We. hav-e.

Ii: dx ~j2xdx
2.
:::) yCx) = X +c )
C € IR;

t
9 ehera...l soIl.(. b'on 0t f~ ..
~,veh

diffe.reVth'al 4UQ,hon ..

~ere, C dehOres au, arbl·tra.r~ rea.1consro.llAt emer9t'ng frOU,.{

thL it1tes ra..t,·on of ~ fUhCf(OVl 2x.

RelMOXK : since. C CCAn... re-~re~enl: O,II1Y a.t"tu tro.,ry rea..l nUIM-her-

J

OtLf' 9 ene. rc:d SO ILl. b'Oh

l
Y (X) :: X +C

cOht(A.in5 'in·fj'n; te.ly mlAtAy par-b'cu/Qr so/u.,b'ous such..

, ~ l 1
Y (X) =. X + '.1 Y := X - 7 I Y= x + J3 ere.

t a. c. ~ 0 t fhe.Wt.. re ~rese h t s a.. cu,rlle. (In t-hfs COde a.,

?a.rabo10.. ) in ~ carte SI a,u.. p/a.ru.. • {hey a-re ca.-Ii eeL

inte9rcd cU,rve s be co-u-se they axe c~Jo,Jn.uL by soluiVlJ
a. 9 t ven. cL-lferen tla..1 4UA..f,·Oh I Wh/C~ e.d-her axpl/c'" fe (y
or lL«pllcj·te~ Ihvolves fQ.,k/·i19 o.u '"111 te.Sra.J

(~)
 We. ha.v~

2. I.

:::> yCx) = X +c )
C € IRt
t
9 ehera...l .soIl.(. C,'on 0t f~ "

~,veh

c1:ffe.relll h'a..I 4uaJlon ..

~ere I C dehotes at(, ar!)("frCLf't rea.l consfo.lAt ewrer9fng frotu

thL integra.t,·on of ~ fUhCf/oVJ 2x.

RelMD.XK : stnce. C CCAn...re-~re~ent lAlI17' dr-hi fra.-ry rea.l nU/M,het"J

OtLf' 9 enercd solu. b'Oh

l
yex) : X +C

contt"A.ins 'in,fj'n; fe-It m{AtAy parc,#cu/a.r solu.,b'ous such.

2. ~ 2.
Y (X) ::: X + I .I Y := X- 7 I Y= x + .J3 efc .

ta.c.~ 0t fhe.Wt, re~reseV)ts a... Cf..t..rlle. (In t-hfs CcA.~e a.:

?a.ra bo Ia..) in rka. carte si a.u. p/a.hL • fhey a-re ca.-JI ed,
inte9r~1 cU,rve S be C(J..u.se they axe cbr~Jn.ul by SOIVfM:J
a. 9 tven. cL.;fferen rl'a..{ eiJL.Ul.h OhI Wh''c~ edller Q.xpl/c"" fe (y
or iIM.plicde7 Ihvolves fa.-k'·i19 t:lu "111 fe-BraI
 1he. .fi~u-re be 10 IN 5 how 5 an e x a.(.L(,~le Of /n feJra.,i CL<.(Ves

tor ~ d,'Hereu.J,'a.{ eljuat'OlA ~ -:::2x

'f dx
2.
Y:X
z.
y= X +' l.
y==x-/

~a.c.h. inte.groJ curve CCl-h be thought Of as a.. p-a.rf/cC.;l.{ar

50Iu.,b'ou.. o~ ~ t4 fte,feu,b'a.,l ~u~h'on. 10 gill a:, parh'cular
,

5otu-h'OIA.. We aSSt'.9Yl otu or uwre s-u ppleUteutar'j cou~'h oUS

1'0 ~ ek"fferev.h·a.J e.~uaJI·oVl. 1ktf€ add,·hona.i cowdtf'OU5

uVti9Ute{y speci'{y the va-leA. e of tk 'inf~rQ.;h au cousfau Is.

For exaw.y;le., 'u- +k CQ,Je of rk dJ..{fereuhaf Ufuahou

i! :::/}(
dx
"'VI order fo t(l(x C iu... L,rw.. 9 (tilt era, {
l.
y=x+c

(3)
 1he. .fi~u.re below shows ~n eXQ.<-Uple of l'nfeJriki cu.rveS

tor tke. d,'Herelt,r\'a.1 ~ua..tIOU.

