Vibrationofsingledegreeof

Vibration of single degree of

freedomsystems
y
Assoc.Prof.Dr.PelinGundesBakir
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pelin Gundes Bakir
gundesbakir@yahoo.com
 Course Schedule
CourseSchedule
A h
Ashortreviewonthedynamicbehaviourofthesingledegreeoffreedomsystems
i h d i b h i f h i l d ff d

Ashortreviewonthedynamicbehaviourofmultidegreeoffreedomstructures

Objectivesforvibrationmonitoring

FourierSeriesExpansion,FourierTransforms,DiscreteFourierTransform

Digitalsignalprocessing,problemsassociatedwithanalogtodigitalconversion,sampling,
aliasing,leakage,windowing,filters
l l k d fl

Stepsininstrumentingastructure,selectionandinstallationofinstruments,maintenance,
vibrationinstrumentation,exciters,transducers,performancespecification,dataacquisition
ib ti i t t ti it t d f ifi ti d t i iti
systems,strongmotiondataprocessing
 Course Schedule
CourseSchedule
Randomvariables,stochasticprocesses,statisticalanalysis,correlationandconvolution,
R d i bl h i i i l l i l i d l i
coherence,timeandfrequencydomainrepresentationofrandomdynamicloads

Dynamic response of single and multi degree of freedom systems to random loads
Dynamicresponseofsingleandmultidegreeoffreedomsystemstorandomloads

Modalanalysis

Applicationsinbridges,buildings,mechanicalengineeringandaerospacestructures

MATLABexercises

TermProjects
 References
Modalanalysis:
M d l l i
HeylenW.,LammensS.AndSasP.,ModalAnalysisTheoryandTesting,Katholieke
UniversiteitLeuven,1997.
EwinsD.J.,ModalTesting,Theory,Practice,andApplication(MechanicalEngineering
Ewins D J Modal Testing Theory Practice and Application (Mechanical Engineering
ResearchStudiesEngineeringDesignSeries),ResearchStudiesPre;2edition(August2001)
ISBN13:9780863802188
Maia,N.M.M.andSilva,J.M.M.TheoreticalandExperimentalModalAnalysis,Research
Maia, N. M. M. and Silva, J. M. M.Theoretical and Experimental Modal Analysis, Research
StudiesPressLtd,,Hertfordshire,1997,488pp.,ISBN0863802087
Signalprocessing:
Blackburn,JamesA,Moderninstrumentationforscientistsandengineers,NewYork:
, , f g ,
Springer,2001
StearnsS.D.andDavid,R.A.,SignalProcessingAlgorithmsinMatlab,PrenticeHallInc,1996
MitraS.K.,DigitalSignalProcessing,AComputerbasedapproach,McGrawHill,3rdEdition,
2006.
HeylenW.,LammensS.AndSasP.,ModalAnalysisTheoryandTesting,Katholieke
UniversiteitLeuven,1997.
KeithWordenSignalProcessingandInstrumentation,LectureNotes,
http://www.dynamics.group.shef.ac.uk/people/keith/mec409.htm
 References
Signalprocessing:

Lynn,P.A.IntroductoryDigitalSignalprocessingWithComputerApplications.JohnWiley&
Sons,1994.

StearnsD.D.andDavid,R.A.,SignalProcessingAlgorithmsinMatlab,PrenticeHallInc,1996

Ifeachor E.C.andJervisB.W.DigitalSignalProcessing:APracticalApproach,AddisonWesley,
1997

Generalvibrationtheory

RaoS.S.,Mechanicalvibrations,Pearson,PrenticeHall,2004.

InmanD.J.,EngineeringVibration,PrenticeHall,1994.

MeirovitchL.,Fundamentalsofvibrations,McGrawHill,2001.
 References
R d
Randomvibrations:
ib i

BendatJ.S.andPiersolA.G.,Randomdataanalysisandmeasurementprocedures,WileySeriesin
ProbabilityandStatistics,3rdEdition,2004.
y , ,

LutesL.D.andSarkani S.,RandomVibrations:Analysisofstructuralandmechanicalsystems,Elsevier,631
pp,2004.

NewlandD.E.,Anintroductiontorandomvibrations,spectralandwaveletanalysis,Longman,
1975/1984/1993.

SoongT.T.andGrigoriu,Randomvibrationofmechanicalandstructuralsystems,PrenticeHall,1993.

Wirsching P.H.andPaez T.L.andOrtizK.Randomvibrations:TheoryandPractice,JohnWileyandsons,

1995.
199

Bendat J.S.and Piersol A.G.Engineeringapplicationsofcorrelationandspectralanalysis,JohnWileyand

, nd Edition,1993.
Sons,2 ,
 References
Vib i I
VibrationInstrumentation:
i

Vibration,monitoring,testingandinstrumentationhandbook,CRCPress,TaylorandFrancis,
Edited by Clarence W De Silva
Editedby:ClarenceW.DeSilva.

AszklerC.,Acceleration,shockandvibrationsensors,Sensorshandbook,Chapter5,pages
137 159
137159.

McConnellK.G.,Vibrationtesting,theoryandpractice,JohnWileyandSons,1995.

Prerequisites: Basicknowledgeonstructuralanalysis.
 Vibration based health monitoring
Vibrationbasedhealthmonitoring
B i I f
BasicInformation:
ti

Instructor:Assoc.Prof.Dr.PelinGundesBakir
Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pelin Gundes Bakir
(http://atlas.cc.itu.edu.tr/~gundes

Email:gundesbakir@yahoo.com

OfficehoursTBDbyemailappointment

Website:
W b it
http://atlas.cc.itu.edu.tr/~gundes/lectures

Lecture time: Wednesday 14 0017

Lecturetime:Wednesday14.00 17.00
00

Lecturevenue:NH404
 Vibration based health monitoring
Vibrationbasedhealthmonitoring
Vibrationbasedstructuralhealthmonitoringisamultidisciplinary
Vibration based str ct ral health monitoring i ltidi i li
researchtopic.Thecourseissuitablebothforundergraduateand
graduatestudentsaswellasthefollowingdepartments:

Civilengineering

Earthquakeengineering

Mechanicalengineering
Mechanical engineering

Aerospaceengineering

Electricalandelectronicengineering
 Vibration based health monitoring
Vibrationbasedhealthmonitoring
BasicInformation:

70%attendanceisrequired.

Grading:
Quiz+homeworks:35%
Midtermproject:25%
Finalproject:40%
 Introduction

Conceptsfromvibrations
Concepts from vibrations
Degreesoffreedom
Classificationofvibration
 Concepts from vibrations
Conceptsfromvibrations
NEWTONSLAWS

Firstlaw:
First law:
Iftherearenoforcesactinguponaparticle,thentheparticlewillmovein
astraightlinewithconstantvelocity.

Secondlaw:
A particle acted upon by a force moves so that the force vector is equal to
Aparticleacteduponbyaforcemovessothattheforcevectorisequalto
thetimerateofchangeofthelinearmomentumvector.

Thirdlaw:
Whentwoparticlesexertforcesupononeanother,theforcesliealongthe
line joining the particles and the corresponding force vectors are the
linejoiningtheparticlesandthecorrespondingforcevectorsarethe
negativeofeachother.
 Definition
Theminimumnumberofindependentcoordinatesrequiredtodetermine
h b f d d d d d
completelythepositionsofallpartsofasystematanyinstantoftime
definesthedegreeoffreedomofthesystem.A singledegreeoffreedom
system requiresonlyonecoordinatetodescribeitspositionatanyinstant
oftime.
 Single degree of freedom system
Singledegreeoffreedomsystem
th i l d l i th fi th ti b t t d ith i t f orxandy.Ifthe
FForthesimplependuluminthefigure,themotioncanbestatedeitherintermsof d If th
coordinatesxandyareusedtodescribethemotion,itmustberecognizedthatthesecoordinatesarenot
independent.Theyarerelatedtoeachotherthroughtherelation

x2 + y2 = l 2
wherelistheconstantlengthofthependulum.Thusanyonecoordinatecandescribethemotionofthe
pendulum.Inthisexample,wefindthatthechoiceof astheindependentcoordinatewillbemore
convenient than the choice of x and y.
convenientthanthechoiceofxandy.
 Two degree of freedom system
Twodegreeoffreedomsystem
SSomeexamplesoftwodegreeoffreedomsystemsareshowninthefigure.Thefirstfigureshowsatwo
l ft d ff d t h i th fi Th fi t fi h t
mass twospringsystemthatisdescribedbytwolinearcoordinatesx1 andx2.Thesecondfiguredenotes
atworotorsystemwhosemotioncanbespecifiedintermsof1and2.Themotionofthesysteminthe
thirdfigurecanbedescribedcompletelyeitherbyXand orbyx,yandX.
 Discrete and continuous systems
Discreteandcontinuoussystems
Alargenumberofpracticalsystemscanbedescribedusingafinitenumberofdegreesoffreedom,suchas
A l b f ti l t b d ib d i fi it b fd ff d h
thesimplesystemshowninthepreviousslides.

Somesystems,especiallythoseinvolvingcontinuouselasticmembers,haveaninfinitenumberofdegrees
offreedomasshowninthefigure.Sincethebeaminthefigurehasaninfinitenumberofmasspoints,we
needaninfinitenumberofcoordinatestospecifyitsdeflectedconfiguration.Theinfinitenumberof
coordinatesdefinesitselasticdeflectioncurve.Thus,thecantileverbeamhasinfinitenumberofdegrees
offreedom.
 Discrete and continuous systems
Discreteandcontinuoussystems
SSystemswithafinitenumberofdegreesoffreedomarecalleddiscrete
t ith fi it b fd ff d ll d di t or
lumpedparametersystems,andthosewithaninfinitenumberofdegrees
offreedomarecalledcontinuous ordistributedsystems.

Mostofthetime,continuoussystemsareapproximatedasdiscrete
systems,andsolutionsareobtainedinasimplemanner.Although
treatmentofasystemascontinuousgivesexactresults,theanalytical
methodsavailablefordealingwithcontinuoussystemsarelimitedtoa
narrowselectionofproblems,suchasuniformbeams,slenderrodsand
thinplates.
hi l

Hence,mostofthepracticalsystemsarestudiedbytreatingthemasfinite
, p y y g
lumpedmasses,springsanddampers.Ingeneral,moreaccurateresults
areobtainedbyincreasingthenumberofmasses,springsanddampers
thatisbyincreasingthenumberofdegreesoffreedom.
 Classification of vibration
Classificationofvibration
Free
Freevibration:Ifasystem,afteraninitialdisturbanceisleftto
ibration If t ft i iti l di t b i l ft t
vibrateonitsown,theensuingvibrationisknownasfreevibration.
Noexternalforceactsonthesystem.Theoscillationofasimple
pendulum is an example of free vibration
pendulumisanexampleoffreevibration.

Forcedvibration:Ifasystemissubjectedtoanexternalforce(often
arepeatingtypeofforce),theresultingvibrationisknownasforced
ti t ff ) th lti ib ti i k f d
vibration.

