Vibration of Elastic Systems

(18AS62)

Unit I: Introduction and basics of Vibration

B.Tech., 3rd Year (Aerospace Engg.)

Semester – VI (Feb. 2021 - June 2021)

By
Dr A. Barai,
Professor, Dept. Aerospace Engg.,
IIAEM, Jain (Deemed-to-be-University)
Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Importance of the study of vibration in Aerospace Engineering
1.3 Basic concepts of vibration
1.4 Desirable and undesirable effects
1.5 Forces - inertia, elastic, damping, and excitation
1.6 Degree-of-Freedom (DOF): Modeling from complex to a simple one
1.7 Classification of Vibrations
1.8 Vibration analysis procedure
1.9 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
1.10 Harmonic Analysis
1.1 Introduction
❑ Most human activities involve vibration in one form or other. For example, we
hear because our eardrums vibrate and see because light waves undergo
vibration

❑ Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is called vibration or
oscillation.

❑ The general terminology of “Vibration” is used to describe oscillatory motion

of mechanical and structural systems

❑ The Vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to

kinetic energy and kinetic energy to potential energy, alternately

❑ The terminology of “Free Vibration” is used for the study of natural vibration
modes in the absence external loading.

❑ The terminology of “Forced Vibration” is used for the study of motion as a

result of loads that vary rapidly with time. Loads that vary rapidly with time are
called dynamic loads.
1.1 Introduction (cont…)
• Historically studies on vibration (acoustics) started long ago (around 4000BC)

• Musicians and philosophers have sought out the rules and laws of sound
production, used them in improving musical instruments, and passed them
on from generation to generation

• Music had become highly developed and was much appreciated by Chinese,
Hindus, Japanese, and, perhaps, the Egyptians.

• These early peoples observed certain definite rules in connection with the art
of music, although their knowledge did not reach the level of a science.

• Early applications (by Egyptian) to single or multiple string instruments known as

Harps

• Our present system of music is based on ancient Greek civilization.

• The Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras (582-507 B.C.) is

considered to be the first person to investigate musical sounds on a scientific
basis [later on we will be talking about Mathematical Basis as well]
1.1 Introduction (cont…)
1.2 Importance of study of vibration in Aero Engg.
• Vibration of lifting surfaces may gets into flutter instability (first occurred
1911, )

• Similar kind of flutter instability also occur in turbomachinery and

helicopter rotor blades

• Vibration of node landing gear manifest itself as shimmy instability

• During flight when aircraft trims, sometimes encounter phugoid or short

period oscillations (checked and unchecked maneuver).

• Vibration due to turbulent flow over flight vehicles lead to fatigue failure
of the structure

• Vibration due to rotating imbalance (landing gear wheels, turbomachines

and piston engine shaft, control surfaces, etc.)
1.3 Basic concepts of vibration
• A vibratory system, in general, includes a means for storing
potential energy (spring or elasticity), a means for storing kinetic
energy (mass or inertia), and a means by which energy is
gradually lost (damper).

• The vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential

energy to kinetic energy and of kinetic energy to potential
energy, alternately.

• If the system is damped, some energy is dissipated in each cycle

of vibration and must be replaced by an external source if a state
of steady vibration is to be maintained.
1.4 Desirable and undesirable effects

The most desirable effects of vibration is the sound generated by

musical instruments Or our vocal chords

All other vibrations are some way or other are detrimental and
they are undesirable.

The objective of the study of vibration is to understand the sources

and severity of vibration, minimize or remove the effect for better
performance.
1.5 Degree-of-Freedom
The minimum number of independent coordinates required to determine completely the
positions of all parts of a system at any instant of time defines the number of degrees of
freedom of the system.

The simple pendulum shown in figure below, as well as each of the systems shown in
Figure in the next slide, represents a single-degree-of-freedom system.

A Simple Pendulum
1.5.1 DOF: Single degree-of-freedom systems

(a) Simple pendulum

1.5.2 DOF: Two degree-of-freedom systems
1.5.3 DOF: Three degree-of-freedom systems
1.5.3 DOF: Modeling of complex system to a simple one
Analytical models of a cantilever beam:

(a) distributed-mass cantilever beam, a

continuous model (or distributed-
parameter model);

(b) one-degree-of-freedom model, a

discrete parameter model;

(c) three-degree-of-freedom model, a

more refined discrete-parameter model.

