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Notes Water Supply Engineering
Notes Water Supply Engineering
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Importance of Water
Man and animals not only consume water, but they also consume vegetation for their
food. Vegetation, in turn, cannot grow without water.
Growth of vegetation also depends upon bacterial action, while bacteria need water in
order to thrive.
Good sanitation cannot be maintained without adequate water supply system.
Man needs water for drinking, cooking, cleaning and washing.
Water maintains an ecological balance balance in the relationship between living
things and environment in which they live.
1.2 Definition of Types of Water
1.2.1 Pure and Impure Water
Pure water contains only 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen. It is not good for
health as pure water does not contain essential minerals required for human health.
Impure water, besides 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen, contains other
elements.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
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Point Source: occurs when harmful substances are emitted directly into a body of
water. E.g. pipe from an industrial facility emitted directly into a body of water.
b) Nonpoint Source: delivers pollutants through transport or environmental charge. E.g.
fertilizer from a farm field carried into a stream by rain.
1.3 Historical Development of Water Supply System
What is Water Supply System?
Water Supply System is a network of pipelines of various sizes with control valves for carrying
water to all streets and supplying water to the consumers.
Continuous
Intermittent
- Water is available 24
hours a day and seven
days a week.
Historical Development
Most of the historical community settlements throughout the world were made near
springs, lakes and rivers from where water for drinking and irrigation purposes was
obtained.
In the ninth century, few important water supply structures were constructed by the
Moors in Spain. In the 12th century, small aqueduct was constructed in Paris. In
London, spring water was brought by means of lead pipes and masonry conduits in the
thirteenth century.
During the first phase of the Industrial Revolution, large impounding reservoirs were
developed due to the necessity of feeding canals.
The first water filter was constructed in 1804 by John Gibb at Paisley in Scotland.
The first permanent use of chlorination originated under the direction of Sir Alexander
Houston at Lincoln in 1905.
1.4 Objectives of Water Supply System
The quintessential objective of water supply system is to supply water equitably to the
consumers with sufficient pressure so as to discharge the water at the desired location within
the premises.
Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147)
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CHAPTER II
SOURCES OF WATER
2.1 Classification of Sources of Water
Sources of Water
Surface Source
SubSurface/Under
ground/Ground
Source
River, Stream,
Lake, Pond,
Impounded
Reservoir
Spring, Well,
Infiltration
Gallery,
Infiltration Well
Natural channel
Main source: either natural precipitation or snow-fed
Perennial and non-perennial rivers
Vast catchment area; hence, amount of water is large
Contaminated source
2.2.2 Streams
Natural drainage
Less catchment area
Source: Melting snow or precipitation
Found in hilly, mountain areas
Low quantity of water
Potable water
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2.2.4 Ponds
May 0.51
September 4
February 1.99
June 1
October 5
March 1
July 2
November 4
April 0
August 3
December 2.8
The river supplies water to a community having a constant demand of 6202 million litres/month.
Determine the capacity of impounded reservoir.
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ANALYTICAL METHOD
(
II.
Demand
(ML)
6202
6202
6202
6202
6202
6202
6202
6202
6202
6202
6202
6202
74424
Cumulative Cumulative
Surplus Deficit
Inflow
Demand
(ML)
(ML)
(ML)
(ML)
7954.848
6202
1752.85
12769.056
12404
365.056
15447.456
18606
3158.54
15447.456
24808
9360.54
16813.44
31010
14196.6
19405.44
37212
17806.6
24762.24
43414
18651.8
32797.44
49616
16818.6
43165.44
55818
12652.6
56557.44
62020
5462.56
66925.44
68222
1296.56
74424.96
74424
0.96
GRAPHICAL METHOD
The largest possible positive difference (perpendicular distance between the two
graphs) gives the value of maximum surplus.
The largest possible negative difference (cumulative demand more) gives the value
of maximum deficit.
The difference between the ends of the curves gives the value of the required
capacity of impounded reservoir.
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30000
20000
10000
0
0
10
12
Months
Page 8
2.3.2 Springs
A spring is the natural outflow of ground water appearing at the earths surface as a current of
stream of flowing water under the suitable geological conditions. Most favourable conditions
for spring formation occur in Nepal and may be suitable for water supply schemes in village
areas in hilly region of Nepal.
Springs are capable of supplying small quantity of water so it cant be used as a source of water
to big towns but a well developed or combinations of the various springs can be used for water
supply especially villages near hills or bases of hills. The quality of water in spring is generally
good and may contain sulphur in certain springs which discharge hot water which can be used
only for taking dips for the cure of certain skin diseases. It may be less costly because it may
not need treatment plant. Springs may be classified into the following two types:
a. Gravity Springs
b. Non Gravity Springs
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Gravity Springs
These springs result from water flowing under hydrostatic pressure and they are of the
following three types:
i.
Depression Spring
These springs are formed due to the overflowing of the water table, where the ground surface
intersects the water table. The flow from such spring is variable with the rise or fall of water
table and hence in order to meet with such fluctuations, a deep trench may be constructed
near such spring. The deeper the trench, the greater is the certainty of continuous flow
because the saturated ground above the elevation of the trench bottom will act as a storage
reservoir to compensate for the fluctuations of the water table.
ii.
These are created by a permeable water bearing formation overlying a less permeable or
impermeable formation that intersects the ground surface. However, in such springs, because
of the relatively small amount of underground storage available above the elevation of the
overflow crest, the flow from them is uncertain and likely to cease after a drought. Such
springs can also be developed by the construction of a cutoff trench or a cutoff wall.
iii.
Artesian Spring
These springs result from release of water under pressure from confined aquifers either at an
outcrop of the aquifer or through an opening in the confining bed. The amount of water
available in an artesian spring may be large if the catchment area is large. The flow may be
slightly increased by removal of obstructions from the mouth of the spring.
2. Non Gravity Springs
Non gravity springs include volcanic spring (associated with volcanic rocks) and fissure spring
(results from fractures extending to the great depths in the earths crust). These are also called
hot springs and contain high minerals as well as sulphur also.
2.3.3 Wells
A well is a hole or shaft, usually vertical and excavated in the ground for bringing groundwater
to the surface. Wells are classified as follows:
1.
They are of large diameters (1 to 10 m), low yields and not very deep (2 to 20 m). These are
constructed by digging hence also called dug wells. The walls may be of brick, stone masonry
or precast rings and thickness varies from 0.5 to 0.75 m depending upon the depth of the well.
It is also further classified as following two types:
i.
ii.
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4. Artesian Well
It is the well from where water flows automatically under pressure. Mostly they are found in
the valley portion of the hills where aquifers on the both sides are inclined towards valley. The
HGL (Hydraulic Gradient Line) passes much above the mouth of well, which causes flow
under pressure. The water flows out in the form of fountain upto a height of 2.5 m depending
upon hydrostatic pressure. Some wells, which flow continuously throughout the year and can
be stored in reservoir and taken for water supply. The quality of water in artesian wells may be
good but sometimes it contains minerals and can be used after certain treatment.
2.3.4 Infiltration Galleries and Wells
Infiltration Gallery
Infiltration Gallery is a horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel, usually rectangular (arched
also) in cross section and having permeable boundaries so that ground water can infiltrate
into it. Hence, it is also called horizontal well. It is generally located near a perennial recharge
source such as the bank or under bed of a river and 3 to 10 meters below the ground. It is also
used to collect ground water near marshy land or water bodies and stored in storage tank and
then used for water supply.
Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147)
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CHAPTER III
QUANTITY OF WATER
3.1 Per Capita Demand of Water
It is the average quantity of water required by a person in a day. The unit is lpcd (litres per
capita demand of water).
ii.
Base Period: It is the period between survey year and base year during which the
works of survey, design and construction are completed. Base Period is generally taken
as 2 to 3 years.
iii.
iv.
Design Period: Any water supply project is planned to meet the present requirements
of community as well as the requirement for a reasonable future period (up to service
year). This period between Base Year and Service or Design Year is taken as Design
Period. It is generally 15 to 20 years. This period is taken 15 years in communities where
the population growth rate is higher and 20 years in communities where population
growth rate is comparatively lower.
v.
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Expandability aspect.
Available resources.
S.N.
Types of Consumption
1
2
3
112
65
45 (can come down to 25)
Quantity of water required for domestic animals and livestock including birds.
Generally considered in rural water supply.
Livestock demand should not be greater than 20% of domestic demand.
S.N.
Types of Consumption
Water Demand
(lpcd)
1
2
3
45
20
0.2
Quantity of water required for commercial institutions like schools, colleges, hospitals,
offices, etc.
For commercial and institutional purpose, 45 lpcd can be taken.
Page 15
Institutions
a. Hospitals/Health Posts/Clinics
i. With Bed
ii. Without Bed
b. Schools
i. Boarders
ii. Day Scholars
c. Hotels
i. With Bed
ii. Without Bed
d. Restaurants/Tea Stall
e. Offices
i. Unclassified
ii. Resident
iii. Non resident
Demand
Urban Area
Rural Area
500 l/bed/day
2,500 l/day
325-500 l/bed/day
1600-2500 l/hospital/day
65 lpcd
10 lpcd
42-60 lpcd
6.5-10 lpcd
200 l/bed/day
500-1000 l/day
500-1000 l/day
200 l/bed/day
500-1000 l/day
200-500 l/day
500-1000 l/day
65 lpcd
10 lpcd
325-1000 l/office/day
65 lpcd
10 lpcd
Considered only in urban areas for municipal purposes e.g. cleaning roads, for public
parks.
We adopt criteria by Indian Government.
i.
Street Washing = 1 to 1.5 l/m2 of surface area of road/day
ii.
Public Parks
= 1.4 l/m2/day
iii.
Sewer Cleaning = 4.5 l/person/day
3.3.5 Industrial Demand
Page 16
If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet all the
fluctuations. There are three types of variations in demand of water.
Seasonal Variation: The demand peaks during summer. Fire breaks out generally more
in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation. Maximum seasonal
consumption is 140% and minimum seasonal consumption is 80% of average daily per
capita demand.
Daily Variation: Daily variation is due to the variation in activities. People draw out
more water on holidays and festival days, thus increasing demand on these days. Daily
variation may also occur due to climatic condition (rainy day or dry day) and the
character of the city (industrial, commercial or residential). Maximum daily
consumption is 180% of average daily per capita demand.
Hourly Variation: Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range.
During active household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to
eight in the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours,
the variation in requirement is negligible. The maximum hourly consumption is 150% of
average daily per capita demand.
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Standard of Living: The higher the standard of living is, the higher the demand and
greater the variation in demand.
Quality of Water: If water is aesthetically and medically safe, the consumption will
increase as people will not resort to private wells, etc.
Pressure in the Distribution System: Higher pressure results in increased use while
lower pressure results in decreased use.
Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services and
unauthorized use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.
Cost of Water
Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charge in two different ways: on
the basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
Year
Population
Increase in
Population
% increase
in
Population
Incremental
increase in
Population
Decrease in %
increase of
Population
1981
1991
2001
2011
8000
12000
17000
22500
Total
Average
4000
5000
5500
14500
A = 4833
50
41.67
32.35
124.02
G = 41.34
1000
500
1500
I = 750
8.33
9.32
17.65
D = 8.82
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Gives high result than arithmetical increase method so, much safer result.
(
This method combines both the above two methods gives value between the above
two methods.
(
% increase
32.35 8.82 = 23.53
23.53 8.82 = 14.71
14.71 8.82 = 5.89
-ve (so zero constant)
Page 20
) (
) (
The survey data collected for a water supply scheme in a village of Nepal is given below:
Survey Year 2013
Population 500
Number of cows 20
boarders
in
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CHAPTER IV
QUALITY OF WATER
4.1 Impurities in water, their classification and effects
4.1.1 Suspended Impurities
E.g. sand, silt, algae, virus
Characteristics:
Effects
Alkalinity
Alkalinity and hardness
Hardness
Hardness, corrosion
Cumulative poisoning
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Arsenic
Iron Oxide
Manganese
Barium
Cadmium
Cyanide
Boron
Selenium
Silver
Nitrates
Toxicity, poisoning
Taste, red colour, corrosiveness, hardness
Black or brown colour
Toxic effect on heart, nerves
Toxic, illness
Fatal
Affects central nervous system
Highly toxic to animals and fish
Discoloration of skin, eyes
Blue baby condition, infant poisoning, colour and
acidity
c. Gases
i.
Oxygen
ii.
Carbon
iii.
Hydrogen Sulphide
Corrosive to metals
Acidity, corrosiveness
Odour, acidity and corrosiveness
Types of
Hardness
Permanent
Hardness
Temporary
Hardness
Permanent hardness is due to the presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and
magnesium and is also known as non-carbonate hardness (NCH). Permanent hardness cant
be removed by simple boiling but requires special treatment of softening.
Temporary hardness is known as carbonate hardness (CH) and due to the presence of
carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It can be removed by boiling or by
adding lime. On boiling, CO2 escapes and insoluble CaCO3 gets precipitated. So, temporary
hardness causes deposition of Ca scales in boilers.
Total Hardness (TH) = CH + NCH
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0 50
Soft
50 100
100 150
150 250
> 250
Moderately
Slightly Hard
Moderately
Hard
Soft
Hard
The hardness of water is also expressed as the degree of hardness. It may be Clark Scale,
French Scale or American Scale.
Clarks Scale: 1 Cl = Power of soap destroying is equivalent to the effect of 14.254 mg of
calcium carbonate present in one litre of water which causes wastage of about 0.6 gm of soap
in 1 litre of water (i.e. 14.254 ppm).
French Scale: 1 Fr = Power of soap destroying is equivalent to the effect of 10 mg of calcium
carbonate present in one litre of water.
American Scale: 1 Am = Power of soap destroying is equivalent to the effect of 17.15 mg of
calcium carbonate present in one litre of water.
4.2.2 Types of Alkalinity
Alkalinity is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water. It is an aggregate of the sum
of all titratable bases in the sample. When pH of water is > 7, it is said to be alkaline. Alkalinity
--
in most natural waters is due to the presence of carbonate (CO3 ), bicarbonate (HCO3 ), and
-
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Alkalinity
Alkalinity due
to Bicarbonate
Alkalinity due
to Carbonate
[
[
]
]
Find Total Hardness (TH), Carbonate Hardness (CH) and Non-Carbonate Hardness (NCH).
Solution:
Here, TA > TH
Hence, Carbonate Hardness (CH) = Total Hardness (TH) = 371.52 mg/l
Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147)
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++
++
The analysis of a water sample shows the following results in mg/l. Ca = 7, Mg =
+
+
-12, Na = 20, K = 25, HCO3 = 68, SO4 = 7, Cl = 40. The concentration of Sr is equal
to hardness of 2.52 mg/l and the carbonate alkalinity in water is zero. Calculate TH,
CH and NCH.
