Revised October 9, 2007 8:48 Copyright 2000 David A.

Randall

The Navier-Stokes Equation

David A. Randall

Department of Atmospheric Science

Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523

25.1 Analysis of the relative motion near a point

Suppose that the velocity of the fluid at position r 0 " x! y! z # and time t is
V " x! y! z! t # , and that the simultaneous velocity at a neighboring position r 0 + r is
V + !V . We can write

& (u (u (u '
$ ----- ----- ----- %
!u $ (x (y (z % & x'
& '
$ !v % = $$ (v (v (v %$ %
% $ y% . (25.1)
$ % ----- ----- -----
" !w# $ (x (z (z %" #
$ % z
$ (w (w (w %
------ ------ ------
" (x (y (z #

In vector form, this can be written as

!V = D ) r , (25.2)

where D is called the deformation tensor because it describes how the fluid element is
being deformed by the non-uniform motion field. Using Cartesian tensor notation, we can
alternatively express (25.1) as

(v
!v i = -------i x j , where i = 1! 2! 3 . (25.3)
(x j

We can decompose (v i (x j into two parts which are symmetric and anti-
symmetric in the suffices i and j . They are

1 (v (v
* ij = --- &" -------i + -------j'# , (25.4)
2 (x j (x i

and

Selected Nuggets 193

 194 The Navier-Stokes Equation

1 (v ( v
+ ij = --- & -------i -------j' , (25.5)
2 " (x j (x i#

respectively. The deformation D can now be expressed by

D = * + ,, (25.6)

where we define two parts of D :

& e xx e xy e xz ' & 0 + xy + xz '

$ % $ %
*-$ e e e % , and , - $ + yx 0 + yz %. (25.7)
$ yx yy yz % $ %
" e zx e zy e zz # " + zx + zy 0 #

We show below that * is related to the divergence, and , is related to the vorticity.
Correspondingly, !V can be divided into two parts, i.e.
"s# "a# "s# "a#
!V = !V + !V , where !V i = e ij X j , and !V i = + ij X j . (25.8)

Here the superscripts s and a denote symmetric and antisymmetric, respectively.

We refer to * as the rate of strain tensor, or simply as the strain tensor. The
(u (v (w
diagonal elements of * , i.e. e xx = -----! e yy = -----! e zz = ------ , are called the normal strains,
(x (y (z
and represent the rate of volume expansion, as illustrated in Fig. 25.1 a. The sum of the
normal strains, i.e., the trace of the strain tensor, is the divergence of V , i.e.

e xx + e yy + e zz = e ii = . ) V . (25.9)

The off-diagonal elements of * , namely e xy , e yz , and e zx , are called the shearing

strains, and express the rate of shearing deformation, as illustrated in Fig. 25.1 b. They
can be written as

1 (u (v
e xy = e yx = --- & ----- + -----' $,
2 " (y (x#
1 (v (w
e yz = e zy = --- & ----- + ------' $,
2 " (z (y #
1 (w (u
e zx = e xz = --- & ------ + -----' $.
2 " (x (z # (25.10)

Selected Notes of David A. Randall

25.1 Analysis of the relative motion near a point 195

y
a

dv

(u (v
----- + -----
(x (y
Dy

x
0 Dx du

y
b

du

(u (v
----- + -----
Dy
(y (x

dv
x
0 Dx

Figure 25.1: a) The normal strains, representing the rate of volume expansion. b) The
shearing strains, which represent the rate of shearing deformation.

