FOREWARD - KENYA O. LEVY, JR.

This manual is in no way intended as a replacement for your text or your teacher’s notes. It is merely a
tool to aid in your understanding of the topics covered. Hopefully you will be convinced that Physics is
Fun!

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cape Requirements 2

Preliminaries 3

Simple Harmonic Motion 4

Important Terms 4

Equations 5

Energy 8

Simple Pendulum 9

Mass-Spring System 10

Damped Oscillations 11

Forced Oscillations 12

Waves

Classifying 13

Properties 15

Graphical Representation 17

Stationary Waves 18

Two Source Interference 20

Diffraction Grating 22

Labs
1
Hands-On 23

Simulation 26

2
CAPE UNIT 1

MODULE 2: OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

GENERAL OBJECTIVES
On completion of this Module, students should:
1. understand the different types of oscillatory motion;
2. appreciate the properties common to all waves;
3. recognise the unique properties of different types of waves;
4. apply their knowledge of waves to the functioning of the eye and the ear.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Harmonic Motion
Students should be able to:
1.1 use the equations of simple harmonic motion to solve problems;
1.2 recall the conditions necessary for simple harmonic motion;
1.3 describe graphically the changes in displacement, velocity and acceleration with time and with
displacement for simple harmonic motion;
1.4 derive and use the period of the simple pendulum and of the mass on a spring as
1.5 describe the interchange of kinetic and potential energy of an oscillating system during simple harmonic
Motion..
1.6 calculate the energy of a body undergoing simple harmonic motion;
1.7 describe examples of forced oscillations and resonance;
1.8 discuss cases in which resonance is desirable and cases in which it is not;
1.9 describe damped oscillations and represent such motion graphically;
1.10 explain how damping is achieved in some real-life examples. For example, motor vehicle suspension.

2. Properties of Waves
Students should be able to:
2.1 use the following terms: displacement, amplitude, period, frequency, velocity in relation to the behaviour of
waves;
2.2 differentiate between transverse and longitudinal waves in terms of the movement of particles in the
medium of transmission and the energy of the waves;
2.3 represent transverse and longitudinal waves graphically;
2.4 explain “polarisation” and give examples of polarised waves; Use polarisation to differentiate
between transverse and longitudinal waves.
2.5 derive and use the equation v=fλ to solve problems involving wave motion;
2.6 use the relationship intensity is proportional to (amplitude)2 for a wave;
2.7 use the terms phase and phase difference with reference to behaviour of waves;
2.8 distinguish between stationary and progressive waves; Represent graphically.
2.9 explain the properties of stationary waves and perform related calculations;
2.14 explain the meaning of coherence as applied to waves;
2.15 explain the terms superposition and interference of waves;
2.16 state the conditions necessary for two source interference fringes of waves to be observed and perform
experiments to demonstrate this; For example, a simple Young’s slits interference experiment for light or
microwaves and two speakers for sound.
2.17 discuss the principles of interference and diffraction as applied to waves; Constructive and destructive

3
 interference.

2.18 derive and use the approximation to solve problems; Applies when D >>a in two-source
interference.
2.19 use the expression nλ = a sinθ ; for interference and diffraction (a=slit spacing);For two-source interference
and for diffraction grating (a=slit spacing).
2.20 use the diffraction grating to determine the wavelength and frequency of light;

4
 PRELIMINARIES
Some Math Before Simple Harmonic Motion

1. The Sin curve:

If x = Sin t, what would a plot of x versus t look like:

Note:

1. Where does it start?

2. What are the limits?

3. If x is displacement (not distance) and t is representative of time, describe in words what the
graph is telling you.

2. The Cos curve:

If x = Cos t, what would a plot of x versus t look like:

Note:

4. Where does it start?

5. What are the limits?

6. If x is displacement (not distance) and t is representative of time, describe in words what the
graph is telling you.

5
Can you see that with minor modifications, either could represent the motion of a simple pendulum?
How?

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Harmonic Motion is motion that repeats itself (oscillates about an equilibrium position).

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is the simplest form of repetitive motion i.e. that which can be
represented by a sin or cos curve.

A simple or compound pendulum or a spring are good examples of SHM.

What are some of the features of Simple Harmonic Motion?

To answer let’s consider qualitatively the motion of a pendulum of length, l, with time. It is moving between
points D and F.