Ifthefrequencyoftheexternalforcecoincideswithoneofthenatural
frequenciesofthesystem,aconditionknownasresonanceoccurs,
andthesystemundergoesdangerouslylargeoscillations.Failuresof
such structures as buildings bridges turbines and airplane wings
suchstructuresasbuildings,bridges,turbines,andairplanewings
havebeenassoicatedwiththenoccurrenceofresonance.
 Classification of vibration
Classificationofvibration
Undampedvibration:Ifnoenergyislostordissipatedinfrictionorother
d d ib i f l d d f h
resistanceduringoscillation,thevibrationisknownasundampedvibration.
Ifanyenergyislostinthiswayhowever,itiscalleddampedvibration.

Whilethespringformsaphysicalmodelforstoringkineticenergyandhence
p g p y g gy
causingvibration,thedashpot,ordamper,formsthephysicalmodelfor
dissipatingenergyanddampingtheresponseofamechanicalsystem.A
dashpotconsistsofapistonfitintoacylinderfilledwithoil.Thispistonis
p p y p
perforatedwithholessothatmotionofthepistonintheoilispossible.The
laminarflowoftheoilthroughtheperforationsasthepistonmovescausesa
dampingforceonthepiston.
p g p
 Classification of vibration
Classificationofvibration
Linearvibration:If
Li ib ti If allthebasiccomponents
ll th b i t
ofavibratorysystemthespring,themass,
andthedamper,behavelinearly,the
resulting vibration is known as linear
resultingvibrationisknownaslinear
vibration.Thedifferentialequationsthat
governthebehaviourofvibratorylinear
y , p p
systemsarelinear.Therefore,theprincipleof
superpositionholds.

Nonlinearvibration:Ifhowever,anyofthe
Nonlinear vibration: If however, any of the
basiccomponentsbehavenonlinearly,the
vibrationiscallednonlinearvibration.The
differentialequationsthatgovernthe
behaviourofvibratorynonlinearsystems
arenonlinear.Therefore,theprincipleof
superpositiondoesnothold.
 Classification of vibration
Classificationofvibration
Linearandnonlinearvibrationscontd:
Li d li ib ti td
Thenatureofthespringforcecanbe
deducedbyperformingasimplestatic
experiment With no mass attached the
experiment.Withnomassattached,the
springstretchestoapositionlabeledasxo=0
inthefigure.
Assuccessivelymoremassisattachedtothe
As successively more mass is attached to the
spring,theforceofgravitycausesthespring
tostretchfurther.Ifthevalueofthemassis
recorded, along with the value of the
recorded,alongwiththevalueofthe
displacementoftheendofthespringeach
timemoremassisadded,theplotofthe
force(massdenotedbym,timesthe
accelerationduetogravity,denotedbyg),
versusthisdisplacementdenotedbyx,yields
acurvesimilartothatshowninthefigure.
 Classification of vibration
Classificationofvibration
Linearandnonlinearvibrationscontd:
d l b d
Notethatintheregionofvaluesforx
between0andabout20mm,thecurveis
,
astraightline.Thisindicatesthatfor
deflectionslessthan20mmandforces
less than 1000 N the force that is applied
lessthan1000N,theforcethatisapplied
bythespringtothemassisproportional
tothestretchofthespring.

Theconstantofproportionalityistheslope
ofthestraightline.
g
 Classification of vibration
Classificationofvibration
Deterministicvibration:Ifthevalueormagnitudeoftheexcitation(forceor
i i i ib i f h l i d f h i i (f
motion)actingonavibratorysystemisknownatanygiventime,theexcitationis
calleddeterministic.Theresultingvibrationisknownasdeterministicvibration.

Nondeterministicvibration:Insomecases,theexcitationisnondeterministic or
random;thevalueofexcitationatagiventimecannotbepredicted.Inthese
cases,alargecollectionofrecordsoftheexcitationmayexhibitsomestatistical
regularity.Itispossibletoestimateaveragessuchasthemeanandmeansquare
valuesoftheexcitation.
 Classification of vibration
Classificationofvibration
Examplesofrandomexcitationsarewindvelocity,roadroughness,and
l f d d l d h d
groundmotionduringearthquakes.
Iftheexcitationisrandom,theresultingvibrationiscalledrandom
, g
vibration.Inthecaseofrandomvibration,thevibratoryresponseofthe
systemisalsorandom:itcanbedescribedonlyintermsofstatistical
quantities.
quantities
Mathematicalbackground

HomogeneouslinearODEswith
Homogeneous linear ODEs with
constantcoefficients
N h
NonhomogeneousODEsODE
 Introduction
Th
Thedynamicbehaviourofmechanicalsystemsisdescribedbywhat
d i b h i f h i l t i d ib d b h t
wecallsecondorderOrdinaryDifferentialEquations.

Theinputtothemechanicalstructureappearsontherighthand
sideoftheequationandistheForceandthesolutionofthe
equationgivestheoutputwhichisusuallythedisplacement.

Inordertobeablesolvetheseequations,itisimperativetohavea
solidbackgroundonthesolutionofhomogeneousand
g g
nonhomogeneousOrdinaryDifferentialEquations.

Homogeneous
HomogeneousOrdinaryDifferentialEquationsrepresentthe
Ordinary Differential Equations represent the Free
Free
VibrationsandthenonhomogeneousOrdinaryDifferential
EquationsrepresentForcedVibrations.
 HomogeneouslinearODEswith
constantcoefficients
WeshallnowconsidersecondorderhomogeneouslinearODEswhose
h ll d d d h l h
coefficientsaandbareconstant.
y + ay + byy = 0
ThesolutionofafirstorderlinearODE:
y + ky = 0
Byseparatingvariablesandintegrating,weobtain:
dy
= kdx ln y = kdx + c *
y
Taking exponents on both sides:
Takingexponentsonbothsides:
y ( x) = ce
kdx
= ce kx
Letstrytheabovesolutioninthefirstequation.Usingaconstant
y q g
coefficientk: x
y=e
Substituti
Subs u ngg itss de v ves : y = e x
derivative andd y = 2 e x
(2 + a + b)e x = 0
 HomogeneouslinearODEswith
constantcoefficients
f isasolutionoftheimportantcharacteristicequation(or
Henceif l f h h (
auxiliaryequation)
2 + a + b = 0
y = e x
Thentheexponentialsolutionisasolutionofthe
y + ay + byy = 0

Nowfromelementaryalgebrawerecallthattherootsofthisquadratic
equation are:
equationare: 1
= (a + a 2 4b)
1
2
1
2 = (a a 2 4b)
2

Thefunctionsbelowaresolutionsto y + ay + by = 0
y1 = e 1x and y 2 = e 2 x
 HomogeneouslinearODEswith
constantcoefficients
Fromalgebraweknowthatthequadraticequationbelowmayhavethree
l b k h h d b l h h
kindsofroots:
2 + a + b = 0

CaseI:Tworealrootsif a 2 4b > 0
CaseII:Arealdoublerootif a 2 4b = 0
CaseIII:Complexconjugaterootsifa 2 4b < 0

CASE I: In this case a basis of solutions of y + ay + by = 0

CASEI:Inthiscase,abasisofsolutionsof
x x
inanyintervalis: y1 = e and y2 = e
1 2

becauseyy1 andyy2 aredefinedandrealforallxandtheirquotientisnot

q
constant.Thecorrespondinggeneralsolutionis:
y = c1e 1x + c2 e 2 x
 HomogeneouslinearODEswith
constantcoefficients
CASEII:Realdoubleroot=a/2
l d bl /
a 2 4b
Ifthediscriminantiszero,weseefrom
1
1 = (a + a 2 4b)
2
1
2 = (a a 2 4b)
2

thatwegetonlyoneroot: = 1 = 2 = a / 2,
hence only one solution :
y1 = e ( a / 2) x

TToobtainasecondindependentsolutiony
b i di d d l i 2 neededforabasis,weusethe
d df b i h
methodoforderofreduction.Setting
y2 = uy1 , Substituting this and its derivatives y 2 ' = u ' y1 + uy1 ' and y2 ' ' into

y + ay + by = 0
 HomogeneouslinearODEswith
constantcoefficients
/
CASEII:Realdoubleroot=a/2
l d bl
Wehave: (uy1 + 2uy1 + uy1) + a(uy1 + uy1 ) + buy1 = 0
Collecting terms uy + u(2 y + ay ) + u( y + ay + by ) = 0
Collectingterms 1 1 1 1 1 1

Thisexpressioninthelastparanthesisiszero,sincey1 isasolutionof
y + ay + by = 0
Theexpressioninthesecondparanthesisiszerotoosince
2 y = ae
1
ax / 2
= ay1

Wearethusleftwith
u y1 = 0
Hence
u = 0
By two integrations
u = c1 x + c2
 HomogeneouslinearODEswith
constantcoefficients
/
CASEII:Realdoubleroot=a/2
l d bl
Togetasecondindependentsolutiony2=uy1,wecansimplychoosec1=1
andc2=0andtakeu=x.Thenyy2=xyy1.Sincethesesolutionsarenot
proportional,theyformabasis.Henceinthecaseofadoublerootof
2 + a + b = 0
abasisofsolutionsof
b i f l i f y + ay + by
b =0
onanyintervalis: e ax / 2 , xe ax / 2

Thecorrespondinggeneralsolutionis: y = (c1 + c2 x)e ax / 2

 HomogeneouslinearODEswith
constantcoefficients
CASE III: Complex roots a/2+i anda/2i
CASEIII:Complexrootsa/2+i and a/2 i
Thiscaseoccursifthediscriminantofthecharacteristicequation 2 + a + b = 0
isnegative.Inthiscase,therootsoftheaboveequationandthusthesolutionsoftheODE
comeatfirstoutcomplex.However,weshowthatfromthemwecanobtainabasisofrealsolutions:
y + ay + by = 0
where y1 = e ax / 2 cos x , i x
y 2 = e ax / 2 sin
1
2 = b a2
4
Thisisprovedinthenextslides.Itcanbeverifiedbysubstitutionthatthesearesolutionsinthepresent
case.Theyformabasisonanyintervalsincetheirquotientcotxisnotconstant.Hence,arealgeneral
solutioninCaseIIIis:
l ti i C III i
y = e ax / 2 ( A cos x + B sin x ) ( A , B arbitrary )
 HomogeneouslinearODEswith
constantcoefficients:Proof
Complexnumberrepresentationofharmonicmotion:Since
l b fh
r r
X = OP
this vector can be represented as a complex number:
thisvectorcanberepresentedasacomplexnumber:
r
X = a + ib
r
i = 1 X
whereandaandbdenotexandycomponentsof.Components
aandbarealsocalledtherealandtheimaginarypartsofthevectorX.IfA
denotesthemodulusortheabsolutevalueofthevectorX,and denotes
r
g g , X
theargumentoftheanglebetweenthevectorandthexaxis,thencan
alsobeexpressedas:
HomogeneouslinearODEswithconstantcoefficients:
P f
Proof
Complexnumberrepresentationofharmonicmotion

r r
X = OP
r
X = a + ib
r
X
 HomogeneouslinearODEswith
constantcoefficients:Proof
A
Asapparentwehavetwocomplexroots.Theseare:
t h t l t Th
1 1
1 = a + i and 1 = a i
2 2

