symptom of exposure to estrogens from external sources but generally is not considered to
be an adverse effect. Later studies suggested a link between exposure to WWTF effluents and adverse
or potentially harmful effects on the reproductive organs and fertility of fish. The findings in the UK
studies spurred research in other European countries, North America, and elsewhere where WWTF
effluents have been implicated in endocrine-related effects on fish.
WWTF effluents contain a mixture of known or potential EDCs. In most cases researchers have been
unable to pinpoint the specific chemicals responsible for effects indicating endocrine disruption in
exposed fish. Estradiol, estrone, ethynylestradiol, nonylphenol, octylphenol, alkylphenol ethoxylates, and
bisphenol A have been identified as likely causes based on their concentrations in wastewater effluents
and their potency in laboratory studies. Natural hormones produced in the bodies of humans and other
animals (e.g., estradiol and estrone) and synthetic hormones intended to mimic the actions of
endogenous hormones (e.g., the oral contraceptive ingredient ethynylestradiol) are of particular concern
because they are potent at very small concentrations and are commonly detected in WWTF effluents.
(Ref. 1)
While hormonal disruption of aquatic life by wastewater-derived EDCs has clearly been demonstrated,
limited information exists on the possibility of long-term effects on aquatic life populations. This is an area
for further research.

4.2

Effects on Humans

While the hard evidence for microconstituents precise effects on humans is still being researched, there
is growing suspicion that these chemicals are affecting our environment, and ultimately people.
According to the EPA, "to date, scientists have found no evidence of adverse human health effects from
pharmaceuticals and personal care products) in the environments. See the following URL for more
information: www.epa.gov/ppcp/faq.html#ifthereareindeed
A study expected to be published indicates that the health risk from daily exposure to pharmaceuticals in
drinking water are at lest hundreds of times lower than the acceptable daily intakes (ADI)." The amount
consumed daily without appreciable risk to health is an ADI. The studys conclusion is that "U.S. drinking
water has no health risk and is safe to drink in spite of the detection of trace levels of pharmaceuticals."
(Ref. 1)
Even though there is no evidence of harmful effects on humans caused by pharmaceuticals in drinking
water, our nations utilities are investing millions of dollars, with the support of the EPA and other
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Section 4.0
Effects of Microconstituents on Aquatic Life and Humans

government agencies, to conduct in-depth and comprehensive research into the questions that arise
when trace amounts of pharmaceuticals and other emerging contaminants are detected in water supplies.
The Water Environment Research Foundation (WERF) has identified over two million dollars in funding
for trace organics research over the next five years and intends to leverage this amount several fold
through collaborations and partnerships.

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Microconstituents A Closer Look

5.0

Relevance to Wastewater Treatment Facilities

RELEVANCE TO WASTEWATER TREATMENT FACILITIES

Public concern over our health and sexuality has been increasingly reported in radio news reports, trade
journals, television, and the popular press. The public is asking:

Are we safe?

What can we do now to protect our environment and our children?

As public concern grows, it is likely that public agencies, specifically water and WWTFs will feel public
pressure to act. Increased regulatory scrutiny is nothing new to public agencies, but compared with a
vitriolic public who fears for their safety and that of their children, a governmental regulatory agency could
look friendly.

5.1

Attention of the Press

The Associated Press reported in March of 2008 and again in October of 2008 that a vast array of
pharmaceuticals, including antibiotics, anti-convulsants, mood stabilizers, and sex hormones, have been
detected in the drinking water supplies of at least 41 million Americans.
Recent press releases and media attention have raised substantial concerns among the public,
politicians, and regulators about the potential implications of the presence of endocrine disrupting
chemicals (EDCs) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in water for human health
and the environment. As a result, the water and wastewater community faces many questions from the
public and the press, including:

Are there potential human health and/or aquatic impacts from these trace contaminants?

What is the appropriate level of treatment?

What new technologies can be used to eliminate EDCs?

5.2

Federal and State Regulations

Currently microconstituents are not regulated by national drinking water standards. However, media
coverage about the contaminants has spurred an increase in environmental and public interest. The EPA
has published a draft water quality criterion for the microconstituent, nonylphenol, and facilitated a
voluntary phase-out for additional compounds. (Ref. 1)
The federal government, specifically the EPAs Office of Research and Development has a multi-year
plan from 2000 to 2012 for EDCs. However, the plan is largely based on research and reporting of
findings and does not yet include any legislative or regulatory recommendations. (Ref. 1)
It is expected that initial microconstituent regulations will be implemented on a state-by-state basis.
California has recently established a public health goal for n-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), a
microconstituent and regulation in California. Other states are also examining the effects of these
compounds on human health. For indirect potable reuse projects in California, the California Department
of Public Health (CDPH) has mandated monitoring and reporting of EDCs and pharmaceuticals, but not
their removal. (Ref. 1)
Chemicals that might be classified as EDCs are federally regulated in drinking water, but not on the basis
of their potential to cause endocrine disruption. In Massachusetts, the level of perchlorate in drinking
water is regulated on the basis of its potential to act as an EDC by interfering with thyroid function. To
date no other state has regulated any drinking water contaminant as a putative EDC. (Ref. 1)

