Seminar report

On

REHABILATATION OF SEISMICALLY DAMAGED STRUCTURES

SUBMITTED
TO
VIVESWARAIAH TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
BELGAUM
FOR THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF M-TECH (STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING)

BY
TARA SEN
Reg. No: -
1st Semester M-Tech Structures

Under The Guidance of:

H.N JAGANATHA REDDY

Asst. Professor
Department of Civil Engineering

BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated To Visveswaraiah Technological University)
Bangalore-560004

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 BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BANGALORE -560004

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that MISS TARA SEN bearing university USN has submitted
the seminar report on
REHABILATATION OF SEISMICALLY DAMAGED STRUCTURES
in partial fulfillment of the 1st semester M-Tech course in structural engineering as
prescribed by the Visveswaraiah Technological University during the academic year
2006-2007, under the guidance of
H.N JAGANATHA REDDY

Prof. K.JAYRAM H.N JAGANATHA REDDY

H.O.D Asst Professor
Dept. of Civil Engg. Dept. of Civil Engg.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my deep sense of gratitude to H.N JAGANATHA REDDY asst professor

Department of Civil Engineering, BIT, for his guidance and help through out this seminar
work. Without his support this seminar would have not been possible.

I will remain thankful to the head of department, PROF. K.JAYRAM and all the faculty
members of Department of Civil Engineering, BIT for their support during the course of
this work.
Finally I express gratitude to my parents, fellow students and friends.

TARA SEN
M.TECH STRUCTURES
BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

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 SYNOPSIS

Even though, the Code of Practice on Earthquake Resistant Design of Buildings and
Structures is in existence since 1962, it is being followed only by few government
organizations, as a result non compliant buildings are being constructed in the country
specially in private sector. Only recently, the codal provisions on Earthquake Resistant
Design are made mandatory in few States and its implementation is yet to take full
momentum. As a result, existing earthquake unsafe buildings are still growing to an
alarming proportion.

Like other earthquakes in the past, the recent earthquakes of Killari 1993, Bhuj 2001, and
Kashmir 2005 have exposed the seismic vulnerability of construction practices being
followed in the country. It has clearly demonstrated that not only non-engineered rural
houses are vulnerable to earthquakes; the so-called engineered multistoreyed buildings in
big cities are also mostly vulnerable due to faulty design and construction. Considering
the large number of people, high fatality in RC buildings and volume of economic
activities, the social risk involved in cities is also very high; the seismic retrofitting of the
existing buildings has to be undertaken to make these unsafe houses safe to resist future
earthquakes, thereby reducing the number of casualties significantly.

The problem of seismic retrofitting of large stock of unsafe buildings is so big that any
government action is just not feasible and therefore individual house owner/builder has to
undertake the retrofitting measures. However, government can take up retrofitting of its
own buildings and some public utility buildings which are of post earthquake importance.

Evaluation and rehabilitation of damaged structures is an urgent task after an earthquake,

as safe shelter is under pressing demand after a damaging earthquake. This requires some
quick evaluation and retrofitting techniques. The techniques for quick evaluation of need
and viability of retrofitting, temporary emergency support of the damaged structures, and
repair and retrofitting of structures are also covered.

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A lot of development has taken place in the area of evaluation and retrofitting of existing
structures and it is still developing. These Guidelines cover the techniques suitable for the
type of construction prevailing in India and which have been widely used and accepted to
be safe. However, there are some more advanced methods of evaluation and retrofitting
techniques, which are still at development stage. References have been provided for
further study on these techniques. It is hoped that this will provide adequate information
required for effective implementation of seismic retrofitting.

Structural Failure due to an earthquake

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6
WHY IS REHABILITATION DONE.

The deficiencies in buildings and structures against earthquake may arise at (i) planning
stage with faulty configuration and irregularities, (ii) design stage due to inadequate
strength and ductility, and (iii) construction stage due to faulty construction practices.
Revision of design codes is a continuing process world over and usually results in up-
gradation of seismic hazard and increase in design forces. In India also several regions
have been upgraded in terms of seismic zones thereby rendering buildings unsafe
according to new code. All these factors make the retrofitting of existing structures
necessary. The retrofitting may also be required if change in usage of a building takes
place or there is a major alteration/extension of building.

LEVEL OF REHABILITATION

The level of retrofitting of a building depends on the seismic zone in which building is
situated and the level of performance desired from the building. Important buildings are
desired to have a higher performance level during future earthquakes. The seismic zone
governs the design earthquake forces and the performance level governs the permissible
damage or the permissible values of member actions due to earthquake forces. Not only
member forces and strength are important, the nonlinear deformations and ductile
capacity of members are also important for seismic safety of building and need to be
evaluated and examined.