Weknowfrombasicmathematicsthatacomplexexponentialfunctioncan
beexpressedas: r + it r it
e r
= e e = e (cos t + i sin t )

ThustherootsofthesecondorderOrdinaryDifferentialEquationcanbe
expressedas: e x = e ( a / 2) x +ix = e ( a / 2) x (cos x + i sin x)
1

e 2 x = e ( a / 2 ) x ix = e ( a / 2) x (cos x i sin x)

Wenowaddthesetwolinesandmultiplytheresultby.Thisgives:
y1 = e ax / 2 cos x
Thenwesubtractthesecondlinefromthefirstandmultiplytheresultby
1/2i.Thisgives:
y 2 = e ax / 2 sin x
 HomogeneouslinearODEswith
constantcoefficients
Case Roots Basis General solution
I Distinctreal
e 1x , e 2 x y = c1e 1x + c2 e 2 x
1,2
II Realdoubleroot
e ax / 2
, xe ax / 2 y = (c1 + c2 x)e ax / 2
=a/2
III Complex
Complex
conjugate
1
1 = a + i y1 = e ax / 2 cos x
2 y = e ax / 2 ( A cos x + B sin x )
1
2 = a i y2 = e ax / 2 sin x
2
 Nonhomogeneous ODEs
NonhomogeneousODEs
Inthissection,weproceedfromhomogeneoustononhomogeneous
h df h h
ODEs.
y + p ( x) y + q ( x) y = r ( x)

Thegeneralsolutionconsistsoftwoparts:
y ( x) = yh ( x) + y p ( x)
where yh = c1 y1 + c2 y2 is a general solution of the homogeneous ODE.
ODE

Terminr(x) Choiceforyp(x)
kex Cex
kx n (n = 0,1,2,...) K n x n + K n 1 x n 1 + .... + K1 x + K 0
k cos x K cos x + M sin x
k sin x
kex cos x ex ( K cos x + M sin x)
kex sin x
 Nonhomogeneous ODEs
NonhomogeneousODEs
Choicerulesforthemethodofundeterminedcoefficients
a) Basicrule:Ifr(x)isoneofthefunctionsinthefirstcolumnintheTable,
choose yp inthesamelineanddetermineitsundeterminedcoefficients
choosey in the same line and determine its undetermined coefficients
bysubstitutingyp anditsderivativesinto
y + p ( x) y + q ( x) y = r ( x)
b) Modificationrule:Ifaterminyourchoiceforyp happenstobeasolution
ofthehomogeneousODEcorrespondingtotheaboveequation,multiply
yyourchoiceofyyp byx(orx^2ifthissolutioncorrespondstoadoubleroot
y ( p
ofthecharacteristicequationofthehomogeneousODE)
c) Sumrule:Ifr(x)isasumoffunctionsinthefirstcolumnofthetable,
choose for yp thesumofthefunctionsinthecorrespondinglinesofthe
choosefory the sum of the functions in the corresponding lines of the
secondcolumn.
FreeVibrationofSingleDegree
Free Vibration of Single Degree
ofFreedomSystems
y
HarmonicMotion
FreevibrationofundampedSDOFsystems
p y
FreevibrationofdampedSDOFsystems
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
O
Oscillatorymotionmayrepeatitselfregularly,as
ill t ti t it lf l l
inthecaseofasimplependulum,oritmay
display considerable irregularity as in the case of
displayconsiderableirregularity,asinthecaseof
groundmotionduringanearthquake.

Ifthemotionisrepeatedafterequalintervalsof
time, it is called periodic motion.
time,itiscalledperiodicmotion.

The
Thesimplesttypeofperiodicmotionisharmonic
simplest type of periodic motion is harmonic
motion.
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Showninthefigureisavector
Shown in the figure is a vector
OPthatrotates
counterclockwisewith
g y
constantangularvelocity.

Atanytimet,theanglethat
OPmakeswiththehorizontal
is=t.

Let
Letybetheprojectionof
y be the projection of
OPontheverticalaxis.Then
y=Asint.Herey,a
functionoftimeisplotted
p
versust.
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Aparticlethatexperiencesthis
A particle that experiences this
motionissaidtohaveharmonic
motion.

Themaximumdisplacementofa
vibratingbodyfromitsequilibrium
positioniscalledtheamplitudeof
vibration Amplitude A is shown in
vibration.AmplitudeAisshownin
thefigure.

Range2Aisthepeaktopeak
displacement.

Nowconsidertheunitsof.LetC
be the circumference of the circle
bethecircumferenceofthecircle
showninthefigure.
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Thus C=2A Or we can write C=A
ThusC=2A.OrwecanwriteC=A,
where=2 foronerevolution.Thus
defined, issaidtobeinradiansandis
equivalentto360.Therefore,one
radian is approximately equal to 58.3..
radianisapproximatelyequalto58.3

Ingeneral,foranyarclength,
s=A ,where isinradians.Itfollows
that inthefigurewouldbeinradians
that in the figure would be in radians
persecond.

Asseeninthefigure,thevectorial
method of representing harmonic
methodofrepresentingharmonic
motionrequiresthedescriptionofboth
thehorizontalandverticalcomponents.

Thetimetakentocompleteonecycle
Th ti t k t l t l
ofmotionisknownastheperiodof
oscillationortimeperiodandis
denotedby.Theperiodisthetimefor
the motion to repeat (the value of in
themotiontorepeat(thevalueof in
thefigure).
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Notethat =2 where denotesthe
angularvelocityofthecyclicmotion.The
angularvelocity isalsocalledthe
circularfrequency.
i l f

Themovementofavibratingbodyfrom
itsundisturbedorequilibriumpositionto
itsextremepositioninonedirection,
thentotheequilibriumposition,thento
itsextremepositionintheother
direction,andbacktoequilibrium
positioniscalledacycleofvibration.
ii i ll d l f ib i

Onerevolution(i.e.,angular
displacementof2
p radians)ofthepinP
) p
inthefigureoronerevolutionofthe
vectorOPinthefigureconstitutesa
cycle.Cycleisthemotioninoneperiod,
asshowninthefigure.
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Frequencyisthenumberofcyclesperunittime.
h b f l

Themostcommonunitoftimeusedinvibrationanalysisisseconds.
The most common unit of time used in vibration analysis is seconds
CyclespersecondiscalledHertz.

ThetimethecycletakestorepatitselfistheperiodT.Intermsofthe
period,thefrequencyis: 1
f =


Thefrequencyfisrelatedto: f =
2
= 2f
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Phaseangle:Considertwovibratorymotionsdenotedby:
h l d b d db
x1 = A1 sin t
x2 = A2 sin(t + )

Thesetwoharmonicmotionsarecalledsynchronous becausetheyhave
thesamefrequencyorangularvelocity.Twosynchronousoscillations
neednothavethesameamplitude,andtheyneednotattaintheir
g
maximumvaluesatthesametimeasshowninthefigure.
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Inthisfigure,thesecondvectorOP
h f h d 2 leadsthefirstoneOP
l d h f l
1 byanangle
b
knownasthephaseangle.Thismeansthatthemaximumofthesecond
vectorwouldoccur radiansearlierthanthatofthefirstvector.These
twovectorsaresaidtohaveaphasedifferenceof.
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Fromintroductoryphysicsanddynamics,thefundamentalkinematical
d h dd h f d lk l
quantitiesusedtodescribethemotionofaparticlearedisplacement,
velocityandaccelerationvectors.
Theaccelerationofaparticleisgivenby:

dv d 2 x
a= = 2 = &x&
dt dt
Thus,displacement,velocity,andaccelerationhavethefollowing
Thus displacement velocity and acceleration have the following
relationshipsinharmonicmotion:
x = A sin t
v = x& = A cos t
a = &x& = A 2 sin t
 Operations on harmonic functions
Operationsonharmonicfunctions
r
Usingcomplexnumberrepresentation,therotatingvectorcanbe
l b h X b
writtenas:

r
X
where denotesthecircularfrequency(rad/sec)ofrotationofthevector
incounterclockwisedirection.Thedifferentiationoftheharmonicsgiven
b h b
bytheaboveequationgives:
i i

Thusthedisplacement,velocityandaccelerationcanbeexpressedas:
 Operations on harmonic functions
Operationsonharmonicfunctions
Itcanbeseenthatthe
b h h
accelerationvectorleadsthe
velocityvectorby90degrees
andthevelocityvectorleads
thedisplacementvectorby90
degrees.
g
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Naturalfrequency:
lf Ifasystem,afteraninitialdisturbance,isleftto
f f ld b l f
vibrateonitsown,thefrequencywithwhichitoscillateswithoutexternal
forcesisknownasitsnaturalfrequency.Aswillbeseen,avibratory
systemhavingndegreesoffreedomwillhave,ingeneral,ndistinct
naturalfrequenciesofvibration.
Beats: Whentwoharmonicmotions,withfrequenciesclosetoone
When two harmonic motions with frequencies close to one
another,areadded,theresultingmotionexhibitsaphenomenonknown
asbeats.Forexampleif:
x1 (t ) = X cos t
x2 (t ) = X cos( + )t
where is a small quantity.
The addition of these two motions yield:
Theadditionofthesetwomotionsyield:
x(t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) = X [cos t + cos( + )t ]
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Beats:
x(t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) = X [cos t + cos( + )t ]

Usingtherelation
A+ B A B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos
2 2

Thefirstequationcanbewrittenas:
t
x(t ) = 2 X cos cos( + )t
2 2
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Beats:
Itcanbeseenthattheresultingmotionx(t)representsacosinewave

y +
withfrequencywhichisapproximatelyequalto
q pp y q andwithavarying
y g
t 2
amplitude 2 X cos 2 .Whenever,theamplitudereachesamaximumitis
calledabeat.
Inmachinesandinstructures,thebeatingphenomenonoccurswhenthe
In machines and in structures the beating phenomenon occurs when the
forcingfrequencyisclosetothenaturalfrequencyofthesystem.Wewill
laterreturntothistopic.
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
O
Octave:
t Wh th
Whenthemaximumvalueofarangeof
i l f f
frequencyistwiceitsminimumvalue,itisknown
as an octave band
asanoctaveband.

For
Forexample,eachoftheranges75150Hz,150
example each of the ranges 75 150 Hz 150
300Hz,and300600Hzcanbecalledanoctave
band.

