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Objectives
Principle o f controlled rectification.
Single phase and 3 phase converters.
Half wave and full wave converters.
Bridge converters -------- semicoi
semiconverter
* full bridge converter
Resistive, inductive and motor (RLE) loads on converters.
Continuous and discontinuous output current operation and its effects.
Inverting operation (power flow from load to source) in case o f full converters.
Effects o f feedback diode and freewheeling operation.
Harmonic analysis o f converters.
3.1 Introduction
(3-1)
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Power Devices and Machines 3 -2 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
The triggering angle ' a of the devices is controlled by the control circuit.
The input to the controlled rectifier is normally AC mains. The output of the
controlled rectifier is adjustable DC voltage. Hence the power transferred across
the load is regulated.
Applications :
The controlled rectifiers are used in battery chargers, DC drives, DC power supplies
etc. The controlled rectifiers can be single phase or three phase depending upon the load
power requirement.
Fig. 3.1.2
Forced com m u tation : It requires external components to store energy and it is
used to apply reverse voltage across the SCR or reduce anode current below
holding current of the SCR to turn it off.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 -3 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
C u rren t com m u tation : The SCR is turned off by reducing its anode current
below holding current.
V oltage com m u tation : The SCR is turned off by applying large reverse voltage
across it.
P rinciple o f lin e com m u tation
The natural commutation does not need any external components. It uses supply
(mains) voltage for turning off the SCR. Hence it is also called as line commutation.
Explanation
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
I:::::::::::::::::;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;:;::::-.;:
Hence the shape of the output current is same as output voltage. Observe that the
output current is basically SCR current. At 'rf the supply voltage is zero. Hence current
through SCR becomes zero. Therefore the SCR turns off. The supply voltage is then
negative. This voltage appears across the SCRs and it does not conduct. Thus natural
commutation takes place without any external components. Here note that natural
commutation takes place only when the supply voltage is AC. Thus the controlled
rectifiers use natural commutation.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 -5 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
4. No power loss takes place during commutation Power loss takes place in commutating
components.
5. SCR turns off due to negative supply voltage. SCR can be turned-off due to voltage and
current both.
6. Cost of the commutation circuit is nil. Cost of the commutation circuit is significant.
Table 3.1.1 Natural and forced commutation
The principle of phase controlled operation can be explained with the help of half
wave controlled rectifier shown in Fig. 3.2.1. The secondary of the transformer is connected
to resistive load through thyristor or SCR Ty The primary of the transformer is connected
to the mains supply. In the positive cycle
of the supply, Tj is forward biased. T{ is
triggered at an angle a. This is also called
as triggering or firing delay angle. Tj
conducts and secondary (i.e. supply)
voltage is applied to the load. Current i0
starts flowing through the load. The
output current and voltage waveforms are
shown in Fie. 3.2.2.
Fig. 3.2.1 Half wave controlled rectifier with
R-load.
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Power Devices and Machines 3-6 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Hence the shape of output current waveform is same as output voltage waveform. At
n supply voltage drops to zero. Hence current i0 flowing through 7^ becomes zero and it
turns off. In the negative half cycle of the supply Tj is reverse biased and it does not
conduct. There is only one pulsve of V0 during one cycle of the supply. Hence ripple
frequency of the output voltage is,
Mathematical analysis
1 T
Vo(av) = f ! vc M dot
0
The period of one pulse of v0 (cot) can be considered as T = 2 n. And v0 (cot) =Vm sin cot
from a to jr. For rest of the period v0 (cof) = 0. Hence above equation can be written as,
1 71
V o (a v ) 7T f Vm sin cot du>t
2n J
... (3.2.1)
V U )
o(a v ) R
Thus the output average voltage and power delivered by the controlled rectifier can be
controlled by phase control (i.e. a). The phase control in converters means to control the
delay (or triggering) angle a.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 -8 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
When the SCR is triggered, the supply voltage appears across load. We normally
neglect small voltage drop in SCR. Hence v0 =vs when SCR is conducting. This is shown
in Fig. 3.2.4(c). Observe that output voltage is same as supply voltage after a. Because of
the RL load, output current starts increasing slowly from zero. The shape of i0 depends
upon values of R and L. At n , the supply voltage becomes zero and i0 is maximum. Due
to negative supply voltage after n, SCR tries to turn-off. But energy stored in the load
inductance generates the voltage L - ~ . This induced voltage forward biases the SCR and
maintains it in conduction. This is shown in Fig. 3.2.5. The basic property of inductance is
that it opposes change in current. At n , the current i0 is maximum. As SCR tries to
turn-off due to negative supply voltage, the output current i0 tries to go to zero. Such
change in i0 is opposed by load inductance. Hence the energy stored in an inductance tries
to maintain i0. To maintain the flow of i0, inductance generates the voltage with
polarity as shown in Fig. 3.2.5. This voltage is higher than negative supply voltage. Hence
Tj is forward biased and it remains in conduction. The output current and supply current
Power Devices and Machines 3 -9 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
> Example 3.2.1 : Derive an expression fo r average value o f output voltage fo r 1 <j) half
wave controlled rectifier with RL load.
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Power Devices and Machines 3-10 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
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Power Devices and Machines 3-11 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
1. Load energy is utilized in load itself through Load energy is feedback to the source
freewheeling diodes. through feedback diodes.
2. Freewheeling diodes have to carry full load Feedback diodes carry full load current some
current. times.
Solution : Fig. 3.2.7(c) shows the output voltage waveform. From this we can write,
^ [ coscot]
Here note that average output voltage is same as that of resistive load given by
equation 3.2.1. This is because output voltage waveforms are same in both the cases.
Example 3.2.3 : A single phase half wave controlled rectifier is used to supply power to
10 Q load from 230 V, 50 Hz supply at a firing angle o f 30. Calculate - i) Average output
voltage ii) Effective output voltage Hi) Average load current.
a = 30 =
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Power Devices and Machines 3-13 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
The load is resistive. For this load V0tav\ is given by equation 3.2.1 as
V.,
Vo (av ) = ^ - ( 1 + c o s c x )
1 71
22,042 ( , k
= ^ r [ 1+cos6
= 96.6 V
1 *
V.o(rms) J v* sin 2 cof dcot
Vmi f 1 -c o s 2 (0 /
2n J -------2-------di0t
/V
V,m
J dcot- J cos 2 ( 0 1 dcot
4 71
n
\Vm sin 2wf" \
1I k a - 2 a
I . J
V. a sin 2 a
1 + ... (3.2.5)
71 271
This is an expression for effective rms value of half wave controlled rectifier. Putting
values in above equation,
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Power Devices and Machines 3 -1 4 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
160.27 V
_ K(av)
*0(00) ' R
Example 3.2.4 : A single phase half wave converter is operated from a 120 V, 50 Hz
supply and the load resistance R = 10 Q. If the average output voltage is 25 % o f the
maximum possible average output voltage calculate -
i) Delay angle a
ii) The rms and average output currents
Hi) The rms and average thyristor currents
iv) The input pow er factor.