Some Terms Associated with SHM

Displacement, x, is the distance the body moves from its undisturbed

(equilibrium) position in a particular direction. (Let’s make right of
equilibrium +ve and left of equilibrium –ve).

In the diagram the displacement between D and E is +x.

Units:

Angular displacement, θ, is the angle through which the body moves

for displacement x, while undergoing SHM.

Units:

General formula:

6
 Note:
1. To convert from degrees to radians recall 180° = π rad
2. A body undergoing one complete oscillation has an angular
displacement of 2 π rad
Amplitude, A, is the maximum displacement of the body from its equilibrium position. Units:

Period,T, is the time taken for the body to complete one oscillation. Units:

Frequency, f, is the number of complete oscillation the body makes in one second

f = no. of oscillations / time

Angular frequency, ω, (also called angular velocity) is the rate of change of angular displacement

Units:

Consider a body making one complete oscillation.

In this case, θ= ;t =

Therefore: ω=

Defining Simple Harmonic Motion with Equations

For the same pendulum (moving between D, E, and F), let’s fill in the table below for one complete
oscillation. We started timing when we released the pendulum at D. (Therefore one oscillation is
D🡪E🡪F🡪E🡪D)!!!

Displacement

7
 Possible Equation:

D:

E:

What if we had started timing at E?

F:

E:

D:

8
Velocity. (Remember velocity is a vector quantity. Direction matters. Let’s make moving to right +ve
and to left –ve).

D: Possible Equation:

E:

What if we had started timing at E?

F:

E:

D:

Summarising So Far

Any body undergoing simple harmonic motion (not just a pendulum) follows a sinusoidal path. The
displacement and velocity of the body undergoing SHM can be represented as follows

Displacement Corresponding Velocity

v = vo cos ωt
x = A sin ωt
(remember vo = ωA)

x = A cos ωt v = - vo sin ωt
(remember vo = ωA)

9
10
Another Equations Involving SHM:

Another useful equation for SHM is given below. It is useful because it links velocity and displacement i.e. if
you know the velocity at any point in the motion you can find the corresponding displacement and vice
versa.

Equation:

Condition for SHM

A body undergoing SHM has to have a restoring force bringing it back to the equilibrium position. Can you
see why? Think of a spring!
Note:

1. Because it experiences a force there is an acceleration, a, due to the force. Why?

2. The greater the displacement, the greater the restoring force. ( Think again of the spring). So
the acceleration of a body undergoing SHM is proportional to its displacement.

3. Because it is a restoring force, the acceleration is always opposite to the displacement.

Putting these three things together:

is proportional to –x

a = constant (-x)
a = - ω2x 🡨 IMPORTANT EQUATION. Defines SHM!!!!

What would a plot of acceleration look like?

(Assume x is a cos equation.)

Summarising So Far
11
Equations: x = A sin ωt or x = A cos ωt

v = vo cos ωt or v = - vo sin ωt

v2 = ω2 (A2 – x2) ; a = - ω2x

T = 2π/ω

Energy of SHM

Think of a spring. It shouldn’t be hard to see that a body undergoing SHM has both PE and KE.

The PE will be related to the displacement of the body.

Large displacement =>

The KE will be related to the velocity of the body. Equation:

Large displacement =>

Can you therefore see that both the PE and the KE are changing with the motion of the body? In fact there
is an interchange of PE and KE.

Plot the variation of PE and KE with time for a body undergoing SHM. Assume you start timing when the
body is going through the equilibrium position.

Note however that though the PE and KE

change constantly, the Mechanical Energy
(or total energy = PE + KE) is constant in
time!!

How could you find the total energy?

12
 Derivation of Periods of the Simple Pendulum

To do this derivation you have to remember that a pendulum undergoes SHM so the equations of SHM
apply to the pendulum (especially a = - ω2x).

The restoring force of the pendulum is due to action of gravity(or a component of the weight).

Resolving along the line of motion of bob.

Restoring force = mg sinθ

or

F = -mg sinθ

But F = ma

So, ma = -mg sinθ

For small angles: sinθ ≈ θ = x/l

For SHM, a = - ω2x

Remember this equation!!!!

13
Remember all other SHM equations are also true for the Simple Pendulum!!!

14
 Derivation of Periods of the Mass-Spring System

To do this derivation you have to remember that a spring undergoes SHM so the equations of SHM apply
to the pendulum (especially a = - ω2x).