2. Total hardness obtained from the analysis of water is found to be 117 mg/l. The analysis
further showed that the concentrations of all the three principle cations causing
hardness are numerically same. If the value of CH = 57 mg/l, calculate:
i.
NCH.
ii.
The concentration of principle cation (Ca, Mg, Sr)
iii.
Total Alkalinity (TA)
4.3 Living Organisms in Water
a.
b.
c.
d.
Algae
Bacteria
Virus
Helminthes or Worms
Water borne
diseases
Bacterial
diseases
Protozoal
diseases
Virus diseases
Helminthic
(worm) diseases
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Improve the quality of drinking water at source, at the tap, or in the storage vessel
Interrupting the routes of transmission
Protecting food from flies interrupts the faeces-flies-food route (at a household level).
Chlorination of water interrupts the faeces-fluids-food and drinking water route (at
the community level).
Increase the quantity of water available. This allows better hygiene and can thus
prevent disease transmission from contaminated hands, food or household utensils.
Changing hygiene behaviour.
Care in disposing of faeces. Safe and protective measures should be adopted to avoid
contamination and to destroy infectious organisms while handling and disposing of
infant and toddler faeces.
Proper use and maintenance of water supply and sanitation systems.
Good food hygiene.
ii.
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Test for pH
(H ) x (OH ) = 10
-14
Water becomes acidic when concentration of H ions is increased and alkaline when
concentration of H ions is decreased.
( )
( )
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Presumptive Phase
This test is based on the ability of coliform group (E-coli) to ferment the lactose broth and
producing gas.
Procedure:
i.
ii.
iii.
Definite amount of diluted samples of water are taken in multiples of ten, such as 0.1
ml, 1.0 ml, 10 ml etc. Then, the samples are placed in standard fermentation tubes
containing lactose broth and then kept in the incubator at a temperature of 37C for a
period of 48 hours.
If gas formed is seen in the tubes, it is the indication of presence of E. coli group and
result is +ve. If no gas is formed, the result is _ve.
ve result in presumptive test indicates the water is fit for drinking.
2. Confirmed Phase
The other bacteria than E. coli present also may ferment in presumptive test so the confirmed
test to indicate E. coli is necessary. This test consists of growing cultures of coliforms on media
which suppress the growth of other organisms.
Procedure:
i.
ii.
3. Completed Phase
This test is based on the ability of the culture grown in the confirmed test to again ferment the
lactose broth.
Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147)
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iii.
The bacterial colonies or cultures grown in the confirmed test are kept into lactose
broth fermentation tubes and agar tubes.
The tubes are then kept in the incubator at 37C for a period of 24 to 48 hours. If gases
are seen in tubes after this period, it indicates the presence of E. coli and the test is +ve
and it contains the pathogens, then detailed tests are necessary for pathogens.
If result is ve, it indicates the absence of E. coli and hence absence of pathogens.
Example:
If we take 10 test tubes out of which 3 test tubes are positive after third test and in each test
tube, 1 ml of sample is kept,
No. of positive tubes = 3
ml of sample in negative tubes = 7
ml of sample in all tubes = 10
where, x = sample
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In water treatment plant, the pH values of incoming and outgoing waters are 7.3 and
8.5 respectively. Assuming a linear variation of pH with time, determine the average
pH value of time.
There are two samples A and B of water, having pH values of 4.4 and 6.4 respectively.
Calculate how many times sample A is acidic than sample B.
Find out the pH of a mixture formed by mixing the following two solutions.
Vol. 300 ml - pH = 7, Vol. 700 ml - pH = 5.
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CHAPTER - V
INTAKES
5.1 Definition
Intakes are the structures used for safely withdrawing water from the source over
predetermined pool levels and then to discharge this water into the withdrawal conduit,
through which it flows up to water treatment plant.
5.2 Site selection of an intake
Factors governing location of intake:
1. As far as possible, the site should be near the treatment plant so that the cost of
conveying water to the city is less.
2. The intake must be located in the purer zone of the source to draw best quality water
from the source, thereby reducing load on the treatment plant.
3. The intake must never be located at the downstream or in the vicinity of the point of
disposal of wastewater.
4. The site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if required at a future
date.
5. The intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even during the
driest period of the year.
6. The intake site should remain easily accessible during floods and should not get
flooded. Moreover, the flood water should not be concentrated in the vicinity of the
intake.
5.3 Classification of Intake
1. According to source types
2. According to its position
3. According to water available in the chamber
1. a. River Intake
An intake tower constructed at the bank or inside of the river to withdraw water is called river
intake.
These intakes consist of circular or rectangular, masonry or RCC intake tower from where
water can be withdrawn even in the dry period. Several inlets called penstocks for drawing
water are provided at the different levels to permit the withdrawal of water when the water
level drops. All inlet ends are provided with a screen (to prevent the entry of floating matters)
with valves to control the flow of water operation from the control room.
The penstock discharges the water into the intake tower (intake well) from where it is pumped
or flow under gravity.
In dry river intake, there will be no water inside if the tower inlet valves are closed.
Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147)
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In wet river intake, there is water inside the tower even if the inlet valves of the tower are
closed. Since, these types of intakes remain wet, inspection cannot be done easily.
b. Reservoir Intake
There is a large variation in the discharge of river during monsoon and summer. When there
is no sufficient water in the dry period, the water in monsoon is collected in impounded
reservoir by constructing weirs or dams across the river. The intake tower used in such cases is
called reservoir intakes. Two types of reservoir intakes are commonly used to suit the type of
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In case of RCC masonry dams, dry intake is constructed inside the dam itself and only porters
or intake pipes are provided at various levels with control valves.
c. Lake Intake
It is a submersible intake normally constructed at the central portion of the bed of lake for
withdrawal of water because maximum depth of water is available at the central portion of
natural lake. It consists of an intake conduit laid on the bed of lake with its inlet end placed in
the middle of the lake projecting above the bed. The inlet end is then covered by protective
Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147)
Page 37
When intake is constructed on canal for water supply purpose, the intake is called canal
intake. It consists of simple structure constructed on the bank and not necessary to provide
porters at various levels because water level in the canal remains more or less constant. It
consists of a pipe placed in a brick masonry or RCC chamber constructed partly in the canal
bank. On one side of the chamber, an opening is provided with coarse screen to enter water. A
bell-mouth with hemispherical fine screen in the inlet end of the inlet pipe inside is provided
and the outlet pipe is brought through the canal bank and taken to the treatment plant. One
sluice valve operated by a wheel from the top of masonry chamber is provided to control flow
in the inlet pipe.
e. Spring Intake
An intake constructed at the spring source to withdraw water is called spring intake. It is
generally constructed in small rural water supply scheme in Nepal. Spring intake should be
impervious and provided around the source to prevent the source contamination and physical
damage by runoff water. Simply one or more springs can be joined for greater discharge and
all sources should be protected from animals, exposure, runoff and bathing etc. Protection
work is done by fencing, digging catch drain, bioengineering works, etc.
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Page 39
CHAPTER VI
WATER TREATMENT
The available raw water must be treated and purified before they can be supplied to the public
for their domestic, industrial or any other uses.
The layout of conventional water treatment is as follows:
8.
9.
SCREENING: Bulky and floating suspended matters are removed by the process of
screening.
PLAIN SEDIMENTATION: Heavy and coarse suspended matters are removed by the
process of plain sedimentation.
SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION: This process helps to remove fine
suspended and colloidal matters.
FILTRATION: It is the most important stage in the purification process of water. It
removes very fine suspended impurities and micro-organisms.
DISINFECTION: It is carried out to eliminate or reduce pathogenic micro-organisms
that have remained after the process of filtration.
SOFTENING: Removes hardness of water.
AERATION: Aeration removes odour and tastes due to volatile gases like hydrogen
sulphide and due to algae and related organisms. Aeration also oxidize iron and
manganese, increases dissolved oxygen content in water, removes CO2 and reduces
corrosion and removes methane and other flammable gases.
Removal of Fe and Mn.
Removal of other harmful constituents.
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COARSE SCREENS:
Coarse screens are called racks, are usually bar screens, composed of vertical or inclined bars
spaced at equal intervals across a channel through which water flows. Bar screens with
relatively large openings of 75 to 150 mm are provided ahead of pumps, while those ahead of
sedimentation tanks have smaller opening of 50 mm.
Bar screens are usually hand cleaned and sometimes provided with mechanical devices. These
cleaning devices are rakes which periodically sweep the entire screen removing the solids for
further processing or disposal. Hand cleaned racks are set usually at an angle of 45 to the
horizontal to increase the effective cleaning surface and also facilitate the raking operations.
Mechanically cleaned racks are generally erected almost vertically.
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FINE SCREENS:
Fine screens are mechanically cleaned devices using perforated plates, woven wire cloth or
very closely spaced bars with clear openings of less than 20 mm. They are used to remove
smaller suspended impurities at the surface or ground water intakes, sometimes alone or
sometimes following a bar screen.
In case of surface intakes, fine screens are usually arranged with rotary drum perforated with
holes and are called rotary drum strainer. Micro strainer also can be used for this purpose
where some device is set up to clean continuously so that fine screens do not get clogged up.
Fine screens normally get clogged and are to be cleaned frequently. So they are avoided
nowadays for surface intakes and fine particles are separated in sedimentation.
HEAD LOSS:
The head loss created by a clean screen may be calculated by considering the flow and the
effective areas of screen openings, the latter being the sum of the vertical projections of the
openings. The head loss through clean flat bar screens is calculated from the following
formula:
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Page 43
Types of Settling
Type I: Discrete Particle Settling: Particles settle individually without interaction with
neighbouring particles.
Type II: Flocculent Particles: Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass and settle
at a faster rate.
Type III: Hindered or Zone Settling: The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with
individual particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other.
Type IV: Compression: The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation can only
occur through compaction of the structure.
6.4.2.1 Derivation of Stokes Law
In Discrete Particle Settling, particles settle individually without interaction with
neighbouring particles. Size, shape and specific gravity of the particles do not change with
time. Settling velocity remains constant.
If a particle is suspended in water, it initially has two forces acting upon it.
If the density of the particle differs from that of the water, a net force is exerted and the
particles are accelerated in the direction of the force:
(
Because the drag force acts in the opposite direction to the driving force and increases as the
square of the velocity, acceleration occurs at a decreasing rate until a steady state velocity is
reached at a point where the drag force equals the driving force:
Page 44
Thus,
(
Also, we have,
( )
Hence,
(
The above equation is called Hazens Equation and applicable for particles having diameter
greater than 0.1 and less than 1 mm and Reynolds Number Re greater than 1 and less than
1000. The nature of settling is neither laminar nor turbulent and so the settling is called
transition settling.
Expressions for CD change with characteristics of different flow regimes.
(
)
)
(
Temperature T (C)
-kinematic viscosity (mm2/s or
centistokes)
0
1.792
5
1.519
10
1.308
)
15
1.141
20
25
1.007 0.897
30
0.804
Hazen further indicated that for particles having diameter d 0.1 mm and Reynolds number
Re 1, Stokes Law is applicable. Mathematically,
Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147)
Page 45
Now,
Putting
, we get,
Thus,
(
These equations are valid for d 0.1 mm and Re 1. In this range, settling of particles is laminar
and so it is termed as laminar settling of particles.
If the nature of settling of particles is turbulent (i.e. 1000 < Re 10000) and d > 1 mm, the value
of CD = 0.4. Then, Hazens equation becomes:
( ) (
Page 46
Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan. Long narrow
rectangular tanks with horizontal flow are generally preferred to the circular tanks
with radial or spiral flow.
In practice, settling occurs in flowing water. An ideal horizontal flow settling tank has the
following characteristics:
At the inlet, the suspension has a uniform composition over the cross-section of the
tank.
The horizontal velocity vo is the same in all parts of the tank.
A particle that reaches the bottom is definitively removed from the process.
6.4.4 Types of Sedimentation Tank
Sedimentation tanks are generally made of RCC and may be rectangular or circular in shape.
According to the method of function or operation, they are classified into:
i.
ii.
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Page 48
Long rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable and flow control for large
volumes is easier with this configuration.
A typical long rectangular tank has length ranging from 2 to 4 times its width. The
bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping. A slow moving mechanical
sludge scraper continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge hopper from where
it is pumped out periodically.
A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different functional zones:
Inlet Zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the cross section such that
the flow through settling zone follows horizontal path.
Settling Zone: Settling occurs under quiescent conditions.
Outlet Zone: Clarified effluent is collected and discharged through outlet weir.
Sludge Zone: For collection of sludge below settling zone.
Inlet and Outlet Arrangements
Inlet Devices: Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water equally and at uniform
velocities. A baffle should be constructed across the basin close to the inlet and should project
several feet below the water surface to dissipate inlet velocities and provide uniform flow.
Outlet Devices: Outlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to maintain velocities
suitable for settling in the basin and to minimize short-circuiting. Weirs shall be adjustable,
and at least equivalent in length to the perimeter of the tank. However, peripheral weirs are
not acceptable as they tend to cause excessive short-circuiting.
Page 49
Circular Basins
Circular settling basins have the same functional zones as the long rectangular basin,
but the flow regime is different. When the flow enters at the centre and is baffled to
flow radially towards the perimeter, the horizontal velocity of the water is
continuously decreasing as the distance from the centre increases. Thus, the particle
path in a circular basin is a parabola as opposed to the straight line path in the long
rectangular tank.
Sludge removal mechanisms in circular tanks are simpler and require less
maintenance.
Page 50
These tanks may be square or circular in shape at the top and have hopper bottom. So it is also
called hopper bottom tank. The flow of water in this tank is vertical. Water enters into the
tank through centrally placed pipe and by the action of deflector box, it travels vertically
downwards. The sludge is collected at the bottom and removed from the sludge pipe with
pump. The clear water flows out through a circumferential weir discharging into the draw off
channel.
6.4.5 Design of Sedimentation Tank
Design of sedimentation tank needs the following:
a. Inlet Zone with appropriate Inlet Structure: Suitable inlet structure should be
designed. It is kept at the halfway between the surface and the floor of the tank and
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b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
mid of the width of the water depth. The length of the inlet zone is taken as 0.2 to 1 m
according to velocity.
Outlet Zone with appropriate Outlet Structure: Suitable outlet structure should be
designed. The length of the outlet zone is taken as 0.2 to 1 m according to velocity.
Sludge Zone: The zone in the bottom of the tank in which sludge is retained before
being removed is called sludge zone. The depth of the sludge zone depends upon the
quantity of sediments in the raw water and the de-sludging period. Depth of sludge
zone is taken as 0.5 to 1.5 m (generally 1 m).
