Chng 4. LIN KT CC H NGNG T.

CU TO V TNH CHT

4.1. i cng v tinh th

4.1.1. c trng v cu trc
a. Khi nim
Nu gi thit cc phn t cu to nn vt cht l cc nguyn t, ion hoc phn t,
th tinh th l trng thi m , cc phn t sp xp trong khng gian to nn mt quy
lut no . V mt hnh hc, cc phn t cu to c xem nh nhng cht im, quy
lut ca nhng cht im ny l tnh i xng v hon ton trong khng gian tinh th.
Do vy, tinh th thng nhn mt hnh thi nht nh di dng mt a din no .
Khi lm ngui t t mt dung dch bo ha hay mt cht lng, chuyn ng
nhit ca cc ht gim, nhng phn t, nguyn t hay ion tp hp li v phn b, sp
xp thnh mng li khng gian vi mt cu trc xc nh. Khi ta c mt tinh th,
hay qu trnh ny gi l qu trnh kt tinh.
Trong thc t, cc cht rn tinh th c to thnh t nhiu tinh th rt nh
(khong 10 20 m) nh hng khc nhau. Cc cht rn nh vy gi l a tinh th.
Vi nhng tinh th to nn cht rn nh mt tinh th duy nht c gi l n tinh th.
b. Tnh cht
- Tnh bt ng hng ca tinh th: Trong tinh th, cc n v cu trc lin kt vi
nhau bng nhng lin kt ha hc v c phn b mt cch tun hon theo nhng
quy lut nht nh to thnh mt mng li khng gian u n, mc d chng c th
ng hng vi mt vi tnh cht no .
V d: Tinh th mui n dng lp phng, ng hng v tnh quang hc,
nhng d hng v nhiu tnh cht nh: tnh c hc, tnh dn in,...
Tnh bt ng hng th hin ch nhiu tnh cht vt l nh bn c hc, s
khc x nh sng, tnh dn nhit, tnh dn in, cng, tc ha tan,... c gi tr
khc nhau theo nhng hng khc nhau.
- Lc ht gia cc ht (nguyn t, phn t, ion) trong mi trng thi tinh th lun l
lc ht tnh in.
V d tinh th cu to t cc phn t trung ha in th s nh hng tng i
gia chng c th lin quan ti s c mt ca lng cc in trong ht.
- Tnh nh v nht nh trong vng khng gian tinh th: nhit thng, cc phn
t dao ng quanh v tr cn bng vi mt bin nht nh, nhng nhit cng
tng, bin dao ng cng ln.
- Mi tinh th trong qu trnh kt tinh ph thuc vo cc yu t sau:
+ Tnh i xng: Thng thng mt cht c thnh phn ha hc cng n gin
th mng li tinh th c tnh i xng cng cao.
+ T l gia bn knh cc loi ht trong mng li.

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 + Lc tng tc gia cc ht (bao gm mnh, tnh nh hng ca cc mi
lin kt gia cc ht).
+ iu kin bn ngoi (nhit , p sut,...), i khi cng nh hng n cu
trc ca tinh th.
4.1.2. Cc h tinh th
Mng li tinh th c th coi nh c cu to bi nhng hnh hp m nh l
cc cu t ng nht (nguyn t, phn t, ion).

Hnh 21. Mng li tinh th

Mt hnh hp c bit gi l t bo s ng (hay mng c s) c xc nh
bng s kt hp mt s iu kin sau y:
- T bo s ng phi c tnh i xng cao.
- S gc vung phi nhiu nht.
- Th tch phi nh nht.
Trong tinh th hc, h thng ta c chn lm 3 trc i qua mt im mng
v trng vi phng ca 3 cnh ca t bo s ng. Cc trc a, b, c, cc gc
, , , cng nh cc cnh a0, b0, c0 ca t bo s ng (c s dng lm n v di
ng vi trc a, b, c) c quy nh thng nht nh sau:

Hnh 22. T bo s ng v h trc ta qui c

Cc cnh a0, b0, c0, cc gc , , , c gi l hng s mng.
C 7 h tinh th: H tam t, h n t, h trc thoi, h tam phng, h t
phng, h lc phng, h lp phng.
4.1.3. Cc mng li Brave (Bravais)
Trong mng Brave c la chn tun theo nguyn tc ca mng c s,
ngha l tnh i xng ca n c gi nguyn nh ton mng, s gc vung nhiu
nht v th tch nh nht.

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 Sau y l cc mng Brave:

Tam t n t T gic

Trc giao Trc thoi

Lp phng Lc gic

Hnh 23. Mi bn mng Brave

Trong mng Brave c tnh i xng cao nht ca h tinh th. Tuy nhin tinh th
thng c tnh i xng thp hn. Trong mng, ngoi cc yu t i xng thng
thng, xut hin hng lot yu t i xng c trng cho mng khng gian. Ngoi s
a dng , trong cu trc tinh th cn bt gp nhiu hin tng th hin ch v s
yu t i xng cng loi song song.