Also you need to remember Hooke’s Law, about a spring force.

Hooke’s Law:

Consider (a) a mass attached to a spring (producing an initial extension, e) and simply hanging (no
oscillations). (b) The mass is now displaced downward by x so that it will oscillate up and down about an
equilibrium position.

For (a) everything is balanced so

Spring force, F = mg
So ke = mg ----(1)

For (b) there must be a net upward

force (a.k.a the restoring force) which
is given by:

Restoring Force = Spring force minus

weight

= [k(e+x) - mg]

= ke + kx – mg

= mg + kx - mg

= kx

Hence, F = - kx

Therefore ma = -kx

For SHM, a = - ω2x

Therefore - mω2x = -kx

15
Remember this equation!!!!

Remember all other SHM equations are also true for the Spring!!!

Some final things

Damped Oscillations:

Damping is a term broadly used to denote the dissipation of energy in oscillations. In the pendulum and
spring cases above we neglected air resistance and friction.

What if we didn’t? Then energy would be dissipated.

How would we know? The oscillations would gradually decay with time. By this we mean the amplitude
would decrease with time. The speed of decay is dependent on the type of
damping.

Three types of damping

Underdapmed: Oscillates

Damping may not be a bad thing really. May be

deliberately introduced into some systems.

16
 1. Car shocks need to be almost close to critically damped (really just slightly underdamped).

2. A door closer should be critically damped.

The energy losses arise from frictional (or analogous) forces which are unavoidable in any system or from
the radiation of energy to space or to other systems.

Forced Oscillations:

When the oscillating system is not restricted in any way then it will vibrate at its natural frequency. (Pull a
child back on a swing and let go. The frequency of oscillation is its natural frequency).
If however a harmonic oscillator, instead of vibrating freely, is driven by a periodic force, it will oscillate
with the frequency of the driving force. So, if you keep pushing the child on the swing the swing will move
back and forth at the rate you are pushing it, which may not be the frequency it would naturally have
oscillated at. Or, a motor attached to a string will cause the string to vibrate at the frequency of the
motor.
If you force the system to oscillate at a frequency much less than the natural frequency it will oscillate with
a small amplitude and in phase with the forcing. If you force the system to oscillate at a frequency much
greater than the natural frequency it will oscillate with a small amplitude but out of phase with the forcing.
If you force the system to oscillate at a frequency equal to the natural frequency then interesting things
begin to happen. The amplitude of the oscillations becomes very large as maximum energy is transferred
from the periodic force (driver) to the oscillating system. When this happens it is called RESONANCE.

Resonance can be good or bad.

1. Since earthquake can be viewed as forcings, they can cause buildings to oscillate with large
amplitudes due to resonance, which can be dangerous.
2. Electrical resonance is useful for tuning, or voltage or current amplification.
3. Acoustic resonance is an important consideration for instrument builders, as most acoustic
instruments use resonators, such as the strings and body of a violin, the length of tube in a flute,
and the shape of a drum membrane.

Sample Question
(a) The equation for the displacement of a body moving with simple harmonic motion is x = A sin ωt.

17
 (i) What do the symbols A and ω represent?

(ii) Draw a graph showing how x varies with time for each of the following cases; where
motion is: (a) underdamped (b) critically damped and (c) underdamped.
(b) For a body executing simple harmonic motion the equation is x = 0.03 sin π t where distances and
times are in metres and seconds respectively. At t = 1.75 s, calculate the

(i) displacement
(ii) velocity
(iii) acceleration

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 WAVES
What is a wave? - A disturbance which enables information and energy to move from one point to
another without the need for a material object to travel the distance.

CLASSIFYING WAVES

There are different ways to classify waves. Let consider 3 ways below:

By Type
1) A Mechanical Wave - Waves that exist in a material medium and require the medium for
propagation.
▪ Examples: water waves (water), sound waves (air), waves on a on a string/spring
(string/spring particles), seismic waves (earth’s crust), etc.
2) Electromagnetic Waves – Require no material medium to exist or to propagate. Can travel
through a vacuum.
▪ Examples: visible, UV, radio, television, microwaves, x rays, radar.
▪ All have the same speed in a vacuum, c = 3 x 108 m/s.
3) Matter Waves – Waves associated with atomic particles e.g. electrons, protons and other
fundamental particles.
▪ Think of particles as matters, hence the name.
▪ We will not examine.

