Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cars have become a natural part of everyday life. Road tunnel ventilation is often based on jet tech-
Despite widespread public transport systems, nology, and the fans used are of jet type. Novenco
most people nowadays own a car. Parking facili- has adapted the design of their jet fans to suit car
ties are therefore in great demand, particularly in parking facilities where, among other things, low
cities and large towns. Conventional, open-air car sound emission and minimum height are impor-
parks take up far too much space, while people to tant, the latter in consideration of the relatively
an increasing degree prefer parks and open spac- low clearance.
es in their cities and towns.
Over the years, Novenco has established a unique
In other situations, climate conditions or a desire expertise in car park ventilation. Based on our ex-
to prevent parked cars from being vandalised ne- perience in the densely populated Netherlands
cessitate closed parking facilities. To meet these and the large cities of Germany where space is at
requirements, more and more multi-storey car a premium, Novenco has developed car park ven-
parks are being built, both below and above tilation systems for CO extraction and smoke con-
ground level. trol in case of fire. The main purpose of this book-
let is to describe the principles of CO ventilation in
However, car exhaust contains several hazardous
car parks and to provide a brief description of
gases, carbon monoxide (CO) and benzene
smoke extraction and control.
among others, and these must be extracted from
car parks for health reasons. The systems are characterised by low installation
and energy costs. They require no ducts in the car
For many years, Novenco has supplied fans for
park and are thus extremely flexible.
road tunnels, and their design and further devel-
opment have often taken place in close coopera- Our references include CO and smoke control sys-
tion with the authorities. Since 1993/94, we have tems installed in the Netherlands, Germany, Den-
put this experience to use in multi-storey car mark, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, the UK and Bel-
parks. gium.
MU 13734 1006
1
Air transport
Ventilation is the transport of air. To transport air The third method is known as jet ventilation and
a mass must be moved. At 20C, the density of air utilises the fact that a moving body changes ve-
is approx. 1.2 kg /m3. Ventilating 10 m3 air there- locity when it is subjected to a "pushing force". In
fore involves moving a mass of 12 kg. physics, this phenomenon is known as thrust.
Air can be moved in three ways. The best known On the basis of continuous testing, the use of jet
method is to transport it through ducting by ventilation has been optimised and integrated
means of a fan that either sucks or pushes the air into car park safety systems.
through the duct.
This booklet provides information on the possibil-
It is also well known that air moves vertically in re- ities provided by jet ventilation.
sponse to thermal differentials.
A Wall opening
3 A total parking level in question. When calculating
> 2,5% A floor the wall area, both outside walls and parti-
1,3 m
tioning walls must be included. Alternatively,
the area of the ventilation openings must be
Open car park facility at least 2.5% of the parking level floor area.
4. The distance between opposite walls must
Fig. 1 not exceed 54 metres.
2
5. There must be an open distance of at least 5 Closed car parks are characterised by:
m from an outside wall with ventilation
1. Outside walls that are more than 54 m apart.
opening to the nearest building.
2. Only a single outside wall with ventilation
6. Partitioning walls must not impede natural
openings, or openings that can be blocked.
ventilation.
3. Ventilation openings, if any, that do not
7. The lowest parking level must be no deeper
meet the requirements on open car parks
than 1.3 m below ground level.
(see definition on page 3).
If just one of these requirements is not met, the 4. Underground car parks with no ventilation
parking facility is classified as being a closed car openings.
park and forced ventilation must be used in the 5. A distance of less than 5 m to neighbouring
section concerned. buildings.
6. A depth of more than 1.3 m below ground
level.
7. Partitioning walls that impede natural venti-
lation.
3
Top view Side view
Semi-mechanical ventilation Mechanical ventilation
Fig. 3 Fig. 4
For example:
4
Principle of jet ventilation
In conventional ventilation systems, all air is
drawn through fans and ducting. This applies to
both the fresh air supplied and the spent air dis-
Jet fans running; side view
charged. To prevent pressure drop, air velocity is
kept as low as possible. However, this means that
ducts must be relatively wide, thus requiring con-
siderable space.
Air velocity profile; top view
5
No room for ducts
Fig. 6
For optimum efficiency, jet fans should be sus- achieve the greatest possible effective output,
pended completely freely. there must be at least 0.5 m to the nearest girder
on the inlet side and 2.0 m on the outlet side.