The elements of the anti-symmetric tensor, , , are

1 (w (v 1 (u (w (v (u
+ zy = + yz = --- & ------ -----' ! + xz = + zx = --- & ----- ------' ! + yx = + xy = & ----- -----' $ . (25.11)
2 " (y (z # 2 " (z (x # " (x (y #

Introducing the notation / x = 2+ yz! / y = 2+ zx! / z = 2+ zx , we see that " / x! / y! / z #

is the vorticity vector

/ = . % V $. (25.12)

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 196 The Navier-Stokes Equation

In tensor notation, (25.12) can be written as

(v
/ i = * ijk -------k , (25.13)
(x j

where * ijk = 1 when i, j, k are in even permutation, and * ijk = 1 when i, j, k are in odd
(v (v (v ( u
permutation. For example, / z = / 3 = * 321 -------2- + * 312 -------1- = ----- ----- , which gives
(x 1 (x 2 (x ( y
twice the angular velocity about the z-axis, as illustrated in Fig. 25.2. Thus

-du

Dy (v ( u
0 ----- ----- = 1 + 0
(x ( y

dv
1
Dx

Figure 25.2: The component of the vorticity in the z direction.

& "a# ' & 0 /z /y ' & '

$ !u % %$ x %
$ % = --- $$
1
$ !v
"a#
% /z 0 /x % $ y % , (25.14)
2$ %$ %
$ "a# % " / / 0 #" z #
" !w # y x

or

"a# 1
!V = --- " / % r # . (25.15)
2

25.2 Invariants of the strain tensor

Consider the scalar product

Selected Notes of David A. Randall

25.2 Invariants of the strain tensor 197

r ) * ) r = r ) "* ) r#
2 2 2
= e xx x + e yy y + e zz z + 2 " e xy xy + e yz yz + e zx zx #

= f " x! y! z #$. (25.16)

By putting f " x! y! z # = constant , we obtain a surface of second order, the strain

quadratic, also called the ellipsoid of strain.

We refer the strain quadratic to its principal axes " X 1! X 2! X 3 # . Then (25.16) takes
the form
2 2 2
e 1 X 1 + e 2 X 2 + e 3 X 3 = F " X 1! X 2! X 3 # = constant . (25.17)

Here e 1 , e 2 , and e 3 are the principal values of the strain tensor, and are called the
principal normal strains.
Using (25.16), we see that

"s# 1 (f 5
!u = --- ----- = e xx x + e xy y + e xz z 3
2 (x 3
"s# 1 (f 3
!v = --- ----- = e yx x + e yy y + e yz z 4$ . (25.18)
2 (y 3
"s# 1 (f 3
!w = --- ----- = e zx x + e zy y + e zz z 3
2 (z 2

In terms of the principal axes " X 1! X 2! X 3 # ,

"s# 1 (F "s# "s#

!v 1 = --- --------- = e 1 X 1! !v 2 = e 2 X 2! !v 3 = e 3 X 3 . (25.19)
2 (X 1

"s# "s# "s# "s#

" !v 1 ! !v 2 ! !v 3 # are the projections of !v upon the principal axes. Therefore, the
symmetric part of !V is composed of three expansions (or contractions) in the mutually
orthogonal directions of the principal axes of the strain quadratic.

We next consider the sum of the diagonal elements of e, i.e.

e xx + e yy + e zz = e ii = . ) V . (25.20)

This quantity is an invariant under the rotation of the axes of reference. Consider the

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 198 The Navier-Stokes Equation

transformation by which the surface f " x! y! z # = the constant of (25.16) is

transformed into F " X 1! X 2! X 3 # = the constant of (25.17). We can write the
transformation between the two Cartesian coordinates in the schematic, tabular form
shown in Table 25.1

x y z

X1 a1 b1 g1

X2 a2 b2 g2

X3 a3 b3 g3

Table 25.1: The transformation between two Cartesian coordinate systems. Here ai, bi, gi,
are the direction cosines between the axes.

Here ai, bi, gi, are the direction cosines between the axes. We find that
3 3
2 5
6 1i = 1! 6 1i 0i = 03
i=1 i=1 4$, (25.21)
3
1 i 1 j + 0 i 0 j + 7 i 7 j = ! ij 2

where ! ij is Kroneckers delta " ! ij = 1 when i$ $= j! ! ij = 0 when i$8$ j # .

