PHC01 : Engineering Physics

Session 2022-23 (Second Semester)

Harmonic Oscillations
Wave motion
and
Introductory Quantum Mechanics
Instructor: Dr. Arghya Chatterjee
Department of Physics
National Institute of Technology Durgapur
Email: arghya.chatterjee@phy.nitdgp.ac.in
Webpage: https://arghyanit.github.io/
Disclaimer: Contains copyrighted materials and hence not for re-distribution. Only meant for the students of NIT Durgapur who have opted for the specific course in this specific session.
Contents are taken from different books and online resources and hence the copyright of the figures and texts if any in the following slides lies with the original author.
 Topics to be covered
Harmonic Oscillations: Linear superposition principle, Superposition of two perpendicular
oscillations having same and different frequencies and phases, Free, Damped and forced
vibrations, Equation of motion, Amplitude resonance, Velocity resonance, Quality factor,
sharpness of resonance, etc.

Wave Motion - Wave equation, Longitudinal waves, Transverse waves, Electro-magnetic

waves.

Quantum Mechanics: Inadequacy of classical mechanics, Blackbody radiation, Planck’s

quantum hypothesis, de Broglie’s hypothesis, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and
applications, Schrodinger’s wave equation and applications to simple problems: Particle in a
one-dimensional box, Simple harmonic oscillator, Tunnelling effect.

Interference and Diffraction; Polarisation; Laser and Optical Fiber.

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 Course Outcomes
CO1: To realize and apply the fundamental concepts of physics such as superposition
principle, simple harmonic motion to real world problems.

CO2: Learn about the quantum phenomenon of subatomic particles and its
applications to the practical field.

CO3: Gain an integrative overview and applications of fundamental optical phenomena

such as interference, diffraction and polarization.

CO4: Acquire basic knowledge related to the working mechanism of lasers and signal
propagation through optical fibers.

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 Topic: Harmonic Oscillations

Syllabus: Linear superposition principle, Superposition of two perpendicular

oscillations having same and different frequencies and phases, Free, Damped and forced
vibrations, Equation of motion, Amplitude resonance, Velocity resonance, Quality factor,
sharpness of resonance, etc.

Reference Books:
1. A Text Book of Oscillations and Waves, M. Goswami and S. Sahoo, Scitech Publications
Any standard books on Wave and Oscillations
2. Principles of acoustics, Basudev Ghosh
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 Oscillatory Motion / Vibration
ü Translation Motion àA body moves such that the position of the body varies linearly with
time.
ü Periodic motion à Motion repeated in equal intervals of time. The interval of time is
called the time period of periodic motion.
ü Oscillations à If a body is moving back and forth repeatedly about a mean position.
ü The general terminology of “vibration” is used to describe oscillatory motion of mechanical and structural systems.

ü An oscillatory motion is always

periodic. A periodic motion may or
may not be oscillatory.
For example, the motion of planets
around the Sun is always periodic but
not oscillatory. The motion of the
pendulum of a clock is periodic as well
as oscillatory. 5
Oscillatory Motion / Vibration

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 Periodic Motion

• Periodic motion is a motion that

regularly returns to a given position
after a fixed time interval.
• A particular type of periodic motion
is “simple harmonic motion,” which
arises when the force acting on an
object is proportional to the position
of the object about some equilibrium
position.
• The motion of an object connected
to a spring is a good example.

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 Recall Hooke’s Law

• Hooke’s Law states Fs = -kx

• Fs is the restoring force.
• It is always directed toward the
equilibrium position.
• Therefore, it is always opposite the
displacement from equilibrium.
• k is the force (spring) constant.
• x is the displacement.

• What is the restoring force for a surface water wave?

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 Differential Equation of Motion
• Using F = ma for the spring, we have ma = -kx

• But recall that acceleration is the second derivative of the position:

d 2x
a= 2
dt
• So this simple force equation is an example of a differential equation,

d 2x d 2x k
m 2 = -kx or 2
= - x
dt dt m
• An object moves in simple harmonic motion whenever its acceleration is proportional to
its position and has the opposite sign to the displacement from equilibrium.

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 Analysis Model, Simple Harmonic Motion
d 2x k
• What are the units of k/m, a= 2 =- x
dt m
à k/m = a/x = [LT-2]/L = 1/T-2 = 1/s2

• They are 1/s2, which we can regard as a frequency-squared, so let’s write it as

k
w2 =
m
• Then the equation becomes a = -w 2 x
• A typical way to solve such a differential equation is to simply search for a function that
satisfies the requirement, in this case, that its second derivative yields the negative of
itself! The sine and cosine functions meet these requirements.
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 Analysis Model, Simple Harmonic Motion
• To solve the above equation we consider a trial solution, x= " !"
#! $
• Then our differential equation #" !
+ $%% = 0, becomes,

#$ !! " '% + $% = 0
• = '" !" and !
= %! & "# à
#" !#
' = ± −1 $ = ±+$

• The solution are à %& = " '(" , %% = " )'("

Superposition principle: If "1 '(! "2 ')& #*+ ,(!&-&(!&(# .+/0#,+( +1 ' /,(&)' !,11&)&(#,'/
&20'#,+(, #ℎ&( #ℎ&,) /,(&) 4+%5,('#,+( '/.+ *,// 5& #ℎ& .+/0#,+( +1 #ℎ& !,11&)&(#,'/
&20'#,+(.