In
Ineachcase,themaximumandminimumvalues
each case the maximum and minimum values
offrequency,whichhavearatioof2:1,aresaidto
y
differbyanoctave.
 FreevibrationofundampedSDOF
systems
Considerthesingledegreeoffreedom(SDOF)systemshowninthefigure.
d h l d ff d ( ) h h f
Thespringisoriginallyintheunstretchedpositionasshown.Itisassumed
thatthespringobeysHookeslaw.Theforceinthespringisproportional
todisplacementwiththeproportionalityconstant(springconstant)equal
tok.
 FreevibrationofundampedSDOF
systems
Thestiffnessinaspringcanberelatedmoredirectlytomaterialand
h ff b l d d l l d
geometricpropertiesofthespring.Aspringlikebehaviourresultsfroma
varietyofconfigurations,includinglongitudinalmotion(vibrationinthe
directionofthelength),transversemotion(vibrationperpendiculartothe
length),andtorsionalmotion(vibrationrotatingaroundthelength).
 FreevibrationofundampedSDOF
systems
Aspringisgenerallymadeofanelasticmaterial.Foraslenderelastic
ll d f l l l d l
materialoflengthl,crosssectionalareaAandelasticmodulusE(or
Youngsmodulus),thestiffnessofthebarforvibrationalongitslengthis
givenby: EA
k=
l
The modulus E has the units of Pascal (denoted Pa) which are N/m2
ThemodulusEhastheunitsofPascal(denotedPa)whichareN/m2.
 FreevibrationofundampedSDOF
systems
Whenthemassm(weightW)isapplied,thespringwilldeflecttoastatic
h h ( h ) l d h ll d fl
equilibriumpositionst.

Atthisposition,wefindthat:
W = mg = k st
Ifthemassisperturbedandallowedtomovedynamically,the
displacementx,measuredfromtheequilibriumposition,willbeafunction
oftime.Here,x(t)istheabsolutemotionofthemassandtheforceinthe
, ()
springcanbeexpresssedas:
k ( x + st )
TTodeterminethepositionasafunctionoftime,theequationsofmotion
d i h ii f i f i h i f i
areemployed;thefreebodydiagramsaredrawnasshowninthefigure.
Notethatxismeasuredpositivedownward.
 FreevibrationofundampedSDOF
systems
ApplyingNewtonssecondlaw,
l dl
W k ( x + st ) = m&x&
Butfromthestaticcondition,notethatW=k
But from the static condition note that W=kst.
st Thus,theequationof
Thus the equation of
motionbecomes:
m&x& + kx = 0
Withthestandardformof: k
&x& + x=0
m
ThisisCaseIIIthathascomplexrootswherethegeneralsolutionwas
This is Case III that has complex roots where the general solution was
computedas:
x = e ax / 2 ( A cos t + B sin t )
Sinceintheaboveequation:
1
a=0 2 = b a2
4
 FreevibrationofundampedSDOF
systems
Itisshownthat
h h
x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt
where A and B are constants of integration and
whereAandBareconstantsofintegrationand
k
n = (rad / sec)
m
Heren definesthenaturalfrequencyofthemass.Thisisthefrequencyat
whichthemasswillmoveregardlessoftheamplitudeofthemotionas
long as the spring in the system continues to obey Hookesslaw.The
longasthespringinthesystemcontinuestoobeyHooke law The
naturalfrequencyinHertzis:
1 k
fn = ( Hz )
2 m
 FreevibrationofundampedSDOF
systems
Theinitialconditionsx
h l d 0 andd x& = x& o at t = 0 are usedd to evaluate
= xo at t=0 l
the constants of integration A and B. When substituted into the equation
x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt
weget:

x&o x& o
A = xo and B = andconsequently x(t ) = xo cos n t + sin n t
n n
The sum in the equation
Thesumintheequation
x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt
canalsobecombinedtoaphaseshiftedcosinewithamplitude
p p C = A2 + B 2
andphaseangle=arctan(B/A).Forthispurposelet:
A = C cos and B = C sin
 FreevibrationofundampedSDOF
systems
IntroducingthenewvaluesofAandBinto
d h l f d
x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt

weget:
x(t ) = C cos cos nt + C sin sin n t
Since
cos( x y ) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y

x(t)canbeexpressedas:
() b d
x(t ) = C cos(nt )
Where =arctan(B/A)
Where arctan(B/A)andconsequently:
and consequently:
2
x&o x&o

= arctan
and C = A 2
+ B 2
= x 2
+
n
o
n xo
 FreevibrationofundampedSDOF
systems
x&
x(t ) = xo cos n t + o sin i nt
Theequationisaharmonicfunctionof
h h f f
n
time.Thus,thespring
time Thus the springmass
masssystemiscalledaharmonicoscillator.The
system is called a harmonic oscillator The
natureofharmonicoscillationisshowninthefigure.IfCdenotesavector
ofmagnitudeC,whichmakesananglent withrespecttotheverticalx
axis then the solution x(t ) = C cos(nt ) can be seen to be the
axis,thenthesolutioncanbeseentobethe
projectionofvectorConthexaxis.
 Damping
Undampedanddampedvibration:Theresponseofaspringmassmodelpredicts
U d d dd d ib ti Th f i d l di t
thatthesystemwilloscillateindefinitely.However,everydayobservationindicates
thatmostfreelyoscillatingsystemseventuallydieoutandreducetozeromotion.
Th h i
Thechoiceofrepresentativemodelfortheobserveddecayinanoscillatingsystem
f i d lf h b dd i ill i
isbasedpartiallyonphysicalobservationandpartiallyonmathematical
convenience.Thetheoryofdifferentialequationssuggeststhataddingatermto
equation m&x&(t ) + kx(t ) = 0 of the form cx& where c is a constant will result in a
equationoftheform,wherecisaconstant,willresultina
solutionx(t)thatdiesout.
Physicalobservationagreesfairwellwiththismodelanditisusedvery
successfullytomodelthedampingordecayinavarietyofmechanicalsystems.
f ll t d l th d i d i i t f h i l t
Thistypeofdampingiscalledtheviscousdamping.
 Damping
Thelaminarflowoftheoilthroughtheperforationsasthepistonmoves
h l fl f h l h h h f h
causesadampingforceonthepiston.
Theforceisproportionaltothevelocityofthepiston,inadirection
p p y p ,
oppositethatofthepistonmotion.Thisdampingforcehastheform:
f c = cx& (t )
wherecisaconstantofproportionalityrelatedtotheoilviscosity.The
h i f i li l d h il i i h
constantc,calledthedampingcoefficient,hasunitsofNs/m,orkg/s.
Damped free vibration of SDOF system
DampedfreevibrationofSDOFsystem
Considerthespringmasssystemwithanenergydissipatingmechanism
d h h d h
describedbythedampingforceasshowninthefigure.Itisassumedthat
thedampingforceFD isproportionaltothevelocityofthemass,asshown;
thedampingcoefficientisc.WhenNewtonssecondlawisapplied,this
modelforthedampingforceleadstoalineardifferentialequation,
m&x& + cx& + kx
k =0
Damped free vibration of SDOF system
DampedfreevibrationofSDOFsystem
TheODEishomogeneouslinearandhasconstantcoefficients.The
h h l dh ff h
characteristicequationisfoundbydividingthebelowequationbym:
c k
s2 + s+ =0
m m
Bytherootsofaquadraticequation,weobtain:
s1 = + , s2 = ,
where
c 1
= and = c 2 4mk
2m 2m
Itisnowmostinterestingthatdependingontheamountofdamping
(much,mediumorlittle)therewillbethreetypesofmotion
correspondingtothethreecasesI,IIandIII.
Damped free vibration of SDOF system
DampedfreevibrationofSDOFsystem
C
Case Roots Definition
fi i i
Distinctrealroots
I c > 4mk
2
Overdamping
s1,s2

II c 2 = 4mk Realdoubleroot Criticaldamping

p g

III c 2 < 4mk Complexconjugateroots Underdamping

Damped free vibration of SDOF system
DampedfreevibrationofSDOFsystem
Definethecriticaldampingcoefficientc
f h ld ff casthatvalueofcthatmakesthe
h l f h k h
radicalequaltozero,
k
cc = 2m = 2mn
m
Definethedampingfactoras:
c c
= =
cc 2mn

Introducingtheaboveequationinto
2
c c k
s1, 2 =
2m 2m m

Wefind: (
s1, 2 = 2 1 n )
Thenthesolutioncanbewrittenas:
+ 2 1 t 2 1 t
x(t ) = Ae n
+ Be n
 Three cases of damping
Threecasesofdamping
Heavydampingwhenc>cc

Criticaldampingc=cc

Lightdamping0<c<cc
 or >1)
Heavy damping (c > cc or>1)
Heavydamping(c>c
Therootsarebothreal.Thesolutiontothedifferentialequationis:
h b h l h l h d ff l
x(t ) = Ae s1t + Be s2t
whereAandBaretheconstantsofintegration.Boths
where A and B are the constants of integration Both s1 ands and s2 willbe
will be
= k /m <
2 2 2
negativebecause >0, >0,and.Since
c 1
s1 = + , s2 = , where = and = c 2 4mk
2m 2m
Thus,givenanyinitialdisplacement,themasswilldecaytothe
equilibriumpositionwithoutvibratorymotion.Anoverdampedsystem
doesnotoscillatebutratherreturnstoitsrestpositionexponentially.
p p y
x(t ) = Ae ( + 1 )nt + Be ( 1 )nt
2 2
 or =1)
Critical damping (c = cc,or=1)
Criticaldamping(c=c
1
= c 2 4mk
Sinceiszerointhiscase,s
h 1=s2==cc/2m=
/ n.
2m
x(t ) = ( A + Bt )e t
Bothrootsareequalandthegeneralsolutionis:.
n

Substitutingtheinitialconditions,x
g , = xo at t=0 and x& = x& o at t = 0
A = xo and B = x&o + n xo
and the solution becomes :
x(t ) = [xo + ( x&o + n xo )t ]e nt
Themotionisagainnotvibratoryanddecaystotheequilibriumposition.
 or <1)
Light damping (0 < c < cc or<1)
Lightdamping(0<c<c
Thiscaseoccursifthedampingconstantcissosmallthat
h f h d ll h
c 2 < 4mk
Then isnolongerrealbutpureimaginary.
Then is no longer real but pure imaginary
1 k c2
= i * where * = 4mk c =
2

2m m 4m 2
Therootsofthecharacteristicequationarenowcomplexconjugate:
s1 = + i*, s2 = i *
with
c
=
2m
Hence the corresponding general solution is:
Hencethecorrespondinggeneralsolutionis:
x = e t ( A cos * t + B sin * t ) = Ce t cos( * t o )
where
C 2 = A 2 + B 2 and tan o = B/A
 Light damping (0 < c < cc )
Lightdamping(0<c<c )
Thesolutioncanalsobeexpressedas:
h l l b d

(
x(t ) = e nt A cos 1 2 nt + B sin 1 2 nt )
Therootsarecomplex.Itiseasilyshown,usingEulersformulathatthe
generalsolutionis: x(t ) = [C cos(d t o )]e
n t

whereCand aretheconstantsofintegration.Thedampednatural
frequencydisgivenby d = n 1
2
 Light damping (0 < c < cc )
Lightdamping(0<c<c )
Fortheinitialconditions
h l d
x(t = 0) = xo
x& (t = 0) = x&o

Theequation
(
x(t ) = e nt A cos 1 2 nt + B sin 1 2 nt )
canbeexpressedas:
n t x&o +
n xo
x(t ) = e xo cos 1 nt +
2
sin 1 nt
2

d
where =
c
2mn
 Natureoftherootsinthecomplex
plane
0
FFor=0,weobtaintheimaginaryroots
bt i th i i t
in andin andasolutionof

x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt

For0<<1,therootsarecomplex
conjugate and are located symmetrically
conjugateandarelocatedsymmetrically
abouttherealaxis.