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Much literature on retrofitting of building is already available including the Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS). The aim of present Guidelines is to provide an overview of the
available techniques for seismic evaluation and retrofitting of existing buildings. The
techniques have been presented for the type of construction prevailing in India. Emphasis
has been on detailing the techniques with illustrations, so that these may be easily
understood and applied by common engineers, architects and builders. A need has been
felt to provide adequate information about seismic retrofit design of masonry and RC
buildings which can be easily understood and implemented.

The Guidelines deal with important aspects of seismic hazard estimation, systematic
inspection of existing buildings, tests for estimation of in-situ strength and extent of
damage and deterioration in masonry and RC buildings, mathematical modeling of
frames, frame-tubes, shear walls and frames with infills, and various methods of analysis
for earthquake forces for seismic evaluation, seismic evaluation which requires
knowledge of structural behaviour, materials of construction, principles of seismic
intervention and behaviour of modified structure, and various retrofitting materials. This
includes performance levels of various types of buildings. The definition of these
performance levels has been taken from FEMA and ATC.

These Guidelines cover retrofitting of non-engineered, engineered and earthquake

damaged buildings. These also cover non-engineered rural and semi-urban houses. These
buildings are constructed in mud, stone or brick masonry, without any consideration to
strength and ductility of the structure. The retrofitting techniques for such buildings are
based on failure mode identification and behaviour of such buildings in past earthquakes.
The techniques have been tested in laboratories and field, and known to provide adequate
safety intended for such buildings.

REHABILITATION OBJECTIVE

Elastic Range Inelastic Range Collapse

d
strength

Ductily
stifness

a
o
L
al
er
at
L S Li Coll
er fe aps
vi S e
c af 8 Pre
e et ven
a yDeflection tioN
 lit
y

It is very evident from the graph that if the deflection vs the lateral load curve is with in
the elastic range then only the stiffness of the structure should be increased by
rehabilitation so as to enhance its serviceability.

Now if the deflection vs the lateral load curve goes beyond the elastic range but is with in
the inelastic range then both the stiffness and the strength of the structure has to be
enhanced by rehabilitation so as to enhance both its serviceability as well as its life.

Now if the deflection vs the lateral load curve goes beyond the inelastic range and
reaches the collapse range then the stiffness, the strength and ductility should be
increased by rehabilitation so as to enhance both its serviceability as well as its strength
and to prevent it from collapsing.

GOALS OF REHABILITATION :

Seismic retrofit is primarily applied to achieve public safety, with various levels
of structure and material survivability determined by economic considerations:
Public safety only. The goal is to protect human life, ensuring that the structure
will not collapse upon its occupants or passers by, and that the structure can be
safely exited. Under severe seismic conditions the structure may be a total
economic write-off, requiring tear-down and replacement.
Structure survivability. The goal is that the structure, while remaining safe for
exit, may require extensive repair (but not replacement) before it is generally
useful or considered safe for occupation. This is typically the lowest level of
retrofit applied to bridges.
Structure usability. The structure is to be undiminished in its utility, although it
may be necessary to perform extensive repair or replacement of components in
preparation for the next major seismic event. This is typically the lowest level of
retrofit applied to fire fighting stations, public safety (police) command centers,
and the like and is often the most economical level of retrofit and design for
transportation infrastructure such as rail and highway roadways, bridges, and
tunnels. This level of retrofit is required for water supplies used for fire fighting -
reservoirs, water lines, and hydrants, and is also needed for a few hours after a
seismic event for household water supplies, which may be used for emergency
fire fighting.

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 Primary structure undamaged and the structure is undiminished in utility for its
primary application. A high level of retrofit, this ensures that any required repairs
are only "cosmetic" - for example, minor cracks in plaster, drywall and stucco.
This is the minimum acceptable level of retrofit for hospitals.
Structure unaffected. This level of retrofit is preferred for historic structures of
high cultural significance. usually incorporate ductile steel frames and by their
height will have lower natural frequencies.