Substituting the expression

X i = 1 i x + 0 i y + 7 i z where i = 1! 2! 3 (25.22)

into (25.17), we obtain

3 3
2 5
6 1i = 1! 6 1i 0i = 03
i=1 i=1 4$. (25.23)
3
1 i 1 j + 0 i 0 j + 7 i 7 j = ! ij 2

This expression must be identical with (25.16), so that

2 2 2
e xx = 1 1 e 1 + 1 2 e 2 + 1 3 e 3! e xy = 1 1 0 1 e 1 + 1 2 0 2 e 2 + 1 3 0 3 e 3 , 53$ $
2 2 2 3
e yy = 0 1 e 1 + 0 2 e 2 + 0 3 e 3! e yz = 0 1 7 1 e 1 + 0 2 7 2 e 2 + 0 3 7 3 e 3 , $ 4$ . (25.24)
3
2 2 2
e zz = 7 1 e 1 + 7 2 e 2 + 7 3 e 3! e zy = 7 1 1 1 e 1 + 7 2 1 2 e 2 + 7 3 1 3 e 3 , $ 32

Selected Notes of David A. Randall

25.3 Stress 199

It follows that
3
2 2 2
9 = e xx + e yy + e zz = 6 " 1i + 0i + 7 i #ei = e1 + e2 + e3 (25.25)
i=1

i.e., the sum e xx + e yy + e zz = . ) V is independent of the choice of reference. Of course,

this quantity is called the divergence, and we knew already that it is independent of the
choice of reference.
Another invariant of the strain tensor is
2 2 2
e xx e yy + e yy e zz + e zz e xx e xy e yz e zx = constant . (25.26)

The proof is left as an exercise.

25.3 Stress

In a moving viscous fluid, forces act not only normal to a surface but also
tangential to it. In Fig. 25.3, : x , : y and : z denote respectively the forces per unit area
acting upon the surfaces normal to the positive x, y, and z directions, respectively. In
z
(:
: z + -------z 9z
(z

: x = : x

(: y
: y + -------9y
(y
0 y

: y = : y

(: x
x : x + -------9x : z = : z
(x

Figure 25.3: Sketch illustrating the normal and tangential forces acting on an element of
fluid.

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 200 The Navier-Stokes Equation

general, each force is a vector with 3 components, so that

: x = : xx i + : yx j + : zx k , 5$ $
3
: y = : xy i + : yy j + : zy k , 4$ $. (25.27)
3
: z = : xz i + : yz j + : zz k . $2

Symbolically we can write an element of the stresses as : ij " i = 1! 2! 3 ;j = 1! 2! 3 # . Here

: ij is the i-component of the force per unit area exerted across a plane surface element
normal to the j-direction. The stress is thus a tensor with nine elements, and can be
represented by the matrix

& : xx : xy : xz '
$ %
T = $ : yx : yy : yz % (25.28)
$ %
" : zx : zy : zz #

For an arbitrarily chosen plane surface, whose normal vector is n , the force acting per
unit area is : n . See Fig. 25.4. The equilibrium condition is

: y = : y
(25.29)
: n 9; : x 9; x : y 9; y : z 9; z = 0 ,

where 9; is the area of the oblique surface, 9; x , 9; y , 9; z , are the areas of the faces
lying in the planes x = 0! y = 0 and z = 0 . Denoting the direction cosines of n by 1 ,
9; 9; 9;
0 and 7 , we have ---------x = 1 , ---------y = 0 , ---------z = 7 . Therefore (25.29) can be written as
9; 9; 9;

: n = 1: x + 0: y + 7 : z , (25.30)

or

& : xn ' & : xx : xy : xz '& '

$ % $ %$ 1 %
$ : yn % = $ : yx : yy : yz %$ 0 % , (25.31)
$ % $ %$ %
" : zn # " : zx : zy : zz #" 7 #

or

:n = T ) n . (25.32)

Selected Notes of David A. Randall

25.3 Stress 201

z
:n n " 1! 0! 7 #

C y
B

:x

:y
0

A x
:z

Figure 25.4: Sketch illustrating the normal force acting on a plane surface.