Asthevalueof approaches1,
bothrootsapproachthepoint
n
n ontherealaxis.
on the real axis

If isgreaterthan1,bothrootslieonthe
realaxis,oneincreasingandtheotherdecreasing.
 Logarithmic decrement
Logarithmicdecrement
Thelogarithmicdecrementrepresentstherateatwhichtheamplitudeof
h l h d h h h h l d f
afreedampedvibrationdecreases.Itisdefinedasthenaturallogarithm
oftheratioofanytwosuccessiveamplitudes.

Lett1 andt2 denotethetimescorrespondingtotwoconsecutive

amplitudes (displacements) measured one cycle apart for an
amplitudes(displacements)measuredonecycleapartforan
underdampedsystemasshowninthefigure.
 Logarithmic decrement
Logarithmicdecrement
x(t ) = [ A cos(d t )]e n t
Using,wecanformtheratio:
f h
x1 X o e nt1 cos(d t1 o )
=
x2 X o e nt2 cos(d t 2 o )

Butt2=t1+d ,hence
 Logarithmic decrement
Logarithmicdecrement
Thelogarithmicdecrementcanbefoundfrom:
h l h d b f df

Forsmalldamping,theaboveequationcanbeapproximatedas:
 Logarithmic decrement
Logarithmicdecrement
Figureshowsthevariationofthe
h h f h
logarithmicdecrement with
as shown in the equations:
asshownintheequations:

Itcanbenoticedthatforvaluesupto
It can be noticed that for values up to
=0.3,thetwocurvesaredifficultto
distinguish.
 Logarithmic decrement
Logarithmicdecrement
Thelogarithmicdecrementisdimensionlessandisactuallyanotherform
ofthedimensionlessdampingratio.Once isknown, canbefoundby
solving:
g

Ifweuse

insteadof

wehave:
 Logarithmic decrement
Logarithmicdecrement
Ifthedampinginthegivensystemisnotknown,wecandetermineit
f h d h k d
experimentallybymeasuringanytwoconsecutivedisplacementsx1 and
x2.Bytakingthenaturallogarithmoftheratiox1 andx2,weobtain.By
using

wecancomputethedampingratio.
p g canalsobefoundbymeasuringtwo
Infactthedampingratio y g
displacementsseparatedbyanynumberofcompletecycles.Ifx1 andxm+1
denotetheamplitudescorrespondingtotimest1 andtm+1=t1+md wherem
is an integer we obtain:
isaninteger,weobtain:
 Logarithmic decrement
Logarithmicdecrement
Sinceanytwosuccessivedisplacementsseparatedbyonecyclesatisfythe
d l db l f h
equation:

theequation

becomes:

Theaboveequationyields
whichcanbesubstitutedintotheeitheroftheequationstoobtainthe
q
viscousdampingratio:
 ForcedVibration

Harmonicexcitation
Harmonic excitation
Baseexcitation
 Harmonically excited vibration
Harmonicallyexcitedvibration
Amechanicalorstructuralsystemissaidtoundergoforcedvibration
h l l d d f d b
wheneverexternalenergyissuppliedtothesystemduringvibration.
Externalenergycanbesuppliedtothesystemthrougheitheranapplied
forceoranimposeddisplacementexcitation.
Theappliedforceordisplacementexcitationmaybeharmonic,
nonharmonic but periodic nonperiodic or random in nature The response
nonharmonicbutperiodic,nonperiodicorrandominnature.Theresponse
ofasystemtoharmonicexcitationiscalledharmonicresponse.
Thenonperiodicexcitationsmayhavealongorshortduration.The
responseofadynamicsystemtosuddenlyappliednonperiodicexcitations
f d i dd l li d i di i i
iscalledtransientresponse.
Inthispartofthecourse,weshallconsiderthedynamicresponseofa
p , y p
singledegreeoffreedomsystemunderharmonicexcitationsoftheform
F (t ) = Fo ei (t + ) or F(t) = Fo cos (t + ) or F(t) = Fo sin (t + )
h
where
Fo is the amplitude, is the frequency, and is the phase angle of the harmonic excitation.
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
Somesingledegreeoffreedom(SDOF)systemswithanexternalforceare
l d ff d ( ) h lf
showninthefigure.ForcecanbeappliedbothasanexternalforceF(t),or
asabasemotiony(t),asshown.Thecoordinatex(t)istheabsolutemotion
ofthemass.TheforcesWandkst areignoredinthefreebodydiagrams
asweknowtheywilladdtozerointheequationofmotion.
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
Considertheforceexcitedsystemofthefigure,wheretheappliedforceis
d h f d f h f h h l df
harmonic, F (t ) = Fo sin t
ApplyingNewtonssecondlaw,theequationofmotionbecomes:
pp y g , q
m&x& + cx& + kx = Fo sin t
Thegeneralsolutionforthissecondordernonhomogeneouslinear
diff i i x(t ) = xh (t ) + x p (t )
differentialequationis
i l
wherexh isthecomplementarysolutionorsolutiontothehomogeneous
equation.Butthissolutiondiesoutsoon.Ourinterestfocusesonx
q p,,the

particularsolution.Invibrationtheory,theparticularsolutionisalsocalled
thesteadystatesolution.
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
Thevariationsofhomogeneous,particular,andgeneralsolutionswith
h fh l d l l h
timeforatypicalcaseareshowninthefigure.
Itcanbeseenthatxh((t)diesoutandx(t)becomesx
) () p((t)aftersometime(
) (
inthefigure).
Thepartofthemotionthatdiesoutduetodamping(thefreevibration
part) is called transient The particular solution represents the steady
part)iscalledtransient.Theparticularsolutionrepresentsthesteady
statevibrationandispresentaslongastheforcingfunctionispresent.
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
Theverticalmotionsofamassspringsystemsubjectedtoanexternal
h l f b d l
forcer(t)canbeexpressedas:
mx + cx + kx = r ((t )
Mechanically,thismeansthatateachtimeinstantt,theresultantofthe
internalforcesisinequilibriumwithr(t).Theresultingmotioniscalleda
forced motion with forcing function r(t) which is also known as the input
forcedmotionwithforcingfunctionr(t),whichisalsoknownastheinput
forceorthedrivingforce,andthesolutionx(t)tobeobtainediscalledthe
output ortheresponseofthesystemtothedrivingforce.
Ofspecialinterestareperiodicexternalforces,andweshallconsidera
drivingforceoftheform: r (t ) = Fo cos t
Then we have the nonhomogeneous ODE:
ThenwehavethenonhomogeneousODE:
m x + c x + kx = Fo cos t
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
SolvingthenonhomogeneousODE
Tofindyp,weusethemethodofundeterminedcoefficients:
x p (t ) = a cos t + b sin
i t
x p (t ) = a sin t + b cos t
x p (t ) = 2 a cos t 2 b sin t
Substitutingtheaboveequationsinto
m x + c x + kx = Fo cos t
Andcollectingthecosineandthesineterms,weget
[( k m 2 ) a + cbb ] cos t +[ ca + ( k m 2 )b ] sin t = Fo cos t
Thecosinetermsonbothsidesmustbeequal,andthecoefficientofthe
sinetermontheleftmustbezerosincethereisnosinetermontheright.
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
Thisgivesthetwoequations:
h h (k m 2 )a + cb = Fo
ca + (k m 2 )b = 0

fordeterminingtheunknowncoefficientsaandb.Thisisalinearsystem.
for determining the unknown coefficients a and b This is a linear system
Wecansolveitbyeliminationtofind:
k m 2
a = Fo
(k m 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2
c
b = Fo
(k m 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2
k m(o2 2 )
we set m = we obtain:
Ifweset,weobtain:
If o a = Fo 2 2
m (o 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2
c
b = Fo 2 2
m (o 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2

WethusobtainthegeneralsolutionofthenonhomogeneousODEinthe
form: x(t ) = xh (t ) + x p (t )
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
CaseI:Undampedforcedoscillations:
d df d ll
Ifthedampingofthephysicalsystemissosmallthatitseffectcanbe
neglectedoverthetimeintervalconsidered,wecansetc=0.Then
g ,
m(o2 2 )
a = Fo
m 2 (o2 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2
c
b = Fo
m ( 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2
2 2
o

reducesto Fo
a=
m(o2 2 )
b=0
Hence
x p (t ) = a cos t + b sin t
becomes Fo Fo
x p (t ) = cos t = cos t
m(o2 2 ) 2
k[1 ( ) ]
o
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
Wethushavethegeneralsolutionoftheundampedsystemas:
h h h l l f h d d
Fo
x(t ) = C cos(o t ) + cos t
m(o2 2 )
Weseethatthisoutputisasuperpositionoftwoharmonicoscillationsof
thenaturalfrequencyo/2 [cycles/sec]ofthesystem,whichisthe
f
frequencyoftheundampedmotionandthefrequency/2
f h d d i d h f / [ l / ]
[cycles/sec]
ofthedrivingforce.
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Beats:
Asmentionedbefore,ifthefrequencyoftheforcingfunctionandthe
frequency of the system are very close to each other, then again beating effect
frequencyofthesystemareveryclosetoeachother,thenagainbeatingeffect
shouldbeexpected.

If we for example take the particular soluton:

Ifweforexampletaketheparticularsoluton:
Fo
x(t ) = (cos t cos ot ) ( o )
m(o )
2 2

which can be rewritten as :

2 Fo o + o
x(t ) = sin t sin t
m(o2 2 ) 2 2
Since isclosetoo,thedifferenceo issmall.Hencetheperiodofthelast
sinefunctionislarge.Thisisbecausethegreaterthequantityunderthesine,
thesmallertheperiodis.
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Beats: 4 2TTo
Tb = =
o T To

4
+ o

Fo o + o
x(t ) = sin t sin t
m(o ) 2
2 2
2
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Beats:
Thisphenomenonisalsofrequentlyobservedinlightlydampedsytemswithclosecouplingofthetorsional
andtranslationalfrequencies.
A typical example is the thirteen storey steel framed Santa Clara County Office Building as reported in :
AtypicalexampleisthethirteenstoreysteelframedSantaClaraCountyOfficeBuildingasreportedin:
CelebiandLiu,Beforeandafterretrofit responseofabuildingduringambientandstrongmotions,
JournalofWindEngineeringandIndustrialAerodynamics,77&78(1998)259268.
Theproximityofthetorsionalfrequencyat0.57Hztothetranslationalfrequencyat0.45Hzcausesthe
observedcouplingandbeatingeffectinthisstructure.
 Harmonic motion
Harmonicmotion
Comparisonofthefrequenciesofthebuilding
ThirteenstoreysteelframedSantaClaraCountyOfficeBuildingasreportedin:
CelebiandLiu,Beforeandafterretrofit responseofabuildingduringambientandstrongmotions,
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 77&78 (1998) 259 268
JournalofWindEngineeringandIndustrialAerodynamics,77&78(1998)259268.
 Resonance
Ifthedampingofthesystemissosmallthatitseffectcanbeneglected
If th d i f th t i ll th t it ff t b l t d
overthetimeintervalconsidered,wecansetc=0.Thentheparticular
responsecanbeexpressedby:
Fo Fo
xp = cos t = cos t
m( o )
2 2
2
k 1
o
Puttingcost=1,weseethatthemaximumamplitudeoftheparticular
g , p p
solutionis: F
ao = o

k
1
where = 2

1 -
o
If o , then and ao tend to infinity.