We will concentrate on mechanical waves, but the principles dealt with will be generally applicable to all
types.

By the Motion of the Particles

Consider a mechanical wave e.g. on a string or on a spring. When the wave (disturbance) is created and
sent through the medium, the displaced particles of the medium will oscillate about their immediate
positions as the wave travels through the medium, but won’t propagate the length of the medium.

They can oscillate in two ways with respect to the motion of the disturbance.

1) Transverse Wave – The displacement of the elements/particles of the medium is perpendicular to

the direction of travel of the wave.

● Example: Waves on a string,

even spring, ripples in a pond.

19
● Remember particles displaced up and down.

20
2) Longitudinal Wave - The displacement of the elements/particles of the medium is parallel to the
direction of travel of the wave.
● Example: Sound wave in air, spring waves.
● Remember particles going side to side.

SOUND

SPRING

An ASIDE - POLARISATION

Polarisation is the phenomenon by which waves are in a single plane which contains both the movement
of particles and the direction of propagation of the wave. So a polarised wave is one in which vibrations
occur in only one plane.

In truth light waves (though transverse) oscillate in multiple directions (so they are said to be unpolarised).
A polarizer will remove all orientations except one.

Think of it like a picket fence. If the waves with

particle moving in multiple directions hit the
picket fence only waves with particles moving in
the direction of the picket slits (one direction)
emerges.

Only transverse waves can be polarized.

21
It is a key way to differentiate transverse and longitudinal waves.

22
By the Motion of the Wave Form

1) Progressive Waves – If the wave form moves from one point to

the other it is called a traveling or progressive wave. We can
further distinguish between a pulse and a periodic wave.
a. Pulse – a (single) distortion/disturbance which moves
through the medium.
b. Periodic – Continuous. A wave consisting of cycles or
patterns that are repeated.

2) Standing Waves – If the wave form appears to be stationary, i.e.

you do not see a propagating wave. It is called a standing wave.
(We will return to this later!).

Properties of Waves

▪ Displacement, s , is the distance a particle making up the wave moves from its equilibrium position
(rest point). Units:

▪ Wavelength, λ refers to the distance between two successive crests (troughs) or between two
successive compressions (rarefactions). Units:

▪ Amplitude, A refers to the maximum displacement of a particle making up the wave from the
reference point. It is also the height of a peak over the wave's reference position or rest position. Units:

23
▪ The period, T of a wave is the time taken to complete one wavelength. Units:

T = time /no. of wavelengths

.........................................1

▪ The frequency, f of a wave is the number of wavelengths that pass through a reference point in one
second. Units:

f = no. of wavelengths / time

........................................2

From equations 1 and 2 we get

.........................................3

▪ Intensity, I, of a wave is the power per unit area of the wave. Units:

That is the energy is transferred at a greater rate within the wave. Since the intensity is a function of
power, the greater the intensity the greater the energy of the wave. If the energy of the wave is increased,
the amplitude of the wave will be greater since the particles making up the wave will be moves further
from the respective equilibrium positions. The intensity and amplitude are related by

I is proportional to A 2

▪ Velocity, v , is how fast the wave moves through a particular medium. Units:

24
The velocity of the wave moving in a particular medium is constant. We can derive an equation for the
velocity of a wave.

Velocity = distance / time

If the wave moves a distance of one wavelength, the time take for the wave to move the distance is the
period of the wave. Hence

.........................................4

Recall the frequency of a wave and period are related by equation 3, Substituting 3 in 4 we get

🡨 Know this derivation and equation!!!

25
▪ The Phase Difference of two waves is the fraction of the cycle by which one wave is behind the
other. Phase difference is expressed in radians [1 cycle = 2π radians]. Remember one full cycle is equal
to 2 π. So if one wave is behind the other by half a cycle then the waves have a phase difference of π
radians. If the one wave is behind the other by one third of a cycle then the two waves have a phase
difference of π /3 radians

Draw two waves which are out of phase by (a) π (b) π/2 (c) π/4.
(a) (b) (c)

Graphical Representation of Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

The displacement-distance graph for a transverse wave.

Waves can be represented by displacement-distance graphs or displacement-time graphs.

Displacement-Distance Graphs – The equivalent of taking a snapshot of the wave at a given time. It
therefore shows the displacement of each particle at that given time. Let’s use a longitudinal wave to
represent.