(d) A cantilever beam (an infinite-

number-of-degrees-of-freedom system).
1.5.3 DOF: Modeling of complex system to a simple one
Bar element
, L, A ; mass of the bar M=*L*A

Mass less bar element

m=*L*A/2 m=*L*A/2
1.5.3 DOF: Modeling of complex system to a simple one
1.5.3 DOF: Modeling of complex system to a simple one

(A) Discrete and (B) continuous systems

1.5.3 DOF: Modeling of complex system to a simple one

Analytical models of varying complexity used in studying the space vehicle dynamics
of the Apollo Saturn V.
1.5.3 DOF: Modeling of complex system to a simple one
1.5.3 DOF: Modeling of complex system to a simple one
1.6 Classification of vibration
Vibration can be classified in several ways. Some of the important classifications are as
follows.

Free Vibration: If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own, the
ensuing vibration is known as free vibration. No external force acts on the system. The
oscillation of a simple pendulum is an example of free vibration.

Forced Vibration: If a system is subjected to an external force (often, a repeating type

of force), the resulting vibration is known as forced vibration. The oscillation that
arises in machines such as diesel engines is an example of forced vibration.

If no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance during oscillation, the

vibration is known as undamped vibration.

If any energy is lost in this way, however, it is called damped vibration. In many
physical systems, the amount of damping is so small that it can be disregarded for
most engineering purposes. However, consideration of damping becomes extremely
important in analyzing vibratory systems near resonance.
1.6 Classification of vibration (cont…)
If all the basic components of a vibratory system—the spring, the mass, and the
damper— behave linearly, the resulting vibration is known as linear vibration.

If, however, any of the basic components behave nonlinearly, the vibration is called
nonlinear vibration.

The differential equations that govern the behavior of linear and nonlinear vibratory
systems are linear and nonlinear, respectively.

If the vibration is linear, the principle of superposition holds, and the mathematical
techniques of analysis are well developed.

For nonlinear vibration, the superposition principle is not valid, and techniques of
analysis are less well known.

Since all vibratory systems tend to behave nonlinearly with increasing amplitude of
oscillation, a knowledge of nonlinear vibration is desirable in dealing with practical
vibratory systems..
1.6 Classification of vibration (cont…)

P
P1 1
P4
P2 2 P3
P2
P3 3
P1

P4=P1+P2+P3 4=1+2+3
1 2 3  
4
1.6 Classification of vibration (cont…)
If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force or motion) acting on a vibratory
system is known at any given time, the excitation is called deterministic. The resulting
vibration is known as deterministic vibration.

In some cases, the excitation is nondeterministic or random; the value of the

excitation at a given time cannot be predicted. In these cases, a large collection of
records of the excitation may exhibit some statistical regularity. It is possible to
estimate averages such as the mean and mean square values of the excitation.
Examples of random excitations are wind velocity, road roughness, and ground motion
during earthquakes. If the excitations random, the resulting vibration is called random
vibration.

In this case the vibratory response of the system is also random; it can be described
only in terms of statistical quantities. Figure below shows examples of deterministic
and random excitations.
1.7 Vibration analysis procedure
A vibratory system is a dynamic one for which the variables such as the
excitations (inputs) and responses (outputs) are time dependent.

The response of a vibrating system generally depends on the initial

conditions as well as the external excitations.

Most practical vibrating systems are very complex, and it is impossible to

consider all the details for a mathematical analysis.

- Only important features are considered

- Random excitation – turbulent flow, road roughness, earthquake

(modeled by periodic excitation)
1.7.1 Vibration analysis procedure: Mathematical Modeling
The purpose of mathematical modeling is to represent all the important features
of the system for the purpose of deriving the mathematical (or analytical)
equations governing the system’s behavior.

The mathematical model should include enough details to allow describing the
system in terms of equations without making it too complex.

The mathematical model may be linear or nonlinear, depending on the behavior

of the system’s components. Linear models permit quick solutions and are simple
to handle; however, nonlinear models sometimes reveal certain characteristics of
the system that cannot be predicted using linear models.

Thus a great deal of engineering judgment is needed to come up with a suitable

mathematical model of a vibrating system.