Thisexcitationoflargeoscillationsbymatchinginputandnatural
frequenciesiscalledresonance.
 Resonance
F
Inthecaseofresonanceandnodamping,theODE
h f d d h &x& + o2 x = o cos ot
m
becomes: m&x& + cx& + kx = Fo cos t
Thenfromthemodificationrule,theparticularsolutionbecomes:
Then from the modification rule the particular solution becomes:
x p (t ) = t (a cos ot + b sin ot )
Bysubstitutingthisintothesecondequation,wefind:
Fo
x p (t ) = t sin ot
2mo
Weseethatbecauseofthefactort,theamplitudebecomeslargerand
larger Practically speaking systems with very little damping may undergo
larger.Practicallyspeaking,systemswithverylittledampingmayundergo
largevibrationsthatcandestroythesystem.
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
CaseII:Dampedforcedoscillations:Ifthedampingofthemassspring
df d ll f h d f h
systemisnotnegligiblysmall,wehavec>0andadampingtermcxin
m&x& + cx& + kx = 0 m&x& + cx& + kx = r ((t )
Thenthegeneralsolutionyh ofthehomogeneousODEapproacheszeroas
tgoestoinfinity.Practically,itiszeroafterasufficientlylongtime.Hence
the transient solution given by
thetransientsolutiongivenby
y (t ) = yh (t ) + y p (t )
approachesthesteadystatesolutiony
pp y yp.Thisprovesthefollowing:
p g

Steadystatesolution:Afterasufficientlylongtime,theoutputofa
d
dampedvibratingsystemunderapurelysinusoidaldrivingforcewill
d ib i d l i id l d i i f ill
practicallybeaharmonicoscillationwhosefrequencyisthatoftheinput.
 Responseofadampedsystemunder
harmonicforce
Iftheforcingfunctionisgivenbytheequationofmotion
f h f f b h f
becomes:

Theparticularsolutionisalsoexpectedtobeharmonic;weassumeitin
thefollowingform:

whereXand areconstantstobedeterminedthatdenotetheamplitude
p g p , p y y g
andthephaseangleoftheresponse,respectively.Bysubstitutingthe
secondequationintothefirst:

Ui
Usingthetrigonometricrelationsbelowintheaboveequation
h i i l i b l i h b i
 Responseofadampedsystemunder
harmonicforce
Weobtain:
b

If we solve the above equation we find:

Ifwesolvetheaboveequation,wefind:

Ifweinserttheaboveintothe,wefindthe
particularsolution.Using:

r=
n
 Responseofadampedsystemunder
harmonicforce
Weobtain:
b
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
ThequantityM=X/
h /st isknownasthemagnificationfactor,amplification
k h f f lf
factor ortheamplituderatio.Theamplitudeoftheforcedvibration
becomessmallerwithincreasingvaluesoftheforcingfrequency(thatis,
M0asr)
Xo 1
=
Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
Afactthatcreatesdifficultyfordesignersisthattheresponsecanbecome
f h d ff l f d h h b
largewhenriscloseto1orwhen iscloseton.Thisconditioniscalled
resonance.ThereductioninMinthepresenceofdampingisvery
significantatornearresonance.
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
Foranundampedsystem(=0),thephaseangleiszerofor0<r<1and180
d d ( ) h h l f d
degreesforr>1.Thisimpliesthattheexcitationandresponseareinphase
for0<r<1andoutofphaseforr>1when=0.

2r
= arctan 2
1 r
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
l b
For>0and0<r<1,thephaseangleisgivenby0<<90,implyingthatthe
d h h l h h
responselagstheexcitation.
2r
= arctan 2
1 r
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
l b
For>0andr>1,thephaseangleisgivenby90<<180,implyingthatthe
d h h l h h
responseleadstheexcitation.
2r
= arctan 2
1 r
 Responseofadampedsystemunder
p p y
F (t ) = Fo e it
Usingcomplexalgebra,lettheharmonicforcebe:
l l b l h h f b
F (t ) = Fo eit
whereF is a real constant and i istheimaginaryunit.Assumethatthe
where Fo isarealconstantandi is the imaginary unit Assume that the
responsehasthesamefrequencyastheforce,butis,ingeneral,outof
phasewiththeforce
~
x(t ) = X o e i (t + ) = Xe it
~
X
whereXo istheamplitudeofthedisplacementandisthecomplex
displacement,
p , ~ i
X = X oe
Substitutingthisintothedifferentialequationofmotion
~
(m 2 + ic + k ) Xeit = Fo eit
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
Definethetransferfunction(orfrequencyresponsefunction)H()asthe
f h f f ( f f ) ( ) h
complexdisplacementduetoaforceofunitmagnitude(Fo=1).Thus,
1
H ( ) =
(k m 2 ) + ic

Rationalizing,thetransferfunctionbecomes:
(k m 2 ) ic
H ( ) =
(k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

Thisisalsotheratiobetweenthecomplexdisplacementresponseandthe
p p p
complexinputforcingfunction.
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
Definethegainfunctionasthemodulusofthetransferfunction
f h f h d l f h f f

H ( ) = H ( ) H * ( ) = (Re H ) 2 + (Im H ) 2

whereH*isthecomplexconjugate.Fortheforceexcitedsystemunder
consideration,
1
H ( ) =
(k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

ThegainfunctionistheamplitudeofthedisplacementforFo=1.Thus,
Xo
= H ( )
Fo
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
Itisconvenienttodevelopanondimensionalformofthegainfunction.
d l d lf f h f
Firstdefinethefrequencyratio
r=
n
Multiplyingtheequation
1
H ( ) =
(k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

bykandemployingthedefinitionsfor,cc andn,itiseasilyshownthat
Xo 1
=
Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2
andthephaseangleis:
p g
2r
= arctan 2
1 r
 ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic
Excitation
TTransferfunctionsexpressingthevelocityandaccelerationresponsescan
f f ti i th l it d l ti
bewrittenbasedonequation
i (t + ) ~ i t
x(t ) = X o e = Xe
bymultiplyingH()inequation
1
H ( ) =
(k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2
byi and(i)^2=^2 respectively.Theresultinggainfunctionforthe
velocityoutputwouldbederivedbymultiplyingbothsidesoftheabove
equation and the equation
equationandtheequation
Xo 1
=
Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2
by andnotingthatXoistheamplitudeofthevelocity.Similarly,the
gainfunctionfortheaccelerationcanbeobtainedbymultiplyingboth
sidesby^2.
 Quality factor and bandwidth
Qualityfactorandbandwidth
Forsmallvaluesofdampingwecantake:
ll l fd k

X X 1
= =Q
st max st = n 2
where
X denotes the amplitude of the response and
F
st = o = deflection under the static force Fo
k

ThevalueoftheamplituderatioatresonanceiscalledtheQfactororthe
Th l f h li d i i ll d h Q f h
qualityfactorofthesystem.ThepointsR1 andR2,wheretheamplification
factorfallstoQ/2,arecalledhalfpowerpointsbecausethepower
absorbed(W)bythedamper(orbytheresistorinanelectricalcircuit),
respondingharmonicallyatagivenfrequency,isproportionaltothe
q p
squareoftheamplitude.
 Quality factor and bandwidth
Qualityfactorandbandwidth
Thedifferencesbetweenthefrequencies
h d ff b h f
associatedwiththehalfpowerpointsR1
and R2 iscalledthebandwidth
andR is called the bandwidth ofthesystem.
of the system

TofindthevaluesofR1 andR2,weset
sothat

or

Fromwhich,wecanget:
 Quality factor and bandwidth
Qualityfactorandbandwidth
ll l f h
Forsmallvaluesof,theroots

canbesimplifiedas:

Then
Then
 Quality factor and bandwidth
Qualityfactorandbandwidth
Usingtherelationintheequation
h l h

we find that the bandwidth isgivenby:

wefindthatthebandwidth is given by:

Combiningtheaboveequationandtheequation
X X 1
= =Q
st max st = n 2

W b i
Weobtain:

ItcanbeseenthatthequalityfactorQcanbeusedforestimatingthe
equivalentviscousdampinginamechanicalsystem.
 Electrical systems
Electricalsystems
Anelectroniccircuitisaclosedpathformedbytheinterconnectionof
An electronic circuit is a closed path formed by the interconnection of
electroniccomponentsthroughwhichanelectriccurrentcanflow.

WehavejustseenthatlinearODEshaveimportantapplicationsin
We have just seen that linear ODEs have important applications in
mechanics.Similarly,theyaremodelsofelectriccircuitsastheyoccuras
portionsoflargenetworksincomputersandelsewhere.

Thecircuitsweshallconsiderherearebasicbuildingblocksofsuch
networks.

Theycontainthreekindsofcomponents,namely,resistors,inductorsand
capacitors.

KirchhoffsVoltageLaw(KVL): Thevoltage(theelectromotiveforce)
impressedonaclosedloopisequaltothesumofthevoltagedropsacross
p
theotherelementsoftheloop.
 Electrical systems
Electricalsystems
FigureshowssuchaRLCcircuit.Initaresistorofresistance
Fi h h RLC i i I i i f i
R (ohms),aninductorofinductanceLH(Henrys)anda
capacitorofcapacitanceCF(farads)arewiredinseriesas
shown,andconnectedtoanelectromotiveforceE(t)
, ()
V(volts)(ageneratorforinstance),sinusoidalasshownin
thefigureorsomeotherkind.

R,L,C,andEaregivenandwewanttofindthecurrentI(t)
A(Amperes)inthecircuit.

AnODEforthecurrentI(t)intheRLCcircuitinthefigureis
obtainedfromtheKirchhoffsVoltageLaw.