26
The parameters one can observe from a displacement-distance graph are the amplitude (y-axis) of the
wave and the wavelength (x-axis).

Displacement-Time Graphs - Show how the displacement of a single particle changes with time.

The parameters one can observe from the displacement-time graph are the amplitude (y-axis) and the
period (hence frequency) (x-axis).

INTERFERENCE, SUPERPOSITION AND STATIONARY WAVES

Interference and Superposition

Suppose two or more waves pass simultaneously through the same region e.g. two waves on a string or
sound waves from two instruments, they will interfere or superpose. What results is governed by the
Principle of Superposition which states that whenever 2 waves travel in the same space the total
displacement at any point is equal to the vector sum of their individual displacements at that point.

27
As a simple demonstration, consider 2 waves that are exactly out of phase (phase difference = π rad).

They undergo Destructive Interference

Sketch what happens when they meet.

Or, consider 2 waves that are exactly in phase (phase

difference = zero rad).

They undergo Constructive Interference

Sketch what happens when they meet.

Stationary Waves

If we keep sending progressive waves to a boundary and allowing them to reflect off the boundary, then
soon we will have identical waves travelling the same space but going in opposite directions. They will
interfere to produce what is known as a Stationary or Standing wave.

The Stationary wave is so called, because it looks like a wave but the wave never progresses through the
medium. So every time you look at it, it will look like the diagram below.

28
Note:

(i) The wave doesn’t propagate to the right or left.

(ii) Nodes are points where the particles do not oscillate. They are stationary.

(iii) All other particles oscillate but not with same amplitudes.

(iv) Antinodes are points where particles oscillate with maximum amplitude.

(v) The distance between 2 nodes or 2 antinodes =

(vi) The distance between a node and an antinode =

(vii) L / no. of loops =

(viii) You can change the number of loops by varying the frequency of the original wave.

Two Source Interference

In the above, the interference was due to one source producing waves which were reflected.You can
produce interference using two sources each producing waves. But some conditions must be met for the
interference pattern to be observable.

One criterion is that the waves from the two sources must be coherent. Coherence – there must be a
constant phase difference between the waves from the two sources (which implies that they must also
have the same frequency). The phase difference may be zero but doesn’t have to be.

A second criterion is that the interfering waves must have approximately the same amplitude otherwise
the resulting interference pattern lacks sufficient contrast (i.e. Harder to tell peaks & troughs in wave
pattern)

Young’s Double Slit Experiment

A very common experiment to show two source interference is the Young’s Double Slit Experiment. The
setup is as below.

Note:

29
(i) S1 is a slit. When light passes through a slit it is diffracted i.e. it spreads out in all
directions.

(ii) S2 represents 2 slits. Since it is Iight from one source that hits these 2 slits the light leaving
the 2 slits is coherent.

(iii) Diffraction also occurs at each of the 2 slits comprising S2.

(iv) F is a screen. When waves from each slit hit the screen they interfere. Depending on the
phase difference between the interfering waves the interference alternates between
constructive and destructive.

Why should there be a phase difference between the 2 waves reaching d on the screen?

Therefore describe what you see on the screen?

(v) The distance, y, between adjacent bright or dark fringes is constant.

It also turns out that ,

where y is the fringe separation (distance between adjacent fringes) a is the slit separation

and D is the slit to screen distance and is the wavelength of the light. (You must
know how to prove this!! Consult your textbook). This is only true if a <<D. Note this
condition!!!!

(vi) It also turns out that for bright fringes, a sin θ = n .

In this equation n represents the nth bright fringe from the central maximum and θ is the
angle measured from the central maximum to the nth bright fringe. (See figure below).

30
 (vii) You could achieve the same thing with two speakers replacing the two slits. What would
you hear as you walked along line F?

Sample Question
In a Young’s Double Slit the distance between the central bright fringe and the 21st bright fringe was found
to be 2.7 mm. The slit separation was 1.0 mm and the slit to screen distance was 25 cm. What was the
wavelength of the light? What would happen to the pattern on the screen if (a) the slit separation was
decreased (b) the light source consisted of 2 different wavelengths of light?

31
Diffraction Grating

Diffraction Grating is an optical device which usually consists of thousands of narrow, closely spaced
parallel slits (or grooves).

▪ The grooves are equal width and are ruled on glass or metal.