Free Board: The free space left on the top of the water level on the tank is called free
board (FB) and in design FB is taken as 0.1 to 1 m (generally 0.3 to 0.5 m).
Others such as Baffles, Washout/Drain and Overflow etc.: Baffle walls are
provided to improve L/B ratio without increasing tank size. Washout is provided at the
bottom of the sloped portion for drain at cleaning. Overflow is provided just below
from the inlet in suitable side for overflow.
Settling Zone or Effective Zone: Actual settlement occurs in this zone. Hence,
effective dimensions [effective length (l), width (b) and effective depth (d)] of this zone
is very important for design.
Settling Operations
Particles falling through the settling basin have two components of velocity:
1.
2.
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Assume that a settling column is suspended in the flow of the settling zone and that
the column travels with the flow across the settling zone. Consider the particle in the
batch analysis for type-1 settling which was initially at the surface and settled through
the depth of the column Zo, in the time to. If to also corresponds to the time required
for the column to be carried horizontally across the settling zone, then the particle will
fall into the sludge zone and be removed rom the suspension at the point at which the
column reaches the end of the settling zone.
All particles with vt > vo will be removed from suspension at some point along the
settling zone.
Now consider the particle with settling velocity < vo. If the initial depth of this particle
was such that Zp/vt = to, this particle will also be removed. Therefore, the removal of
suspended particles passing through the settling zone will be in proportion to the ratio
of the individual settling velocities to the settling velocity vo.
The time to corresponds to the retention time in the settling zone.
Thus, the depth of the basin is not a factor in determining the size of particles that can be
removed completely in the settling zone. The determining factor is the quantity Q/As, which
has the units of velocity and is referred to as the overflow rate (SOR Surface Overflow Rate
or Surface Loading Rate) qo. This overflow rate is the design factor for settling basins and
corresponds to the terminal settling velocity of the particle that is 100% removed. As =
effective surface area of tank
Removal Efficiency of Sedimentation Tank
Let, is the settling velocity of smaller particles less than SOR (i.e.
( )) and if out of xo
particles, x particles settle down and are removed, the ratio of removal of these particles (x/xo)
is called removal efficiency of sedimentation tank for discrete particles of same size and is
given by,
Page 53
4.
5.
6.
6.5.1 Purpose
Colloidal particles are difficult to separate from water because they do not settle by
gravity and are so small that they pass through the pores of filtration media.
To be removed, the individual colloids must aggregate and grow in size.
The settling down and removal of such fine suspended particles and colloidal matters can be
achieved by chemically assisted sedimentation called sedimentation with coagulation or
clarification. The chemicals added are called coagulants; the formed insoluble gelatinous
precipitate is called floc; the process of adding coagulants to raw water and mixing it
thoroughly is known as coagulation and the process of formation of floc is called flocculation.
If the content of suspended solids in raw water is greater than 50 mg/l, the sedimentation with
coagulation is used to effect more complete removal of the suspended matters.
Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147)
Page 54
The dose of coagulants depends upon turbidity, colour, pH, temperature and the time of the
settlement.
1. Aluminium Sulphates or Alum [Al2(SO4)3.18H2O]
It is the commonly used coagulant for coagulation in water in which alum is added and for
alum water shall contain some alkalinity. If bicarbonate alkalinity is present in water, the floc
formed is given by:
(
) (
If raw water contains little or no alkalinity, then either lime (hydrated lime) or soda ash is
added for alkalinity. Then,
(
(
)
)
(
(
) (
) (
)
)
Amount of alum required depends upon turbidity and colour of raw water. Usual dose is 5
mg/l for relatively clear water to 30 mg/l for highly turbid water. Average dose for normal
water is 14 mg/l but amount to be added is determined by jar test.
Advantages:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
It forms excellent floc which is better than that formed by any other coagulant.
The floc formed is stable and not broken easily.
It is relatively cheap and removes colour, odour and taste.
It doesnt require skilled supervision and produces clear and crystal free water.
Disadvantages:
i.
ii.
iii.
It requires alkalinity ranging pH from 6.5 to 8.5 in water for effective use.
The product calcium sulphate may cause permanent hardness and carbon dioxide may
cause corrosion.
Difficult to dewater the heavy sludge formed because it is not suitable for filling in the
low levels.
2. Iron Salts
The various iron salts used as coagulants are ferrous sulphates, ferric sulphates and ferric
chloride.
Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147)
Page 55
)
(
In above equation, Fe(OH)2 is unstable and absorbs dissolved oxygen and forms the stable
floc.
(
) (
The effective range of pH value for coagulation with ferrous sulphates and lime is 8.5 and
above.
2. Ferric Sulphates [Fe2(SO4)3]
It is also used as a coagulant in conjunction with lime and the reaction is:
(
) (
The effective range of pH for coagulation with ferric chloride is 3.5 to 6.5.
Advantages of Iron Salts:
1.
Produces fast forming, denser, quick settling and less breakable floc than alum at low
temperature.
2. Can be used in the wider range of pH and ferric chlorides and/or ferric sulphates may
remove manganese at > 9 pH.
3. Ferric chloride is effective in removing H2S, taste and colour.
Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147)
Page 56
Additional lime increases the treatment cost and iron salts impart more corrosiveness
to water than alum.
2. Iron salts are difficult to handle due to corrosiveness and require skilled supervision on
application.
3. Promotes the growth of bacteria in distribution system.
4. It is suitable for sewage treatment.
) ]
This chlorinated copperas when added to water forms a tough floc which is removed in
sedimentation. The effective range of chlorinated copperas is from pH of 6 to 8. It is effective
to remove colour but very corrosive and common in sewage treatment.
4. Sodium Aluminate [Na2Al2O4]
It is sometimes used as coagulant. This chemical when dissolved and mixed with water reacts
with salts of calcium and magnesium and forms the precipitate of calcium and magnesium
aluminate.
(
Similar chemical reactions take place in case of Mg salts. The effective range of pH for
coagulation with sodium aluminate is 6 to 8.5. This removes temporary and permanent
hardness but very costly and not used in public water supplies and used to treat boiler water.
6.5.3 Mixing Devices (Purpose and Types)
Following operations are involved in sedimentation with coagulation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Page 58
Velocity of flow in the channel should be between 0.15 m/s to 0.45 m/s (between
baffle walls).
Detention period kept is 20 to 50 minutes.
Distance between successive baffle walls should be at least 0.45 m.
End opening between end baffle walls and basin walls should be about 1.5 times the
distance between the successive baffle walls subjected to minimum 0.6 m.
Page 59
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4. Sedimentation
(6.5.5 Clarifier)
The water from the flocculator is taken to the sedimentation tank also called the
sedimentation tank or clarifier. It consists of floc chamber and sedimentation tank. The
detention period for floc chamber is about 15 to 40 minutes and that for sedimentation tank is
about 3 to 4 hours. The surface overflow rate is from 20 to 40 meter cube/meter square/day.
The depth of floc chamber is usually kept about half of the depth of the sedimentation tank.
The cleaning of this tank is usually carried out at an interval of 3 to 6 months.
6.5.6 Jar Test
The jar test is a common laboratory procedure used to determine the optimum operating
conditions for water or wastewater treatment. This method allows adjustments in pH,
variations in coagulant or polymer dose, alternating mixing speeds, or testing of different
coagulant or polymer types, on a small scale in order to predict the functioning of a large scale
treatment operation.
Jar Testing Apparatus
The jar testing apparatus consists of six paddles which stir the contents of six 1 litre containers.