Equation (25.32) shows that matrix T transforms a vector n into another vector
: n , so that T is a tensor, called the stress tensor. See Fig. 25.5. The three diagonal
elements, : xx , : yy , and : zz , are normal stresses. The six off-diagonal elements are
tangential stresses.

An important property of T is its symmetry, i.e. : ij = : ji . This symmetry can be

deduced from the condition of moment equilibrium. Consider for example a moment
about the z-axis due to : yx and : xy :

1 1 1
" : yx 9y9z # --- 9x " : xy 9x9z # --- 9y = --- " : yx : xy #9x9y9z . (25.33)
2 2 2

The shear stresses acting on the negative x- and y-surfaces contribute also, so that the total
moment about the z-axis is

" : yx : xy #9x9y9z . (25.34)

Eulers equation (for a rotating rigid body) states that

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 202 The Navier-Stokes Equation

:< yx = : yx

: xy
:< xy = : xy 0 y

9z
: yx 9x

9y

x
Figure 25.5: Sketch illustrating the components of the stress tensor.

d=
I z ---------z = " : yx : xy #9x9y9z , (25.35)
dt

2 2
" 9x # + " 9y # > 2 2
where I z = ---------------------------------- = ------ 9x9y9z & " 9x # + " 9y # ' is the moment of inertia of
12 12
the fluid element >9x9y9z , and = z is the angular velocity about the positive z-axis.
Then (25.35) reduces to

> 2 2 d=
------ ( " 9x # + " 9y # ) ---------z = : yx : xy . (25.36)
12 dt

d=
In order that ---------z remains finite, we need " : yx : xy # ? 0 when 9x! 9y ? 0 . It follows
dt
that : yx = : xy . Similar considerations establish that the stress tensor is symmetric, i.e.,

: xy = : yx! : yz = : zy! : zx = : xz . (25.37)

Selected Notes of David A. Randall

25.4 Invariants of the stress tensor 203

25.4 Invariants of the stress tensor

As in the case of the strain tensor, we have a scalar product

2 2 2
r ) T ) r = : 1 X 1 + : 2 X 2 + : 3 X 3 = constant , (25.38)

where : 1 , : 2 , and : 3 are the principal stresses acting on the surface elements normal to
the principal axes (X1, X2, X3) of the ellipsoid of stress. It can be shown that r ) T ) r is an
invariant under the rotation of the axes of reference. The sum of the normal stresses, i.e.,
the trace of the stress tensor,

: xx + : yy + : zz = : ii = : 1 + : 2 + : 3 = 3p , (25.39)

is also an invariant. For a moving fluid, (25.39) is the definition of pressure p , which
reduces to the static pressure when the fluid is at rest.
25.5 The resultant forces due to the spatial variation of the stresses

The resultant force acting in the x-direction on a volume element of fluid 9x9y9z
is

& : + (---------
: xx ' (: xy '
- 9x 9y9z : xx 9y9z + & : xy + ---------
- 9y 9x9z
" xx (x # " (y #

(: xz ' (: xx (: xy (: xz'
: xy 9y9z + & : xz + ---------9z 9x9y : xz 9x9y = & ---------
- + ---------- + --------- 9x9y9z .
" (z # " (x (y (z # (25.40)

Therefore the three components of the resultant force (vector) per unit volume are

(: xx (: xy (: xz (: xj 5
X = ---------- + ---------- + --------- = ---------3
(x (y (z (x j 3
3
(: yx (: yy (: yz (: yj 3
Y = ---------- + ---------- + --------- = --------- 4$. (25.41)
(x (y (z (x j 3
3
(: zx (: zy (: zz (: zj 3
Z = --------- + --------- + --------- = --------- 3
(x (y (z (x j
2

Equation (25.41) can be compactly written as

Selected Notes of David A. Randall

 204 The Navier-Stokes Equation

(: (: (:
DivT = -------x + -------y + -------z
(x ( y ( z

(: xj (: yj (: zj
= i --------
- + j --------- + k --------
-.
(x j (y j (zj (25.42)

DivT is a tensor divergence and, therefore, is a vector.