▪ The grating is defined in terms of the number of lines per unit length which can be used to find the
distance between each slit (or a) . What is the spacing, a, for a grating with 600 lines per mm?

▪ Each slit diffracts the light

incident upon the grating. Interference
between all the diffracted waves
produces an image.

▪ Similar to a double slit there

will be a central maximum and higher
orders of maxima.

Similar to a double slit setup, we can also write:

a sin θ = n .

Note however that a is the slit spacing, is the wavelength of the light, n is the order, and θ is the
diffraction angle measured from the zeroeth order.

Sample Question
When a grating with 300 lines per mm is illuminated normally with a parallel beam of monochromatic light
a second order principal maximum is observed at 18.9o to the straight through direction. Find the
wavelength of the light.

32
 LAB 1 – Hands-On
Vertical Oscillations of a Spring-Mass System

Aim
To investigate Simple Harmonic Motion in the ‘small amplitude’ oscillations of a spring-mass system
Apparatus
Retort Stand, 2 Identical Spiral Springs, Masses, Stop Watch
Theory
Simple harmonic motion (SHM) results when a body displaced from its equilibrium position is acted on by
a restoring force, F, that is always proportional and in the opposite direction to its displacement from that
equilibrium position.
A simple harmonic oscillator consists of a mass attached to one end of a spring. The other end of the
spring is attached to a rigid support. When the mass is displaced, by a small distance, from the equilibrium
position, the restoring force exerted by the spring is given by
𝐹= − 𝑘𝑥 (1)
where x is displacement and k is the spring constant.
From Newton’s Second Law we know that,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (2)
Where m is the mass and a is the acceleration
Substituting equation (2) into equation (1) we get,
−𝑘𝑥
𝑎= 𝑚
(3)

SHM is defined by
2
𝑎= −ω𝑥 (4)
From this we can see that

𝑘
ω= 𝑚
(5)

The time taken to complete one oscillation, the period, T, is given by

2π
𝑇= ω
(6)

By substituting equation (5) in equation (6) we get an expression for the period of a simple pendulum,

33
 𝑚
𝑇 = 2π 𝑘
(7)

Placing the equation in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

2
2 4π
𝑇 = 𝑘
𝑚+0 (8)

2
If we plot T along the y-axis and the m along the x-axis, we will get a straight line passing through the

origin, with
2
4π (9)
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑘

Procedure
1. Suspend a spring from the retort stand and hang an appropriate mass, m, about 200 grams from it.
2. Give it a small vertical displacement and record the time for 20 oscillations.
3. Repeat for 7 other values of mass.
4. Tabulate your results neatly, using SI units.
5. Plot T2 vs m
6. Find the gradient of the graph. Hence find the value of the spring constant, k.

Run Mass Time for 20 Period, T T2

Oscillatons, t20
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

34
 6

Qn.1 Suppose this experiment is done on the Moon, where the acceleration due to gravity gm is one
sixth of that on the Earth. Giving appropriate reasons, determine the value of k on the Moon.

Qn.2 In plotting the data, suppose we want to plot T along the Y-axis. Analyzing eq. (3), explain what we
should plot along the X-axis in this case, so as to get a straight line. What does the slope of this
graph give?

7. Suspend the 2 springs in series from the retort stand and hang a mass, m, from it.
8. Determine the time for 20 oscillations, t20, and hence the period T.
9. Using eq. (8), determine the value, ks, of the 2 springs in series.
10. Repeat this with the 2 springs in parallel and obtain, kp.

Qn.3 Show that:

𝑘𝑝 𝑘
𝑘
= 𝑘𝑠
=2

35
Qn.4 Using this, deduce the way to calculate the effective spring constant when 2 springs, with spring
constants k1 and k2, are added:
a) in series
b) in parallel.

LAB 2 – Simulation

Properties of a Wave on a String

Aim
To explore the following for a wave on a string:
i. Frequency, Wavelength, and Wave Speed
ii. Reflection
iii. Superposition
iv. Damping
Apparatus
Computer simulation: Phet – Wave on a String
Procedure
To start with, learn the use/function of the various control buttons on the computer screen. Press the Show
Help, Rulers and Timer buttons on the top RHS. Then, play with the 3 buttons on the bottom LHS: Manual,
Oscillate & Pulse along with the 3 buttons on the bottom RHS: Fixed End, Loose End, No End. Finally, learn
the use of the following buttons at the bottom: Reset & Pause/Play. When you click the button Pause, a
new button Step appears, which allows you to analyze things one step at a time.
To start with, keep the Amplitude and Frequency buttons at 50, Damping button at zero and Tension
button at high.