REHABILITATION STRATEGY

DESIGN PARAMETERS : Strength

Stiffness
Ductility

Ductility enhancement
Base shear

Stiffness & Strength enhancement

rehabilitated
structure

rehabilitated
structure
Base shear

existing
structure
V u

displacement
existing
structure

10 displacement
 Stiffness , Strength and Ductility enhancement

rehabilitated
structure
Base shear

Stiffness, Strength
& Ductility enhancement
V

existing
rehabilitated
structure
structure u
Base shear

displacement
V

existing
structure
REHABILITATION INTERVENTION TECHNIQUES
u

11displacement
They are of three different types:

Local Intervention : Such as injection into the cracks

Gunite concreting
Steel plate adhesion
Steel jacketing
FRP jacketing

Global Intervention : RC Jacketing

Addition of RC walls
Steel buttresses
Steel Bracing
Base Isolation

Selective Intervention: Stiffness Increment

Stiffness and Strength Increment
Stiffness, Strength and Ductility Increment

DIFFERENT PROCESSES OF REHABILITATION FOR VARIOUS

CASES OF STRUCTURE FAILURES DUE TO
EARTHQUAKES

1. Reinforcement
The most common form of seismic retrofit to lower buildings is adding strength to the
existing structure to resist seismic forces. The strengthening may be limited to
connections between existing building elements or it may involve adding primary
resisting elements such as walls or frames, particularly in the lower stories.

Connections between buildings and their expansion additions

Frequently, building additions will not be strongly connected to the existing structure, but
simply placed adjacent to it, with only minor continuity in flooring, siding, and roofing.
As a result, the addition may have a different resonant period than the original structure,
and they may easily detach from one another. The relative motion will then cause the two
parts to collide, causing severe structural damage. Proper construction will tie the two
building components rigidly together so that they behave as a single mass.

Failure in lowest storey

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In many buildings the ground level is designed for different uses than the upper levels.
Low rise residential structures may be built over a parking garage which have large doors
on one side. Hotels may have a tall ground floors to allow for a grand entrance or
ballrooms. Office buildings may have stores in the ground floor which desire continuous
windows for display.
Traditional seismic design assumes that the lower stories of a building are stronger than
the upper stories and where this is not the case the structure will not respond to
earthquakes in the expected fashion. Using modern design methods, it is possible to take
a weak story into account.
Typically, where this type of problem is found, the weak story is reinforced to make it
stronger than the floors above by adding shear walls or moment frames. Moment frames
consisting of inverted U bents are useful in preserving lower story garage access, while a
lower cost solution may be to use shear walls or trusses in several locations, which
partially reduce the usefulness for automobile parking but still allow the space to be used
for other storage.

Wooden floor failure

Floors in wooden buildings are usually constructed upon relatively deep spans of wood,
called joists, covered with a diagonal wood planking or plywood to form a subfloor upon
which the finish floor surface is laid. In many structures these are all aligned in the same
direction. To prevent the beams from tipping over onto their side, blocking is used at each
end, and for additional stiffness, blocking or diagonal wood or metal bracing may be
placed between beams at one or more points in their spans. At the outer edge it is typical
to use a single depth of blocking and a perimeter beam overall.

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If the blocking or nailing is inadequate, each beam can be laid flat by the shear forces
applied to the building. In this position they lack most of their original strength and the
structure may further collapse. As part of a retrofit the blocking may be doubled,
especially at the outer edges of the building. It may be appropriate to add additional nails
between the sill plate of the perimeter wall erected upon the floor diaphragm, although
this will require exposing the sill plate by removing interior plaster or exterior siding. As
the sill plate may be quite old and dry and substantial nails must be used, it may be
necessary to pre-drill a hole for the nail in the old wood to avoid splitting. When the wall
is opened for this purpose it may also be appropriate to tie vertical wall elements into the
foundation using specialty connectors and bolts glued with epoxy cement into holes
drilled in the foundation.

Sliding off foundation and cripple wall failure

House slid off of foundation

Low cripple wall collapse and detachment of structure from concrete stairway
Single or two story wood-frame domestic structures built on a perimeter or slab
foundation are relatively safe in an earthquake, but in many structures built before 1950
the sill plate that sits between the concrete foundation and the floor diaphragm (perimeter
foundation) or studwall (slab foundation) may not be sufficiently bolted in. Additionally,
older attachments may have corroded to a point of weakness. A sideways shock can also
slide the building entirely off of the foundations or slab.

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Often such buildings, especially if constructed on a moderate slope, are erected on a
platform connected to a perimeter foundation through low stud-walls called "cripple
wall" or pin-up. This low wall structure itself may fail in shear or in its connections to
itself at the corners, leading to the building moving diagonally and collapsing the low
walls. The likelihood of failure of the pin-up can be reduced by ensuring that the corners
are well reinforced in shear and that the shear panels are well connected to each other
through the corner posts. This requires structural grade sheet plywood, often treated for
rot resistance. This grade of plywood is made without interior unfilled knots and with
more, thinner layers than common plywood. New buildings designed to resist
earthquakes will typically use OSB (oriented strand board), sometimes with metal joins
between panels, and with well attached stucco covering to enhance its performance. In
many modern tract homes, especially those build upon expansive (clay) soil the building
is constructed upon a single and relatively thick monolithic slab, kept in one piece by
high tensile rods that are stressed after the slab has set. This poststressing places the
concrete under compression - a condition under which it is extremely strong in bending
and so will not crack under adverse soil conditions.