25.6 Physical laws connecting the stress and strain tensors

The relation between the stress tensor and the strain tensor may be established by
the following assumptions.

i)

: ij = p! ij + F ij , (25.43)

where F ij is the frictional stress tensor which depends on the space derivatives of the
velocity, i.e. the strain tensor.

ii) The relationship between F ij and eij is linear.

iii) The relationship does not depend on the frame of reference.

We have already shown that, with reference to the respective principal axes,

& :1 0 0 ' & e1 0 0 '

$ % $ %
T = $ 0 :2 0 % and * = $ 0 e 2 0 % . (25.44)
$ % $ %
" 0 0 :3 # " 0 0 e3 #

Because : 1 , : 2 , and : 3 are normal stresses and e1, e2, e3 are normal strains, it is natural
to assume that the principal axes of both tensors are the same. We therefore assume that

: 1 = p + @. ) V + 2*e 1 5
3
: 2 = p + @. ) V + 2*e 2 4$ , (25.45)
3
: 3 = p + @. ) V + 2*e 3 2

where p satisfies (25.39).

Writing direction cosines between the principal axes (X1, X2, X3) and axes of a
Cartesian coordinate system (x, y, z) as shown in Table 25.2,

Selected Notes of David A. Randall

25.6 Physical laws connecting the stress and strain tensors 205

x y z

X1 a1 b1 g1

X2 a2 b2 g2

X3 a3 b3 g3

Table 25.2: Direction cosines between principle axes.

we find that
2 2 2
: xx = 1 1 : 1 + 1 2 : 2 + 1 3 : 3 $
, (25.46)
: xy = 1 1 0 1 : 1 + 1 2 0 2 : 2 + 1 3 0 3 : 3

etc. Substituting (25.45) into (25.46), and using (25.24), we obtain

& : = & p + @ " . ) V # + 2*e '1 2 + & p + @ " . ) V # + 2*e '1 2

$ xx 1 1 2 2
$ 2
$ + & p + @ " . ) V # + 2*e 3 '1 3 p + @9 + 2*e xx , $ $ $ $ $ $
(25.47)
$
$ : xy = & p + @ " . ) V # + 2 * e 1 '1 1 0 1 + & p + @ " . ) V # + 2*e 2 '1 2 0 2
$
" + & p + @ " . ) V # + 2*e 3 '1 3 0 3 = 2*e xy , $

etc. In general we have

: ij = p! ij + @. ) V! ij + 2*e ij . (25.48)

This expression gives

: ii = 3p + @. ) V + 2*. ) V

= 3p + " 3@ + 2* #. ) V .$ (25.49)

Because we have defined : ij = 3p , we conclude that

3@ + 2* + 0 . (25.50)

Thus we have the final expression

Selected Notes of David A. Randall

 206 The Navier-Stokes Equation

1
: ij = p! ij + 2* & e ij --- . ) V! ij'
" 3 #

= p! ij + F ij .
(25.51)

25.7 The Navier-Stokes equation

Substitution of (25.51) into (25.42) gives the resultant forces per unit volume, as
expressed by the divergence of the stress tensor:

DivT = .p + DivF (25.52)

The equation of motion in the inertial frame (with subscript a omitted) is

DV
--------- = .A 1.p + 1DivF (25.53)
Dt

or, in Cartesian tensor notation,

Dv (v (v (A (p ( D 1 5
--------i = -------i + v j -------i = ------- 1 ------- + 1 ------- C 2* e ij --- " . ) V #! ij 4
Dt (t (x j (x i (x i (x j B 3 2

(A (p ( D ( v (v 2 (v 5
= ------- 1 ------- + 1 ------- C * & -------i + -------j' --- * -------k 4 $.
(x i (x i (x j B " (x j (x i# 3 (x k 2
(25.54)

This is called the Navier-Stokes equation.