In practice, they are installed as close to the cei-
Girders should be no more than 0.4 m in height.
ling as possible to provide maximum clearance be-
Otherwise, girder height must be compensated
neath the fans. Air tends to adhere to even sur-
for, either by suspending the fans beneath the
faces. This phenomenon, known as the Coanda
ceiling or by increasing the distance to the nearest
effect, is of great importance for overall efficien-
girder.
cy. To compensate for this, Novenco jet fans are
equipped with directional grilles that bend the air This section provided a brief introduction to the
flow away from neighbouring surfaces. basic theory of jet ventilation. The following pag-
es will describe its use in practice.
Overall efficiency is also affected by inlet and out-
let conditions. Compensation must be made for
obstacles in the vicinity of the fans.
6
In car parking facilities, jet fans can be used to re-
place ducts for the extraction of both CO and ex-
plosive petrol fumes (CH4). The presence of CO in
a car park indicates that other hazardous fumes
(e.g. benzene) are also present. As a result of this,
the German authorities have reduced the limits
for CO in car parking facilities from 100 ppm to
50-60 ppm, depending on the federal state in
question. Ventilation is activated by sensors in the
car park for monitoring the level of CO and CH4.
The necessary number of sensors depends on the
layout of the car park and varies between one per
100 m2 to one per 500 m2. CH4 sensors are nor-
mally installed close to the ground (approx. 30 cm
above the ground) while CO sensors are installed
at head height (approx. 150 cm above the
In open car parks (see page 4), where no ventila-
ground). If sensors with 4-20 mA output are used,
tion is required, natural ventilation can be assist-
these can be connected to a CTS control system,
ed by jet fans, thus preventing the occurrence of
thus allowing limits to be adjusted.
"dead" areas. The same applies to parking facili-
ties that only just fail to meet the requirements
on open car parks. Here too, requirements can of-
ten be met using jet fans alone. In such cases it is
often best to use 100% reversible Novenco fans.
These fans are capable of providing the same
thrust in either direction so that the direction of
flow can be changed to suit wind conditions.
Fig. 7
7
Jet ventilation for smoke control
With respect to fire control in underground car Extracting smoke so that people present in
parks, many conditions, both technical and legis- the car park can escape before being over-
lative, must be considered. come by the smoke.
Controlling smoke so that firefighters can
In Denmark, standards are currently being pre-
enter the car park, localise the fire and get
pared. These will be based on function require-
close enough to it to be able to extinguish it.
ments rather than systems, but details of these
are as yet unavailable. Specific requirements are often set by the local
fire authority.
Previously, requirements on fire protection were
based on walls, doors, gateways, horizontal divi- In the case of underground car parks, it is impor-
sions, and sprinkler systems. tant to note that there will be no smoke-free lay-
er due to the relatively low ceilings (approx. 2.5
All these delay or stop the spread of fire. Howev-
m). The area surrounding the fire will become
er, when fires occur, most casualties are not
filled with smoke, which will spread to surround-
caused by the fire itself but rather by the smoke it
ing areas (fig. 8C). Figure 8 illustrates this situa-
produces.
tion in a closed car park. Fresh air is drawn in, and
That is why smoke extraction systems are current- spent air discharged, by means of axial flow fans
ly required to fulfil various functions. They must while air is transported across the car park by
be capable of: means of jet fans.
Fig. 8
8
In case of fire, the jet fans are turned off and the It is important to note that, in relation to CO ven-
fresh-air and exhaust fans are switched to maxi- tilation, smoke control requires a many-fold in-
mum power, corresponding to the necessary crease in the quantity of air taken in and dis-
smoke extraction rate. This allows anyone in the charged. The system must therefore be dimen-
car park to escape. Once the building has been sioned for smoke control if this is required.
evacuated or the fire brigade has arrived, the jet
The use of jet fans for smoke control purposes re-
fans are turned on, thus forcing air towards the
quires that all possible fire scenarios be analysed
exhaust fan. This provides two benefits:
in detail.
Firstly, smoke accumulates in a relatively lim-
Where are escape routes located?
ited area (figs 8a and 8b), allowing the site of
How long will it take to evacuate the car
the fire to be located and the fire extin-
park?
guished.
What is the expected output of a fire?
Secondly, the temperature in the immediate
What if more than one car catches fire?
vicinity of the fire is reduced, allowing fire-
How much smoke is expected, what is the ex-
fighters to get closer.
pected smoke temperature and how will it
As an additional benefit, damage to the
affect visibility?
building is minimised as the large quantities
How long will it take for the fire brigade to
of air cool the smoke and building surfaces.
arrive?