'f
i! -::
2x
cJ.)(
2.
y=x
l.
y= X + , y==
l.
X-I

-~

fa.c.h. in te.groJ curve. CO>h be though t Of as a.. r-a.rr,·cu- Ia..r

501u,b'ou.. o~ ~ ~ f~efe(,(,t·a.,{ ~u.~h'on. 10 9~f a- parh'cular
sol{),h'olA.. we. Qss,'9Yl oru.- or tuore s-u ppieUteutar1 c;oucLt,"f; oUS

fo fiuL, IN"ffe rev. h'aJ (l,~ uaJI'oVl. 1kts-€ add,"f,ona-i cOllld, 'h 'oU5

unk9Utely speci'{y the va-leA. e Of fk 'in t~ra.-hOLe cou.sfau fs.

For exa u,q'Jle., I~ +k CQ.Je ~f t-k dJ..,[fereuf,af Ufuah OtA

i! :::
:/x:
dx

'""VI order fo tr'x C Il-t. tk 9 <tilt erai So/~ f( ~u..

l
y= X +c

(3)
E XD.lLtp-le. 2.: d Y
_: 2><
dx.
y(o):::. 2. ~ h1eo.lI\l~ y ~ 2. when x:: 0
\..-r---'

IhlhCLI cOhd~~lon

lhe cOUAb'V1aJio~ 0t a. ~tferell\h·a..1 e9u.a..b-oh QVld au ,'n,f-,'a,1 com::1,holA

is c.o..hetL {'\ltt, Ind'ia.l \la..lu,e. probleWl. (a.bbre.v(ateJ IVP). ror dt'tfereHho.{
~lLQ.,h·ou.s i"Vlvolvl'V\~ hi9her derr~vaJ'-ves Two i or '1iOre cousfra/nfs tnay
be fnvoll/e.d,~ ff a-/I ooL.ts(ra,"nts axe grveh. aJ. -fiuL SCtl.L<e va.(ue. or
the iVlol~peV\delA.t vo..ria.bie.) fheh +he rerm IVP t,f,'{{ apfl,es. I:f,·
however} tkcL coltsYra.futs a-re given. cL.:t'fereVlt va-Iu.es of H1.L
eLt
iVlJepell\ ae(,t~ va.rl-a.ble. J ~ ferfM. boundary va.Jue ~",ob'eU<. (8 VP)
*' IS u.sed '-11 steacL

thfs is alA. I VP
YCO) :: I dY'/= 5
)
dx )(=0

z
dY+2dY_3Y=o
dx'l. dx j+hi5 is a..1>VP
YCo):= f ) J y 1 = 4
d>< )(=1
 l'0 .solve 0\11\ I VP of Q, 'BVP, we f,rs t f,'Vtd ~ gen~ ra..1 solu..t,.on...
o{ ~ <:L:ffereV\tia..1 e9u.a.t(on.. oVl4 then, derer~11AL ~ vaJueCs)

0\ rkR.. a..rb\t'ro..ry COt4..Sto.lAt(5) frou-L thJL 9lven, coL{srr~inrs.

E xo.w.r-1e.. 4 Solve the. I VP

dY :: 2:>< ) yeo) ~2.

dx.

~
y =. X +C

{he. cOl.tsfrniV\t sa.ys tbaJ Y Ta,t,<es f-h.e. va,{ue 2 whe1l1 .(-=::.0

Hence
•
z l
Y (0) -;Z. .::) [X + c] == 2. 9 O·-/- c:2. ~ C::: 2.
x-::o

l
Y (x) ::. X +Z

E XlAl.U.p-le. 5 : Co~sl-der ~ cLt:fferet<. ha.1 ~u.a.. t,·OL-\,

.2-
il • 2 d Y - 3 Y= 0 (~)
dx1. dx

a)Venfy fhar yCX):: C

,
eX+c 2
e.3X (where C o.V1JC
I 2.
are

a.rbl'trary Ci)c..lstauts) rs a. soluh'ou ot (}f)

b) F'l1d e'l Cz su..cL. ftza.f

yea) ~ I I c1 Y/ :: 5
dx ><:0
(5)
Sokol h"olA a) f 0 ve rj fy tha. r y (X) :: C, eX 'I- c2. e.3x
Fs a.. sol u r, '0 LA 0( af)

we h.a.lJe 1-0 st<..hsh· hoA,re. tl-tL 9IVeu e)(pres~(()ft'L, for Y,

Its f(rst auJ seecr.cJ der-,"vaJ,'ve ilAto ~ d;;f(ereuh'tJ
~lULhou.