Solution : Given data
It is given that the average output voltage is 25 % of its maximum valve, i.e.,
V o (a v ) = 25 % o f V o (a v )m a x
= 0.25 x 54 = 13.5 V
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Power Devices and Machines 3-15 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
The rms value of output voltage is given by equation 3.2.5 for half wave converter, i.e.,
.1 a + sin2a
Vo(rms)
K 2 k
= 37.718 V
^o(rms)
o(rms) R
37718
3.77 A
10
The waveforms of half wave converter are given in Fig. 3.2.2. There is only one
thyristor and output current flows through this thyristor. Hence thyristor current is same
as output current. Therefore rms and average valves of thyristor current will be same as
these of output current, i.e.,
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Power Devices and Machines 3-16 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Since the load is resistive, the rms value of load current will be same as rms value of
supply current. Note that the same current flows in supply and load, i.e.,
^s(rms) = ^o(rms) = 3 .7 7 A
The total supply power will be,
Total supply power = Vs(rms) Is(rms)
= 120 x 3.77 = 452.4 VA
The active load power will be,
V 2
Vo(av)
Active load power =
K
(13.5)'
18.225
10
Active load power
Power factor =
Total supply power
18.225
0.04 (lagging)
452.4
> Example 3.2.5 : For a single phase half wave converter having resistive load o f 'R ' and
the delay angle o f , determine
o(av)
f e ( l + c o s f ) = 0.159
a sin 2 a /o Sm
V.o(rms) 1 + -----
2 71 2 7t K 2 71
= 0.353 VL
Vo(rm$) _ 0. 353 V
o(nns) ~R R
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Power Devices and Machines 3-17 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
P(tc ^o(av)
Pac Vo(rms) I o(rm$)
= 0.2028 or 20.28 %
V,o(rms)
FF
V,o(av)
RF = -J fF 2 - 1 = y j{ 2 .2 2 ) 2 - 1 = 1.982
Peak value of supply voltage appears across SCR in negative half cycle. Hence
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Power Devices and Machines 3-18 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Let us consider the working of 1<|> semiconverter having resistive load. In the positive
half cycle of the supply, SCR Tj and diode D2 are forward biased. SCR Tj is triggered at
firing angle a. Current flows through the load. The equivalent circuit is shown below.
Fig. 3.3.2 Conduction o f 7^ and D 1 in positive half cycle of the supply. Dotted line
shows path of current flow
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Power Devices and Machines 3-19 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Fig. 3.3.3 shows the waveforms of this circuit. The waveform of V0 is same as supply
voltage Vs , when Tj -D ? conducts. Since the load is resistive, the output current waveform
is same as voltage waveform. This is because,
Thus amplitude of V0 is only reduced by the factor 'R' to give i0. But the shape of the
current waveform does not change. In the Fig. 3.3.2 observe that iT1 is the SCR Tj current,
and is is the supply current. Basically i0, iT1 and is is the same current. Hence,
These currents are in the same direction and flow in the same loop. The waveforms of
these currents are also shown in Fig. 3.3.3. See Fig. 3.3.3 on previous page.
SCR Tj and diode D j conduct till n, at 7i supply voltage is zero. Hence current through
SCR Tx drops to zero. Hence tums-off. After ti , the supply voltage is negative and Tx is
reverse biased. Hence the output voltage V0 is also zero.
At rc+a, SCR T2 is triggered. It starts conducting, since it is forward biased because of
negative cycle of the supply. The current i0 flows through load, T2 and D2. Such
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.3.4.
From the above equivalent circuit observe that positive of Vs is connected to positive
of V0. Hence V0 remains positive even if supply polarity (i.e. negative cycle) is reversed.
Hence we can write,
V0 = ...(3.3.3)
V V
and i0 = = ...(3.3.4)
In Fig. 3.3.4 observe that current through T2 flows in the same direction as i0. Hence
i T2 Similarly i0 and is is the same current, but their directions are opposite as shown
in Fig. 3.3.4. Hence,
= - *0
The waveforms of all the currents and voltages are shown in Fig. 3.3.3. At I n , the
supply voltage is zero. Hence T2 turns off. After 2 n T2 is reverse biased. Then Tj is
triggered again at 2n + a and the complete cycle repeats.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 21 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Example 3.3.1 : For the 1<|) semiconverter having resistive load o f 'R' determine the
following :
i) Average output voltage V0^av^
ii) RMS output voltage V0(rms)
0
Observe the waveform of output voltage in Fig. 3.3.3. It has a period n. Hence above
equation can be written as,
a
In the above equation V0 (cof) = Vm sin cot from a to n . Solving the above integration
we get,
... (3.3.5)
(rms)
... (3.3.6)
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Power Devices and Machines 3-22 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Normally the semiconverters are used to drive the DC motors. These motors are
basically inductive (R-L) load. Hence it is necessary to consider the working of
semiconverter with R-L load also. With the inductive load, the three modes are possible :
i) Continuous load current
ii) Discontinuous load current
iii) Continuous and ripple free current for large inductive load.
In this mode, the current flows continuously in the load because of inductive effect.
The waveforms of load current and load voltage are shown in Fig. 3.3.5. In these
waveforms observe that SCR T. and diode Dj conducts from a to it. Since the load is
inductive current keeps on increasing (saturating) and it is maximum at k . At n, even
though the supply voltage is zero, current doesnot go to zero. This is because load
inductance opposes this sudden change of current. The load inductance generates a large
voltage so as to maintain load current. This current flows through T, and D2 . The
equivalent circuit of this operation is shown in Fig. 3.3.6. The SCR Tj conducts even after
n , since it is forward biased due to voltage induced in the load inductance i.e. L . Diode
D2 is also forward biased due to this voltage. Hence current does not flow through supply
i.e. is when freewheeling action takes place. Thus the energy stored in the load inductance
is fedback to load itself in freewheeling action.
SCR T2 is triggered at rc+a and the output current starts increasing. Since the current
i0 is continuous, it is called continuous current mode of semiconverter. The similar
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 23 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
operation takes place when T2 and D2 conducts in negative half cycle of the supply.
Fig. 3.3.5 shows supply current (/..), freewheeling current and other waveforms for
inductive load. Note that the output voltage waveform remains same. If there is
freewheeling diode in semiconverter, then freewheeling current flows through this diode.
Power Devices and Machines 3-24 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
^ D2|___j ^ D1
Compare the output voltage waveforms of Fig. 3.3.3 (resistive load) and Fig. 3.3.5
(inductive load). The voltage waveforms are same. Hence average and RMS values of
output voltage are also same. i.e. for inductive load,
V,
From equation 3.3.5 V.o(av) + COS ) ... (3.3.7)
r
l
From equation 3.3.6 V - 1\Vm2 7 i-a + i sin 2 a ... (3.3.8)
o(rms) 1 2 7l
to zero. The load inductance induces a large voltage L to maintain current in the same
direction. Hence i0 continuous to flow and it goes to zero at p. Since next SCR T2 is
triggered at 7i+a (See Fig. 3.3.7), output current is discontinuous. Freewheeling takes place
from 7i to p. The freewheeling current flows through Tj and D2- Similar operation repeats
in next half cycle.
Observe that the voltage waveform remains same in discontinuous mode also. Hence
^o(av) anc* ^o(kms) are same as tf*at o f resistive load.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 25 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
3.3.3.3 Continuous and Ripple Free Current for Large Inductive Load
As the load inductance increases, the ripple in i0 reduces. When the load inductance is
very large, the ripple in i0 will be negligible. And i0 can be treated as continuous and
ripple free. Fig. 3.3.8 shows the waveforms of Ity semiconverter for large inductive load.
The load current is continuous and ripple free. Observe that the output voltage waveform
is same as resistive load. But the current waveforms are different.
The output current is constant DC of amplitude I^ avy The SCRs conduct for n radians.
Hence SCR current is square wave. The supply current has the amplitudes of i ^ avy The
supply current is zero whenever freewheeling action takes place.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 26 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Fig. 3.3.8 Waveforms of 1<J> semi converter for highly inductive load
Example 3.3.2 : Derive an expression for output current for RLE load driven by 2<j>
semiconverter. Assume continuous conduction.
Solution : Fig. 3.3.9 shows the circuit diagram of 1 <J> semiconverter for RLE load.
(Fig. 3.3.9 see on next page).
Normally, the RLE load is motor load. L is the inductance of the motor and R is the
resistance of the inductance. E is an induced emf in the motor. The waveforms of this
circuit will be similar to those shown in Fig. 3.3.5. From a to n , T|- D 1 conducts and
Power Devices and Machines 3-27 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
vs = Vm sin
supply voltage vs is applied to the load. Hence an equivalent circuit will be as shown
below :
Vm sin cot 0
This equation can be solved using laplace transform. The solution is,
Here Z = 2 (toil)2
e -
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Power Devices and Machines 3-28 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
For
ji to n + a
This equation can be solved using laplace transform. The solution is,
E
io2( >t) = 1 n (3.3.10)
o2 R (l~ e L)
Here iQ2 (0) is the initial current at cof = n . In the waveforms of Fig. 3.3.10 and
Fig. 3.3.11 observe that,
... (3.3.11)
and /oj(0)=/o2(coi=a)
Putting the above two conditions in equation 3.3.9 and 3.3.10 we can get the initial
values. Then two currents /ol(cof) and io2((ot) are separately expressed for semiconverter.