Fundamentals of Wave Motion

1. Select Oscillate on the LHS and No End on the RHS
2. Click Play
You will see a wave moving from the LHS to the RHS. When you want to make a measurement, click
Pause.

36
3. Use the Step button to bring the crest of the wave to any convenient point.
4. Using the Rulers and the Timer, analyze the wave and determine the following for it, in both
magnitude and unit.
i. Amplitude, A =

ii. Wavelength, λ =

iii. Period, T = time for a peak to travel a distance of 1 λ =

iv. Frequency, f = =

v. Wave speed, v (measured) = =

vi. Wave speed , v (calculated) = f λ =

Reflection
1. Select Pulse on the LHS and Fixed End on the RHS
2. Choose the Amplitude to be 0.75cm
3. Click the green button Pulse once to get a triangular pulse, and see what happens at the RHS fixed end.
4. Answer the following questions, based on your observation:
i. Does the reflection change the speed or amplitude of the wave pulse?

ii. Is the wave pulse reflected with the same orientation that it had originally, or is it inverted?

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5. Now, change the RHS from Fixed End to Loose End, send a pulse and see what happens at the RHS
Loose End.
6. Answer the following questions, based on your observation:
i. Does the reflection change the speed or amplitude of the wave pulse?

ii. Is the wave pulse reflected with the same orientation that it had originally, or is it inverted?

Superposition
In this exercise, you will explore what happens when two wave pulses superpose/add up.
1. Choose Pulse on the LHS and Loose End on the RHS
2. Leave the Amplitude at 0.75cm as before.
3. Click the green button Pulse once and immediately press the Pause button.
4. Click the green button Pulse again.
5. Now, you will see 2 pulses. When they are about to meet, click the Pause button.
6. Using the Step button, analyze what happens when the two pulses just overlap.
7. Answer the following questions, based on your observation:
i. What is the amplitude of the resultant pulse when both the pulses have the same orientation?

Higher Smaller Almost zero

ii. What is the amplitude of the resultant pulse when both the pulses have the opposite orientation?

Higher Smaller Almost zero

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8. Repeat the above exercise, with the first pulse’s amplitude at 0.75cm and the second pulse’s
amplitude at 1.00cm
9. Answer the following questions, based on your observation:
i. What is the amplitude of the resultant pulse when both the pulses have the same orientation?

Higher Smaller Almost zero

ii. What is the amplitude of the resultant pulse when both the pulses have the opposite orientation?

Higher Smaller Almost zero

Effect of Damping
So far, you kept the Damping at zero. What happens when it is not zero?
1. Select the Oscillate mode on the LHS and the No End on the RHS.
2. Keep the Amplitude at 1.00cm and Frequency at 0.75Hz
3. See the effect of damping for Damping values of 0, 20, 50 and 100
Quantitatively, in the presence of damping, the amplitude of the wave decreases with time as:
−λ𝑡
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑜𝑒

where,
Ao is the initial amplitude at t = 0
λ is a constant
Plotting A versus t will give an exponential decay; it won’t be a straight line! Placing the equation in the
form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 we get:
−λ𝑡
ln 𝑙𝑛 𝐴 = ln 𝑙𝑛 𝐴𝑜 + ln 𝑙𝑛 𝑒 ( )
ln 𝑙𝑛 𝐴 = ln 𝑙𝑛 𝐴𝑜 + (− λ𝑡)

Rearranging, you get:

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 ln 𝑙𝑛 𝐴 = (− λ)𝑡 + ln 𝑙𝑛 𝐴𝑜

To investigate this exponential decay, keep Damping at 30.

4. Press the Play button.
5. When you see that the wave has progressed all the way to the No End, press the Pause button.
6. Carefully use the Step button until the green spot on top of the wrench is at its maximum height Ao
7. You can now measure the amplitudes at 5 crest values and 4 trough values
Note that these are separated in time by T/2, where T is the period i.e. the time taken by a peak to
travel one wavelength
8. Tabulate your data neatly in the table below
9. Plot ln A vs t
10. Obtain the value of λ from the graph

Run Time, t Amplitude, A ln A

(seconds) (cm)

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