Electromagnetism

Christopher R Prior

Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics

ASTeC Intense Beams Group

Trinity College, Oxford

Rutherford Appleton Laboratory

Contents

Maxwells equations and Lorentz Force Law

Motion of a charged particle under constant

Electromagnetic fields

Relativistic transformations of fields

Electromagnetic waves

Waves in a uniform conducting guide

Simple example TE01 mode

Propagation constant, cut-off frequency
Group velocity, phase velocity
Illustrations

Reading

J.D. Jackson: Classical Electrodynamics

H.D. Young and R.A. Freedman: University Physics

(with Modern Physics)

P.C. Clemmow: Electromagnetic Theory

Feynmann Lectures on Physics

W.K.H. Panofsky and M.N. Phillips: Classical

Electricity and Magnetism

G.L. Pollack and D.R. Stump: Electromagnetism

What is electromagnetism?

The study of Maxwells equations, devised in 1863 to represent

the relationships between electric and magnetic fields in the
presence of electric charges and currents, whether steady or
rapidly fluctuating, in a vacuum or in matter.

The equations represent one of the most elegant and concise

way to describe the fundamentals of electricity and magnetism.
They pull together in a consistent way earlier results known
from the work of Gauss, Faraday, Ampre, Biot, Savart and
others.

Remarkably, Maxwells equations are perfectly consistent with

the transformations of special relativity.

Maxwells Equations

Relate Electric and Magnetic fields generated by charge

and current distributions.
E = electric field
D = electric displacement
H = magnetic field
B = magnetic flux density
= charge density
j = current density
0 (permeability of free space) = 4 10-7
0 (permittivity of free space) = 8.854 10-12
c (speed of light) = 2.99792458 108 m/s

r
D =
r
B = 0
r
r
B
E =
t
r
r r D
H = j +
t

r
r r
r
In vacuum D = 0 E , B = 0 H , 0 0 c 2 = 1

Maxwells 1st Equation

Equivalent to Gauss Flux Theorem:
r
r r 1
E =
E dS =

dV =
V

r
E =

The flux of electric field out of a closed region is proportional to

the total electric charge Q enclosed within the surface.
A point charge q generates an electric field
r
E=
r r
E dS =

sphere

q
4 0 r 3

r
r

dS q
r 2 = 0
4 0 sphere

Area integral gives a measure of the net charge

enclosed; divergence of the electric field gives the density
of the sources.

Maxwells 2nd Equation

r
B = 0

r
B = 0
r r
B dS = 0

Gauss law for magnetism:

The net magnetic flux out of any
closed surface is zero. Surround a
magnetic dipole with a closed surface.
The magnetic flux directed inward
towards the south pole will equal the
flux outward from the north pole.
If there were a magnetic monopole
source, this would give a non-zero
integral.
Gauss law for magnetism is then a statement that
There are no magnetic monopoles

Maxwells 3rd Equation

r
r
B
E =
t

Equivalent to Faradays Law of Induction:

r
r r
B r
S E dS = S t dS
r
r r
d
d

B
d
S
E
d
l
(for a fixed circuit C)
C
dt
dt
S

The electromotive
force round a
r r
circuit = E dl is proportional to
the rate of change of flux of magnetic
r r
field, = B dl through the circuit.

Faradays Law is the basis for electric generators. It also forms the
basis for inductors and transformers.

Maxwells 4th Equation

r
r
r 1 E
B = 0 j + 2
c t
r
r
B = 0 j

Originates from Ampres (Circuital) Law :

r r
r r
r r
B dl = B dS = 0 j dS = 0 I

Ampre

Satisfied by the field for a steady line current (Biot-Savart Law,

1820):

r 0 I
B=
4
Biot

r r
dl r
r3

For a straight line current

0 I
B =
2r

Need for displacement current

Faraday: vary B-field, generate E-field

Maxwell: varying E-field should then produce a B-field, but not covered by Ampres
Law.
Apply Ampre to surface 1 (flat disk): line
integral of B = 0I
Surface 2
Surface 1

Current I

Closed loop

Applied to surface 2, line integral is zero

since no current penetrates the deformed
surface.
Q
dQ
dE
In capacitor, E =
, so I =
= 0 A
0 A
dt
dt
r
r
E

j
=
Displacement current density is d
0
t

r
r
r r
r
E
B = 0 ( j + jd ) = 0 j + 0 0
t

Consistency with charge conservation

Charge conservation: Total

current flowing out of a region equals
the rate of decrease of charge within

From Maxwells equations:

Take divergence of (modified)
Ampres equation

the volume.