Example 3.3.3 : For a h j> half bridge converter having highly inductive load, derive the
follozving :
i) Fourier series for supply current
ii) RMS value o f nth harmonic o f supply current.
iii) Fundamental component o f supply current
iv) RMS value o f supply current. |Nov.-2007, 8 M arks; May-2008, May-2006, 6 Marksl
and = tan -1 n
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 29 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
2n:
J is (iot) cosncof ifcof
2k
2n
_ 2_
| l <n<w) cosnmt dwt+ | (-/ ^ Jc o s M w f rfco/
2n
2n
J coswof rfcof- J COSH(Ot d(Ot
The above equation shows that an is zero for even harmonics of supply current.
bn is given as,
~t
j j 's(w0 sin/7cof d o t
o
Putting values of T = 2n and /s (cof) from supply current waveform of Fig. 3.3.8,
2n
_2_
2 k \ ! c(av) sin n(0t d(ot + J ) sin TUot do)t
n+ a
In
o(av)
| sin n o t d o t - J sin n o t d o t
<t<w)
(1 + COS77a) (1 - COS/171)
7171
21
(1 + cos 77a) for 77 = 1, 3,5, (3.3.13)
tlK
0 for 77= 2 ,4 ,6 ,,
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Power Devices and Machines 3-30 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
The above equation shows that bn is zero for even harmonics of supply current.
Hence cn = +b%
21 o(av) .
21 o(av)
sm n a (1 + cosna)
nn nn
4 l 0(av) na
------ cos for n = 1, 3, 5, ... (3.3.14)
nn 2
This equation gives peak value of nth harmonic of supply current. And <j> can be
calculated as,
<fci = ta n ~ ' r
un
-21 c{av) .
sm na
tan nn
21 c(av)
(1 + cosna)
nn
= -ta n
na
... (3.3.15)
~2
Observe the supply current waveform of Fig. 3.3.8. It has symmetric positive and
negative half cycles. Hence its average value is zero. This can also be verified
mathematically as follows.
T
I (av) is ((ot)d(ot
_1_
s (av) 2n o(av) dwt
n 2n
o(av)
J dcot - J dcot
2n
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 31 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
o(<rc>)
[7i + a -2 jc-(7 c+ a ))
271
*9 l o(av) _ n a _ , 0 c
= ----- ------ cos / n =1,3,5 ...(3.3.17)
h i = 0 .9 1 ^ cos | ...(3.3.18)
T
s(rms)
With T = 2 k and putting for is (cof) from supply current waveform of Fig. 3.3.8,
s(rms) 2 71 J *$*** + J
rr+a
( U a v ) ) 2 ^
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Power Devices and Machines 3-32 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
The above equation shows that rms value of supply current depends on a.
)>* Example 3.3.4 : For a 1$ half controlled converter having highly inductive load, derive the
followiitg :
i) Displacement factor (DF) ii) Supply power factor (PF)
iii) Harmonic factor (HF) iv) Current distortion factor (CDF)
PF = sl cosfy
s(rms)
Putting the values of /sl (equation 3.3.18), /^rws) (equation 3.3.19) from previous
example and 4>1 above we get,
... (3.3.21)
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 33 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
SI o(av) 2
^ COS 2
H F=
.. (3.3.22)
8 cos
2V2 / d a v ) a
--------- COS
71 2
In - a
c{av) \ n
2V2 COS^
...(3.3.23)
yjn(n-a)
)) Example 3.3.5 : For a 1 4> half controlled bridge having continuous and ripple free
current, obtain, i) Active power and ii) Reactive power.
2 -Jll a
Vs' COS cos I -
^ Vs Jo(av) 2a
2cos 2
(1 + cos a) (3.3.24)
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Power Devices and Machines 3-34 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
^reactive ~ Vs h i s*n ^1
v - .
Vs ---------------cos sin
H -? )
& Vs ^o(av) . a a
= -------------------2 sin co s
71 2 2
Comments
* Example 3.3.6 : Single phase semiconverter is operated from 120 V, 60 Hz supply. The
load current with an average value o f In is continuous with negligible ripple content. Turns
ratio o f transformer is unity. The delay angle a=-^. Calculate-
Vs = 120 V
71
= 3
HF =
8o cos 2 -aj
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Power Devices and Machines 3-35 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
HF
8 cos'
= 0.3108 or 31.08 %
DF = co s^
7t/3^
= cos
0.866
PF I 8 2 a
j ^ a ) COS 2
8 2 (n/3
cos
7t 71-
= 0.827 lagging
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.3.12 Single phase controlled rectifier
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Power Devices and Machines 3-36 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Fig. 3.3.13 shows the waveforms of half bridge converter given in Fig. 3.3.12. These
waveforms are shown for resistive load and a = Observe that the output current
Suppty
voltage
Firing p u lses
of T .
----
Firing p u lses
otTj
Output
current
SC R T, &
d iode D,
current
~~ r
sc r t 2&
d io d e D2
curren t
irtt
Since the above output voltage is same as that of single phase semiconverter, the rms
and average values of output voltage will be,
VL
o(av) (1 + cos a)
Vc{rms) rt - a + - sin 2a
2n
With the similar circuit diagram of Fig. 3.3.12 but for highly inductive load, the
operation of asymmetrical converter will be as follows.
SCR Tj is triggered in this mode. Hence load current flows through T^DV The
waveforms are shown in Fig. 3.3.14. (See Fig. 3.3.14 on next page).
In this mode, the supply voltage becomes zero at n. Hence Tj is no more forward
biased. But due to highly inductive load, the constant current is maintained to flow. This
load current flows through D^ - D2. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.3.14. Thus the
freewheeling action takes place through D j - 0 2 and supply current as well as output
voltage are zero.
SCR T2 is triggered at 7i+a. Since T2 is more forward biased due to supply voltage, it
starts conducting. The load current now flows through T2 -D 2. The equivalent circuits - III
in Fig. 3.3.14 shows the current flow.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 38 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
r,,n zf z; zf z;:
s~
t t f i
Equivalent Circuit - Equivalent Circuit - II Equivalent Circuit - III Equivalent Circuit - IV
Fig. 3.3.14 Waveforms of asymmetrical half controlled bridge converter for level load
Power Devices and Machines 3-39 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
At 2 k, the supply voltage becomes zero. Therefore T2 tums-off. But due to heavy
inductive load, the current continuous to flow. This current now flows through Dj -D 2
since they are more forward biased compared to T2 -D 2.
At 271+a, SCR T j is triggered again and mode-I starts. Thus the cycle repeats.
Mathematical analysis
Observe that the waveform of output voltage is same as that of semiconverter. Hence
the rms and average values of its output voltage are,
Vn,
o(av) = (1 + cos a)
71
VL
and Vo(rms) 7 i - a + ^ s i n 2a
2 tc
)>* Example 3.3.7 : For the single phase asymmetrical half controlled bridge circuit derive
expressions for
V
vm2 7 i-a + - s i n 2a
ii) RMS output voltage, Vo{rtns) =
2k
4/ o(av) na
------ cos ^^^o(av) na
iii) n harmonic supply current, Isn = jL 7171 2 ------------------C O S ^ r-
y/2 V2 7171 2
a
2V2 COS
iv) Current Distortion Factor, CDF =
J k (k - a)
)>! Example 3.3.8 : Draw the circuit diagrams o f symmetrical and asymmetrical single phase
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 40 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
half-controlled bridge rectifiers and sketch the SCR and diode current waveforms for each
circuit for level loads. From these waveforms, derive an expression for the ratio o f average
SCR current to average diode current. [Dec.-2003, 8 Marks]
Solution : The circuit diagram of symmetrical configuration is given in Fig. 3.3.1(a). The
waveforms are given in section 3.3.3.3 for level loads.
The circuit diagram of asymmetrical configuration is given in Fig. 3.3.12. The
waveforms are given in section 3.3.4.2 for level loads.