Multiple piers in shallow pits

Some older low-cost structures are elevated on tapered concrete pylons set into shallow
pits, a method frequently used to attach outdoor decks to existing buildings. This is seen
in conditions of damp soil, especially in tropical conditions, as it leaves a dry ventilated
space under the house, and in far northern conditions of permafrost (frozen mud) as it
keeps the building's warmth from destabilizing the ground beneath.
During an earthquake, the pylons may tip, spilling the building to the ground. This can be
overcome by using deep-bored holes to contain cast-in-place reinforced pylons, which are
then secured to the floor panel at the corners of the building. Another technique is to add
sufficient diagonal bracing or sections of concrete shear wall between pylons.

Reinforced concrete column burst

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Jacketed and grouted column on left, unmodified on right

Reinforced concrete columns typically contain large diameter vertical rebar arranged in a
ring, surrounded by lighter-gauge hoops of rebar. Upon analysis of failures due to
earthquakes, it has been realized that the weakness was not in the vertical bars, but rather
in inadequate strength and quantity of hoops. Once the integrity of the hoops are
breached, the vertical rebar can flex outward, stressing the central column of concrete.
The concrete then simply crumbles into small pieces, now unconstrained by the
surrounding rebar. In new construction a greater amount of hoop-like structures are used.
One simple retrofit is to surround the column with a jacket of steel plates formed and
welded into a single cylinder. The space between the jacket and the column is then filled
with concrete, a process called grouting. Where soil or structure conditions require such
additional modification, additional pilings may be driven near the column base and
concrete pads linking the pilings to the pylon are fabricated at or below ground level. In
the example shown not all columns needed to be modified to gain sufficient seismic
resistance for the conditions expected.

Brick wall resin and glass fiber reinforcement

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Brick building structures have been reinforced with coatings of glass fiber and
appropriate resin (epoxy or polyester). In lower floors these may be applied over entire
exposed surfaces, while in upper floors this may be confined to narrow areas around
window and door openings. This application provides tensile strength that stiffens the
wall against bending away from the side with the application. The efficient protection of
an entire building requires extensive analysis and engineering to determine the
appropriate locations to be treated.

Reinforced concrete post to beam connections

EMBED Word.Picture.8

Corner joint steel reinforcement and high tensile strength rods with grouted anti-burst
jacket below

Examination of failed structures often reveals failure at the corners, where vertical posts
join horizontal beams. These corners can be reinforced with external steel plates, which
must be secured by through bolts and which may also offer an anchor point for strong
rods, as shown in the image at left. The horizontal rods pass across the beam to a similar
structure on the opposite side, while the vertical rods are anchored after passing through a
grouted anti-burst jacket.

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Original construction with well connected double posts and saddle beam
Another method is to simply add a great amount of small attachment points, as in the wall
reinforcement method described above, with additional rebar and concrete. In one retrofit
every corner joint has been surrounded by a block-like jacket. These blocks serve to
transfer bending forces to new added jackets on the vertical and horizontal elements. The
goal is to achieve the type of strength afforded by the new construction shown at right
(this is not a retrofit).

2. Use of Ferrocement

Use of Ferrocement

In India, ferrocement is used often because the constructions made from it are better
resistant against earthquakes.

Advantages
The advantages of a well built ferrocement construction are the low weight, maintenance
costs and long lifetime in comparison with steel constructions. However, meticulous
building precision is considered crucial here. Especially with respect to the cement
composition and the way in which it is applied in and on the framework.

When a ferrocement sheet is mechanically overloaded, it will tend to fold instead of crack
or rupture. The wire framework will hold the pieces together, which in some applications
(boat hull, ceiling, roof) is an advantage.

3. Isolation

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Generally required for large masonry buildings, excavations are made around the
foundations of the building and the building (in piecemeal fashion) is separated from the
foundations. Steel or reinforced concrete beams replace the connections to the
foundations, while under these, layered rubber and metal isolating pads replace the
material removed, these in turn are attached below to new or existing foundations. These
allow the ground to move while the building, restrained by its inertial mass, remains
relatively static. The pads absorb energy, transforming the relative motion between the
ground and the structure into heat. While the pads tend to transmit some of the ground
motion to the building they also keep the building positioned properly over the
foundation. Careful attention to detail is required where the building interfaces with the
ground, especially at entrances, stairways and ramps, to ensure sufficient free motion
without damage to access means from compression or dismantling or falling from
extension.