-[ Q..KiV\S j 11\ r0 aewu.h t t~a.+

dY
_:: C, e -
x
3 C2 e.
-3><

dx
2 X -3X
dY~ce
--- ,
f-Dce
1 l
dxt
we veri ty H1~t

d?'y ~ 2 dY _ 3Y :: c e}(of- ~c
d Xl dX I 2.
e 3X
f- 2 (c ex... 3 C
, l.
e3X
) -3(c ex' + c e.~)
' 2.

)( . )( x -3x -3>< -3X

: c,e + 2c,e -3ceI +9ce2. - 6ce
2.-
-3c 2 e

b) f 0 sa.rl"sty fhe cowol,"t,·ous

y (0) =: I
) dx
dY I ~5
)(-='0

-l-he COlA s to.u fs c, avJ c2. ~u.st b~ chosen 50 tha.t

Y (0) =- I:::) [XCI e 1- C e.-~X] :: I :::;> c + C = I
2 >(-=0 ' l
 dx.
I
-dY = t:J~
c ~ [XC, e - 3C2e-3Xj
)(=0
=. 5 ~ C,-3C
z = 5
)(=0

1)etl : {he. orde.r at a. ~fferent-;Ovl e1ua.f.(~Oh, IS t~ orde.r ot fkt.

high.est derivatiVe. fhaJ a.ppeo..rs in, ~ 'il(,Q,ct'OrL.

(7)
Rew.OXK: Note.. tka-t tk<t generaJ solu t,.on..
l.
y (X) :: X t- C

0t ~ (st - order d,·.f.(. e4'

d Y ::: 2x
dx
cOhfa.ins one a.,rl:)j' tr-ary coustaut c. 1he 9 enera.1 soluholA
x -3><
Y Cx:) : C
,
e + C
2
e.
o t th e. z"d - order rJ...W ~.
z.
li + 2. dY _ 3 y=:o
dx2.. dx

cOlltfai Vl5 two cttbitra..rvr cOl-{sfo.uts c, QtA.d C2.' fh,s phehou.teuo'-i

;S hot coi v\Cl oIevd:~1 ! in WlOst cases., +he MuiM. ber 0t
afbitrar-~ cOlAsftAlArS tfA I-~ selAera.,{ soluh'ou of- a... tM.{{erettr,t
~U4.tt'OlA is the S"QlMe as f~ otder- of ~ ~ua.h'o/ll..

2
d Y ::. X + co.sx
dxL
~ sf J
rirst of a..11, we rotA rewr,' te +kL a..bove. ~. a.s a... I - oroer

cL:ff. eq. by mealAS 0t +~e subsh'ru(,'olA

J(x) ~ slY 9 d~:: ~ (dY)= dJ

d>< d XL dx dx dx

(8)
 d 0" :: x + cos >(
dx
by 111\ teBra-ci ~ both 51'des auol~lvul

seX) :: ((Xi-cosx) dx :: ~ + sinx TC

J ~'
Reco..l\i V\~ H\Jl 1M~lAilAj o..tto..checL to tktL fUNJct,'oLt SCx.) I
we re.oJ l'be. f1Aa.r tke. a-bove. ~u.a.. -h'ot.<.. 1-5 a., (S!order ecr.
~or y ()(J ) M~

dY:: x/..+~iytx+c,
dx .z
We c.o.lA. I'U te.sraJe. bofh $ ,-des 1-0 ob ta..,-I-t,

Y<X) < S (~f-Si'nx + c,)dx "{ - COSx + C;X + C2.

where (, a~ hi ~ra.rca-- cousro. '-t fs. Nofe tiA.o.J +here

Cz. are ar
axe.. two a.rbi fra.ry cousf~11 fs I~ .~ get1era} solu it'D,.,.. as rt I

;s typ,-ca,t'1 expected., por a.. 2tt~ order eqlA.a-t,'ow.

EXO-IM.r.le. g: For the [oltowiVlJ IVP F,tuJ +he soluh'o~ va.I,d for X>o

y(/): 7) d Y/ ::::37 ) d1.y 1=73

dx clxl.
X=t x~,

(~)
?OlutlOCA.; 1he. gene.ra..1 ~olu.holA of Q. 3rJ_ order ci<;ff· e'lh. tYPi'c.a..tly cordaltiS
t\,re,e a.rbitro.ry GO\..tsro.lI\ts , !;o (Al.(. tvp t~volvl'~ a 3rd_ order- olIff· cUfK.

wd\ ~e,c..es.sardy ho.ve 3 c.ou.srra.i",{- ~u.a..h'ous, As In. (lxafM.ple'

I O\t.UI 7 I t~ 9 (vel.\. tL: t f . ~. ;s 0 f tkrL forlM

ta
~ Y :: {ex)
dxn
where. t~ (eft h.aLA..dsfde deuore.-stk n-tit JertvaJive. of ~
tUlAcholl\ y. fhese cL..:fterelA.h-a..l e~ua.h·ous o.re fic.L ea.sl'eof fo
.solve. I 51l.l('~ o...\l 'fiv..ey r~uif'e. a.re h. su(.cessl've lv..te..8ra.},·o\l1~.