4.2.Tinh th ion
4.2.1. Lin kt ha hc trong tinh th ion
a. Khi qut m hnh ion v s hnh thnh tinh th ion
* M hnh ion c hnh thnh trn c s
- Tinh th ca cc cht m nt mng ca chng c hnh thnh bi nhng cation v
anion hnh cu vi mt bn knh xc nh.
- Lc tng tc gia cc ion trn nt mng l lc ht tnh in khng nh hng.
* S hnh thnh tinh th ion
Trong nhng tinh th ion, cc nguyn t bin thnh cc ion dng hay m xen
ln nhau, v s c kt ny c c l do s ht tnh in gy nn. Khi cc nt li

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l do cc ion dng hoc m ln lt chim gi, cc ion ny lin kt vi nhau bng
lin kt ion.
V lin kt ion l loi lin kt bn khng nh hng, khng bo ho, nn mng
li ion c c im:
+ C bn cao, cng cao.
+ Tun theo nguyn l sp xp c kht nht.
+ Tnh dn in, dn nhit km.
V d:
Trong mng tinh th ion NaCl c s phi tr bng 6. mng c s c dng hnh
lp phng. Cc ion Na+ nm tm v trung im cc cnh hnh lp phng, cc ion
Cl- nh v im gia cc mt hnh lp phng.
Nu xem cc ion cc nt mng nh nhng qu cu tip xc vi nhau th i
vi mi ion ta s tm thy mt bn knh xc nh v khng i, khi ta chuyn t trng
thi cht ny sang hp cht khc.
Cc cation c bn knh nh hn bn knh ca nguyn t kim loi tng ng.
Cc cation ni chung c bn knh ion nh hn so vi cc anion.
Cc gi tr ca bn knh theo angstrom (A0):

Cl- 1,81 Na+ 0,95 Na 1,92

I- 2,16 K+ 1,33 K 2,38

b. Nng lng mng li hp cht ion

Nng lng mng li ca mt hp cht ion kt tinh l nng lng c gii
phng trong qu trnh hnh thnh mt mol phn t tinh th t nhng ion ring r (k
hiu l U, thng quy c c du tr).
V d: NaCl. Uml = - 766kJ/mol.
Nng lng mng li quyt nh bn, ha tan v nhiu tnh cht khc
ca tinh th.
Cng thc thc nghim xc nh nng lng mng li theo Booc Lan
(Born v Land):
NAz 2 e 2 1
U ml = (1 )
r n
n- h s y Booc, c xc nh t tinh th chu nn ca ion
Vi NaCl, n = 9,1;
LiF, n = 5,9;
NaBr, n = 9,5
N - s Avogaro
A - hng s Malung, ph thuc cu trc mng li tinh th ;
vi NaCl, A = 1,748.

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 Cng thc gn ng xc nh nng lng mng li theo Kapustinxki:
z c .z a . v
U ml = 1071,5. [kJ/mol]
rc + ra
zc, za - s in tch ca cation v anion.
rc, ra bn knh ca cation v anion tnh ta A0.
v - s ion trong n v cng thc.

Vi CaCl2 th v = 3.
4.2.2. Cu trc ca tinh th ion
Do tnh khng nh hng ca lc ht tnh in gia cc ion trong tinh th ion,
nn cu trc tinh th ion v cn bn l do s tng quan gia bn knh cation v anion
quyt nh.
V d: Trong tinh th NaCl

Trong tinh th NaCl, mi loi ion to thnh mt mng li lp phng tm

din. Mi ion c bao quanh bi 6 ion khc du gn nht nm ti nh ca hnh bt
din u m tm l ion trn. S phi tr l 6.

4.2.3. Tnh cht ca tinh th ion

Tnh cht cc hp cht ion phn nhiu c quyt nh bi cu trc ca tinh th
v lc tng tc gia cc ion trong tinh th.
Cc hp cht ion c rn, nhit nng chy, nhit si tng i cao,
gin n nhit cng nh chu nn tng i nh. Yu t ny l do lc tng tc tnh
in gia cc ion tng i ln.
H s gin n nhit cng ph thuc vo nng lng mng li ion: H s gin
n nhit cng ln khi in tch ca cc ion cng nh v khong cch gia cc ion
cng ln.
V d, khong cch gia cc ion tng theo th t NaF, NaCl, NaBr, NaI, nn h
s gin n cng tng theo th t trn.
Cc hp cht ion l nhng cht dn in trng thi nng chy: Cc tinh th
ion rn v dn hn, dn ca chng l do khi ion di ch th lc y ca cc ion tch
in cng du bt u thng lc lc ht gia cc ion khc du, v tinh th d b ph
v. V vy trng thi rn, cc ion khng c tnh dn in.

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 Bng 4. Nhit nng chy cc tinh th ion (0C)

Cation
Anion
Li+ Na+

F- 848 995

Cl- 610 800

Br- 550 750

I- 449 662

OH- 473 321

S2- - 1180

O2- 1570 -

2 220 283

Nhit nng chy cao, cho thy cc hp cht ion c nng lng ln.