Fig. 3.3.15 shows the SCR and diode currents for symmetrical configuration.
Average SCR current will be,
h (a v ) = \ \ 'r M d w f = ^ } I 0(av)dcof = - ^
0 a
i 1fr j . _ ^o(av)
o(au) ~ 2 ^J ! o(av)d<ot -----Y ~
a
Copyrighted material
Power Devices and Machines 3 - 41 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
^o(av)
Average SCR current 2 j
Average diode current ^0{av)
T ~
Fig. 3.3.16 shows the SCR and diode currents for asymmetrical configuration.
i*--
1
1
h (a v ) = j\
0
^D(av) 2n i* ^o(av) 2n
0
t n -a
Average SCR current _ ' o(av) 2n _ n - a
Average diode current r n+ a n+ a
(av> 2k
Copyrighted material
Power Devices and Machines 3 - 42 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
1. One SCR is connected on each link. Both the SCRs are connected on single link.
2. SCRs can be driven with common cathode. SCRs must have isolated cathodes.
3. Freewheeling takes place through on diode Freewheeling takes place through both the
and on SCR. SCRs.
4. Average currents of SCR and diodes are Average currents of diodes are higher than
same. SCR.
5. SCR and diodes conduct for equal durations. SCRs conduct for shorter duration compared
to diodes.
Example 3.3.9 : A single phase half controlled bridge rectifier operates from the 115 V,
60 Hz mains and supplies a resistive load o f 250 Cl For firing angles o f 45 and 135,
Calculate :
i) Average output voltage ii) nns output voltage
iii) Load pow er iv) rms supply current
v) Peak supply current [D ec.-2004, 18 M arks!
Solution: Given : Half controlled bridge
3 tc
a 2 = 135 or T
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 43 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
For a = |, Vo(av) = ^ - ( l + c o s a )
~ ( l + cos 1 1= 88.35 V
F o ra -J, V0(av)
m
o(nns) 7 t-a + ^ sin 2a
2n
162.6J n 1 . 7t\
For a = V0{rms)
27C ^ "4 2 ( 4 J 109.63 V
3 ti
34.65 V
*-T *2
U2
o(ai>)
P' =
R
(88.35)2
For a = 31.22 Watt
4' 250
3n (15.16)2
For a = 0.919 Watt
7 ' 250
h(rm s) ^o(rms)
^o(rtns)
R
109.63
For a = 4' hirm s) 0.438 A
250
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Power Devices and Machines 3-44 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
=T ' W ) = W = 01386 A
The supply current will be maximum, when output current is maximum, i.e.
s(max) o(max)*
Now the output current will be maximum when output voltage is maximum.
_ Vm _ 162.6
ls(peak) - R ~ 250 "
t/ 3 ti
slrl ~T~ 162.6 x 0.7071 ... 4
W ) = -------- R = --------- 2 5 0 --------- = 0 4 6 A '
Example 3.3.10 : A single phase half controlled bridge rectifier supplies a ripple free load
current o f 10 A and operates from the 110 V, 60 Hz mains. If the average output voltage is
75 V calculate :
i) Firing angle ii) rms output voltage
iii) rms supply current iv) rms 7^ harm onic supply current
v) Supply pow er factor. [Dec.-2003,16 M arksl
Solution : Given : I 0^av) = 10 A ripple free
= 75 V.
i) Firing angle
V,
Vo(av) = - f - d + cosa)
-- 155.56 n .
7d - -------- (1 + cos a)
K
a = 1.03 radians or 59
V = -II V 2
o(rms) } 2 JT
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Power Devices and Machines 3-45 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
l
f (155.56)2 f ____ 1 . 2
7c-1.03 + 2 sin( 2 x 1.03) = 99.15 V
271
j _ j ,~ ~ ,..-1 .0 3
s(rms) ~ o(av)
= 8.198 A
o{av) 7a
=-----COS^r-
7ti______ 2_
V2
4x10 (7x1.03)
-= co s-----=-----
' 71 -----= - 1.15 A Here negative sign can be
V2
dropped since it is rms value,
8 2f 1.03^
7c(ti-1.03) COb [ 2 J
= 0.83
)) Example 3.3.11 : A single phase HCB operated from the 230 V, 50 Hz mains feeds a
resistive load o f 100 Q. If the firing angle is 60, calculate,
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 46 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
R = 100 n , a = 60 or |
206.3 V
Vlrms) (206.3)2
= 426 Watt.
R 100
P,o(DC)
R
(155.3)2
= 241.18 Watt.
100
, _ vo(tot)
0 R
Vm sin cot
R
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Power Devices and Machines 3-47 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
325.27 sin ^ n
= ------ jo g - by putting cot = a = -j
= 2.816 A.
Since SCRs are triggered at a = -^, the supply peak voltage occurs at ot=^. Therefore
_ o(peak)
o(peak) ~ r
Example 3.3.12 : A single phase semiconverter operates with 230 V, 50 Hz ac input and
supplies level load current o f 10 A, operated at firing angle o f 60. Calculate :
ln -a
) v 71
71
= 10 *"3
1 71
8.165 A
ii) O u tp u t voltage
o(av) =
V<n,A (1+ cos a)
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 49 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Let us consider the working of 14> bridge (Full) converter with resistive load. In the
positive half cycle of the supply SCRs Tj and T2 are triggered at firing.angle a. Hence
current starts flowing through the load. The equivalent circuit for this operation is shown
in Fig. 3.4.2.
It is clear from Fig. 3.4.2 that, when T{ and conducts,
Fig. 3.4.3 shows the waveforms of this circuit. Observe that load voltage is same as
supply voltage from a to n. Since the load is resistive, waveforms of V0 and i0 are same.
The supply current i$ and i0 are in the same direction hence i$ =i0. T] and T-, turn off when
supply voltage becomes zero at n. In the negative half cycle T3 and T4 are triggered at
7c+ a.
h = -*o
The supply current waveform is also shown in Fig. 3.4.3. T3 and T4 turn off when
supply voltage becomes zero at 2 k . At 2 k + a, Tj and T2 are triggered again and the cycle
repeats.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 50 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Power Devices and Machines 3 - 52 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Solution : This is a fully controlled bridge with resistive load of 100 Q in series with the
battery of 50 V. Hence output voltage of the converter appears across resistance of 100 Q
and battery of 50 V. Hence let us first calculate average value of output voltage. The given
data is,
a = 30
Vs = 220 V /. Vm = 220V2
The average output voltage for resistive load is given by equation 3.4.3 as,
= - ( 1 + cos 30)
71
= 184.8 V
This voltage is applied to the load. Fig. 3.4.6 shows the equivalent circuit.
o(av) = 1.348 A
Thus the current through the load is 1.348 A.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 53 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
As shown in the waveforms of Fig. 3.4.7, Tj and T2 conduct from a to n . The nature
of the load current depends upon values of R and L in the inductive load. Because of the
inductance, i0 keeps on increasing and becomes maximum at ti . At k , the supply voltage
reverses but SCRs T| and T2 does not turn off. This is because, the load inductance does
not allow the current i0 to go to zero instantly. The load inductance generates a large
r din
voltage L
dt
This voltage forward biases Tj and T2 as
shown in Fig. 3.4.8. In Fig. 3.4.8 observe that
the load current flows against the supply
voltage. The energy stored in the load
inductance is supplied partially to the mains
supply and to the load itself. Hence this is
also called as feedback operation. The output
voltage is negative from n to n + a since
supply voltage is negative. But the load
current keeps on reducing.
from Ti to ti + cx due to inductance voltage At n+ a, SCRs T3 and T4 are triggered.
The load current starts increasing. The load
current remains continuous in the load. The similar operation repeats. The ripple in the
load current reduces as the load inductance is increased.