ReUAeiM.b~r ~aJ r~e. IS~_orcJet ~lr ~h. Il-t EXQ.UA.p/e I was

5olvQ.d WI't~ OLAe. iltt ~c:9raJfou.J .aLtd fLu- 2tl~ order ciNff. Ufl.<.. (I.(,.,

EXQULple. 7 Wo.5 solved wilt-. 2. 1·"tr~raJ(oUJ. The, .3r{Of'Jer

ok·~~.eq'-1.. 9,'vetA hQre. wdl be sollled wd'~ :3 sc:<.c.e-ess I've
ilA tegro-h'o\l1,s

,st IIIl regra- h'ol4 9 dy' = }(105& -0/ +6)

d)(2.. x3
dX::: /05- ~;1..+
-3
J,--
Xl
+ 6x .,.C
I

3;.;
:: 70 xl. + 1. + 6x + C,
x2.·
1a.. k11A8 ilA. fo acc..oUM J. tka.-f d y
~

dxl.
I: 73
x::;

70 t I +G+c ,
:=73 ~ c:=-
I
4

Qilld

(to)
~ dY : ((701 ft
t It.-1-6)(- 'I)dX
clx Y x
Sit l.
~ 70·~x
5
- yX ~3x-4x+c
2.

!;h l
::: 2 g)( - Y.' + 3X - If)( +c
X l

t\lAd we f"lI\d.
2 8 -I + 3 - 4 + Cz. :: 37 =) C ::"
2

1hu,$, we bve.

,dY ::: 2.g x?h.. - !t + 3/- 4 X + II

dx x

7/2 3 2.
- 2.8. £;. X - In. X ~ X - 2x + II x ~ c
7 3
7
:::. g x /2. _ In x + x3 - 2/ +- II x +(
3

c w,lI be deJe.rlMiV\R.d by tkt.. CiJtMJ,'h'o~

:5

Y(I)~7

fA L-td we, 9 et

8- '0) + 1- 2 + II t C:s ~ 7 ~ (3=-1/

 1hus ~e 5olu-tIOIA 0\ ~ or'gllA.a.\ froblelk\ ;s
I

y(x):; 8)(
3
ex - ,
hx +
3 2.
X - 2X +ttx -II

Rew.axL<: a. ,few fec.hnica...l notes a,.bOl"c..t tkl. pre II'''OUS exaUkr{e

1-) "(he 9iveV\. ~f{erelAt'a.J ~. ~aA<es seLAse. OlA Iy for x> 0 SIUe-e.

I) ~ terUA ~ re4~res tb~ ..X :+ 0

x3
2) II

Qv.d bol-k r~~re.~eMh WI'U he sa..f,'s f,'eJ J'f x>o. l.felllGe. we

so..y ~t- t~ ,dOIM~"t.\ Of f-k ~'ff. eqlil. ($ x>o, 1tu, JOIM.oJ""
or tl cLt·ff. ~. (s fkt. set of va,/ues ot ~ var/~a"(e X where.
}h.i. e<t(,(A.h'ou is va.ltc:L, Always he awa.re of. fkR., dOlMo..,"'" 01
fkL ~L<Ah'otA.

1f) Althou.gk tkR., 'lAfe9ra.1 ot ~ is u.sua.lIy wnHet.-\ a.s ,j",/xi/ #te

d.bsolLAfe va.lut. SI'Sh. is ;-wf needeJ here IS'~te ft.u2., aOlM.eu..4

o t tkt. ~ lU2h' OlA ,- S x> 0 I a ud t K ( :::X. {o r x ~ 0 •

]f) COlA rro.s t the ~e ~ods used fo evo,luCl te. tl...tL arb/frar'Y COC-<S fo-tA.rs
I~ eX<AUAr/fIJ 4 aud 5 a l,(. d /1.{ exae..t..tr'e<J 7 a~ 8'. Tt.<. exaCM.p{es (.;