4. Dampers

Dampers absorb the energy of motion and convert it to heat, thus "damping" resonant
effects in structures that are rigidly attached to the ground. In these cases, the threat of
damage does not come from the initial shock itself, but rather from the periodic resonant
motion of the structure that repeated ground motion induces.

5.Slosh tanks

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A large tank of water may be placed on an upper floor. During a seismic event, the water
in this tank will slosh back and forth, but is directed by baffles - partitions that prevent
the tank itself becoming resonant; through its mass the water may change or counter the
resonant period of the building. Additional kinetic energy can be converted to heat by the
baffles and is dissipated through the water - any temperature rise will be insignificant.

6.Shock absorbers

Shock absorbers, similar to those used in automotive suspensions, may be used to

connect portions of a structure that are free to move relative to each other and that may
collide during an earthquake. Where a rigid connection could break or impose excessive
strain on the buildings, and a loose connection could be dismantled, the shock absorbers
allow the relative motion to be restrained by transferring and dissipating energy. This can
be especially effective if the two structures have differing fundamental frequencies of
resonance, as each structure may then assist in inhibiting the motion of the other.

7.Tuned mass dampers

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Tuned mass dampers employ movable weights with dampers. These are typically
employed to reduce wind sway in very tall, light buildings. Similar designs may be
employed to impart earthquake resistance in eight to ten story buildings that are prone to
destructive earthquake induced resonances.

8.Active damping with fallback

Landmark Tower. Shinjuku Park

Tower.

Very tall buildings ("skyscrapers"), when built using modern lightweight materials, might
sway uncomfortably (but not dangerously) in certain wind conditions. A solution to this
problem is to include at some upper story a large mass, constrained, but free to move
within a limited range, and moving on some sort of bearing system such as an air cushion
or hydraulic film. Hydraulic pistons, powered by electric pumps and accumulators, are
actively driven to counter the wind forces and natural resonances. These may also, if
properly designed, be effective in controlling excessive motion - with or without applied
power - in an earthquake. In general, though, modern steel frame high rise buildings are
not as subject to dangerous motion as are medium rise (eight to ten story) buildings, as
the resonant period of a tall and massive building is longer than the approximately one
second shocks applied by an earthquake.

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9.Rehabilitation of natural gas lines :

Natural gas and propane supply pipes to structures often prove especially dangerous
during and after earthquakes. Should a building move from its foundation or fall due to
cripple wall collapse, the ductile iron pipes transporting the gas within the structure may
be broken, typically at the location of threaded joints. The gas may then still be provided
to the pressure regulator from higher pressure lines and so continue to flow in substantial
quantities; it may then be ignited by a nearby source such as a lit pilot light or arcing
electrical connection.
There are two primary methods of automatically restraining the flow of gas after an
earthquake, installed on the low pressure side of the regulator, and usually downstream of
the gas meter.
A caged metal ball may be arranged at the edge of an orifice. Upon seismic shock,
the ball will roll into the orifice, sealing it to prevent gas flow. The ball may later
be reset by the use of an external magnet. This device will respond only to ground
motion.
A flow-sensitive device may be used to close a valve if the flow of gas exceeds a
set threshold (very much like an electrical circuit breaker). This device will
operate independently of seismic motion, but will not respond to minor leaks
which may be caused by an earthquake.

It appears that the most secure configuration would be to use one of each of these devices
in series.

DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF REHABILITATION

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RC Jacketing

Side Jacketing Local intervention

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Using Fiber-reinforced concrete