r r
d
j d S = dt dV
r

j dV = t dV
r
j +
=0
t

r
r 1
B = 0 j + 2
E
c t
r

0 = 0 j + 0 0
t 0
r
0 = j +
t

Charge conservation is implicit in Maxwells Equations

Maxwells Equations in Vacuo

In vacuum

r
r r
r
1
D = 0 E , B = 0 H , 0 0 = 2
c

Source-free equations:
r
B = 0
v
r B
E+
=0
t

Source equations
r
E =

r
v 1 E
r
B 2
= 0 j
c t

Equivalent integral forms

(sometimes useful for
simple geometries)

r v 1
E dS =

dV

r r
B dS = 0

r r
r r
d
d

E
d
l
B
d
S

dt
dt
r r
r r
r r 1 d
B dl = 0 j dS + c 2 dt E dS

Example: Calculate E from B

r r
d r
E dl = dt B dS

B0 cos t
Bz =
0

Also from

r < r0

r > r0
r
r
B
E =
t

r < r0

2 rE = r 2 B0 cos t

B0 r
E =
cos t
2

r > r0

2 rE = r02 B0 cos t

E =

r02 B0
2r

cos t

r
r
r 1 E then gives current density necessary
B = 0 j + 2
c dt to sustain the fields

Lorentz force law

Supplement to Maxwells equations, gives force on a charged

particle moving in an electromagnetic field:
r
r r r
f = q E+v B
r
r r r
For continuous distributions, have a force density f d = E + j B

Relativistic equation of motion

r r
v f
dP
F=

,
d
c

4-vector form:

r
r
1 dE dp
f =
,
c dt dt

3-vector component:

r
r r r
r
d
(m0 v ) = f = q E + v B
dt

Motion of charged particles in constant

electromagnetic fields

r
r r r
r
d
(m0 v ) = f = q E + v B
dt

Constant E-field gives uniform

acceleration in straight line
q
d r
(
)

v
=
E
Solution of dt
m0
2

qEt
m0 c 2
1
x=
1 +

qE
m0 c

1 qE 2

t for qE << m0 c
2 m0

Energy gain = qEx

Constant magnetic field gives

uniform spiral about B with
constant energy.
r
r
v// = constant
dv
q r r
=
vB
r
dt m0
x = constant

Relativistic Transformations of E and B

r
r
According to observer O in frame F, particle has velocity v, fields are E and B

and Lorentz force is

r)
r
f = qE

r
r r r
f = q E+v B

In Frame F, particle is at rest and force is

Assume measurements give same charge and force, so

r
r r
q = q and E = E + v B

r
Point charge q at rest in F: E =

See a current in F, giving a field

r r 1 r r
B = B 2 v E
c

Suggests

r
r
r
, B=0
3
4 0 r
q

Exact:

r r
r
0 q v r
1 r r
= 2 vE
B=
3
4 r
c

r
r
r
r r
E = E + v B , E// = E//
r
r
r
r

vE r
B = B 2 , B// = B//
c

Electromagnetic waves

Maxwells equations predict the existence of electromagnetic waves, later discovered

by Hertz.

No charges, no currents:

r
r D
H =
t
r
D = 0

r
r
B
E =
t
r
B = 0

r
r
B
E =
t
r
r
r
2
r

E = E E
=
B
r
2
t
= E
r
r
2D
2E
=
=
2
t 2 3D wave equation :
t

r
r
r
r
2
2
2
2
r
E E E
E
2 E = 2 + 2 + 2 = 2
x
y
z
t

Nature of electromagnetic waves

A general plane wave

r with angular frequency travelling in the direction of
the wave vector k has the form

r r
r r
r r
r r
E = E 0 exp[ j ( t k x )] B = B0 exp[ j ( t k x )]
r r
Phase t k x = 2 number of waves and so is a Lorentz invariant.
Apply Maxwells equations
r
r
r
jk
E = 0 = B

r
r&
j
E = B
t

r r
r r
k E = 0 = k B
r r
r
k E =B

Waves are transverse to the direction of propagation, and

r
k are mutually perpendicular

s r
E, B

and

Plane electromagnetic wave

Plane Electromagnetic Waves

r
r 1 E
B = 2
c t

r r
r
k B= 2E
c

r r
r
Combined with k E = B
r
E kc 2
deduce that r = =

B k

2
Wavelength = r
k

Frequency =
2

speed of wave in vacuum is

r =c
k

r r
The fact that t k x is an invariant tells
us that

r
= ,k
c
is a Lorentz 4-vector, the 4-Frequency vector.
Deduce frequency transforms as

r r
cv
= v k =
c+v

Waves in a conducting medium

r
r
For a medium of conductivity , j = E

r r
r&
r
r&
Modified Maxwell: H = j + E = E + E

Put

r r
r r
E = E 0 exp[ j ( t k x )]

r r
r r
B = B0 exp[ j ( t k x )]

r r
r
r
j k H = E + j E

Dissipation factor

D=

conduction
current

displacement
current

Copper : = 5.8 107 , = 0

D = 1012

Teflon : = 3 10-8 , = 2.1 0

D = 2.57 10 4

Attenuation in a Good Conductor

r r
r
r
j k H = E + j E

r r
r
r&
r
Combine with E = B k E = H
r r r
r r
r
k k E = k H = ( j + )E

k 2 = ( j + )