4.3. Tinh th kim loi

4.3.1. Lin kt ha hc trong tinh th kim loi
a. M hnh kh electron ca ru v Loren (Drude, Lorentz)
Theo m hnh ny, cc electron c kh nng tch khi nguyn t v di ng
tng i t do trong nguyn t to thnh mt m kh electron. S tng tc gia
kh electron ny vi ion dng kim loi cc nt mng l nguyn nhn ca lc lin
kt kim loi.
Da trn m hnh ny, ta c th gii thch mt s tnh cht vt l ca kim loi
nh: tnh dn nhit, dn in, tnh cng, kh nng hp th v phn x nh sng,...
Tuy nhin vi m hnh trn, kh khn trong vic gii thch nhit dung ca kim
loi.
J/(kg K) = 2.389x10-4 kcal/(kg oC)
1 kJ/(kg K) = 0.2389 kcal/(kg oC)
1 kcal/(kg oC) = 4,186.8 J/ (kg K)
Theo thuyt ng hc ca cht kh, trong tinh th kim loi, cc electron t do
phi c phn ng gp vo nhit dung chung ca tinh th kim loi l 3/2R (R - hng
s kh = 8,3144J/mol.K = 1,98 cal/mol.K). iu ny mu thun vi kt qu thc
nghim l phn ng gp ca cc kh electron l khng ng k.

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 Bng 5. Nhit dung c th ca mt s kim loi thng thng
Nhit dung ring Nhit dung ring
Kim loi ca kim loi - cp Kim loi ca kim loi - cp
o
(kJ/kg K) (kcal/kg C) (kJ/kg K) (kcal/kgoC)

K 0.75 0.180 Pt 0.13 0.032

Be 1.83 0.436 Cd 0.23 0.055

Al 0.91 0.22 Cr 0.46 0.11

Se 0.32 0.077 Co 0.42 0.1

Mg 1.05 0.243 Bi 0.13 0.03

Sb 0.21 0.05 Cd 0.23 0.055

Cu 0.39 0.092 Au 0.13 0.031

Mn 0.48 0.114 Fe 0.46 0.108

Hg 0.14 0.033 Pb 0.13 0.031

Mo 0.25 0.06 Ni 0.54 0.106

b. M hnh di nng lng

M hnh ny da trn c s v electron khng nh c (tc l electron chuyn
ng trn cc MO chung ca ton phn t). Trn c s ny, thuyt MO thch hp trong
vic m t lin kt kim loi.
Cc trng thi electron y cng c hnh dung nh cc trng thi electron
khng nh c trong phn t benzen hay trong cc h electron khng nh c
trong phn t c h lin kt lin hp.

Hnh 24. S hnh thnh di nng lng ca MO khng nh c

Gii thch theo m hnh trn:
- i vi phn t c s t hp ca N obitan nguyn t s cho N/2 MO lin kt
v N/2 MO phn lin kt vi cc mc nng lng ri rc, gin on.

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 - Trong tinh th kim loi, s nguyn t v cng ln, nn s AO cng v cng
ln. V vy, s t hp cc AO ny cng cho mt s v cng ln cc MO, v nh th
hiu cc mc nng lng s v cng nh. Khi s phn b mc nng lng gn nh
lin tc v tp hp cc mc nng lng nm st nhau c gi l di nng lng.
- Khi hiu nng lng gia cc mc phn lin kt thp nht v cc mc lin kt
cao nht cng nh trn nguyn t trong tinh th kim loi th s xy ra s xen ph cc
di nng lng.
V d:

Hnh 25. Di nng lng i vi tinh th Li

4.3.2. Cu trc trong tinh th kim loi
Trong tinh th kim loi thng mi nguyn t hay ion kim loi c bao bc
bi 12 hay 8 nguyn t cng loi (s phi tr bng 8 hoc 12). Cc ion hoc nguyn t
kim loi trong mng li lin kt vi nhau nh cc my electron t do khng nh ch
v khng c nh vo mt nguyn t no.
Trong tinh th kim loi cc nguyn t kim loi nm cnh nhau nh my
electron ho tr xen ph ln nhau, nn mi electron ho tr s chu tc dng ng thi
in trng ca nhiu nguyn t. V vy electron ho tr c th chuyn t nguyn t
ny sang nguyn t khc m khng cn tiu th nng lng. l nhng electron t
do trong tinh th.
Cc nguyn t kim loi c sp xp mt cch kht nht ng vi mt s phi tr
cc i. V cc nguyn t kim loi c coi l hnh cu, nn cch sp xp ny c
coi l cch sp xp mt qu cu kht nht.
Ba kiu mng tinh th ca hu ht kim loi l: lc phng, lp phng tm din
v lp phng tm khi.

Lc phng, Lp phng tm din Lp phng tm khi.

Hnh 26. Cc kiu mng tinh th kim loi

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 Hnh 27. Mt s dng cu trc tinh th trng thi c bn

Bng 6. Kin trc tinh th ca cc kim loi:

Li Be
3 2

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
3 1,2 1,2 2,3 3 3 - 1,3 1,2 1,2 1 2

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Te Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
3 1 2 2,3 3 2,3 2 1,2 1 1 1 2

Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
3 3 1,2 2,3 3 3 2 1,2 1 1 1 -

Trong : S 1- Ch mng li lp phng tm din;

S 2- Ch mng li lc phng;
S 3- Ch mng li lp phng tm khi;

4.3.3. Tnh cht ca kim loi

Tinh th kim loi c nhng tnh cht c bit nh: kh nng bin dng n hi,
d dn in, dn nhit, nh kim,