3.4.2.2 Continuous and Ripple Free Current for Large Inductive Load
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Power Devices and Machines 3-55 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
))* Example 3.4.3 : For the 1<)>full converter having inductive load and continuous load
current, obtain the following :
i) Average output voltage V0^av^
ii) RMS output voltage V0^rms^ [Dec.-2004, 3 Marks]
S olution : i) Average output voltage fo r inductive load
The average output voltage is given as,
1 T
Vo(av) = f J vo (0
0
Observe the waveforms of l<f> full converter for inductive load given in Fig. 3.4.7 and
Fig. 3.4.9. The output voltage waveform has a period from a to 7t+a ; i.e. n. And
vQ(cot) = Vm sin (ot during this period. Hence above equation becomes,
j 7i+a
Vo (a v ) = - J Vm sin d(s>t
a
r .nTi+a
= - COS (0 1
K 1 J
pyrighted material
Power Devices & Machines 3 - 56 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
2 V
o(av ) cos a ... (3.4.5)
This is the expression for average load voltage of l<f> full converter for inductive load.
Plot of V0(av) versus firin g angle (a)
Following table lists the values of VQ/av\ with firing angle (a)
a
Vo{*v) = Km c o s a
0 2V
- f = 0 637 Vm
30 0.55 Vm
60 0.318 Vm
90 0
120 - 0.318 Vm
150 - 0-55 Vm
180 - 0-637 Vm
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Power Devices & Machines 3-57 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
2
J \vo (<0 d(ot
0
2
- | V 2 sin2 cof d cof
a
... (3.4.6)
Thus the rms value of load voltage is same as rms value of the AC supply voltage.
Example 3.4.4 : Draw the circuit arrangement o f a single phase full converter feeding a
general load comprising o f R, L and E. Sketch the AC supply voltage o/p voltage and the
load current waveforms. Assuming continuous load current operation, derive an expression
for DC output voltage.
A single phase full converter feeding an RLE load is fed by 230 V, 50 Hz mains.
If R = 0.5 Q, L = 8 rnH and E = 50 volts, assuming that conduction is continuous and
firing angle is 4 0 find average value o f load current.
R = 0.5 Q
vs = 230 V. 50 Hz
L = 8 mH
E = 50
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 58 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
The RLE load is normally motor load. 'R' is the resistance and 'L' is an inductance of
armature winding of the motor. 'E' is the induced emf of the motor. When the load current
is continuous, then waveforms of this circuit will be similar to that of RL load. Hence with
small ripple in output current, the waveforms of this circuit will be similar to those shown
in Fig. 3.4.7. Note that 'E' is not reflected in the waveforms as long as output current (i0) is
continuous.
If output current (iQ) is constant and ripple free, then the waveforms will be similar to
those shown in Fig. 3.4.9.
The output voltage waveform remains same with RL load and RLE load when i0 is
continuous. Therefore the rms and average values of output voltage will be same as those
derived in previous example for RL load, i.e.,
2V
Vo(av) = - f - cos a
v
V , v = -2L = V
vo(rms) ^2 s
The ripple in the load current (i0) depends upon values of R, L and E. If load inductance
is small, then iG can become discontinuous. In Fig. 3.4.7, observe that iQ repeats at the
intervals of ;r . The waveform of i0 remains same whenever Tj-Tj or T3-T4 conducts. Hence
in any interval (i.e. a < cof < a or rc+a < cof < 2n + a) the equivalent circuit will be as shown
below.
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Power Devices and Machines 3-60 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
a = 40 = 0.698 radians
and Z = -J r 2 +(coL )1
325.27 1 + 0.5352 50
*o(0) = sin(0.698-1 .3 7 4 4 )
2.5622 1 -0.5352 0.5
= 162.48 A
This is the minimum value of output current. If this value becomes negative, then it
indicates discontinuous operation.
This is the equation for output current from a to n + a. This waveform has period of n
and it repeats at rc+a. Hence average value of i0 will be given as,
n+a
; o(at>) = |
a
.. n + 0.698
= - j [126.95 sin(cof-1.3744) -1 0 0 + 392.89c 01989 ] <io>;
0.698
= 217.28 A
Example 3.4.5 : If a freewheeling diode is added across the highly inductive load in l<j>
full converter, derive an expression for average load voltage.
S olution : We know that freewheeling action does not take place in 1<J> full converter
inherently. In the positive half cycle, Tj and T2 conduct from a to n as usual. But from n to
n + a freewheeling diode starts conducting. This is shown in Fig. 3.4.13. The freewheeling
Copyrighted material
Power Devices and Machines 3-61 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
diode is more forward biased compared to T| and T2. Hence freewheeling diode conducts.
The freewheeling diode is connected across the output V0. Hence Vo =0 during
freewheeling. The energy stored in the load inductance is circulated back in the load itself.
Fig. 3.4.14 shows the waveforms of this operation. The output voltage becomes zero in the
freewheeling periods. Compare the load voltage waveform of Fig. 3.4.13 with that of l<j>full
converter with resistive load (Fig. 3.4.3). They are same. Hence the average load voltage
can be obtained from equation 3.4.3. i.e.,
Fig. 3.4.13 Freewheeling diode conducts from k to rc+a due to inductive load
Copyright!
Power Devices and Machines 3-62 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
))! Example 3.4.6 : A single phase fully controlled bridge rectifier is fed from
230 V - 50 Hz supply. The load is highly inductive. Find the average load voltage and
current if the load resistance is 10 Q and firing angle is 45. Draw the supply current
waveform.
V5(rms) = 230 V
Hence peak value of supply voltage is,
Vm = Vs(rms) 42
= 230 V2
Since the load is highly inductive, the load current can be considered continuous and
ripple free as shown in Fig. 3.4.9. For such operation, the average load voltage is given by
equation 3.4.5 as,
2V
Vo(av) = ~ cos a
2 x 230 V2
Vo(av) = ------ -------cos 45
= 146.42 volts
_ Vo (a v )
o (a v ) r
= 14.64 A
The supply current waveform will be a square wave as shown in Fig. 3.4.9. The
amplitude of the square wave will be I 0^m \ i.e. 14.64 A.
Example 3.4.7 : For a 1fyfull converter having highly inductive load derive the following:
i) Fourier series for supply current
ii) RMS value o f nth harmonic o f supply current
iii) Fundamental component o f supply current
iv) RMS value o f supply current
Copyrighted material
Power Devices and Machines 3 - 63 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
where +bn
and tan -1
\bn
n/
2n
J is ( o t ) cos n o t d o t
o
2n+a
o(av)
j cos n o t d o t - j cos n o t d o t
2 I o (av)
sin n a [cos j i - 1 ]
nn
-4 I o(av)
sinn a for w=1,3,5,
nn , (3.4.11)
0 for n = 0,2,4,.
2
Similarly, bn = = J /s (cof) sin n o t d o t
2n
j is (cof) sin n o t d ot
2n
2n
f l^ m)Sinn(0td( 0t+ \ ( - I 0^ v )sin ntot d<at^
Copyrighted material
Power Devices and Machines 3-64 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Ji+a 2n+a
o(av)
J s in n a td to t- j sin n a td & t
La rt+a
2 I o(av)
cosn a [1 -cos n ti]
nn
4 I o(av)
cosn a for n = 1 ,3 ,5 ,.
nn (3.4.12)
0 for n = 0 ,2 ,4 ,6 ,.
Hence = + bn
4 I o(av)
[ sin2 n a + cos2 n a ]
nn
V. J
4 /o(av)
for w= l , 3, 5, (3.4.13)
nn
And <j> = tan 1 jP~ = -n a from equation 3.4.11 and equation 3.4.12.
n
Thus <J> = -n a (3.4.14)
The average value of supply current is zero. i.e. I$(av) = 0. This is clear from
Fig. 3.4.9.
Therefore Fourier series is,
4 I
sin (ncot-n a ) (3.4.15)
nn
7 1 = 1 , 3 , 5 ,.-
4 !o(av)
1 - _ !L - nn
sn n V2
nn
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 65 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
hi ~ h(av) ...(3.4.16)
2n+a
Es(rms) In \ I o(v)d<at + \ (-'o ia v )) d (o t
Example 3.4.8 : For a l<j) full converter having highly inductive load, derive the
following :
i) Displacement factor (DF)
ii) Supply power factor (PF)
iii) Harmonic factor (HF)
iv) Current distortion factor (CDF)
DF = cos ( - a )
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Power Devices and Machines 3-66 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
PF sl COS
s(rms)
2 V2 /o(av)
PF cos a
/2
's(rms) o(av)
HF -1
sl ' 2 V2 /
Thus the harmonic factor of supply current is fixed to 0.4834, irrespective of triggering
angle.