>>

For a good conductor D >> 1,

Wave form is
where

k 2 j

x
x
exp j t exp



2

is the skin - depth

copper.mov

water.mov

(1 j )

Maxwells Equations in a uniform perfectly

conducting guide
z

Hollow metallic cylinder with perfectly

conducting boundary surfaces

Maxwells equations with time dependence exp(jt)are:

r
r
r
r
r
r
2
B
E = E E
E =
= j H
r
t

= j H
r
r D
r
r
2
H =
= j E
= E
t

144444444444244
4444444443
r

E
2

+ r = 0

r
r
Assume E ( x, y, z , t ) = E ( x, y )e ( j t z )
r
r
H ( x, y, z , t ) = H ( x, y )e ( j t z )
is the propagation constant

r
E
Then t2 + ( 2 + 2 ) r = 0
H

Can solve for the fields completely

in terms of Ez and Hz

Special cases

Transverse magnetic (TM modes):

Hz=0 everywhere, Ez=0 on cylindrical boundary

Transverse electric (TE modes):

Ez=0 everywhere,

H z
= 0 on cylindrical boundary
n

Transverse electromagnetic (TEM modes):

Ez=Hz=0 everywhere
requires 2 + 2 = 0 or = j

A simple model with Ez=0

Transport between two infinite parallel conducting plates:

r
E = (0,1,0) E ( x) e ( j t z )

where E ( x) satisfies

2
d
E
2t E = 2 = K 2 E , K 2 = 2 + 2
dx
sin
i.e. E = A Kx
cos

y
x

To satisfy boundary conditions, E=0 on x=0 and x=a, so

E = A sin Kx, K = Kn =
a
x=

0
x=

n
, n integer
a

Propagation constant is = K n2 2
=

n
a

1
c

where c =

Kn

Cut-off frequency, c
2

n
n
nx j t z
e
1 , E = A sin
, c =
a
a
a
c

<c gives real solution for , so

attenuation only. No wave propagates:

cut-off modes.

>c gives purely imaginary solution for

, and a wave propagates without
attenuation.

= jk , k = (
2

2
c

= 1

only a finite
number of modes can propagate.
n
a
> c =
n<

2
c
2

For a given frequency

For given frequency,

convenient to choose a s.t.
only n=1 mode occurs.

Propagatedr electromagnetic fields

From

r
B
E =
,
t

(assuming A is real)

Ak
n x
H
=

sin
cos( t kz )

x
a
r
r

j
H=
Hy = 0
E

A n
n x
cos
H z =
sin ( t kz )
a
a

Phase and group velocities

Plane wave exp j(t-kx) has

constant phase t-kx at peaks

t k x = 0

x
vp =

j [ ( k ) t kx ]
A
(
k
)
e
dk

Superposition of plane waves. While

shape is relatively undistorted,
pulse travels with the group velocity

d
vg =
dk

Wave packet structure

Phase velocities of individual plane waves making up

the wave packet are different,

The wave packet will then disperse with time

Phase and group velocities in the simple

wave guide

k =

Wave number is

so wavelength in guide =
Phase velocity is v p =

>

2
c

<

2
2
>
, the
k

free-space wavelength

, larger than free-space velocity

Group velocity is less than infinite space value

k =
2

2
c

d
k
vg =
=
<
dk

Calculation of wave properties

If a=3 cm, cut-off frequency of lowest order mode is

c
1
=
5 GHz
2 2a

fc =

At 7 GHz, only the n=1 mode propagates and

k =

2
c

103 m 1

2
6 cm
k

vp =
vg =

4.3 108 ms 1

= 2.1 108 ms 1

Waveguide animations

TE1 mode above cut-off

ppwg_1-1.mov

TE1 mode, smaller

ppwg_1-2.mov

TE1 mode at cut-off

ppwg_1-3.mov

TE1 mode below cut-off

ppwg_1-4.mov

TE1 mode, variable

ppwg_1_vf.mov

TE2 mode above cut-off

ppwg_2-1.mov

TE2 mode, smaller

ppwg_2-2.mov

TE2 mode at cut-off

ppwg_2-3.mov

TE2 mode below cut-off

ppwg_2-4.mov