Hnh 28. S bin dng khng n hi ca kim loi

Gii thch:
- Kh nng bin dng ca kim loi c gii thch bi tnh khng nh hng ca lc
lin kt v tnh ng nht ca cc cu t. Khi xy ra bin dng c s trt ca cc mt
li so vi nhau.
- Mc d trn cc MO bo ha, th s chuyn ng ca electron khng tun theo
mt phng xc nh. Nhng theo m hnh di nng lng th trong mng tinh th kim
loi lun tn ti nhng MO t do (khng c electron), c mc mng lng gn vi cc
MO bo ha electron. Do , khi c s tng tc ca in trng ngoi, cc electron

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d chuyn ln cc MO t do v t c s di chuyn electron theo phng ca in
trng ngoi. l nguyn nhn ca tnh dn in ca kim loi.
- Kim loi c in tr nh, in tr kim loi l h qu s khuch tn ca electron khi
gp ion dao ng.
- Kh nng bin dng ca kim loi cho php nhng nguyn t chim v tr mi m
khng lm t lin kt. Cng do nguyn nhn ny m kim loi in hnh c nhit
nng chy thp.
4.4. Tinh th nguyn t
4.4.1. Lin kt ha hc trong tinh th nguyn t
Trong tinh th nguyn t, cc cu t l nhng nguyn t, lin kt vi nhau bng
lin kt cng ha tr. V vy tinh th nguyn t cn c gi l tinh th cng ha tr.
V d: kim cng, than ch, Sn, Ge, BN, GaAs,...
S phi tr ca nguyn t trong tinh th nguyn t thng c gi tr t 1 8.
i vi n cht trng thi tinh th, s phi tr thng bng 8 tr s th t ca nhm
nguyn t . iu ny c gii thch bi quy tc bt t. Khi , h in t thun li
v mt nng lng.
Bng 7. Ch s ph tr ca mt s nguyn t

Chu S phi tr cc nguyn t cc nhm

k I II III IV V VI VII
2 Li 8 Be 12 B 5(7) C4 N1 O1 F1
3 Na 8 Mg 12 Al 12 Si 4 P3 S2 Cl 1
4 K8 Ca 12 Ga 1 Ge 4 As 3 Se 2 Br 1

Sn (dng ): Thit xmdng bt; cn vi thit trng(dng ) c cu trc

hnh bt din.
Mt s hp cht AB to thnh tinh th kiu nguyn t, khi tng s in t ha tr
ca A v B bng 8. Tho mn iu kin ny c cc hp cht ca cc nguyn t thuc
nhm I v VII (nh CuCl); II v VI (nh ZnS); III v V (nh BN) v IV (nh SiC).
Cn ch rng, nguyn t cc nguyn t nhm IA v mt phn IIA do c m
in thp, nn chng d dng ion ha to thnh tinh th ion.
Nhiu cht c kh nng to thnh tinh th nguyn t nh cc lin kt cho -
nhn, cc lin kt ny xut hin gia nhng nguyn t khc nhau ca cc phn t ring
bit khi cht chuyn sang trng thi rn. Chng hn vi BeF2:

F Be F Be F

F F

Be F Be F

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4.4.2. Cu trc mng li kim cng
Tinh th kim cng c cu trc t din. Cc nguyn t cacbon nm tm v
nh ca t din u lin kt vi nhau bng lin kt cng ho tr. Khong cch C C
bng 1,54A0, khong cch ny bng khong cch C C ca hidrocacbon no. Cu trc
ny c lp li trong ton b tinh th kim cng. V mi nguyn t cacbon lin kt
vi 4 nguyn t cacbon gn nht nn kim cng c rt nhiu tnh cht ring.

Cc lin kt C C trong tinh th kim cng

Hnh 29. Cu trc tinh th kim cng

Khi lng ring ca kim cng l 3,52 g/cm
4.4.3. Tnh cht ca tinh th nguyn t
rn ln,
Nhit nng chy v nhit si cao, cng cao.
Chng l cht cch in hay bn dn.
Khng lun lun tun theo trit nguyn l sp xp c kht nht, v cc
nguyn t phi sp xp ph hp vi phng lin kt.
4.4.4. Cht cch in, cht bn dn
Tnh dn in ca kim loi, cht bn dn v cht cch in u c th c gii
thch trn c s m hnh di nng lng.

Hnh 30. Di nng lng i vi tinh th cng ha tr

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 Vng ha tr: L vng c nng lng thp nht theo thang nng lng, l vng
m in t b lin kt mnh vi nguyn t v khng linh ng.
Vng dn: Vng c mc nng lng cao nht, l vng m in t s linh ng
(nh cc in t t do) v in t vng ny s l in t dn, c ngha l cht s c
kh nng dn in khi c in t tn ti trn vng dn. Tnh dn in tng khi mt
in t trn vng dn tng.
Vng cm (hay min cm): L vng nm gia vng ha tr v vng dn, khng
c mc nng lng no v do in t khng th tn ti trn vng cm.
i vi tinh th cng ha tr (chng hn tinh th kim cng), cc di nng
lng ng vi MO lin kt v di phn lin kt (di dn in) nm cch bit nhau (bi
gi tr ). Vi cht bn dn hay cht cch in th di ha tr hon ton bo ha
electron, trong khi di dn in hon ton cn trng (theo gin trn).
Khi electron chuyn t vng MO ln vng MO*, th trong di dn in mi
chuyn ng t do di tc dng ca in trng ngoi.
Khc vi kim loi, cc tinh th cng ho tr do c c min cm, nn s dch
chuyn electron ln cc MO* i hi phi tiu tn mt nng lng nht nh l .
V vy, mt cht s l cht cch in, khi min cm qu rng k c khi c s
tng tc ca nng lng in, in t. Lc ny cc electron khng th chuyn ng
ln min dn.
Trong thc t, iu kin thng, mt cht c coi l cht cch in, khi
rng ca min cm c gi tr vo khong 3eV. Vi cht bn dn th rng ca
min cm nh hn.
Bng 8. rng ca min cm ca mt s nguyn t

Tinh th Kim cng Si Ge Sn (dng )

[eV] 6,00 1,10 0,70 0,08

T bng trn ta thy, kim cng l cht cch in, cc tinh th trn l cht
bn dn.