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Microconstituents A Closer Look

Testing and Treatment of Microconstituents

6.0

TESTING AND TREATMENT OF MICROCONSTITUENTS

6.1

Testing for Microconstituents

Most water and wastewater utilities do not test specifically for all pharmaceuticals. The EPA requires
testing for a long list of contaminants, and most pharmaceuticals are not on that list. The Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) requires that pharmaceuticals undergo extensive assessment to evaluate their
impacts on human health prior to product registration. These data indicate that the levels of
pharmaceuticals present in surface or drinking water are far below levels where human health effects
occur.

6.2

Testing for EDCs

Standardized test methods are generally unavailable. At this time, only certain in vivo bioassays
conducted with intact animals and using appropriate protocols (e.g., encompassing susceptible life
stages) provide data that are useful for risk assessment. Few chemicals have been subjected to this type
of testing due to the cost and time required to conduct them. Most chemicals have not been tested for
endocrine activity by any means.
The EPA established the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP) to develop a battery of
standardized toxicity tests that can be used to determine whether a particular chemical is an EDC by
USEPAs definition. The program focuses exclusively on chemicals that act by interfering with estrogen,
androgen, or thyroid action these are the best-characterized modes of action. However, EDCs may also
interfere with the functions of other hormones. The EDSP will use a two-tiered testing strategy, with Tier
1 consisting of screening-level tests and Tier 2 consisting of in vivo bioassays that will generate data
suitable for use in risk assessments. This process is not yet complete, but Tier 1 screening of an initial
set of chemicals is expected in fall 2008. (Ref. 1)

6.3

Treatment Solutions

Although some microconstituents can persist through wastewater treatment, current research suggests
that advanced treatment technologies can effectively remove a range of PPCPs to concentrations below
human health risk levels. In addition, some research shows that advanced treatment technologies
following conventional wastewater treatment can significantly reduce the risk to aquatic organisms. (Ref.
1)
Listed below are several treatment processes that have shown promise in removing EDCs.

Activated sludge is used to remove organic carbon and other biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
from wastewater. Microconstituent removal during activated sludge treatment is moderately good for
most compounds, and improves with increased sludge retention times.

Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection treatment is typically used for disinfection of wastewater. It is only
effective at removing microconstituents that are amenable to photodegradation, which is a fraction of
the compounds that are observed in wastewater. Removal of microconstituents can be greatly
improved by adding hydrogen peroxide or peracetic acid during UV disinfection.

Granulated activated carbon (GAC) filtration is typically used to remove colors, tastes and odors
from drinking water. GAC provides good removal for most microconstituents when it is regularly
regenerated.

Ozonation is typically used for disinfection to remove color, taste, and odor from drinking water.
Ozonation provides excellent removal for most microconstituents.

Membrane treatment includes microfiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis, which push water
through membranes with progressively smaller pore sizes. Microfiltration and nanofiltration are
typically used to remove fine particles and some particle-associated pollutants. Reverse osmosis is
used to remove all ionic wastewater constituents, and molecules that are significantly larger than

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Microconstituents A Closer Look

Testing and Treatment of Microconstituents

water. Microconstituent removal during membrane treatment improves with reduced pore size, where
mostly particle-associated compounds are removed during microfiltration and nearly all compounds
are removed during reverse osmosis.

Soil aquifer treatment (SAT) is sometimes used to further polish wastewater after conventional
treatment using natural soil filtration, and biodegradation of organic constituents by soil
microorganisms. SAT provides excellent removal for particle-associated compounds, and
compounds that are amenable to biodegradation.

EDC removal rates vary depending on the disinfection technology. Table 6-1 shows approximate
removal percentages for select treatment processes.