Inthefigure,thecircuitisaclosedloopandtheimpressed
voltageE(t)equalsthesumofthevoltagedropsacrossthe
threeelementsR,L,C,oftheloop.
 Electrical systems
Electricalsystems
Voltagedrops:
l d ExperimentsshowthatthecurrentIflowingthrougha
h h h fl h h
resistor,inductorandcapacitorcausesavoltagedrop(voltagedifference,
measuredinvolts)atthetwoends.Thesedropsare:

RI(Ohmslaw)VoltagedropforaresistorofresistanceRohms
dI
LI = L
dt VoltagedropforaninductorofinductanceLhenrys(H)
l d f i d fi d h ( )
Q VoltagedropforacapacitorofcapacitanceCfarads(F)
C

HereQcoulombsisthechargeonthecapacitor,relatedtothecurrentby

dQ
I (t ) = equivalently Q(t) = I(t)dt
dt
 Electrical systems
Electricalsystems
TableElementsinanRLCcircuit
bl l
Name Symbol Notation Unit Voltage
Drop
Ohms Ohms Ohms RI
resistor resistance,R ()
Inductor Inductance,L henrys LdI/dt
(H)
Capacitor
p Capacitance,C
p farads Q/C
(F)
AccordingtoKirchhoffvoltagelawwethushaveanRLCcircuitwith
electromotiveforceE(t)=E
( ) o sint(E
( o constant)asamodelfortheintegro
) g
differentialequation. 1
C
LI + RI + Idt = E (t ) = Eo sin t
 Electrical systems
Electricalsystems
T
Togetridoftheintegralin
t id f th i t li
1
C
LI + RI + Idt = E (t ) = Eo sin t

Wedifferentiatetheaboveequationwithrepecttot,obtaining:
1
LI + RI + I = E (t ) = Eo cos t
C

ThisshowsthatthecurrentinanRLCcircuitisobtainedasthesolutionof
thisnonhomogeneoussecondorderODEwithconstantcoefficients.
1
LI + RI + Idt = E (t ) = Eo sin t
UsingandnotingthatI=QandI=Q,we
C
havedirectly: 1
LQ + RQ + Q = Eo sin t
C
Butinmostpracticalproblems,thecurrentI(t)ismoreimportantthanthe
chargeQ(t)andforthisreason,weshallconcentrateonthebelow
q
equationratherthantheabove.
1
LI + RI + I = E (t ) = Eo cos t
C
 Solving ODE for the current
SolvingODEforthecurrent
A general solution of
1
LI + RI + I = E (t ) = Eo cos t
C
is the sum II=IIh+Ip , where Ih is a general solution of the homogeneous ODE
corresponding to the above equation and Ip is a particular solution. We first
determine Ip by the method of undetermined coefficients. We substitute:
I p = a cos t + b sin t
I p = (a sin t + b cos t )
I p = 2 (a cos t b sin t )

into the first equation. Then we collect the cosine terms and equate them to
Eocost on the right, and we equate the sine terms into zero because there
i no sine
is i term on the h right.
i h
a
L 2 ( a) + Rb + = Eo (Cosine terms)
C
b
L 2 (b) + R ( a) + = 0 (Sine
Si terms
t )
C
 Solving ODE for the current
SolvingODEforthecurrent
TTosolvethissystemforaandb,wefirstintroduceacombinationofLandC,
l thi t f db fi t i t d bi ti fL dC
calledthereactance: 1
S = L
C
Dividingtheprevioustwoequationsby,orderingthemandsubstitutingS
gives: Sa + Rb = E o

Ra Sb = 0

WenoweliminatebbymultiplyingthefirstequationbySandthesecondbyR,
andadding.ThenweeliminateabymultiplyingthefirstequationbyRand
secondbyS,andadding.Thisgives:
I p = a cos t + b sin t
Eo S Eo R I p = (a sin t + b cos t )
a= b=
R2 + S 2 R2 + S 2
I p = 2 (a cos t b sin t )

EquationforIpwithcoefficientsaandbasgivenaboveisthedesired
particularsolutionofthenonhomogeneousODEgoverningthecurrentIinan
RLCcircuitwithsinusoidalelectromotiveforce.
 Solving ODE for the current
SolvingODEforthecurrent
E S ER
a= 2 o 2 b= 2 o 2
UsingwecanwriteI p intermsofphysically
f h ll
R +S R +S

visiblequantities,namely,amplitudeI
visible and phase lag ofthecurrent
quantities namely amplitude Io andphaselag of the current
behindtheelectromotiveforce,thatis,
I p (t ) = I o sin(t )

where
Eo
Io = a2 + b2 =
R2 + S2
a S
tan = =
b R
Eo
The q
quantity
y R 2 + S 2 is called the impedance.
p Our formula shows that the impedance
p equals
q the ratio .
Io
This is somewhat analogous to E/I = R (Ohm' s law)
 Solving ODE for the current
SolvingODEforthecurrent
Ageneralsolutionofthehomogeneousequationcorrespondingto
l l f h h d
1
LI + RI + I = E (t ) = Eo cos t
C
is:
I h = c1e 1t + c2 e 2t
where1 and2 aretherootsofthecharacteristicequation:
R 1
2 + + =0
L LC
We can write the roots in the form 1=+
Wecanwritetherootsintheform + and
and 2=,
,where
where

R R2 1 1 4L
= , = = R 2

2L 4 L2 LC 2 L C

Nowinanactualcircuit,Risneverzero(henceR>0).Fromthis,itfollowsthat
pp , y , p y
Ihapproacheszero,theoreticallyast,butpracticallyafterashorttime.
 Solving ODE for the current
SolvingODEforthecurrent
HencethetransientcurrentI=I
h h+Ip tendstothesteadystatecurrentI
d h d p and
d
aftersometimetheoutputwillpracticallybeaharmonicoscillation,
whichisgivenby:
I p (t ) = I o sin(t )

andwhosefrequencyisthatoftheinput(oftheelectromotiveforce)
 Analogyofelectricalandmechanical
quantities
EEntirelydifferentphysicalorothersystemsmayhavethesame
ti l diff t h i l th t h th
mathematicalmodel.Forinstance,theODEofamechanicalsystemand
theODEofanelectricRLCcircuitcanbeexpressedby:
1
LQ + RQ + Q = Eo sin t m y + c y + ky = Fo cos t
C
TheinductanceL correspondstothemass,andindeedaninductor
p ,
opposesachangeincurrent,havinganinertiaeffectsimilartothatofa
mass.
The resistance R correspondstothedampingconstantcandaresistor
TheresistanceR corresponds to the damping constant c and a resistor
causeslossofenergy,justasadampingdashpotdoes.
Thisanalogyisstrictlyquantitativeinthesensethattoagivenmechanical
system we can construct an electrical circuit whose current will give the
systemwecanconstructanelectricalcircuitwhosecurrentwillgivethe
exactvaluesofthedisplacementinthemechanicalsystemwhensuitable
scalefactorsareused.
 Analogyofelectricalandmechanical
quantities
Thepracticalimportanceofthisanalogyisalmostobvious.Theanalogymaybe
h i li f hi l i l b i h l b
usedforconstructinganelectricalmodelofagivenmechanicalmodel,resulting
insubstantialsavingsoftimeandmoneybecauseelectriccircuitsareeasyto
assmeble,andelectricquantitiescanbemeasuredmuchmorequicklyand
bl d l ti titi b d h i kl d
accuratelythanmechanicalones.
1
LQ + RQ + Q = Eo sin t m y + c y + ky = Fo cos t
C
Table:Analogyofelectricalandmechanicalquantities

Electricalsystem
Inductance,L
Resistance,R
Reciprocal of capacitance 1/C
Reciprocalofcapacitance,1/C
ElectromotiveforceEo sint
Current,I(t)=dq/dt
, ( ) q/
Charge,Q(t)
Mechanicalsystem
Massm
Dampingc
Spring modulus k
Springmodulusk
DrivingforceFocost
Velocity,v(t)=dy/dt
y , ( ) y/
Displacement,y(t)
Base excited systems: absolute motion
Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion
Considerthebaseexcitedsystem
d h b d
ofthefigure.Thegoaloftheanalysis
will be to determine the absolute
willbetodeterminetheabsolute
responsex(t)(typicallyaccelerationor
displacementofthemass)giventhebase
motiony(t).

FFromthefreebodydiagram,application
h f b d di li i
ofNewtonssecondlawleadsdirectlyto
the differential equation:
thedifferentialequation:
m&x& + cx& + kx = ky + cy&
Base excited systems: absolute motion
Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion
Assumethatthebasemotionisharmonic,
h h b h
y (t ) = Yo e it
And assume that the response will be harmonic
Andassumethattheresponsewillbeharmonic,
~
x(t ) = Xe it
~
X is the complex response. The transfer function and the gain
whereisthecomplexresponse.Thetransferfunctionandthegain
where
functionarederivedinthesamemannerasfortheforceexcitedsystem.
Thetransferfunctionis:
k + ic
H ( ) =
(k m 2 ) + ic
The gain function is
Thegainfunctionis
Xo k 2 + (c ) 2 1 + (2r ) 2
= H ( ) = =
Yo (k m ) + (c ) (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r )
2 2 2 2
Base excited systems: absolute motion
Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion
Xo 1 + (2r ) 2
Innondimensionalform
d lf =
Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Thegainfunctionfortheabsolutedisplacementforthebase
The gain function for the absolute displacement for the baseexcited
excited
systemisshowninthefigure.
Base excited systems: absolute motion
Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion
ThevalueofT
h l f d isunityatr=0andclosetounityforsmallvaluesofr.
i i 0 d l i f ll l f
Foranundampedsystem=0,Td atresonance(r=1).
ThevalueofTd islessthanunity(Td<1)forvaluesofr>2(foranyamountof
damping)
ThevalueofTd isequaltounity(Td=1)forallvaluesof atr=2

Xo 1 + (2r ) 2
=
Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2
Base excited systems: absolute motion
Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion
Theequations
h
Xo 1 + (2r ) 2
=
Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Xo k 2 + (c ) 2
= H ( ) =
Yo (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

canbeinterpretedasthegainfunctionsforaccelerationoutputgiven
acceleration input And again note that the transfer function for velocity
accelerationinput.Andagainnotethatthetransferfunctionforvelocity
andaccelerationresponsescanbederivedbymultiplyingtheequation
k + ic
H ( ) =
(k m 2 ) + ic
byi and^2,respectively.
 Base excited system: Relative motion
Baseexcitedsystem:Relativemotion
Considerthefreebodydiagraminthe
C id th f b d di i th
figure.Nowtheresponsevariableunder
considerationwillbetherelative
displacement,
displacement
z (t ) = x(t ) y (t )

Inthemodel,thespringrepresentsa
structuralelement.Thestressinthat
elementwillbeproportionaltoz.Thus,
thisproblemwouldberelevantto
designersofstructuressubjectedtobase
motions,forexample,earthquakes.