When the fluid is incompressible " . ) V = 0 # , and * is spatially constant,

(25.54) reduces to

2
Dv i (A (p &( v '
-------- = ------ 1 ------- + 1* $ ---------i% $ , (25.55)
Dt (x (x i " (x 2 # j

or, in vector form,

DV 2
--------- = .A 1.p + 1*. V . (25.56)
Dt

Here we see the Laplacian of the vector V .

Selected Notes of David A. Randall

25.8 A proof that the dissipation is non-negative 207

1 ( v (v
It should be noted that e ij = --- & -------i + -------j' vanishes when V = = % r (rigid
2 " (x j (x i#
rotation), and that . ) " = % r # = 0 . This means that we do not have to worry about the
distinction between V a = V + = % r and V in the expression F = DivF in the equation
of relative motion. The frictional force is the same in the rotating frame as in the inertial
frame.
25.8 A proof that the dissipation is non-negative

The dissipation rate is given by

(v
" F ) . # ) V = F ij -------i - !
(x j
(u (u (u
= F 11 ----- + F 12 ----- + F 13 -----
(x (y (z (25.57)
(v (v (v
+ F 21 ----- + F 22 ----- + F 23 -----
(x (y (z
(w (w (w
+ F 31 ------ + F 32 ------ + F 33 ------ .
(x (y (z

Since F ij = F ji , we have

(v (v (v
! = F ij -------i = F ji -------i = F ij -------j , (25.58)
(x j (x j (x i

so we can write

( v (v
2! = F ij & -------i + -------j' $. (25.59)
" (x (x #
j i

But

1 (v (v 1 (v
F ij = 2* --- & -------i + -------j' --- -------i ! ij
"
2 (x j (x i 3 (x i #

D 1 (v (v 1 ( v (v 1 (v 5
= 2* C --- & -------i + -------j' " 1 ! ij # + --- & -------i + -------j' --- -------i ! ij 4$,
" # " #
B 2 (x j (x i 2 ( x j (x i 3 ( x i 2 (25.60)

or

Selected Notes of David A. Randall

 208 The Navier-Stokes Equation

1 (v ( v 2 (v
F ij = 2* --- & -------i + -------j' " 1 ! ij # + --- -------i ! ij . (25.61)
2 " (x j (x i# 3 (x j

Substituting (25.61) into (25.59), we find that

1 ( v (v 2 (v v i (v j'
& (------
! = * --- & -------i + -------j' " 1 ! ij # + --- -------i ! ij - + -------
2 " (x j (x i# 3 (x j " (x (x #
j i

4 2
= * 2e ij e ij " 1 ! ij # + --- " . ) V # ! ij .
3 (25.62)

This expression is obviously non-negative, since " 1 ! ij # E 0 and ! ij E 0 .

For a nondivergent flow, the dissipation can be expanded, using Cartesian

coordinates, as

! = 2*e ij e ij

1 (u ( v 2 ( u (w 2
= --- * & ----- + -----' + & ----- + ------'
2 " (y (x# " (z (x #

( v (u 2 (v (w 2
+ & ----- + -----' + & ----- + ------'
" ( x (y # " (z (y #

(w ( u 2 (w (v 2
+ & ------ + -----' + & ------ + -----'
" (x ( z # " ( z (z #

(u ( v 2 ( u (w 2 ( w (v 2
= * & ----- + -----' + & ----- + ------' + & ------ + -----' .
" (y (x# " ( z (x # " (y (z #
(25.63)

This shows that ! is the sum of squares; again, it cannot be negative.

Selected Notes of David A. Randall