Fiber-reinforcement is mainly used in shotcrete, but can also be used in normal concrete.
Fiber-reinforced normal concrete are mostly used for on-ground floors and pavements,
but can be considered for a wide range of construction parts (beams, pilars, foundations
etc) either alone or with hand-tied rebars.
Concrete reinforced with fibers (which are usually steel or "plastic" fibers) is less
expensive than hand-tied rebar, while still increasing the tensile strength many times.
Shape, dimension and length of fiber is important. A thin and short fiber, for example
short hair-shaped glass fiber, will only be effective the first hours after pouring the
concrete (reduces cracking while the concrete is stiffening) but will not increase the
concrete tensile strength. A normal size fibre for European shotcrete (1 mm diameter, 45
mm lengthsteel or "plastic") will increase the concrete tensile strength.
Steel is the strongest commonly-available fiber, and come in different lengths (30 to 80
mm in Europe) and shapes (end-hooks). Steel fibres can only be used on surfaces that can
tolerate or avoid corrosion and rust stains. In some cases, a steel-fiber surface is faced
with other materials.
Glass fiber is inexpensive and corrosion-proof, but not as ductile as steel. Recently, spun
basalt fiber, long available in Eastern Europe, has become available in the U.S. and
Western Europe. Basalt fibre is stronger and less expensive than glass, but historically,
has not resisted the alkaline environment of portland cement well enough to be used as
direct reinforcement. New materials use plastic binders to isolate the basalt fiber from the
cement.
The premium fibers are graphite reinforced plastic fibers, which are nearly as strong as
steel, lighter-weight and corrosion-proof. Some experimeters have had promising early
results with carbon nanotubes, but the material is still far too expensive for any building

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FRP jacketing

Columns Beams

Shear Strengthening

Column Wraping device

25
 Large capacity isolation bearings and dampers

Wall Failures

Using of steel bolts for retrofitting of walls

26
Using steel braces

STRUCTURES TO BE REHABILITATED :

Seismic rehabilitation techniques will vary with the nature of the structure, soil
conditions, local topography, and distance from various faults. A nearby minor fault,
capable of generating only a small earthquake, may be more dangerous to a structure than
a distant major fault. In some cases, structures have been built spanning faults, and an
appropriate retrofit may be to attempt to keep the portions together or to remove or make
a spanning portion flexible.

1.Bridges

Bridges have several failure modes.They are the following :

Expansion joints

Many short bridge spans are statically anchored at one end and attached to joints at the
other. This joints gives vertical and transverse support while allowing the bridge span to
expand and contract with temperature changes. The change in the length of the span is
accommodated over a gap in the roadway by comb-like expansion joints. During severe
ground motion the rockers may jump from their tracks or be moved beyond their design
limits, causing the bridge to unship from its resting point and then either become
misaligned or fall completely.
Motion can be constrained by adding ductile or high-strength steel restraints that are
friction-clamped to beams and designed to slide under stress while limiting the motion
relative to the anchorage.

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Lattice beams

Obsolete riveted lattice beams shown in the figure.

Lattice beams consist of two "I"-beams connected with a criss-cross lattice of flat strap or
angle stock. These can be greatly strengthened by replacing the open lattice with plate
members. This is usually done in concert with the replacement of hot rivets with bolts.

Bolted plate lattice replacement, forming box beams

Hot rivets
Many older structures were fabricated by inserting red hot rivets into pre-drilled holes;
the rivets are then peened using an air hammer on one side and a bucking bar (an inertial
mass) on the head end. As these cool slowly, they are left in an annealed (soft) condition,

28
while the plate, having been hot rolled and quenched during manufacture, remains
relatively hard. Under extreme stress the hard plates can shear the soft rivets, resulting in
failure of the joint.
The solution is to burn out each rivet with an oxygen torch. The hole is then prepared to a
precise diameter with a reamer. A special bolt, consisting of a head, a shaft matching the
reamed hole, and a threaded end is inserted and retained with a nut, then tightened with a
wrench. As the bolt has been formed from an appropriate high-strength alloy and has also
been heat-treated, it is not subject to either the plastic shear failure typical of hot rivets
nor the brittle fracture of ordinary bolts. Any partial failure will be in the plastic flow of
the metal secured by the bolt; with proper engineering any such failure should be non-
catastrophic.

2. Tunnels

Unless the tunnel penetrates a fault likely to slip, the greatest danger to tunnels is a
landslide blocking an entrance. Additional protection around the entrance may be applied
to divert any falling material (similar as is done to divert snow avalanches) or the slope
above the tunnel may be stabilized in some way. Where only small- to medium-sized
rocks and boulders are expected to fall, the entire slope may be covered with wire mesh,
pinned down to the slope with metal rods. This is also a common modification to
highway cuts where appropriate conditions exist.