One container acts as a control while the operating conditions can be varied among the
Page 61
Fill the jar testing apparatus containers with sample water. One container will be used
as a control while the other 5 containers can be adjusted depending on what
conditions are being tested. For example, the pH of the jars can be adjusted or
variations of coagulant dosages can be added to determine optimum operating
conditions.
Add the coagulant to each container and stir at approximately 100 rpm for 1 minute.
The rapid mix stage helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each container.
Turn off the mixers and allow the containers to settle for 30 to 45 minutes. Then
measure the final turbidity in each container.
Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 35 rpm and continue mixing for 15 to 20 minutes.
This slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation by enhancing particle
collisions which lead to larger flocs.
Residual turbidity vs. coagulant dose is then plotted and optimal conditions are
determined. The values that are obtained through the experiment are correlated and
adjusted in order to account for the actual treatment system.
6.6 Filtration
6.6.1 Purpose
The resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure and may contain some very fine
suspended particles and bacteria in it. To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still
further, the water is filtered through the beds of fine granular materials such as sand, etc. The
process of passing the water through the beds of such granular materials is known as
filtration.
The main purpose of filtration is to remove colour, odour, taste, bacteria and colloidal
impurities.
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Page 63
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Enclosure Tank: It is open and water tight rectangular tank made of masonry or
concrete. The depth is 2.5 to 3.5 m, surface area is 10 to 20 m2 or more (depends upon
filtration rate), filtration rate is 100 to 200 lph/m2. The floor is provided at cross slope
of 1 in 100 to 1 in 200 towards central drain.
Filter Media: Consists of 90 to 110 cm thick sand layer with effective size (D10) of sand
0.25 to 0.35 mm (0.3 mm is common) and coefficient of uniformity (C u) of 3-5. Finer
the sand better will be the removal of turbidity and bacterial removal efficiency but
lowers the filtration rate. The sand should not contain >2% of Ca and Mg.
Base Material: The sand layer is supported on base material of 30 to 75 cm thick gravel
bed. The gravel beds are provided four layers of each about 15 cm thicknesses with size
3 to 6 mm, 6 to 20 mm, 20 to 40 mm and 40 to 65 mm from the top. Mid layers
between top layer and bottom layer are called intermediate layers.
Under Drainage System: It consists of central main drain and lateral drains 2 to 3 m
apart and starts from 50 to 80 cm distance of walls of tank. Lateral drain consists of
earthenware or perforated pipes laid with open joint or patented drain in slope.
Appurtenances: For efficient working, vertical air pipes, depth controlling device, head
loss measuring device, rate maintaining devices etc. are installed.
In a slow sand filter, impurities in the water are removed by a combination of processes:
sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological action.
During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical-chemical
processes. The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer
on the sand surface, which remains permeable and retains particles even smaller than the
spaces between the sand grains.
Page 64
They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low turbidities and low bacterial
contents.
6.6.3.2 Rapid Sand Filter
RSFs are the most commonly used gravity filters in large water supply system. They consist of
larger sand grains supported by gravel and capture particles throughout the bed. They are
cleaned by backwashing water through the bed to lift out the particles.
RSF consists of following:
I.
Enclosure Tank: It is open and water tight rectangular tank made of masonry or
concrete. The depth is 2.5 to 3.5 m, surface area is 10 to 50 m2, and filtration rate is 3000
to 6000 lph/m2. Various number of filter units in series may be provided. Minimum
Page 65
II.
III.
IV.
V.
four units should be provided for large water supplies and minimum two for small
supplies. The length to width ratio is 1.25 1.35.
Filter Media: It should be free from dirt and clay. Consists of 60 to 90 cm thick sand
layer with effective size (D10) of sand 0.35 to 0.60 mm and coefficient of uniformity (Cu)
of 1.3-1.7.
Base Material: The sand layer is supported on base material of 45 to 60 cm thick gravel
bed. The gravel beds are provided four layers of each about 15 cm thicknesses with size
2 to 6 mm, 6 to 12 mm, 12 to 20 mm and 20 to 50 mm from the top.
Under Drainage System: The under drainage system is provided to collect the filtered
material and to provide uniform distribution for back water wash. Commonly used
drainage systems are (i) Perforated Pipe System and (ii) Pipe and Strainer System.
Appurtenances: Wash water trough, air compressor, rate control device, head loss
indicator meters, valves, etc. are used.
For a filter to operate efficiently, it must be cleaned before the next filter run. If the
water applied to a filter is of very good quality, the filter runs can be very long. Some
filters can operate longer than one week before needing to be backwashed. However,
this is not recommended as long filter runs can cause the filter media to pack down so
that it is difficult to expand the bed during the backwash.
Treated water from storage is used for the backwash cycle. This treated water is
generally taken from elevated storage tanks or pumped in from the clear well.
The filter backwash rate has to be great enough to expand and agitate the filter media
and suspend the floc in the water for removal. However, if the filter backwash rate is
too high, media will be washed from the filter into the troughs and out of the filter.
The head loss is so high that the filter no longer produces water at the desired rate;
and/or
Floc starts to break through the filter and the turbidity in the filter effluent increases;
and/or
A filter run reaches a given hour of operation.
When the filter is newly commissioned, the loss of head of water percolating through
the filter is generally very small. However, the loss of head goes on increasing as more
and more impurities get trapped into it.
A stage is finally reached when the frictional resistance offered by the filter media
exceeds the static head of water above the bed. Most of this resistance is offered by the
Page 66
top 10 to 15 cm sand layer. The bottom sand acts like a vacuum, and water is sucked
through the filter media rather than getting filtered through it.
The negative pressure so developed, tends to release the dissolved air and other gases
present in water. The formation of bubbles takes place which stick to the sand grains.
This phenomenon is known as Air Binding as the air binds the filter and stops its
functioning.
To avoid such troubles, the filters are cleaned as soon as the head loss exceeds the
optimum allowable value.
The mud from the atmosphere usually accumulates on the sand surface to form a
dense mat. During inadequate washing this mud may sink down into the sand bed and
stick to the sand grains and other arrested impurities, thereby forming mud balls.
Cracking of Filters:
The fine sand contained in the top layers of the filter bed shrinks and causes the
development of shrinkage cracks in the sand bed. With the use of filter, the loss of
head and, therefore, pressure on the sand bed goes on increasing, which further goes
on widening these cracks.
Breaking the top fine mud layer with rakes and washing off the particles.
Washing the filter with a solution of caustic soda.
Removing, cleaning and replacing the damaged filter sand.
Page 67
Page 68
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
6.7.3 Chlorination
Chlorine is added to the water supply in two ways. It is most often added as a gas, Cl 2 (g).
However, it also can be added as a salt, such as sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) or bleach.
Chlorine gas dissolves in water following Henrys Law.
( )
Once dissolved, the following reaction occurs forming hypochlorous acid (HOCl):
(
Hypochlorous acid is a weak acid that dissociates to form hypochlorite ion (OCl-).
All forms of chlorine are measured as mg/L of Cl2 (MW = 2 x 35.45 = 70.9 g/mol).
Page 69
Breakpoint Reaction: When excess free chlorine is added beyond the 1:1 initial molar ratio,
monochloramine is removed as follows:
( )
The formation of chloramines and the breakpoint reaction create a unique relationship
between chlorine dose and the amount and form of chlorine as illustrated below:
Page 70
OCl-:
NH2Cl:
The amount of free chlorine consumed in such oxidation is called chlorine demand of water.