4.5. Tinh th phn t

4.5.1. Lin kt ha hc trong tinh th phn t
Trong tinh th phn t, mng li khng gian c cu to bi cc phn t nh
CO2, I2, H2O, N2,... cng nh nguyn t ca cc kh tr.

Hnh 31. M hnh tinh th phn t ca it

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4.5.2. Cu trc ca tinh th phn t
Nhng tinh th ca cc kh tr l nhng tinh th phn t n gin nht v mt
cu trc. V phn t ca kh tr l phn t n nguyn t, nn cu t ca tinh th l
nguyn t hnh cu. Lc tng tc y ch l lc khuch tn khng nh hng.
Nhng tinh th phn t thng gp nht l tinh th ca cc hp cht hu c.
Do c s tham gia ca lin kt cu ni hiro nn nc c cu trc t din.
Cu trc ny c xp ln ngha l c t khi nh. V vy OoC, nc nh hn
nc.

Hnh 32. Cu trc t din c nc

Mi phn t nc c kh nng to 4 mi lin kt hiro vi 4 phn t khc nm
chung quanh v hnh thnh cch sp xp kiu t din trong nc .
S bn ha cu trc ca nc c th xy ra khng nhng do c mt cc ion
l trng ca n, m cn do a thm vo nhng phn t to c lin kt hiro vi
cc phn t nc. ng thi cu trc ca nc c lm bn, khi nc cn nm
trng thi lng v khi trn ln n vi cht khc.
4.5.3. Tnh cht ca tinh th phn t.
Tinh th phn t c cng nh, v nng lng tng tc gia cc phn t c
gi tr nh (lin kt bi lc van de van - lc ny yu hn so vi lin kt ha hc), nn
nhit nng chy ca chng thp.
Cc tinh th phn t tan tt, nhng s la chn cc dung mi ph thuc vo bn
cht ca cc cht, m trc ht vo phn cc gia chng v kh nng hnh thnh
lin kt hiro.
Cc tinh th phn t dn, cng thp, chng khng c tnh dn in (tr
nhng cu trc kiu graft cha h thng chung lin kt pi khng nh ch).
4.6. Cht rn v nh hnh, tinh th lng v trng thi lng
4.6.1. Cht rn v nh hnh
Cht rn v nh hnh l nhng cht rn m v cu trc vi m khng c s phn
b mt cch tun hon u n cc cu t c bn trong ton khi cht rn.
V d: Thy tinh, cao su, nha,
Cc cht rn v nh hnh thng thng c sn xut khi mt cht lng
nht b lm lnh rt nhanh, v th khng c thi gian cc mt li tinh th thng
thng c th to thnh.
Cht rn v nh hnh c tnh ng hng, ngha l nhng tnh cht vt l nh:
in tr, dn in,.. u ging nhau theo mi hng.

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 Cht rn v nh hnh khng c nhit nng chy xc nh. Khi nhit tng,
tnh linh ng ca cc ht tng theo v cht rn v nh hnh chuyn sang trng thi
lng. Sut trong qu trnh nng chy, nhit lun thay i.
Trong nhng iu kin khc nhau, khi chuyn t trng thi nng chy sang
trng thi rn, nhiu n cht nh Se, S, P, cng nh nhiu hp cht nh, (c bit l
cc oxit SiO2, GeO2, As2O3,) c th tn ti dng tinh th hay dng v nh hnh.
Chng hn nh cao su, thy tinh.
Do nhiu hiu ng khc nhau, s kt tinh c th b cn tr v khi lm lnh di
nhit kt tinh, cht nng chy chuyn thnh cht lng qu lnh.
i vi nhiu cht trong iu kin qu lnh, ti mt khong nhit qu lnh,
ti mt khong nhit xc nh, nht tng nhanh dn n s ngng hon ton ca
chuyn ng tnh tin v ta c trng thi thy tinh. V mt cu trc, khi to thnh thy
tinh, cc t din [SiO4]4- trong pha lng khng chuyn v dng trt t, m tn ti trong
cht rn mt cch khng trt t, hay v dnh hnh.
Thy tinh l mt cht rn v nh hnh ng nht, c gc silict (SiO2), thng
c pha trn thm cc tp cht c tnh cht theo mun. Thy tinh thun SiO2
(cn gi l thy tinh thch anh). C hai hp cht thng thng hay c b sung vo
ct trong cng ngh nu thy tinh nhm gim nhit nng chy ca n xung khong
1.000 C. Mt trong s l s a (cacbonat natri Na2CO3), hay b tt (tc cacbonat
kali K2CO3). Thy tinh c s dng rng ri trong xy ng, lm cha (chai, l,
cc, chn, ly, tch, v.v) hay vt liu trang tr.
4.6.2. Tinh th lng
Tinh th lng l cc cht lng hu c c trt t cu trc. Tinh th lng chim v
tr trung gian gia cht lng v cht rn. Do tng tc c bit, gia cc phn t cu
to tinh th lng c sp xp theo trt t nht nh, th hin tnh d hng nh tinh th,
nhng chng li c linh ng nh cht lng.
Mt s tinh th lng (trung gian gia tinh th v v nh hnh), ngay c thy
tinh cng th hin tnh d hng nhng d hng gin on ch c cht kt tinh.
Mt s hp cht hu c c th tn ti trng thi tinh th lng. Khi nng chy,
cc cht ny tr thnh tr thnh mt cht lng c. Khi tip tc un nng, th ti mt
nhit nht nh, cht lng ny tr nn trong sut v ng thi cng tr nn ng
hng v tnh chit quang.
mng li tinh th, cc phn t ca cc hp cht trn nh hng song song
vi nhau. Khi nng chy, chng c kh nng chuyn ng t do, tuy nhin khi vn
tn ti nhng gm hng triu phn t m trong vn cn s nh hng song song
ca cc phn t. S tng tc gia nh sng v cc khu vc vi mt s phn b c
trt t v gy nn hin tng chit quang kp.
Chuyn ng tnh tin tng cng vi s tng ca nhit v ti nhit nht
nh, trt t trong cc phn t b ph v. Ti nhit ny, hp cht trn chuyn t
trng thi tinh th lng sang trng thi ng hng bnh thng.
iu kin cn thit ca vic xut hin trng thi tinh th lng l phn t ca hp
cht phi c mt dng thch hp (mch di) v phi c mt momen lng cc vnh cu