What are the action plans in case of fire?
Where can smoke be extracted?
How is a car fire expected to develop?
9
As previously mentioned, Novenco has played a led by corresponding groups of CO or CH4
leading role in the development of car park ven- sensors. The quantity of air to be moved can
tilation systems. The following provides a brief thus be regulated in response to require-
summary of the benefits to be achieved from us- ments. As this is achieved at relatively low air
ing jet ventilation in car parking facilities: velocities, energy is saved. Energy costs can
typically be reduced to approx. 60% when
1. Space saving
jet fans are used.
There is no need for space-consuming ducts
In conventional systems, relatively high air
in the car park, thus allowing the ceiling to
velocities are used in order to reduce duct
be lower. This allows a better use of limited
size, and this results in large pressure drops.
space in underground car parks and im-
When ventilation is required, the entire sys-
proves layout.
tem is started, and energy unnecessarily
Jet fans transport and distribute fresh air
wasted. This cannot be avoided as all ducts
within a "giant duct" the car park itself.
are interconnected.
2. Flexible installation
6. Cost savings
Various tests have shown that jet fans can be
There is no need to install ducts when jet
flexibly positioned. Individual fans can be
fans are used in car parking facilities. In
positioned within a radius of 2 m without af-
closed car parks there need only be a fresh-
fecting system efficiency.
air inlet and spent-air outlet. Pressure drop is
3. Complete mixing of air thus limited to that occurring in damper,
When jet ventilation is used, directional sound attenuator (if any) and shaft. This al-
"thrusts" of up to 45 m can be achieved. lows smaller motors and fans to be used,
Firstly, this allows complete air mixing and thus reducing sound levels.
efficient CO dilution. Secondly, it allows air On the other hand, jet ventilation systems re-
to be directed into "dead" corners where quire more cabling and larger electrical cab-
there would otherwise be a high risk of CO inets. However, even including these costs,
accumulation. jet ventilation systems are typically 30%
With conventional ventilation systems where cheaper to purchase and install than conven-
air is extracted through ducts, such pockets tional systems.
of high CO concentration may easily arise as
suction cannot be directional.
5. Energy savings
Jet fans can be arranged in groups, control-
10
Fire tests at TNO
11
Design criteria ny, this has meant that CO is now considered as an
indicator for other hazardous gases, including
Regarding the practical design of jet ventilation
NOx and benzole. As a result, permissible CO lim-
systems, determining the following five factors is
its have been reduced from 120 ppm to 50-60
of particular importance:
ppm which, with certain modifications, apply in
1. CO production the individual federal states. The specified limit is
2. Ventilation quantity an average value for a 30-minute period.
3. Direction of air movement
If the fresh-air intake is from a street with heavy
4. Noise levels within and outside the car park
traffic, the CO concentration of the intake air
5. Ventilation and extinguishing strategy in
should be set to 5 ppm, while in suburban areas
case of fire
with light traffic, the CO concentration can be as-
sumed to be zero.
Re 1:
CO production An engine produces more CO when it is cold than
when it is warm. VDI, the German Association of
Several factors affect the amount of CO pro-
Engineers, recommends the following engine
duced. More modern cars produce less pollution
emission values:
than older models as a result of improved com-
bustion and the use of catalytic converters. Cold Hot engine: 0.008s [g]
engines produce more CO than hot engines. Cold engine, s<80 m: 7. 6 [g]
Speed also affects CO production. All these fac- Cold engine, 80 m<s<500 m 0.89s0.49 [g]
tors must be taken into account when designing
where s is the distance driven inside the car park.
ventilation systems. They also explain why CO
production values differ from country to country.
Some countries have relatively many old cars
Re 2:
while in other countries, a greater proportion of
Ventilation quantity
the cars are new. The following calculations are in accordance with
the German standard VDI 2053 Jan 2002.