CDF sl
s(rm s)
2 V2 1 o(av)
o(av)
2>/2
0.9 ...(3.4.22)
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Power Devices and Machines 3-67 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Example 3.4.9 : For a 1 fully controlled bridge having continuous and ripple free
current obtain, i) Active power and ii) Reactive power. [Dec.-2000, 6 Marks]
S olution : i) Active power
Active power is given as,
Active = Vs h l c o s * l
= 2--------------- cos( a)
71
^o{av)
= ------------- cos a ...(3.4.23)
K
^reactive = h i s m ^1
= v 241
V .-------------- , >
sin(-a)
K
= - 2 --------------- sin a
71
IV I
^ ym 1 o(av) . / oAnA\
= ---------------- sm a ...(3.4.24)
K
Comment
Compare the reactive powers of full converter and half converter. They are as follows :
2Vn , av) .
* W ii (FCB) = --------- Sirl
P r e c i s e B) = 2 *P reaclive (HCB)
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 68 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Thus half controlled bridge draws 50 % reactive power compared to that of full
controlled bridge.
))* Example 3.4.10 : A single phase full converter is operated front a 120 V, 60 Hz supply.
The load current with an average valve of la is continuous, with negligible ripple current. If
the turns ratio of the transformer is unity, if the delay angle is a = Calculate the
i) HF o f input current
ii) DF
iii) PF
S olution : Given data
Delay angle, a =
i) Harmonic fa c to r (HF)
For continuous load current, the harmonic factor is fixed for full converter. And it is
given by equation 3.4.21 as,
HF = 0.4834 or 48.34 %
= 0.45
This is lagging PF, since current lags the voltage.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 69 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Example 3.4.11 : A single phase full converter operates with 220 V, 50 Hz ac input and
supplies output load consisting of R-L load with very high inductance drawing level load
current 10 A and operated at firing angle of 30. Find -
I0(av) = 10 A, a = 30 or - radians.
By equation 3.4.17
2V2 /o(ar>)
L = By equation 3.4.16
n
2V2xlO
9 A
DF = cos
cos a
= cos = 0.866
v) Power facto r
PF = cos a
cos | = 0.779
71 6
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 70 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
a = y radians
6
Vo(a) = co sa
or 2V2 2V2 71
PF = ------cos a = ------ co s -7 = 0.78
71 71 6
Example 3.4.13 : What happens ifT 2 shown in Fig. 3.4.15 is shorted due to fault in the
positive luilf cycle ? [M ay -2007,4 M arks]
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Power Devices and Machines 3-71 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Fig. 3.4.15
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Power Devices and Machines 3-72 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
)) Example 3.4.14 : Draw voltage and current waveform for circuit shown in Fig. 3.4.17
[May-2007, 4 Marks]
Fig. 3.4.17
Solution : Fig. 3.4.18 shows the voltage and current waveforms.
Copyrighted mater
Power Devices and Machines 3 - 73 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
The waveforms of 1 <J>full converter for inductive load are given in Fig. 3.4.9. Observe
that the output voltage v0 goes negative for some duration. These intervals are 0 to a, n to
n + a , ..... and so on. The output current i0 remains positive always. Thus output
instantaneous power becomes negative in such intervals. In other words, load power flows
to source when v() goes negative. The average output voltage is given by equation 3.4.5.
i.e.,
The variation of Vn/M ,\ with respect to a is shown in Fig. 3.4.19. In the Fig. 3.4.19 the
o(av)
V. is positive from 0 to For a = 90 or - , the V0(av} is zero
V,o(av)
Fig. 3.4.19
Fig. 3.4.19 shows the waveform of v0 for a = 90 or The SCRs conduct, current flows
in the load but V.o(av) 0. This means power fluctuates between load an
power is consumed by the load. The load inductance stores power from source when v0 is
Copyrighted mater
Power Devices and Machines 3 - 74 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
positive (i.e. rectification). And this stored power is fed back to the source when v0 is
negative (i.e. inversion). When the firing angle is increased above 90, the average output
voltage becomes negative as shown in Fig. 3.4.19. This is called second quadrant operation.
The net power is fed from output (load) to the source. But where does this power comes
from? Because load inductance cannot supply more power than it stores. At a = 90, stored
power and power supplied to the source are equal. For a > 90, the stored power is less
and more power needs to be supplied to the source. Hence an external DC source is to be
connected in the load as shown in Fig. 3.4.21. This DC source maintains the forward bias
on the SCRs. Hence they keep on conducting even though a >90. Such output voltage
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 76 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
i) Calculate the value o f the current limiting resistor required fo r nominal charging
current o f 15 A if the firing angle is 30.
ii) Calculate the maximum and minimum firing angles to maintain the current constant
if the mains supply voltage varies by +10 % to -1 0 %.
iii) The above bridge is now operated in the inverting mode by reversing the battery
polarity arid adjusting the firing angle appropriately. Calculate the firing angle such that
the battery discharge current is 10 A with nominal mains supply voltage. Also obtain
the power supplied by the battery and power fedback to the mains. Neglect all device
drops. [M ay -2006,16 M arks]
batt 144 V
2 x 240 x V2
cos 30 = 187.127 V
187.127-144
15
Rcl = 2.375 Q
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Power Devices and Machines 3-77 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
To maintain constant charging current V^av) should remain constant. Hence range of
firing angles can be calculated as follows:
2Vm(max)
V.o(av) cos a ,
n
2 x 264 x V2
187.127 = ------------ cos a,
a max = 38
2 Vw(min)
And o(av) cos a,
a
2x216x V2
187.127 = ------------ co sa,
71
min = 15-79"
^o(av) as'
^ o { a v ) + ^ 4 4 ^b a tt^ b a tt =
2x 240 x V2
-139 = ----------------co sa
a = 130
To obtain the power supplied by the battery
Battery current is 10 A and its voltage is 144 V. Hence power supplied by battery will
be,
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 78 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
))* Example 3.4.17 : A single phase fully controlled bridge operates with 230 V, 50 Hz ac
input and supplies continuous ripple free output current of 5 A. If bridge is operated at a
firing angle of 45. Find,
l 0(av) = ^ A, a = 45 or ^ radians.
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Power Devices and Machines 3-79 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Vo(av) = ~ c o s a
2x325.27 n ..
------------- cos-r = 146.42 V
TC 4
^s(rms)
= 5 A
HF = 0.4834 or 48.34 %
SJ 3n 3n
)) Example 3.4.18 : Show that reactive power input reduces to half due to above converter
as compared to full controlled bridge for same firing angle a, feeding a continuous ripplefree
constant current load. [Dec.-2000,10 Marks]
S olution : a) Reactive power of sem iconverter
P(reactwe) = sin *1
2^2 l 0(av) a . ( a
= V ,------- -------c o s ^ s m j^ - -
w ^ l o(av) . a CL
= -Vs ------------- 2 sm - cos
n 2 2
' ^ ^sK (av) . . . . a a .
= ------------------sin a smce 2 sm cos = sin a
ti 2 2
^o(av) . . r=., ..
= ------------ sm a since V 2 Vs = Vm
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Power Devices and Machines 3-80 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
2V2 7
= V
sin a
21/m /o{av) .
-------------- sin a since -Jl Vs = Vm
Result : From the reactive powers of semiconverter and full converter, observe that
reactive power of semiconverter is half of full converter.
We have discussed 1 (j) semiconverter earlier. The 3<j> semiconverter delivers more
power. It uses three SCRs T j , T3
and T5 and three diodes D4 , D6
and D2 . Fig. 3.5.1 shows the circuit
diagram of 3 <t> semiconverter.
Fig. 3.5.3 (a) shows the waveforms
Load
of supply phase voltages R, Y and
B. Note that these are phase
voltages. These are the voltages
with respect to neutral N. In Fig.