3. Underwater tubes

The safety of underwater tubes is highly dependent upon the soil conditions through
which the tunnel was constructed, the materials and reinforcements used, and the
maximum predicted earthquake expected, and other factors, some of which may remain
unknown under current knowledge.
A tube of particular structural, seismic, economic, and political interest is the BART (Bay
Area Rapid Transit) trans-bay tube. This tube was constructed at the bottom of San
Francisco Bay through an innovative process. Rather than pushing a shield through the
soft bay mud, the tube was constructed on land in sections. Each section consisted of two
inner tubular tunnels, a central access tunnel of rectangular cross section, and an outer
oval shell encompassing the three inner tubes. The intervening space was filled with
concrete. At the bottom of the bay a trench was excavated and a flat bed of crushed stone
prepared to receive the tube sections. The sections were then floated into place and sunk,
then joined with bolted connections to previously-placed sections. An overfill was then
placed atop the tube to hold it down. Once completed from San Francisco to Oakland, the

29
tracks and electrical components were installed. The predicted response of the tube
during a major earthquake was likened to be as that of a string of (cooked) spaghetti in a
bowl of gelatin dessert). To avoid overstressing the tube due to differential movements at
each end, a sliding slip joint was included at the San Francisco terminus under the
landmark Ferry Building. The engineers of the construction consortium PBTB (Parsons-
Brinkerhoff-Tudor-Bechtel) used the best estimates of ground motion available at the
time, now known to be insufficient given modern computational analysis methods and
geotechnical knowledge. Unexpected settlement of the tube has reduced the amount of
slip that can be accommodated without failure. These factors have resulted in the slip
joint being designed too short to ensure survival of the tube under possible (perhaps even
likely) large earthquakes in the region. To correct this deficiency the slip joint must be
extended to allow for additional movement, a modification expected to be both expensive
and technically and logistically difficult. Other retrofits to the BART tube include
vibratory consolidation of the tube's overfill to avoid potential liquefying of the overfill,
which has now been completed. (Should the overfill fail there is a danger portions of the
tube rising from the bottom, an event which could potentially cause failure of the section
connections.)

4.Fill and overpass

Elevated roadways are typically built on sections of elevated earth fill connected with
bridge-like segments, often supported with vertical columns.
If the soil fails where a bridge terminates, the bridge may become disconnected from the
rest of the roadway and break away. The retrofit for this is to add additional
reinforcement to any supporting wall, or to add deep caissons adjacent to the edge at each
end and connect them with a supporting beam under the bridge.
Another failure occurs when the fill at each end moves (through resonant effects) in bulk,
in opposite directions. If there is an insufficient founding shelf for the overpass it may
then fall. Addtional shelf and ductile stays may be added to attach the overpass to the
footings at one or both ends. The stays, rather than being fixed to the beams may instead
be clamped to them. Under moderate loading these keep the overpass centered in the gap
so that it is less likely to slide off its founding shelf at one end. The ability for the fixed
ends to slide, rather than break, will prevent the complete drop of the structure If it should
fail to remain on the footings.

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5.Viaducts

Large sections of roadway may consist entirely of viaduct, sections with no connection to
the earth other than through vertical columns. When concrete columns are used, the
detailing is critical. Typical failure may be in the toppling of a row of columns due either
to soil connection failure or to insufficient cylindrical wrapping with rebar. Both failures
were seen in the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake in Kobe, Japan, where an entire viaduct,
centrally supported by a single row of large columns, was laid down to one side.
Such columns are reinforced by excavating to the foundation pad, driving additional
pilings, and adding a new, larger pad, well connected with rebar along side of or into the
column. A column with insufficient wrapping bar, which is prone to burst and then hinge
at the bursting point, may be completely encased in a circular or elliptical jacket of
welded steel sheet and grouted as described above.

Cypress Freeway viaduct collapse. Note lack of anti-burst wrapping and lack of
connection between upper and lower vertical elements.
Sometimes viaducts may fail in the connections between components. This was seen in
the failure of the Cypress Freeway in Oakland, California during the Loma Prieta
earthquake. This viaduct was a two-level structure, and the upper portions of the columns
were not well connected to the lower portions that supported the lower level; this caused
the upper deck to collapse upon the lower deck. Weak connections such as these require
additional external jacketing - either through external steel components or by a complete
jacket of reinforced concrete, often using stub connections that are glued (using epoxy
adhesive) into numerous drilled holes. These stubs are then connected to additional
wrappings, external forms (which may be temporary or permanent) are erected, and
additional concrete is poured into the space. Large connected structures similar to the
Cyprus Viaduct must also be properly analyzed in their entirety using dynamic computer
simulations.

6.Retaining Walls

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Concrete walls are often used at the transition between elevated road fill and overpass
structures. The wall is used both to retain the soil and so enable the use of a shorter span
and also to transfer the weight of the span directly downward to footings in undisturbed
soil. If these walls are inadequate they may crumble under the stress of an earthquake's
induced ground motion.
One form of retrofit is to drill numerous holes into the surface of the wall, and secure
short L-shaped sections of rebar to the surface of each hole with epoxy adhesive.
Additional vertical and horizontal rebar is then secured to the new elements, a form is
erected, and an additional layer of concrete is poured. This modification may be

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combined with additional footings in excavated trenches and additional support ledgers
and tie-backs to retain the span on the bounding walls.