~1Md 5 we" eva.I(M'.(.Je.-d +ke. COUS~o.Ur5 of t't.t regro..f,oVl, a (fer we.

ob tcu'VLe.d ~ exatupl es 7 aud 3
geVlera.-( solu:hok, (tvh.erectJ IV{,
the co~sfa.llds were evo.lufStted.. oh.Q, a.t: a.. tl'/AILt.. as fhe, so/UfiO/ll,
pro~vemeJ . 'Botit. WtLfkods are ett~-vo.leu t ~ €aCt... parh 'C(..l(ar
rrobtelAA (o.u.d you..r p('ete~evt~~ wdl sug~esf WhlclA +0 u.se..
(12)
 iypica..ll, . you. are. 9iven. a. ~.ft·~. aucl aSl.<d to [,'hcL its
9Q.hera-1 5ok~,tfolll.. Howe-vert Ir Ml'gl1r kppelA. J.kur a.. cerrc~t1'1Il.

~lAlAch·olA. is siveh, a~ au expressl"ou for its cJetl'",i~ ol,[fe:

reil\ h"o.l eql..ULb'olA. [s des \recL ,

txolMp-le.. q: Find the ~ ttt.re.Vlr,·a-1 e4u,a.hol.<. 5a..h·sft"eJ. hy fk

.fo.~dy o{ c\'rcles x\ y'l.: c?") where. c is alA o.rbd'r"6\~
Cou S r~lA ~

501u.h'0L1 : d,'ffereillt;dh'lI\,3 hott, sides of the. 9, x\y~c2. w,'nl re5fu}

to ~ glve,s

2x + 2 Y d Y :: 0 ~ x + y d Y :::0 9 .J Y :: _ XI
dx dx dx Y

1hls dNft. e.q. COdA a..1~o be expre~$eJ., ill\ CAlA.otl-tet forwJ one.
tho..J wd\ o.rl5.e. 9U,,'te. ofte.V1. 'By cro~s Wtu Ih·ply,l.i~

dY :: - !i (I)
dx Y
We 9/l,t:
ydy::- xax
whfc..!A i~ the"" V1orwct-lly wr,'He.Vl INlt~ baHt Ghffereillha.,ls (title
d)( OIlt\d thL dy) t09 e,the r 011\. O!.1L ~ ('d.e..

xax +- Y dy ::: 0 (2.)

Either (I) 01" (2) wou...ld he QI.(, ucce.pra.ble.. WdY Of wr,'f,'14o

o
the ok:~f. Uj" tltaJ de{ih€.s lite- S,'Ve.V\ fuu.u"lr of cl'rcles,

( 13)
 iV\ qell\era..l J It is ~t Always ~oss i ble. to express a.. solu hOh o( (J. tifft· ur·
llA ~e ~orlM

Y' -::. S'OlMe. fu.1A ct\ alA 0t X

reU. h'a.A
f L
)0 Me \1iM e,S w heilt 0.
J .
aN
rr
ttv
D pfJ
-I'
15.solved )
fue sol~~(ol-( ,'£ vuos ~
haJlJ..ro..,lly e)(rre~sed lNl'th y's (+he depelltdeu.f va-na.hie.) alA hon,
sroles Ot rkR.. ~u..o.holA. I as for Q.xo.UAple "101

y~ In \
y
Suc,k Q. soil-<. b'oL\. is ea.-llec::L 0.<.<. 1~lN1pll'{" l solu.hof.,\ I as opposed, to

0.11\ ~l,'c, t sOI~r'Oh I wt-I/'d-t has 'I ojl by ifselF Or) one Side. of
rklt ~(Ml.hol" ~lA.d a.. tUlI\cho~ of x OL.tly ol.t fhe NBht as (tIl,

z.
y (x) = X +~

for exe). Lu.flQ,. 'tLc.\ pll'''l' t so/c.c.,hou s a.,re. per-Fectly ltccepfo..hle (Iii( so~
ca s e,s, nLC(w)Li~~.) 0.5 io VI9 61.S tkt equaJ,OI,( e.cJu. Qll( d e.~ ~ y
£AS a. ttAlA c b'o If\. 0 t x (even t 'f lAt.<.. ex p la'~'l- {orUtulo.. (or tiA I'S
fUII\c,h'otA. is rw~ or COdll1-1-0r he foutMi).

EX(ll.Ur.\e 10 ; Veri fy +ha-t 'rhe ~.

y:: In. x
y

js all1. ,·lIIItpliC.I'f solu-~(ou ot ~ IVP

yc1X-X(Ytl)dy:O (*)
yee) -= I