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Microconstituents A Closer Look

Testing and Treatment of Microconstituents

Table 6-1: Select Disinfection Technologies for EDC Removal

Endocrine Disrupting
Chemicals (EDCs)

Classification

< 30%
Removal

30%-70%
Removal

> 70%
Removal

Testosterone

Steroid

UV (1), Cl 2 (2)

O3 (3)

Progesterone

Steroid

UV, Cl2

O3

Androstenedione

Steroid

UV, Cl2

O3

Estriol

Steroid

UV

O3, Cl2

Ethynylestradiol

Steroid

UV

O3, Cl2

Estrone

Steroid

UV

O3, Cl2

Estradiol

Steroid

UV

O3, Cl2

Sulfamethoxazole

Antimicrobial

Erythromycin-H2O

Antimicrobial

UV

O3, Cl2

Trimethroprim

Antimicrobial

UV

O3, Cl2

Naproxen

Analgesic

UV

O3, Cl2

Hydrocodone

Analgesic

UV

O3, Cl2

Ibuprofren

Analgesic

UV

Caffeine

Psychoactive

UV, Cl2

O3

Fluoxetine

Psychoactive

UV, Cl2

O3

Meprobamate

Psychoactive

UV, Cl2

Diazepam

Psychoactive

UV, Cl2

O3

Dilantin

Psychoactive

UV, Cl2

O3

Carbamazepine

Psychoactive

UV, Cl2

O3

Deet

Pesticide

UV, Cl2

O3

Metolachlor

Pesticide

UV

Cl2

Atrazine

Herbicide

UV, Cl2

O3

Galaxolide

Other

UV, Cl2

Iopromide

Other

UV, Cl2

Pentoxifylline

Other

UV, Cl2

Gemfibrozil

Other

UV

Musk Ketone

Other

UV, Cl3

O3, Cl2

Cl2

O3

O3

O3

O3
O3
O3
Cl2

O3
Cl2

Notes:
1
UV Dose = 40 millijoule per square centimeter (mJ/cm2) for all tests
2

Chlorine Dose = 3.5 mg/L for 24-hours for all tests

Ozone Dose = 2.5 mg/L for all tests

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Microconstituents A Closer Look

Testing and Treatment of Microconstituents

While treatment solutions may exist, it is critical that utilities understand the "bigger picture" related to
assessing the actual threat of microconstituents before committing significant funds to treatment. This
project will develop a list of recommendations for sampling and testing of microconstituents. In addition,
the capital improvement plan will include space and hydraulic alternatives for future treatment
requirements.

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Appendix A

Microconstituents A Closer Look

Glossary of Acronyms and Terms

Appendix A Glossary of Acronyms and Terms

Acronym or Term

Definition

ADI

Acceptable Daily Intakes

BOD

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

CDPH

California Department of Public Health

CL2

Chlorine

EDCs

Endocrine Disrupting Compounds

EDSP

Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program

Endocrine Disrupting
Compounds

Endocrine disrupting chemicals are substances that can interfere with

the actions of hormones in the body.

EPA

Environmental Protection Agency

FDA

Food and Drug Administration

GAC

Granulated activated carbon

mg

Milligrams

mg/L

Milligrams per liter

mg/L

Milligrams per Liter

Microconstituents

Microconstituents are chemicals found in a wide array of goods,

including pharmaceuticals and personal care products. Some of the
microconstituents are considered Endocrine Disrupting Compounds
(EDCs). Sometimes also known as "emerging pollutants of concern."

mJ/cm2

Millijoule per Square Centimeter

NDMA

N-Nitrosodimethylamine

ng/L

Sub-nanogram per Liter

NIST

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Oxygen

PAHs

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

PCBs

Polychlorinated Biphenyls

PhACs

Pharmaceutically-Active Compounds

PPCPs

Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products

SAT

Soil Aquifer Treatment

UK

United Kingdom

USEPA

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

USGS

U.S. Geological Survey

UV

Ultraviolet

WERF

Water Environment Research Foundation

WWTF

Wastewater Treatment Facility

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Appendix B

Microconstituents A Closer Look

References

Appendix B References
Reference
Number

Reference Information

Snyder, Shane A. Ph.D. "Occurrence and Impact of Endocrine Disrupting

Chemicals in Water and Wastewater" Carollo Engineers Research
Solutions (Special Edition) September 2008.

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Tech Beat.

December 22, 2005.

Environmental Science and Technology. September 1, 2004.

Presence and Distribution of Wastewater-Derived Pharmaceuticals In Soil

Irrigated and Reclaimed Water

NPR Science Friday. September 15, 2006.

Stephen A. Bortone and William P. Davis. Fish Intersexuality as Indicator

of Environmental Stress, BioScience, vol. 44, no. 3 (March, 1994), 165172.

Rengao. Pharmaceuticals in US Drinking Water and Beyond. Louisville

Water Company, referring to AWWARF Study Project #3085.

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Appendix B

Microconstituents

References

Record of Change
Version 1.0
Location in Document

Date: 10/2008
Description of Change

First release of this document

Version 1.1
Whole Document

Date: 3/2010

Minor formatting changes to match current WWTFSP standards

Date:

WWTFSP_App.F7-1.1

October 2008

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