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hay momen cm ng. Vi iu kin ny, cc phn t mi c kh nng tng tc vi
cc phn t bn cnh v dn n s nh hng song song ca chng.

4.6.3. Trng thi lng

a. Khi nim
Khi lm ngui cc cht trng thi kh, hay nn cc cht kh tht mnh, lc tng
tc gia cc phn t bt u tri hn nng lng chuyn ng ca chng, v nhit
xc nh (ring cho tng cht), cht kh chuyn qua trng thi lng.
Cht lng l mt trng thi vt cht kh ph bin, m cc phn t cu to nn n
c lin kt khng cht so vi lin kt rn v c hnh dng ph thuc vo vt cha n.
b. Lin kt trong cht lng
Lc lin kt trong cht lng c quyt nh bi cu to hnh hc v cu to
electron ca nguyn t hay phn t trong cht lng. Ty theo s lin kt ha hc gia
cc phn t, ngi ta phn bit cht lng c cc hay khng c cc ( = 0) .
Khi kim loi trng thi lng, lc lin kt gia cc nguyn t l lc lin kt
kim loi. M bn cht ca lin kt kim loi l lin kt khng c hng, nn c th cho
php cc nguyn t lin kt thay i v tr ca mnh m khng cn phi bt t. V vy
kim loi in hnh phi c im nng chy thp v im si cao. Ngha l trng thi
lng ca kim loi phi ng vi mt khong nhit rng.
V d, Gali l cht lng nhit t 32 22400C. Nhng a s kim loi, c
bit l cc nguyn t d, th gia cc nguyn t ngoi vic xut hin lin kt kim loi
cn xut hin lin kt nguyn t (lin kt c hng trong khng gian), dn n s tng
mnh nhit nng chy ca chng.
Vi mui chy lng, th lc lin kt gia cation v anion l tng tc tnh in
ging tinh th ion.
Khi trng thi nng chy, th tch cht lng thng ch thay i 10% so vi
ban u. iu c ngha l khong cch gia cc cu t ch bin thin khong vi
phn trm (do c s bay hi).
c. Cu trc ca cht lng
Kt qu nghin cu cho thy cht lng tn ti nhng nhm phn t m trong
cc phn t cng c phn b theo mt trt t no , c gi l trt t gn. Tuy
nhin cc nhm ny lin tc c hnh thnh ri t gii tn.
trng thi lng, cc phn t dao ng chung quanh mt v tr cn bng tm
thi trong mt nhm ri chuyn ng tnh tin sang mt v tr cn bng khc. Nhit
cng cao th thi gian c tr ca phn t mt nhm cng ngn. V vy, nhit cng
cao trng thi lng cng gn vi trng thi kh.
d. Tnh cht ca cht lng
Sc cng b mt c nh ngha l lc cng trn mt n v chiu di ct
ngang b mt. Trong h o lng quc t, sc cng b mt c o bng Newton trn
mt (N.m-1). Hoc c th nh ngha sc cng b mt l cng c hc thc hin khi lc
cng lm cho din tch b mt thay i mt n v o din tch.

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 Sc cng b mt ca cht lng ph thuc vo nng lng tng tc gia cc
phn t (hoc cc nguyn t) ca cht.
Khi un nng cht lng, lc tng tc gia cc tiu phn ca n yu i, v sc
cng b mt gim xung. nhit no , sc cng b mt bng khng, gi l nhit
ti hn.
Cht lng c khuynh hng lm gim sc cng b mt bng cch gim din
tch b mt, l nguyn nhn lm cht lng d to thnh nhng git khi cu c
ng knh khc nhau v cc git d nhp li thnh git ln.
Thi gian di ch cht lng l cng tiu th vn chuyn cht lng theo
ng ng ph thuc vo nht cht lng.
nht l tnh cht cc lp cht lng cn li s chuyn ng ca lp ny i
vi lp kia, l thng s i din cho ma st trong ca dng chy.