• So the general solution will be the linear combination of

%& -./ %% ! = #! !! + %" !"
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 Analysis Model, Simple Harmonic Motion
• Since %& -./ %% are the solution of the differential equation, then

# ! $" " # ! $!
+ & !! =0 (1) + &" !" =0 (2)
#% ! #% !

• Now if ! = #! !! + %" !"

" = 6$ & %&# + 6! & '%&# = 6$ (cos <# + , .,( <#)+6! cos <# − , sin <#
= (6$ +6! ) cosω# − , 4! − 61 .,(C

Let D cos ∅ = (6$ +6! ) '(! D .,( ∅ = , 4! − 6$

So our final solution would be

% = 0 cos $4 cos ∅ − 0 sin $4 sin ∅ = 0 cos($4 + ∅) 12
 SHM Graphical Representation

• A solution to the differential equation is

x(t ) = A cos(wt + f )

• A,ω,: are all constants:

A = amplitude (maximum position in either positive
or negative x direction,

w = angular frequency, k
m
f = phase constant, or initial phase angle. A and f are
determined by initial conditions.
2p æ 1 w ö
T= ç f = = ÷
w è T 2p ø 13
 SHM Graphical Representation
2= 1
• Time Period: ;= • Frequency: >=
$ ;

• Phase:

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 Velocity and Acceleration in SHM
• We know the displacement %(4) is given by

! " = $ %&'()" + +)

!"
• Velocity - = = !̇ = −$) '01()" + +)
!#

! !"
• Acceleration a =
!# !
= !̈ = −$)$ '01()" + +)

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 Energy in SHM
• The spring force is a conservative force, so in a frictionless system the energy is
constant
• Kinetic energy, as usual, is
K = 12 mv2 = 12 mw 2 A2 sin 2 (wt + f ) x(t ) = A cos(wt + f )

• The spring potential energy, as usual, is

U = 12 kx2 = 12 kA2 cos2 (wt + f )

• Then the total energy is just

E = K + U = 12 kA2 (a constant)

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 Transfer of Energy in SHM

• The total energy is constant at

&
all times, and is ? = @0%
%
(proportional to the square of
the amplitude)

• Energy is continuously being

transferred between potential
energy stored in the spring,
and the kinetic energy of the
block.

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 Superposition Principle
• “Superposition Principle”. This principle states that “the resultant of two or more
harmonic displacements is simply the algebraic sum of the individual displacements”. For
example, if x1 and x2 are two individual displacements caused by two different SHMs then
the resultant displacement can be written as x = x1 + x2.
• By superposition of waves, one can explain interference, diffraction, polarization,
Brownian motion, diffusion, viscosity etc. Such superpositions are quite common in
acoustics.
• The superposition can be obtained by the following methods:
(i) Analytical method: It is based on rectilinear projection of uniform circular motion.
(ii)Graphical method: It is based on finding vector sum of individual motions with the
help of trigonometric functions.
(iii)Method using complex quantities: Individual motions are written as complex
quantities.
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 Superposition of two collinear Harmonic Oscillations

Here, we shall discuss two different cases:

(a)Superposition of two collinear harmonic oscillations having same frequencies.
(b)Superposition of two collinear harmonic oscillations having different frequencies.

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Superposition of Oscillations having equal frequencies

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Superposition of Oscillations having equal frequencies

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Superposition of Oscillations having equal frequencies

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 Superposition of Oscillations having equal frequencies

Thus we conclude that the resultant effect of two collinear SHMs of equal frequency is a
SHM of the same frequency but with modified amplitude and phase constant obtained
from equation 12 and 15. 23
Superposition of Oscillations having different frequencies

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Superposition of Oscillations having different frequencies

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Superposition of Oscillations having different frequencies

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Superposition of Oscillations having different frequencies

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 Beats

• If $% ≈ $&, then $* ≫ $! . In that case 0! and C! are almost become constant w.r.t.
time. For that equation 31 can be considered as harmonic motion of frequency $* .
• The resultant of two harmonic vibrations of nearly equal frequency produces beats.
• Maximum amplitube: cos 2$! 4 = +1 à 2$! 4 = 2D= (q=0,1,2,3,….)
or, ($%− $&)4 = 2D= à 2=(E% − E&)4 = 2D=
+ & %
or, 4 = (- = 0, (- , ,….
! )-! ) ! )-" ) (-! )-" )

• Beat period: Time interval between two comsequative maxima 4/ = 1/(E% − E&). G =
1/ 4/ = E% − E&is beat frequency.
• Minimum amplitube: (0% − 0&), when cos 2$! 4 = −1
à 2$! 4 = (2D + 1)= (q=0,1,2,3,….) à 2= E% − E& 4 = (2D + 1)= 28
 Beats
%+0& & 1 2 • 400 Hz
• or, 4 = = , , ….
%(-! )-! ) %(-! )-" ) (-! )-" ) (-! )-" )

• 401 Hz

• 402 Hz

• 404 Hz

Some applications: Tune musical instruments,

find unknown frequencies, detect harmful
gases in a mine, etc.
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