There are no standardised regulations in the Nor-
dic countries, but a model for calculating the re- Formula for determining the quantity of CO, qCO:
quired air quantity for CO ventilation is normally
qCO= Pe [m3/h]
used. The model calculates a necessary ventilation CO
flow on the basis of the number of parking spac-
where
es, the distance travelled to reach them and the
number of cars arriving and leaving per hour. The P = the percentage of parking spaces vacated
input data on CO production does not differenti- or occupied per hour
ate between cold and hot starts. Nor does it take e = emission value
into account the acceptable CO concentration CO = density of CO = CO 1.16 kg/m3 at 20C
within the car park, the CO concentration of the
Note that qCO is calculated for all cars in motion,
air outside the car park, or whether the car park
i.e. cars that start and leave, and cars that arrive
is part of a shopping centre or housing complex.
and are therefore hot. It is thus a calculation of
Since catalytic converters were introduced, the qCO.
production of CO by cars has fallen dramatically in
relation to other combustion products. In Germa-
12
Formula for calculating the necessary ventilation considerable fluctuation in the quantity of fresh air
quantity, Q: required to ventilate the car park, and P must there-
fore often be evaluated from case to case.
q co f g
Q = ---------------------------------------------- [m 3 /h]
CO perm CO out Note that parking frequency is based on the total
number of entries and departures per hour.
COperm = the permissible CO concentration in
ppm. There are no standards for COperm in Den- If 25% of the parking spaces are vacated per hour
mark, but VDI 2053 provides recommended limits. and 25% become occupied, the parking frequen-
cy is 50%. In this case, CO production must be cal-
COout = the CO concentration of the outside air in
culated for both cold and hot engines.
ppm. There are no standards for COout in Den-
mark, but VDI 2053 provides recommended limits.
An example of calculating ventilation re-
fg = a system factor, varying from 1.0 to 1.5 quirements
fg = 1.0 for jet systems
Consider a two-storey car park (levels 1 and 2)
fg = 1.25-1.5 for duct-based systems
with the following characteristics:
qCO = (qCO n1 + qCO n2 + + qCO nn)
Morning traffic
n1 = the number of parking spaces to be venti-
Type: Housing complex parking facility
lated in the level/section under considera-
tion fg = 1.25 (well designed duct-based parking facili-
n2 nn = the number of parking spaces in ty, i.e. optimum design with respect to ducts)
other sections accessed through n1 P = 60% (per hour)
n1 = 174 spaces
s1 = the average distance driven in n1
n2 = 106 spaces
s2 = the average distance driven in n1 by cars en-
tering/leaving n2 The total average distance driven (S) is calculated
as half the distance travelled (sn) plus a distance
As previously mentioned, P is the percentage of
for parking manoeuvres (sman) plus the length of
all parking spaces that are vacated/occupied per
the entry/exit ramp (srmp).
hour. It is also known as the parking frequency.
Sn = (sman + sn + srmp)
P varies greatly, depending on the location of the
s1 = 134 m
car park. With certain reservations, the following
s2 = 156 m
P-values may be used:
sman = 10 m
Housing complexes 20-60% sentry = 40 m
ramps
Shopping centres 70-150% sexit = 40 m
Office blocks 50-70%
Note that the distance driven within the car park
Sports centres 100%
can only be calculated correctly from drawings
Theatres 100%
containing the routes taken. On the basis of the
With regard to housing complexes, the parking pat- above data, the total average distance driven (S)
tern must be determined. Is there a steady stream of for the two levels can be calculated as follows:
traffic throughout the day, or do all cars leave at the
S1 = (10+134/2+40) = 117 m
same time in the morning and return together in
S2 = (10+156/2+40) = 128 m
the evening? The parking pattern may thus result in
13
As the traffic under consideration is morning traf- Please note that the calculations in the above ex-
fic with cold engines (see pages 12 and 13): ample are only applicable to CO ventilation and
must not be used for smoke extraction or control
qCO1 = Pe [m3/h]
CO in case of fire. Significantly greater ventilation
quantities are required for smoke control pur-
= 0.60.891170.49/(1.16103)=0.0048 m3/h/car
poses and the technical installations used must
qCO2 = Pe [m3/h] meet special requirements on heat resistance.
CO
= 0.60.891280.49/(1.16103)=0.0050 m3/h/car Re 3
In this example, COperm is assumed to be 50 ppm
Direction of air movement
and COout to be 0 ppm. The greatest possible distance between fresh air
intake and spent-air discharge must be ensured.
The necessary ventilation quantity (Q) can then be
Usually, the access ramp is used as the fresh-air in-
calculated as:
take, while an exhaust fan is installed in the oppo-
Q = (qCO1n1+ qCO2 n2)fg site corner.