Chlorine Demand = Total amount of chlorine added Amount of residual chlorine required
after a specified contact period
Chlorine Dose
The quantity of chlorine required to be added to water to leave 0.2 mg/l or ppm of freely
available residual chlorine after 10 minutes of contact period is called optimum dose of
chlorine. This is generally of about 1 ppm.
6.7.4 Types of Chlorine
a. Bleaching Powder
Bleaching powder of calcium hypochlorite Ca (OCl2) is a chlorinated lime and when mixed
with water it dissociates and reacts with hydrogen ions in water.
Page 71
)
(
(
)
)
The compounds are quite stable in water and remains in water as residual for a sufficient time
so are more effective than chlorine alone. The reaction is slow hence water treated can only be
supplied to consumer after 20 minutes to 1 hour of application. It does not cause bad taste and
odour when left at residual but is weaker disinfectant than free chlorine disinfectant.
c. Chlorine Gas or Liquid Gas or Free Chlorine
Chlorine gas is fed directly to the point of application to the water supply in a pressure of 7
kg/cm2 or first dissolved in small flow of water than free chlorine disinfectant. Application of
gas chlorine is less expensive but less satisfactory because of poor diffusion of chlorine and at
lower temperature crystalline hydrates of Cl are formed and possibility of choking of pipes.
Undissolved Cl may corrode pipes and valves. Hence it is not generally used. Chlorine gas or
liquid chlorine dissolved in small quantities of water is normally used.
d. Chlorine-dioxide
In this method, chlorine dioxide gas if produced by passing chlorine gas through sodium
chloride solution. The Cl is unstable and reacts as follows:
ClO2 has oxidizing capacity of 2.5 times than that of chlorine and most effective for removal of
taste and odour.
6.7.5 Forms of Chlorination
A. Plain Chlorination: Application of chlorine to plain or raw water is called plain
chlorination. Dose of plain chlorination is 0.5 to 1 ppm.
B. Pre Chlorination: Application of chlorine to water before the treatment is called prechlorination. Especially, we use before filtration. Dose adjusted for residual chlorine is
0.1 to 0.5 ppm.
Advantages of pre-chlorination are as follows:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
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Page 73
and
)
)
(
(
and
)
)
)
(
Page 74
If we denote Permutit as
)
(
Page 75
Advantages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
No sludge is formed.
Compact and small space is required.
Because of simplicity in operation, no skilled persons are required.
Hardness may reduce to zero.
No other chemicals are required.
Disadvantages:
1. Not suitable for turbid water and water containing Fe and Mn.
2. Growth of bacteria occurs in zeolite if water contains organic matter.
6.8.3.3 Ionization Process/Demineralization Process
It is a costlier process and used in industries. It is very similar to zeolite process but metallic
ions are exchanged for hydrogen ions and substances like zeolite is used. The substances may
be:
1. Acidic Resin (removes alkali substances) e.g. zero karb, organolite, catex etc.
2. Base Resin (removes acidic substances)
If we denote these resins as H2R (H means hydrogen and R means organic part of the
substance), then,
Page 76
)
(
(
Aeration removes odour and tastes due to volatile gases like hydrogen sulphide and
due to algae and related organisms.
Aeration also oxidizes iron and manganese, increases dissolved oxygen content in
water, removes carbon dioxide and reduces corrosion and removes methane and other
flammable gases.
Principle of treatment underlines on the fact that volatile gases in water escape into
atmosphere from the air-water interface and atmospheric oxygen takes their place in
water provided the water body can expose itself over a vast surface to the atmosphere.
This process continues until an equilibrium is reached depending on the partial
pressure of each specific gas in the atmosphere.
Gravity Aerators
In gravity aerators, water is allowed to fall by gravity such that a large area of water is exposed
to atmosphere, sometimes aided by turbulence.
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Mechanical Aerators
Mixing paddles as in flocculation are used. Paddles may be either submerged or at the surface.
6.9.2 Removal of Iron and Manganese
Iron and manganese mix into water through soils either in suspension, hydrated oxides,
soluble or insoluble form. Ferric hydroxide is insoluble and ferrous bicarbonate is soluble in
water. When iron and manganese > 0.3 ppm, they become objectionable. Insoluble ferric
hydroxide is removed in sedimentation.
Effects:
i.
ii.
Page 78
Methods:
(a) By aeration: In this case, aeration is done before sedimentation.
Fe:
(
Fe (HCO3)2:
(
Mn:
Page 79
CHAPTER VII
RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
7.1 System of Supply
Water may be supplied to the consumers by the following two systems:
i.
ii.
Continuous System
Intermittent System
More wastage of water if the people do not possess any civic sense and do not
understand the importance of water.
2. If there is leakage in the system, large volume of water is wasted because of long
duration of flow.
3. On repairing, supply may be interrupted during supply hours.
7.1.2 Intermittent System
If water is supplied to the consumers only during fixed hours of a day from a system of supply,
it is called the intermittent system. It is the most common system adopted in Nepal. The
timings are fixed normally in the morning or evening. Timing may be changed to suit climatic
and seasonal conditions.
Advantages:
1.
Useful when either sufficient pressure or quantity of water is not available at the
source to meet the demand.
2. At various distribution zones of the city, water can be supplied by turn.
3. Repairing works can be done in non-supply hours.
4. Leakage in the system causes less wastage of water because of small durations of flow.
Disadvantages:
1.
Inconvenience to customers because they have to remain alert to collect the water
during supply periods.
Page 80
Types of Reservoirs:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Underground reservoirs
Small ground level reservoirs
Large ground level reservoirs
Overhead tanks
Page 81
Balancing Storage: The quantity of water required to be stored in the reservoir for
equalising or balancing fluctuating demand against constant supply is known as the
balancing storage (or equalising or operating storage). The balance storage can be
worked out by mass curve method or analytical method.
From the past records, determine the hourly demand for all 24 hours for typical days
(maximum, average and minimum).
Calculate and plot the cumulative demand against time, and thus plot the mass curve
of demand.
Read the storage required as the sum of the two maximum ordinates between demand
and supply line as shown in fig.
Repeat the procedure for all the typical days (maximum, average and minimum), and
determine the maximum storage required for the worst day.
Analytical Method:
Calculate the cumulative hourly demand and cumulative hourly supply for 24 hours in
tabular form.
Find the hourly excess of demand (deficit), excess of supply (surplus), total demand
(TD) and total supply (TS).
Then note the maximum cumulative surplus (MCS) and maximum cumulative deficit
(MCD).
Then the capacity of balancing reservoir (CBR) is given by:
If TS > TD, CBR = MCS + MCD TS + TD and
If TS TD, CBR = MCS + MCD
ii.
iii.
Breakdown Storage: The breakdown storage or often called emergency storage is the
storage preserved in order to tide over the emergencies posed by the failure of pumps,
electricity, or any other mechanism driving the pumps. A value of about 25% of the
total storage capacity of reservoirs, or 1.5 to 2 times of the average hourly supply, may
be considered as enough provision for accounting this storage.
Fire Storage: The third component of the total reservoir storage is the fire storage. This
provision takes care of the requirements of water for extinguishing fires. A provision of
1 to 4 per person per day is sufficient to meet the requirement.
The total reservoir storage can finally be worked out by adding all the three storages.
Page 82
Surface Reservoirs
Elevated Reservoirs
Stand Pipes
Surface reservoirs are made mostly of masonry or concrete. Common practice is to line surface
reservoirs with concrete, gunite, asphalt or asphaltic membrane to check leakage of water.