6.Wood frame

Wood is one of the best materials for anti-seismic construction since it is of low mass and
is relatively less brittle than masonry. It is easy to work with and very cheap compared to
other modern material as steel and reinforced concrete. This is only resistant if the
structure is properly connected to its foundation and has adequate shear resistance, in
modern construction obtained by well connected surfacing of panels with plywood or
oriented strand board in combination with exterior stucco. Steel strapping and sheet
forms are also used to connect elements securely.
Retrofit methods in older frame structures may consist of the following, and other
methods not described here.
The lowest plate rails of walls are bolted to a continuous foundation, or held down
with rigid metal clips bolted to the foundation.
Selected vertical elements, especially at wall junctures and window and door
openings are attached securely to the sill plate.
In two story buildings using "western" style construction (walls are progressively
erected upon the lower story's upper diaphragm, unlike "eastern" balloon
framing), the upper walls are connected to the lower walls with tension elements.
In some case connections may be extended vertically to include retention of
certain roof elements.
Low cripple walls are made shear resistant by adding plywood at the corners and
by securing corners from opening with metal strapping or fixtures.
Vertical posts may be restrained from jumping off of their footings.

7.Masonry
In the western United States, much of what is seen as masonry is actually brick or stone
veneer. Current construction rules dictate the amount of tieback required, which consist
of metal straps secured to vertical structural elements. These straps extend into mortar
courses, securing the veneer to the primary structure. Older structures may not secure this

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sufficiently for seismic safety. A weakly secured veneer in the interior house (sometimes
used to face a fireplace from floor to ceiling) can be especially dangerous to occupants.
Older masonry chimneys are also dangerous if they have substantial vertical extension
above the roof. These are prone to breakage at the roofline and may fall into the house in
a single large piece. For retrofit, additional supports may be added or it may be better to
simply remove the extension and replace it with lighter materials, with special piping
replacing the flue tile and a wood structure replacing the masonry. This may be matched
against existing brickwork by using very thin veneer (similar to a tile, but with the
appearance of a brick).
Masonry walls that are not reinforced are especially hazardous. Such structures may be
more appropriate for replacement than retrofit, but if the walls are the principal load
bearing elements in structures of modest size they may be appropriately reinforced. It is
especially important that floor and ceiling beams be securely attached to the walls.
Additional vertical supports in the form of steel or reinforced concrete may be added.

8.RC BUILDING

Retrofitting of RC buildings is much more systematic and rational process than that of
non-engineered load bearing wall buildings. The different techniques available for
retrofitting of RC buildings have been described. The principles of retrofitting of RC
buildings are:
(i) removal of irregularities and asymmetry,
(ii) Increasing the strength and stiffness of structure,
(iii) Enhancement of deformation capacity (or ductility), and
(iv) Earthquake demand reduction by Base-isolation or Supplemental Energy Dissipation.

Different techniques based on these principles have been illustrated. The emphasis on
reinforcement detailing, bond of old and new concrete, and anchorage of new
reinforcement is highlighted. Outline and principle of advanced techniques (e.g. Base-
Isolation and Supplemental Damping) has also been provided. However, a detailed
description and mathematical formulation of these advanced techniques are beyond the
scope of these Guidelines and references have been provided for further reference.

Retrofitting and strengthening of existing structures require use of special materials.

Bonding of old and new concrete and shrinkage are the main governing factors in
selection of material. A description of materials available for this purpose, including a
range from ordinary cement-sand grout, concrete to polymers and epoxy, use of Fibre
Reinforced Polymers/Plastics (FRP) in strengthening and retrofitting has also been
described with the points of caution. Specialized machinery and preparations required for
use of different retrofitting materials are also outlined.

ADVANTAGES OF RETROFFITING

1.Damage and collapse of bridges can be prevented with proper seismic design
and detailing.

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2.Understanding plastic concepts can produce more economical foundations.

3. Utilizing the latest seismic guidelines produces safe and state-of-the-art

designs.

4. Traffic congestion and interruption to commerce can be minimized if bridges

remain in service following a seismic event.

5. Higher strength/weight ratio.

6. Higher oriented strength.

7. Better design flexibility.

8. Lower maintenance and long term durability.

9. Better dimensional stability.

10. Protection of various building components can be accomplished .

11. Will enable us in better protection of life and property.

12.Will help us to preserve various historic monuments for years to come.

Release of hazardous materials with associated environmental impacts.

The End

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