F = .S .
A
F l lc cn thit lm chuyn dch lp cht lng ny so vi lp cht lng kia.
S : l din tch tip xc gia hai lp cht lng.
: l hiu s tc hai lp.
A : l khong cch hai lp.
: L nht, ph thuc vo bn cht ca cc cht, khi tng nhit nht cc cht
lng u gim.
Th nguyn ca nht: khi lng/ di thi gian, trong h CGSE n
tng ng g/cm.s. n v ny gi l poaz (P) v bng lc ma st trn 1cm2, nu
nhng lp cch nhau 1cm c tc chuyn ng khc nhau 1cm/s.
nht ca cht lng khc nhau kh nhiu. Khi tng nhit , nht ca cht
lng gim, iu ny c lin quan n s gim lc tng tc gia cc tiu phn. V d,
gim ca nc khi un nng t 0 n 900C gim 5 ln.
Thng thng nhit si ca cc cht lng tng khi phn t khi ca chng
tng, v lc ny lc tng tc tng do cng tnh ca lc khuch tn.
S tng phn cc ca cc phn t dn n s tng lc nh hng v do
cng dn n s tng nhit si.
i vi cc hirocacbon c lin kt i, nhit si tng cng vi s tng ca
h lin hp, v trong trng hp ny kh nng phn cc ha tng v do lm tng lc
lin kt gia cc phn t.

4.7. Hp cht cao phn t (polime)

4.7.1. Cu trc v c im
Cc polime c hnh thnh khi cc phn t thng thng kt hp vi nhau
thnh mch di, do cc lin kt ha hc c hnh thnh gia chng. Khi nu cc
phn t ban u ging nhau (A), th to thnh phn t ln polime ng th kiu: - A
A A A A - (A l gc ca phn t ban u).

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 Cc Polime thng phn nhnh gm cc phn t rt di, di ca chng vt
qu dy ca chng hng chc nghn ln.
C 2 loi cu trc polime: dng vin v dng b.
Cu trc polime dng vin: khi to thnh t cc monome, chng d b nt ra
theo ng ranh gii phn cch gia cc vin v d b ph v. Nu cc vin xp cht
hn, khi ranh gii gia chng b xi mn, th vt liu polime tr nn trong sut v bn.
Nh vy vi cu trc dng vin, nht ca dung dch cht polime rt nh.
Vi cu trc dng b: cc mch phn t ln t hp vi nhau, thu c nhng
tp hp thng, l nhng b phn t ln. iu ny xy ra l do cc phn t ln ring
r khng th co trn li thnh vin.
4.7.2. Tnh cht v ng dng.
a. Tnh cht
Vt liu polime rt ph bin trong thc t, do nhiu nguyn nhn:
- S a dng v cc tnh cht ca vt liu polime: rn v mm, n hi, do, nh,...
- Tng i d ch to thnh sn phm.
- Tng i r v d kim nguyn liu (than, du m, kh).
- Bn i vi tc dng ha hc - bn vi s n mn.
C 3 loi bin dng tn ti vt liu polime:
- Bin dng n hi,
- Bin dng n tnh cao.
- Bin dng chy.
Khi c tc ng bn ngoi ln polime th cu trc ca n c xy dng li dn
dn - c gi l s hi phc. S bin dng n hi c lin quan n s bin i gc
ha tr gia cc nguyn t trong mch polime. S bin dng chy gy ra bi s chuyn
dch cc phn t ln i vi nhau, lc ny cc polime s th hin nh cht lng.
b. ng dng
* S ho tan polime
Polime a nc: polime c cu trc mch thng c th tan hoc trng mnh
trong nc. Thuc loi ny c cc nhm c cc cha cc nguyn t O v N trong
thnh phn phn t, cc nguyn t ny to lin kt vi hidro.
lm dung mi cho cc loi polime, ngi ta s dng cc hidrocacbon:
benzen, xng, axeton, ru,...iu ny c gii thch do nhng phn t nh ca dung
mi i vo polime v gy nn qu trnh trng ln ca polime trong dung mi.
Mt s polime c nht cao v c tnh dnh cao, l do trong dung dch polime
cha cc phn t ln v tng tc mnh. Kh nng kt dnh cng cao khi tng nng
ca polime trong dung dch v khi h nhit . Dung dch polime thuc loi ny l h
v sn.
* Nu chy polime
Polime khi nu chy tn ti 2 dng: hp cht do nng v hp cht cng nng.