Lettingz=x-y intheequationofmotion
eads d ec y o m&z& + z& + kz = m&y&
leadsdirectlyto
 Base excited system: Relative motion
Baseexcitedsystem:Relativemotion
Assumingthatthebasemotionisharmonic,
h h b h
y (t ) = Yo e it

Andassumingtheresponseisalsoharmonic,
~
z (t ) = Z eit

Followingtheprocedureasdescribedabove,thetransferfunctionis:
m 2
H ( ) =
(k m 2 ) + ic
Andthegainfunctionis
And the gain function is
Zo m 2
= H ( ) =
Yo (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2
 Base excited system: Relative motion
Baseexcitedsystem:Relativemotion
Z r 2
Innondimensionlessform,
d l f o
=
Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2
Thegainfunctionfortherelativemotionforthebase
The gain function for the relative motion for the baseexcited
excitedsystemis
system is
showninthefigure:
 Base excited system: Relative motion
Baseexcitedsystem:Relativemotion
Againnotethatthetransferfunctionforrelativevelocityandacceleration
h h f f f l l d l
responsescanbederivedbymultiplying
m 2
H ( ) =
(k m 2 ) + ic

byi and^2,respectively.
Thegainfunctionsforvelocityandaccelerationresponsescanbeobtained
by multiplying both sides of the equations
bymultiplyingbothsidesoftheequations
Zo m 2 Zo r2
= H ( ) = =
Yo (k m ) + (c )
2 2 2 Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

by and^2,respectively.
Gainfunctionsforforceexcited
systems
Gainfunctionsforbaseexcited
systems
 Example
Afixedbottomoffshorestructureissubjectedtooscillatorystormwaves.
A fi d b tt ff h t t i bj t d t ill t t
Inafirstapproximation,itisestimatedthatthewavesproduceaharmonic
forceF(t)havingamplitudeF=122kN.Theperiodofthesewavesis=8
sec The structure is modeled as having a lumped mass of 110 tons
sec.Thestructureismodeledashavingalumpedmassof110tons
concentratedinthedeck.Theweightofthestructureitselfisassumedto
benegligible.Thenaturalperiodofthestructurewasmeasuredasbeing
n=4.0sec.Itisassumedthatthedampingfactoris=5%.Itisrequiredto
= 4 0 sec It is assumed that the damping factor is =5% It is required to
determinethesteadystateamplitudeoftheresponseofthestructure.
Solution: Asmodeled,thiswillbeaforceexcitedsystem,andthe
response can be computed from the gain function of
responsecanbecomputedfromthegainfunctionof
Xo 1
=
Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2
Theproblemreducestooneoffindingthefrequencyratiorandthe
stiffnessk.
 Example
Becauseristheratiooftheforcingfrequencytothenaturalfrequency,it
h f h f f h lf
followsthatrwillalsobetheratioofthenaturalperiodtotheforcing
period.Thus, 4
r= n
= = 0 .5
8
Tocomputek,firstnotethatthenaturalfrequencyis
1
fn = = 0.25 Hz.
n
Then noting that the expression for the natural frequency is
Thennotingthattheexpressionforthenaturalfrequencyis
1 k
fn =
2 W /g
Wecomputek=27667N/m
 Example
Finallysubstitutinginto
ll b
Xo 1
=
Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Xo=5.87m.
 Resonance
ForresonancepleasedownloadtheMillenium
g g
bridgeandTacomaBridgevideosinthe
websiteofthecourse.
 Backgroundforresponseof
Background for response of
SDOFsystemtorandomforces
y
ResponseofSDOFsystemtoimpulsiveforces
Response of single degree of freedom system to arbitrary loading
Responseofsingledegreeoffreedomsystemtoarbitraryloading
Relationshipbetweentheimpulseresponseandthetransfer
function
p p
RelationshipbetweentheFouriertransformofdisplacementand
force
 Response under a nonperiodic force
Responseunderanonperiodicforce
WewillseethatperiodicforcesofanygeneralwaveformcanberepresentedbyFourierseriesasa
We will see that periodic forces of any general wave form can be represented by Fourier series as a
superpositionofharmoniccomponentsofvariousfrequencies.

Theresponseofalinearsytemisthenfoundbysuperposingtheharmonicresponsetoeachofthe
exciting forces
excitingforces.

WhentheexcitingforceF(t)isnonperiodic,suchasthatduetoblastfromanexplosion,adifferent
methodofcalculatingtheresponseisrequired.

Variousmethodscanbeusedtofindtheresponseofthesystemtoanarbitraryexcitationas
follows:

Representing the excitation by a Fourier integral

RepresentingtheexcitationbyaFourierintegral

Usingthemethodofconvolutionintegral

UsingthemethodofLaplacetransforms

FirstapproximatingF(t)byasuitableinterpolationmodelandthenusinganumericalprocedure

Numericallyintegratingtheequationsofmotion.
 Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom
systemtoimpulsiveforces
Anonperiodicexcitingforceusuallyhasamagnitudethatvarieswithtime;
A nonperiodic exciting force usually has a magnitude that varies with time
itactsforaspecifiedperiodoftimeandthenstops.

Thesimplestformistheimpulsiveforce
The simplest form is the impulsive force aforcethathasalarge
a force that has a large
magnitudeFandactsforaveryshortperiodoftimet.

Fromdynamics,weknowthatimpulsecanbemeasuredbyfindingthe
From dynamics we know that impulse can be measured by finding the
changeinmomentumofthesystem.

TheunitimpulseFactingatt=0isalsodenotedbytheDiracdelta
The unit impulse F acting at t=0 is also denoted by the Dirac delta
function,(t).TheDiracdeltafunctionattimet=,denotedas (t )
hastheproperties

(t )dt = 1
0
(t ) F (t )dt = F ( )
0

where0<<.Thusanimpulsiveforceactingatt= canbedenotedas:
F (t ) = F (t )
 Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom
systemtoimpulsiveforces
ConsideraSDOFsystemsubjectedtoimpulsiveloadingasshowninfigure.
d b d l l d h f
Theexternalforceis:
F (t ) = Fo (t )
where(t)istheDiracdeltafunction.
 Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom
systemtoimpulsiveforces
Theequationofmotionofthemasswillbesimilarto
h f f h ll b l
m&x& + cx& + kx = Fo sin t
with the impulsive force of
withtheimpulsiveforceof
F (t ) = Fo (t )
ontherighthandside.TheunitimpulseisdefinedasFo=1.Theresponse
x(t)totheunitimpulseisdenotedash(t):
mh&& + ch& + kh = (1) (t )
Physicallyspeaking,fort0,aradicalchangeinthesystemmotiontakes
Physically speaking for t0 a radical change in the system motion takes
placewhentheshortdurationhighamplitudeforceexcitesaninitial
motioninthesystem.Butfort>0,theresponsewillbefreevibration.
Ui
Usingelementarymechanics,F(t)=m(v)itcanbeshownthatthe
l h i F( ) ( ) i b h h h
velocityofthesystemjustaftertheimpulseis:
1
h&(0 + ) =
m
 Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom
systemtoimpulsiveforces
U i th i iti l
Usingtheinitialconditions:
diti
1
h&(0 + ) = h(0) = 0
m
n t x&o + n xo
Intheequation: x (t ) = e x
o cos 1 2
t + sin 1 2
t
n

d
n

Thefreevibrationresponseis:
1 nt
h(t ) = e sin d t t >0
md
Hereh(t)isknownastheforceexcitedabsolutedisplacementresponse,
impulseresponsefunctionofthesingledegreeoffreedomsystem.Notethat
h(t) characterizes a system just like the transfer function H()does.The
h(t)characterizesasystemjustlikethetransferfunctionH( ) does The
velocityandaccelerationimpulseresponsefunctionscanalsobeobtainedas
derivativesofh(t).
 Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom
systemtoimpulsiveforces
IfthemagnitudeoftheimpulseisF
If the magnitude of the impulse is F
x&o
insteadofunity,theinitialvelocityis
F/mandtheresponseofthesystem
becomes:
F nt
x(t ) = e sin d t = Fg (t )
md
IftheimpulseFisappliedatanarbitrary
timet= byanamountF/masshownin
thefigure,itwillchangethevelocityat
t= byanamountF/m.Assumingthatx=0
until the impulse is applied, the
untiltheimpulseisapplied,the
displacementhatanysubsequenttimet,
causedbyachangeinthevelocityattime
isgivenbytheaboveequationwitht
replaced by the time elapsed after the
replacedbythetimeelapsedafterthe
applicationoftheimpulse,thatis,t .As
showninFig.b,weobtain
x(t ) = Fg (t )
 ResponseofSingleDegreeof
FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
Foralinearsystem,theimpulseresponsefunctioncanbeusedtoderive
l h l f b d d
theresponseofasystemunderanarbitraryloadinghistory.Considerthe
forceshowninthefigure
 ResponseofSingleDegreeof
FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
l d i isF().The
Theimpulseduring
h i i ( ) h
responsetothisimpulseatanytime
t> isapproximately[F()]h(t ).
Th th
Thentheresponseattisthesumof
t t i th f
theresponsesduetoasequenceof
impulses.Inthelimitas0
t
x(t ) = F ( )h(t )d

wheretheinputF(t)isaccountedfor
ast,forexample,F(t)couldbe
definedaszerofort<0.Theexpression
forx(t)iscalledtheconvolution
integral.
 ResponseofSingleDegreeof
FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
Notethath(t)=0when>t.Thus,
wecanexpandthelimitstothe
interval(,):

x(t ) = F ( )h(t )d

Anotherusefulformisobtainedby
letting=t:
t
x(t ) = F (t )h( )d

 ResponseofSingleDegreeof
FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
B
Bysubstitutingtheequation
b tit ti th ti
1 nt
h(t ) = e sin d t t >0
md

into
x(t ) = F ( )h(t )d

we obtain:
weobtain: 1
t

F ( )e
n ( t )
x(t ) = sin d (t )d
md 0

whichrepresentstheresponseofanunderdampedsingledegreeof
freedomsystemtothearbitraryexcitationF(t).
Notethattheaboveequationdoesnotconsidertheeffectofinitial
conditionsofthesystem.
Theintegralineitherofthetwoaboveequationsiscalledtheconvolution
orDuhamelintegral.
 Relationship between h(t) and H()
Relationshipbetweenh(t)andH()
AnimportantresultfromFouriertransformtheoryisthath(t)andH()
l f f h h h( ) d ( )
formaFouriertransformpair.Thisrelationshipisusefulwhenderiving
responsesofdynamicsystemstorandomvibrationinputs.Let,
F (t ) = eit

x(t ) = H ( )e it
Then,
h
= h(t )e i d


= h( )e i (t ) d

h( )e
it i
=e d

whichimpliesthath(t)andH()formaFouriertransformpair.

1
H ( ) = h( )e i
d h(t ) = H ( )e
it
d

2
 Relationship between h(t) and H()
Relationshipbetweenh(t)andH()
BasedontheFouriertransformofaconvolution,theexpressionforthe
B d th F i t f f l ti th i f th
responsetoanarbitraryinputinequation

x(t ) = F ( )h(t )d

andrepresentationin

1
H ( ) = h( )e i d h(t ) = H ( )e
i t
d

2

itisclearthatwecanalsoexpresstheresponsetoanarbitraryinputas:

1
F ( ) H ( )e
it
x(t ) = d
2
whereF()istheFouriertransformofF(t).Thisexpressionisusefulforthe
where F() is the Fourier transform of F(t). This expression is useful for the
analysisornumericalcomputationofsystemresponseorasthebasisfor
randomvibrationcomputations.
 Relationship between X() and F ()
RelationshipbetweenX()andF
TherelationshipbetweentheFouriertransformsofx(t)andF(t)isusedto
h l h b h f f () d () d
deriveresponsesofdynamicsystemstorandomvibrationinputinrandom
vibrationtheory.TaketheFouriertransformofbothsidesof
t
x(t ) = F (t )h( )d

tofind
fi d
1
i t
X ( ) =
2 F (t ) h ( ) d e dt

Let = t , dt = d
1
i ( + )
X ( ) =
2 F ( ) h ( ) d e

d

Rearranging :

1
X( ) = h( )e -i
d F ( )e
i
d
-
2
 Relationship between X() and F ()
RelationshipbetweenX()andF
From

H ( ) = h( )e i d

andthebasicrelationshipoftheFouriertransform:
+
1

it
u ( ) = g (t ) e dt
2

it follows that
X( ) = H( )F( )