3.5.1 (3(f) semiconverter), when any
SCR and diode conducts, line Fig. 3.5.1 3<t> sem iconverter or half bridge
voltage is applied to the load. converter
Hence it is necessary to draw the
line voltage waveforms.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 81 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Fig. 3.5.2 shows the phasor diagram of supply phase and line voltages. In this diagram
observe that line voltage RB lags phase R by 30. This is clear from waveforms of
Fig. 3.5.3 (b) also. The phase shift between two line voltages is 60.
BY
Fig. 3.5.3 (c). The devices conducting are also shown in respective intervals.
Observe that one period of the ripple in output voltage waveform is,
Thus there are three cycles of output ripple in one cycle of the supply. Hence ripple
frequency is three times of the supply frequency, i.e.,
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Power Devices and Machines 3-82 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
The current waveform for resistive load will be similar to voltage waveform since,
i = Yo
0 R
Example 3.5.1 : Derive an expression for the average output voltage of 3<J> semiconverter
having resistive load for a < 60.
Observe the waveform of V0 given in Fig. 3.5.3 (c). The period T can be considered
5k 2 ji
from [ + cc to -7- + ct I which is - 5-. Hence above equation becomes,
1 6r
72 ^ J vo M d^
[ 3 ) Z+a
5k
3_ 2 6
2k
| VRY (cof)dcof + J VRB( o t ) d o t ... (3.5.2)
K
6 +a
The equations for VRy and V'/, can be written from Fig. 3.5.2 (b) as follows,
Here Vm is the peak value of the phase voltage. Putting above expressions in
equation 3.5.2,
n 5k
3\[3 V
2 k
J sm ^cof + ^jdcof + J siw^cotgj dot
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Power Devices and Machines 3-84 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
5n
(<-!)~n6
3 V 3 V
[-co s ((Of+
2k
6 2
3V 3U m
_ eos( _( K ) + co s( _(7 1+ a + _ K
+ _ 71A COS
5k
- + a - z \+ cs ( K- K
k
2k U "6
3 V 3 Vn
( l + cos a ) ... (3.5.4)
2k
This is the expression for average output voltage for a < 60.
When a = 60
Fig. 3.5.3 (d) shows the output voltage waveform for a = 60. Observe that the voltage
{
waveform is just continuous. When Tj is triggered at a = 60, the line voltage RB is applied
across the load. Tj and D2 conducts from + to f ~ + a j . Similarly next SCR T3 is
waveform for resistive load. The average output voltage is given by equation 3.5.4, since
voltage waveform is continuous.
When u > 60
Fig. 3.5.3 (e) shows the output voltage waveform for a = 90. SCR T^ is triggered at
^g + a j . Tj and D2 conducts and line voltage RB is applied across the load. In the
waveform observe that, output voltage becomes zero at In Fig. 3.5.3 (b) observe that
line voltage RB becomes zero at Hence SCR Tj is turned off. Since T3 is not triggered,
voltage YR is applied across the load. Thus for a > 60, the output voltage is discontinuous.
Since the load is resistive, the current is also discontinuous. The current waveform will be
similar to voltage waveform.
Example 3.5.2 : Derive an expression for average output voltage of 3<j> semiconverter
having resistive load for a > 60.
Solution : Fig. 3.5.3 (e) shows the waveform of output voltage for a =90 (i.e. a >60).
Observe that the period of ripple cycle is
2k
- - T
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Power Devices and Machines 3-86 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Vs(line) = 440 V
V - 0
s(Ph) ^3
Vm = V2 Vs(pf0 = V 2 . ^ = J | 440 V
We have derived an expression for average value of output voltage earlier. For a < 60,
VQtav) is given by equation 3.5.5 as,
3 7 3 V
o(av) 2 k
(1 + cos a)
440
, _ (1 + cos 40)
o(av) 2 71
= 524.7 volts.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 87 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
maximum at the time of triggering. Hence Ti-D 2 conducts and line voltage VRB is applied
7 7C
across the load. At , the line voltage = 0, but the output current i0 [Fig. 3.5.5 (e)J is
not zero. The output current waveform is continuous and ripplefree. The load inductance
Fig. 3.5.6.
The freewheeling diode DFW is forward biased by the load inductance voltage L
The freewheeling current ipW is basically i0. Thus the energy stored in the load inductance
is fed back to the load itself. Fig. 3.5.5 (g) shows the waveform of freewheeling current.
SCR T-, turns off at - 7- as soon as freewheeling diode starts conducting. This is because
1 6
freewheeling diode is more forward biased compared to Tj and D^ after . If extra
freewheeling diode is not connected, then freewheeling current flows through T-. and
D4 . This is shown by 'thin dotted line' in Fig. 3.5.6. Thus freewheeling action is inherent in
3<|>semiconverter.
If we neglect the drop of freewheeling diode, then output voltage during freewheeling
period is zero. As shown in Fig. 3.5.5 (0/ no supply current flows during freewheeling
period. Compare the output voltage waveform of Fig. 3.5.3 (e) (resistive load) and
Fig. 3.5.5 (d) (inductive load). Both the waveforms are same.
Example 3.5.4 : Derive an expression for average output voltage of 3<j> semiconverter
having highly inductive load.
S olution : We have seen that the output voltage waveforms of 3<f> semiconverter are same
for resistive as well as inductive loads. Hence their average values are also same. Hence
from equation 3.5.5 we have,
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 89 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
3 a/3 V
V.o(av) (l + cos a ) ... (3.5.6)
2n
This is the expression for average output voltage for resistive as well as inductive
loads and 0 < a < n .
Unsolved Examples
1. A 3<j>semiconverter is operated from 3<t>230 V, 50 Hz supply. The load is 10 ohms in series with
large smoothing inductor. Determine output voltage and current if triggering angle is 60.
!A n s.:V o W = 403.5 V, l 0(i ) = 40.35 A]
Three phase half converters operate only in first quadrant of v0 - i 0. The output voltage
v0 is always positive for resistive as well as inductive loads. The output current i0 is also
always positive. Hence 3 (j) semiconverter operates in first quadrant only. Three phase full
converters can operate in two quadrants. The output voltage of 3<j> full converter can be
positive as well as negative. It uses six SCRs as shown in Fig. 3.6.1.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 90 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Let us consider the operation of 3 <J> full converter having resistive load. Fig. 3.6.2
shows the waveforms of 3 <(> full converter having resistive load. Fig. 3.6.2 (a) shows the
supply phase voltages R, Y and B. Fig. 3.6.2 (b) shows the supply line voltages. These
supply voltage waveforms are drawn according to the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 3.5.2.
Fig. 3.6.2 (c) shows the gate drives for a =30. For six SCRs, there are six gate drives. See
Fig. 3.6.2 on next page.
In Fig. 3.6.2, observe that in interval-I, gate drives are given to SCRs T6 and T-[. Hence
line voltage VRY is applied across the load. The equivalent circuit for this interval is
shown in Fig. 3.6.3.
In Fig. 3.6.3 observe that SCRs T6 and Tj (normally written as 6-1) conduct. Hence,
= VRY
Observe that output current i0 and R-phase current iR flows in the same direction.
Hence,
*R *o
Similarly observe that Y-phase current iXJ and output current i0 are in opposite
directions. Hence,
W = -'o
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Power Devices and Machines 3-91 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
The SCR pair T6 -T j conduct from + txj to ^ + a j . Line voltage VRY is applied
during this period. At + a j SCR T2 is triggered (Fig. 3.6.2 (c)). Here note that Te
T3 is triggered. Hence Tj tums-off and T2 -T 3 starts conducting. Therefore line voltage VYB
is applied across the load. It is marked as interval-III.
Since the load is resistive, the shape of output current waveform will be similar
to that of output voltage. Its amplitude will be i0 =
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 95 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
= 4 iv vh= 4 i - ^ v
Here firing angle is 45. Hence the conduction will be continuous for resistive as well
as inductive load. Therefore the average DC output is given by equation 3.6.2 i.e.,
3>/3 VL
VV) = -T ^ c o sa
= 382 volts
Let us consider the operation of 3<|> full converter with highly inductive load. The
output current will be continuous and ripplefree. In the waveforms of Fig. 3.6.2, observe
that voltage waveform is continuous till a =60. But with inductive load, voltage waveform
is continuous for any value of a. Fig. 3.6.5 shows the waveforms of 3 4> full converter for
highly inductive load. Fig. 3.6.5 (c) shows the output voltage waveform for a =60.