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 Polime do nng khi un nng b mm ra v nng chy, cn khi lm lnh chng
ha cng. Thuc kiu ny c polietylen, polistirol, capron,...chng gm nhng phn t
ln hoc phn nhnh, cc phn t ny khi un nng chng khng b khu li thnh
cu trc li.
Polime cng nng khi un nng s khng nng chy v khng ha tan, do xy
ra phn ng gia cc polime ca chng to thnh cu trc dng li. Thuc kiu ny
c nha phenolfomanehit, nha ny l c s ca bakelit, cacbolit. T chng ngi ta
ch to cc sn phm cng v bn nh: thn my in thoi, v dng c in,...
* S ha do cc vt liu
iu kin tinh khit cc polime khng c tnh n hi cao, tuy nhin c th
to polime cng c kh nng bin dng n hi cao bng cch thm vo chng nhng
cht thp phn t no y c kh nng lm tng ng thi tnh do ca vt liu. Cht
thp phn t nh th gi l cht do ha.
Cht do ha s dng c tnh c trng: nht cao, t bay hi.
Mc ch ch yu cht thp phn t khi a vo polime l h nhit thy tinh
ha ca polime, bin chng mm hn v m rng vng bin dng n tnh cao m
polime c s dng.
Chng hn: nhit thng, polivinyclorua l polime rt cng, c nhit
thu tinh ha +750C. Thm thm dibutylftalat c th h nhit thy tinh ha i
1000C v thu c vt liu c tnh mm v tnh n hi khc nhau.
* S si bt ca polime
Cc cht do xp hp thnh mt nhm cht do c bit, l nhng vt liu
tng i mi. N c s dng ch to cc toa lm lnh, cc thit b lm lnh, cc
phao tiu,...N c iu ch bng cch cho nha tng hp vo bt c, bt ny rn
li di dng t ong cha cc l nh, hoc bng cch thi kh vo cht do c
lm mm.
Trong k thut xy dng, ngi ta s dng ch yu cc cht do r t ong.
to chng, ngi ta p mt s lp giy i dng t ong. Sau tm ln bng nhng
cht nha nhn to ri bt mt u hoc c hai u bng cht do bn chc hn.
* n cc polime.
h gi thnh polime, ngi ta thm vo chng cht n: m hng, cao lanh,
mt ca,...cht n lm thay i tnh cht polime: lm gim t trng, lm tng bn.
* Cu tng ha cc polime.
Nhm mc ch l c nh cc phn t ln vi nhau nh hnh thnh cc lin kt
ha hc gia chng v chuyn thnh cht do. Qu trnh ny tin hnh khng cn cht
ph gia, nh qu trnh a ngng t gia nhng nhm chc t do ca cc phn t ln
cn. Qu trnh nh th gi l s ha cng.
V d: S lu ha cao su.
- CH = CH - - CH - CH -

+S8 Sn Sn

- CH = CH - - CH - CH -

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* Gii thiu mt s hp cht cao phn t.
- Polietylen (PE): c dng lm cht do trong k thut in, bao b, dng dn
dng,...
- Higt density polietylen (HDPE): c iu ch t nha PE c cho thm cht chng
oxy ho, cht n nh v cht mu cn thit. c im quan trng l loi nha ny rt
do, bn ha cao.
- Polistyren: c dng lm vt liu cch in, sn xut mt s dng c quang hc,
dng c vn phng,...
- Polivinylclorua (PVC): c dng lm vt liu cch in, ng nc, vi che ma,...
- Polivinylaxetat: c kh nng kt dnh tt vo thy tinh, kim loi, g,... nn c dng
ch to sn v keo dn.
- Polimetylmetacrylat: c tnh chu nhit, chu va chm v bn c hc cao (chu
c 700 kg/cm2), nn c dng lm knh kh v.
- Polibutadien: c dng lm cao su nhn to.
- Poliamit: c dng ko t dt vi may mc. c bit dng may o cu ha.
- Poliphenolfomandehit:
+ Nu dng xc tc H+, ly d phenol, to ra novolac: c dng to sn,
vecni.
OH OH OH

CH2 [ CH2 ]
n

+ Khi dng xc tc OH-, ly d fomandehit, c poli zezol:

OH OH OH

HOCH2 CH2 [ CH2 ] n

CH2OH

CH2OH CH2OH

- Poliurefomanehit: c dng lm keo dn, cht do, pha sn.

NH CO NH CH2 NH CO NH CH2 N CH2 NH CO NH

CO NH CH2OH

- Poli epoxit: dng lm keo dn,

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 Cu hi v bi tp
1. Hy nu cu trc v tnh cht ca tinh th? ngha ca t bo s ng? Cc mng
li Brave?
2. Hy nu cu trc v tnh cht ca tinh th nguyn t. Cho v d. Gii thch v sao
kim cng, than ch, than hot tnh u c cu to bi s lin kt ca cacbon, nhng
kim cng li c cng ln nht?
3. Hy nu cu trc v tnh cht ca tinh th phn t? Cho v d.
4. Hy nu cu trc v tnh cht ca tinh th ion? Cho v d. Khi nim v ch s phi
tr. ngha ca n trong vic gii thch bn cht ca lin kt trong tinh th.
5. Hy nu cu trc v tnh cht ca tinh th kim loi? Cho v d.
6. ng dng m hnh di nng lng gii thch mt s tnh cht vt l ca kim
loi.
7. Phn tch cc kiu mng tinh th ca kim loi so snh xc nh tnh cng v tnh
do ca kim loi. Gii thch ng dng ca n trong cng ngh vt liu kim loi.
8. So snh s khc nhau gia cht rn v nh hnh v cht rn tinh th?
9. Khi nim tinh th lng v trng thi lng? ngha ca sc cng b mt v nht.
10. Hy nu mt s ng dng thc t ca hp cht cao phn t (polime)?

73