Sometimes, these reservoirs may be built underground, especially when they are of large size,
and a park may be constructed on its top. Surface reservoirs should be located at high points
in the distribution system, so that gravity supply can be done directly. In some cases however,
pumps are used to pump water, from the clear water storage surface reservoir to the elevated
distribution reservoir.
Elevated reservoirs are constructed at an elevation from the ground level and made of RCC or
steel. These are also called overhead tanks and the shapes may be circular, rectangular, egg
shaped, spherical, elliptical, etc. Any elevated reservoir consists of inlet, outlet, overflow for
water; ladder for accessibility, manhole for inspection, ventilator for air circulation, a water
level indicator and a lightening rod.
Standpipe is also an elevated reservoir usually constructed of steel (sometimes RCC), circular
in plan and up to 15 to 30 metres high. The main function of standpipe is to increase pressure
in the distribution system by creating extra storage in the tank above the elevation required to
give the necessary pressure for distribution. The diameter of these tanks varies from 10 to 15 m.
The volume of water stored in the tank above the entrance of the outlet pipe can be used and
hence it is the useful storage of standpipe.
7.5 Layout of Distribution System
The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer with appropriate quality,
quantity and pressure. Distribution system is used to describe collectively the facilities used to
supply water from its source to the point of usage.
Requirements of Good Distribution System
1. Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.
2. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient
pressure head.
3. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire fighting.
4. The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during
the repair of any section of the system.
5. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one metre away or above the sewer
lines.
6. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum.
Layouts of Distribution Network
The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such their layouts
generally follow the layouts of roads. There are, in general, four different types of pipe
networks; any one of which either singly or in combinations, can be used for a particular
place.
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In this system, one main pipeline through the centre of the area to be served and from both
sides of the main, the sub-mains takes off. The sub-mains are further divided into several
branches from which service connections are given to the consumers.
It is suitable for old towns and cities having no definite pattern of roads.
Advantages:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Relatively cheap.
Determination of discharges and pressure easier due to less number of valves.
Pipe lying is very simple.
Pipes are designed only for population likely to be served by them.
Disadvantages:
a. Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes.
b. The water available for fire fighting is low because supply can neither be increased not
be diverted.
c. Many scour valves are required and less successful in maintaining satisfactory pressure
in the far areas.
7.5.2 Grid Iron System
One main pipeline through the centre of the are to be served and from both sides of the main,
the sub-mains are take off in perpendicular direction; then, branch lines inter connect all submains so that water can be circulated through the entire distribution system.
It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and branches are laid in
rectangles.
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Advantages:
a. Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of dead ends.
b. In the cases of a breakdown in some section, water is available from some other
direction.
c. Fire fighting water can be made easily available by diverting water from the other
sections to the affected area using valves.
Disadvantages:
a. Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of valves on all
branches.
b. More number of cutoff valves and longer length of pipers are required.
c. Overall cost is high.
7.5.3 Ring System
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In this system, the area is divided into different zones. The water is pumped into the
distribution reservoir kept in the middle of each zone and the supply pipes are laid radially
ending towards the periphery.
Advantages:
1. It gives quick service.
2. Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.
3. High pressure of distribution.
Disadvantage:
The major disadvantage of this system is that it requires more reservoirs. All other
advantages and disadvantages are same as in grid iron system.
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Discharge: Discharge should be sufficient to meet the future demand. Pipelines are
designed for 2.5 to 3 times the average demand. Generally peak factor is taken as 3 to 4
in Nepal.
2. Pressure: Pipelines are designed for sufficient residual pressure so that it reaches to
the desired height. The residual head for single storey is taken as 7 m, two storeys is 12
m and three storeys is 17 m and it shouldnt be greater than 22 m above the ground
level. In rural areas of Nepal, the minimum available head should be 5 m above the
public tap level.
3. Minimum size of pipes: The lower the diameter the head loss is greater. For
population less than 20,000, minimum diameter of distribution pipe is 10 cm and for
greater than 20,000, it is 15 cm. For dead end pipes, it is 10 cm, for distribution and
service pipe 10 cm and 20 cm for house connections but for grid pipes and dead end
pipes less than 10 cm may be used.
4. Velocity: If velocity is low, larger diameter pipes are required and problem of silting
may occur. If velocity is high, cost becomes high in pumping and cost of pipes and
fittings will increase to bear extra pressure. On the other hand, higher the velocity,
smaller the diameter which leads to loss of energy. Hence, it shouldnt be too low and
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The algebraic sum of pressure drops around a closed loop must be zero, i.e. there can
be no discontinuity in pressure.
2. The flow entering a junction must be equal to the flow leaving that junction; i.e. the
law of continuity must be satisfied.
Based on these two basic principles, the pipe networks are generally solved by the methods of
successive approximation. The widely used method of pipe network analysis is the HardyCross method.
Hardy-Cross Method
This method consists of assuming a distribution of flow in the network in such a way that the
principle of continuity is satisfied at each junction. A correction to these assumed flows is then
computed successively for each pipe loop in the network, until the correction is reduced to an
acceptable magnitude.
If Qa is the assumed flow and Q is the actual flow in the pipe, then the correction d is given by
d=Q-Qa; or Q=Qa+d
Now, expressing the head loss (HL) as
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CHAPTER VIII
CONVEYANCE OF WATER
8.1 Pipe Materials
Pipe is a circular closed conduit through which the water may flow either under gravity or
under pressure. When pipes do not run full, they run under gravity, such as in sewer lines.
However, in supply, pipes mostly run under pressure.
Pipe may be made of the following materials:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
Cast iron
Wrought iron
Steel
Galvanised iron
Cement concrete
Asbestos cement
Plastic
Lead
Copper
Wood
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Water Distribution
Underground Fire Main Distribution
Gravity Sanitary Sewer Collection
Forcemain Sewage Transmission
Irrigation Mains
Reclaimed Water Distribution
Electrical & Communications Conduit
Numerous Industrial Applications
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Imperviousness
Elasticity
Strength
Durability
Adhesiveness
Availability
Workability
Economy
8.2.2 Types
A. SOCKET AND SPIGOT
This joint is commonly used in case of cast iron pipes. The spigot of one pipe is centred into
the socket of the preceding pipe; tarred gasket or hemp yarn is then wrapped around the
spigot, leaving unfilled the required depth of socket for lead. The gasket or hemp yarn is
caulked tightly home with a yarning tool. A jointing ring or a kneaded-clay ring is then placed
around the barrel and against the face of the socket. Molten pig lead is poured into the
remainder of the socket. Lead is now solidly caulked with suitable caulking tools or hammers
of 2 kg weight around the joint, to make up for the shrinkage of molten metal on cooling.
B. FLANGED JOINT
A gasket of rubber, canvas or lead is introduced between the two flanges of Cast Iron (C.I.)
pipes, which are then tightened with bolts and nuts. Flanged joints are strong and rigid and
are easy to disjoint; as such used where the pipe joints have to be occasionally opened out for
carrying out repair work, as in pumping chambers.
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Expansion joints allow the pipes to expand or contract freely under the changing temperature
conditions. The space between the socket and spigot is filled with an elastic gasket.
D. COLLAR JOINT
This is a simple type of joint used for jointing screwed wrought iron or galvanized iron pipes.
The two ends of the pipes are threaded on the outside and on them a suitable jointing
compound with a grummet of few strands of fine yarn are used before screwing a socket
having corresponding threads from inside.
8.3 Laying of Pipes
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