Sometimes the mathematical model is gradually improved to obtain more

accurate results.

In this approach, first a very crude or elementary model is used to get a quick
insight into the overall behavior of the system
1.8 Forces - inertia, elastic, damping, and excitation
Spring Element, Mass Element and Excitation

Before proceeding with the details of how to model complex structures and analyze their
dynamical behavior, let us consider the simplest structure undergoing the simplest forms
of vibration.

The structure must have an elastic component, which can store and release potential
energy; and it must have mass, which can store and release kinetic energy.

The simplest model, therefore, is the spring-mass oscillator, shown in Fig. below.
1.8 Forces - inertia, elastic, damping, and excitation
Simplifying Assumptions: Analytical Model
The simplifying assumptions that define this prototype analytical model are:

1. The mass is a point mass that is confined to move along one horizontal direction on a
frictionless plane.
The displacement of the mass in the x-direction from the position where the spring is
undeformed is designated by the displacement variable u(t).

2. The mass is connected to a fixed base by an idealized massless, linear spring.

The fixed base serves as an inertial reference frame.

Figure shows the linear relationship between the elongation (u positive) and
contraction (u negative) of the spring and the force fs(t) that the spring exerts on the
mass.
1.8 Forces - inertia, elastic, damping, and excitation
When the spring is in tension, fs is positive; when the spring is in compression, fs is
negative.

3. A specified external force p(t) acts on the mass, as shown in Fig. below.

Since it takes only one variable [e.g., u(t)] to specify the instantaneous position of
the mass, this is called a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system.
1.8 Forces - inertia, elastic, damping, and excitation

Different
shapes

Different materials
1.8 Forces - inertia, elastic, damping, and excitation
1.8 Forces - inertia, elastic, damping, and excitation
1.8 Forces - inertia, elastic, damping, and excitation
Damping Elements
In many practical systems, the vibrational energy is gradually converted to heat or
sound.

Due to the reduction in the energy, the response, such as the displacement of the
system, gradually decreases.

The mechanism by which the vibrational energy is gradually converted into heat or
sound is known as damping.

Although the amount of energy converted into heat or sound is relatively small,
the consideration of damping becomes important for an accurate prediction of the
vibration response of a system.

A damper is assumed to have neither mass nor elasticity, and damping force exists
only if there is relative velocity between the two ends of the damper.

It is difficult to determine the causes of damping in practical systems.

Hence damping is modeled as one or more of the following types.

1.8 Forces - inertia, elastic, damping, and excitation
Damping Elements (cont…)
1. Viscous Damping: Viscous damping is the most commonly used damping mechanism
in vibration analysis.

When mechanical systems vibrate in a fluid medium such as air, gas, water, or oil, the
resistance offered by the fluid to the moving body causes energy to be dissipated. In this
case, the amount of dissipated energy depends on many factors, such as the size and shape
of the vibrating body, the viscosity of the fluid, the frequency of vibration, and the velocity
of the vibrating body.

In viscous damping, the damping force is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body.

Typical examples of viscous damping include (1) fluid film between sliding surfaces, (2) fluid
flow around a piston in a cylinder, (3) fluid flow through an orifice, and (4) fluid film around
a journal in a bearing.

2. Coulomb or Dry-Friction Damping: Here the damping force is constant in magnitude

but opposite in direction to that of the motion of the vibrating body.

It is caused by friction between rubbing surfaces that either are dry or have insufficient
lubrication.
1.8 Forces - inertia, elastic, damping, and excitation
Damping Elements (cont…)
3. Material or Solid or Hysteretic Damping:
When a material is deformed, energy is absorbed and dissipated by the material.

The effect is due to friction between the internal planes, which slip or slide as the
deformations take place.

When a body having material damping is subjected to vibration, the stress-strain diagram
shows a hysteresis loop as indicated in Fig. 1.40(a).

The area of this loop denotes the energy lost per unit volume of the body per cycle due to
damping.

Fd  v
Fd = c v
1.9 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly, as in the balance wheel of a
watch or display considerable irregularity, as in earthquakes.

When the motion is repeated in equal intervals of time , it is called periodic

motion.

The repetition time  is called the period of oscillation, and its reciprocal, f =
1/, is called the frequency.