Observe that this waveform is same as that of resistive load shown in Fig. 3.6.2 (e).
Fig. 3.6.5 (d) shows the continuous and ripplefree output current. Fig. 3.6.5 (e) shows
supply phase current waveforms iR , iY and iB. Observe that the R-phase current is
positive whenever Tj conducts and it is negative whenever T4 conducts. All the three
current waveforms are of the same nature (quasi square wave) having 120 phase shift
with respect to each other.
Fig. 3.6.5 (f) shows the output voltage waveform for a = 90. The waveform goes
negative for same period, because of inductive load. The load inductance generates a large
voltage to maintain the load current in the same direction. Hence SCRs continue to
conduct and load voltage becomes negative occasionally. Note that there is no
freewheeling in full converter.
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Power Devices and Machines 3 - 96 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Fig. 3.6.6 shows the circuit diagram and waveforms for inverting opeartion of
3 <|>full converter.
(a)
(a) C ircu it diagram fo r 3 o full
brid ge co nve rter fo r inversion
(b) w avefo rm s
(b)
)) Example 3.6.3 : Derive an expression for average output voltage of 3<j> full converter
having highly inductive load.
S olution : In the Fig. 3.6.2 observe that output voltage waveform is continuous for
complete range of a. Hence single expression can be derived. In Fig. 3.6.2 (d), observe that
one ripple period of output voltage can be,
71 K \ 71
2 + a 6 + =3
During this period line voltage VRY is applied across the load. From Fig. 3.6.3 (b), VRY
will be,
RY V3 Vm sin
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Power Devices and Machines 3-98 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
j 2
^73 I VRY (0
n
6+a
71
2 +
rfcof
71
3V 3 V r a
COS (Of +
fl
3V 3 V.,
cos a (3.6.4)
Example 3.6.4 : A 3 full converter operated from 3 <J) -V connected 208 V, 60 Hz,
supply with Rl = 10 Q. It is required to obtain 50 % o f the maximum possible output
voltage. Calculate -
i) Delay angle a
ii) rms and average currents
iii) rms and average thyristor ratings
iv) r| o f rectification
v) PF
Solution : Given data
m j2 V ph = 7 2 x 1 2 0 = 169.7 V
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Power Devices and Machines 3 99 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
V 3V3Vm
o (a v ) = ------ ^ C O S a
Vo (a v )m a x -
n
3 V 3 x l6 9 7
280.68 V
71
^ o (a v ) = 0 * 5 V o (a v )m a x
V 373V,
o (a v ) = " co s
373x1697
140.34 = ----------------cos a
K
a = 60
Vo(av) 140.34
Mav) - ^--------- fo-----
To obtain rms current, we have to obtain rms output voltage, for a < 60, the output
voltage waveform is continuous as shown in Fig. 3.6.2 (d). Consider the period from
^g+ a j to ^ + when voltage VRY is applied arrows the load. This period is,
K \ ( 7t ^ 71
2 + a j [6 + a J - 3
From Fig. 3.6.2 (b) we can write an equation for line voltage VRY as,
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Power Devices and Machines 3-100 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Here Vm is the peak valve of phase voltage. RMS value is given as,
o (rm s) ; J V2(cOt)d(Ot
71
r
dcot
a 1 -C O S
9V2
yvm 2 fe dv)t
n J
... (3.6.5)
V 0(rms) = 3x1697^
2n
= 159.17 V
_ Vo(rms) _ 159.17 _ 1 5 9 1 7 a
M r m s ) --------- ------------Jo ------
In the waveforms of Fig. 3.6.2, observe that two thyristors conduct at a time. The load
current is carried equally by three thyristors in one cycle. These three thyristors are T x, T^,
T5 and T * T6, T2. Hence the average output current is shared by these three thyristors.
Hence average current of single thyristor becomes,
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Power Devices and Machines 3-101 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
lT(av) = ^ - (3-6.6)
= = 4.678 A
Above equation shows the relationship between output rms current and rms current of
three thyristors. RMS current of each thyristor is same. Hence,
j2 _ or 2
1 c(rms) 31 T(nns)
iT(rms) = - (3-6.7)
V 3
15917
= = 9.189 A
V5
^o(av) ^o(av)
rms) ^o(rms)
140.34x14.034 n ___ 7 7 _ 0/
= iW x lW = 0777 or 7 7 7 %
The active load power is the power consumed in the load. It can be calculated as,
= (15.917)2 x 10
= 2533.5 W
At any time instant two thyristors conduct. Hence the supply current can be given in
terms of thyristor currents as,
j2 _ o/2
l s(rms) T(rrns)
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Power Devices and Machines 3-102 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
... (3.6.8)
13 A
For 3 <j>supply, the total supply volt-ampere will be,
supply VA = 3 Vs Is
= 3 x 120 x 13 = 4680 VA
Advantages o f 3 (j>supply :
i) Higher power supplying capability.
ii) It is suitable for driving AC loads such as high power induction motors, fans,
pumps etc.
iii) Phase shift in 3 phases is useful in many applications.
iv) Power demand on one phase is reduced due to three phase.
v) Even if one phase fails, other two phases supply power to the load partially.
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Power Devices and Machines 3-103 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Advantages of 3 <J>converters :
The three phase converters have most of their advantages due to 3 <|>supply.
i) 3 4>converters are capable of supplying more power to the load.
ii) The ripple frequency is high (i.e. 150 Hz and 300 Hz). Hence filtering requirement
is reduced.
iii) Supply power factor for 3 <{>converters is improved.
iv) 3 <|> converters provide continuous load current because of improved ripple
frequency.
Disadvantages
i) Since three or six SCRs are to be controlled, the triggering circuits are complex for
3 <j>converters.
ii) It is not suitable for simple low power loads.
A pplications
i) High power battery charges.
ii) High power D.C. motor drives.
Unsolved Example
1. A 3<{> full converter operates from 3<J* 415 V, 50 Hz supply. The load is highly inductive.
Determine the triggering angle of the converter to get average output voltage of 300 volts. The load
resistance is R = 10 Cl Determine the load current and power.
I A its .: a = 57.63, Io(av) = 30 A, Po{av) = 9k W]
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Power Devices and Machines 3-104 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
Summary
RL 'o(av) = ^ ( c o s a - c o s p )
1 <j>semiconverter
'o(av) = ^ ( 1 + c o s )
V2
vm
o(rms) 1 2n ^sin 2 a j
RL
'o(av) = T ( 1+COSa)
w _ i m rc - a + 2 s'n 2a
vo(rms) 1 2k
RL DF = cos
2
PF =
\ 7 T ( 7 t - a j C0S 2
hf = E E E JT ,
8cos"
3. 1 <J>full converter
'o(av) = - f ( 1 + c o s )
n - a + -^sin 2a j
RL 2Vn
o(av) cos a
v o(rms) ^
y2
o(rms) ~ 1 2tt 7t a + 2 sin 2a j
DF = cos a
RL
PF = ?^?cosa
Jl
HF = 0.4834 or 48.34 %
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Power Devices and Machines 3-105 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC/DC Converters)
4. 3 <J> h a lf w a v e R 3J3 V
c o n ve rter V 0 (a v ) = 2 n W s a f o r a - 30
= 1+ c o s ( g + a jj for a > 30
RL _ ^ vm
^ o (a v ) 2k 005(1
v o(av) = m[ 1+ ( 3 + fo r > 6 0
3 v '3 V L
RL v o(av) = cosa
R L - with fre e w h e e lin g d i ^ o (a v ) 's s a m e a s w ith R -lo a d .
od e
7. 1 $ d u al co n v e rte r RL
V
2V
, . = - c o s a -
0)(av) ti 1
2V
V > = CS2
a i +a 2 = 1 8 0
2V r -i
cir = S l lc0sw ,- c0s i j
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(3 - 106)
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