If the motion is designated by the time function x(t), then any periodic
motion must satisfy the relationship x(t) =x(t+).

The simplest form of periodic motion is harmonic motion or simple

harmonic motion (SHM).
1.9 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
It can be demonstrated by a mass suspended from a light spring, as shown in
figure below.

If the mass is displaced from its rest position (static equilibrium position) and
released, it will oscillate up and down.

By placing a light source on the oscillating mass, its motion can be recorded
on a light-sensitive film strip which is made to move past it at constant
speed.
1.9 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) (cont…)
The motion recorded on the film strip can be expressed by the equation

x = A sin 2
t
(1.1)

Where A is the amplitude of oscillation, measured from the equilibrium position of the
mass, and  is the period.

The motion is repeated when t = .

Harmonic motion is often represented a the projection on a straight line of a point that
is moving on a circle at constant speed, as shown in figure below.

Harmonic motion a projection of a point moving on a circle

1.9 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) (cont…)
With the angular speed of the line op designated by , the displacement x can be
written as
x = A sin t (1.2)

The quantity  is generally measured in radians per second, and is referred to as the
circular frequency.

Since the motion repeats itself in 2 radians, we have the relationship

2
= = 2f (1.3)

Where  and f are the period and frequency of the harmonic motion, usually measured
in seconds and cycles per second respectively.
1.9 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) (cont…)
The velocity and acceleration of harmonic motion can be simply determined by
differentiation of Eq. (1.2).

x = A sin t (1.2)
Using the dot notation for the derivative, we obtain

 
x = A cos t = A sin  t +  (1.4)
 2
x = − 2 A sin t =  2 A sin (t +  ) (1.5)
Thus, the velocity and acceleration are also harmonic with the same frequency of
oscillation, but lead the displacement by /2 and  radians, respectively.

Note the different relative amplitudes of each quantity.

For systems with natural frequency larger than 1 rad/sec, the relative amplitudes of
velocity response larger than that of displacement response by a multiple of n, and
acceleration response larger by a multiple of  n .
2

For systems with natural frequency less than 1 rad/sec, the velocity and acceleration
response have smaller relative amplitudes than displacements.
1.9 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) (cont…)
Also note that the velocity id 900 (or /2 radians) out of phase with the position, while
the acceleration is 1800 out of phase with position and 900 out of phase with velocity.

This is summarized and illustrated in Figure below.

1.9 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) (cont…)
Comparing Eqs. (1.2) and (1.5), one can write

x = − n2 x (1.6)
so that in harmonic motion, the acceleration is proportional to the displacement and
directed towards the origin.

Newton’s second law of motion states that the acceleration is proportional to the force,
harmonic motion can be expected for systems with linear springs with force varying as
kx.

mx = F = −kx
mx + kx = 0 (1.7)
1.9 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) (cont…)

Taking moment about O, one can write,

I = −mg sin   l
ml 2 + mgl sin  = 0
 g
 + sin = 0
l
g
 +  = 0 mg sin
l
 +  n2 = 0 (1.8) mg cos

 (t ) = A sin  + B cos 
Where A and B are unknown constants, and obtained from initial conditions.
1.10 Harmonic Analysis
Although harmonic motion is simplest to handle, the motion of many
vibratory systems is not harmonic.

However, in many cases the vibrations are periodic—for example, the

type shown in Fig. (a) below.

A periodic function
1.10 Harmonic Analysis (cont…)
Fortunately, any periodic function of time can be represented by Fourier series as an
infinite sum of sine and cosine terms.
Text Books and References
Text Books

1. Rao, S.S., Mechanical Vibrations, 6th Edition, Pearson, 2017.

2. Thomson, W.T., and Dahleh, M.D., Theory of Vibrations with Applications, Fifth
Edition, Pearson, 2008.

3. Craig, R.R., Jr., and Andrew J. Kurdila, A.J., Fundamentals of Structural Dynamics,
Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.

References
1. Meirovitch, L., Fundamentals of vibrations, McGraw Hill International Edition, 2001.

2. Graham Kelly, S., Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of Mechanical Vibration,
McGraw-Hill, 1993.

3. Piersol, A.G., and Paez, T.L., Harris’ Shock and Vibration Handbook, 6th Edition, McGraw
Hill, 2010.