COperm-COout
Re 4
Q = (0.0048174-0.005106)1.25
Noise levels within and outside the car
(50-0)10-6 park
Q = 34,130 m3/h It is important that requirements on noise levels
within and outside the car park and the most ex-
Had the parking pattern been different, for ex-
pedient location for the exhaust system be consid-
ample more evenly distributed throughout the
ered early in the project planning phase. Usually,
day, the parking frequency, P, could have been
it will be necessary to use sound attenuators, and
halved to 30%. This would also halve the neces-
space must be set aside for these and for a shaft.
sary ventilation air quantity, i.e. to approx. 17,000
m3/h.
Re 5
Evening traffic Ventilation and extinguishing strategy in
The necessary ventilation quantity in the evening case of fire
when the cars return can similarly be calculated as
If the system is to be used for smoke control, it is
follows:
important that the local fire authority be involved
qCO1 = 0.60.008117/(1.16103)=0.00048 m3/h/car at an early stage so that the most suitable strate-
qCO2 = 0.60.008128/(1.16103)=0.00053 m3/h/car gy can be determined.
Q = (0.00048174-0.00053106)1.25
(50-0)10-6
Q = 2,800 m3/h
It is extremely important that the correct assump-
tions be used when designing car park facilities.
Such information is only available from the car
park owner and the consulting engineer as they
know the assumptions made for the project.
14
General aspects of
car park layout
When dimensioning an underground car park, it In most car parks, clearance is limited to approx.
is important to consider the location of air inlets 2.4-2.5 m. It is therefore important to ensure that
and outlets. In most cases, it will be necessary to fans are installed where there is no risk of colli-
install an exhaust fan that can discharge the pol- sion.
luted air via a ventilation shaft. Out of considera-
Alternatively, the clearance required by the con-
tion for the surroundings, unsuitable shaft loca-
sulting engineer must be taken into account
tions must also be determined. It may be possible
when choosing fan size and/or location.
to disguise the shaft so that it blends with the sur-
roundings, e.g. as an advertising pillar at a shop- It is important to note whether the car park has
ping centre. visible girders as these may affect fan efficiency.
There must be a free distance to the nearest gir-
When dimensioning the exhaust fan, the pres-
der/wall of at least 0.5 m on the inlet side and 2.0
sure drop through the entire system from the
m on the outlet side. If girder height is greater
fresh-air intake to the discharge outlet must be
than 0.4 m, it may be necessary to lower the fans.
taken into account. Usually, it is best to transport
Ceilings without girders provide ideal conditions
air through the discharge system by means of
for the ventilation system and make the car park
suction rather than pressure as this prevents
aesthetically pleasing.
spent air unintentionally spreading to other
parts of the building. Fans are used to distribute
air within the car park and to ensure that "dead"
areas do not occur.
15
Noise emission
Car park
Car parks have many noise sources the most im- seldom be a problem. In extreme situations, the
portant being the cars themselves. The noise fans can be switched to full speed.
emitted by cars in motion is often about 75-80
If the system includes an exhaust fan, the noise
dB(A). There may also be technical installations in
emitted by the fan must comply with applicable
the car park that contribute to the overall noise
building regulations. There may be differences in
level. Exhaust fans are also a source of noise.
the permissible noise level depending on location
Depending on size and speed, the noise emitted (industrial site or housing complex). Similarly, the
by jet fans varies between 45-66 dB(A) per fan. time of day may affect the permissible noise level
Such fans are therefore insignificant noise sources close to property boundaries or the windows of
in comparison with other sources within the car housing complexes.
park.
16
Fire protection
It was mentioned in the preface that the main for the way in which the fire developed, visibility,
purpose of this booklet was to describe CO venti- smoke production and the length of time taken
lation. To underline the difference between CO for the fire to spread to neighbouring cars.
ventilation and smoke control, the following con-
In addition to investigating the Novenco system,
tains a brief summary of the results of fire tests
tests were also performed with a conventionally
performed in the Netherlands.
dimensioned duct-based system.
Novenco participated in a comprehensive series
of tests in Amsterdam designed to create basic 80 m
data for use in simulation models of fire out- Various parked
cars
breaks in car parks. The following authorities par-
ticipated in the tests:
35 m
Various parked
TNO (Netherlands Organisation for Applied cars
Scientific Research)
Netherlands Ministry of Finance
Amsterdam Fire Brigade Various parked
cars
Buildings Department
Amsterdam Parking Administration Place of fire Visibility measurement Radiation
Temperature measurement smoke/air measurement
Temperature measurement in concrete
17
The conclusions of the tests are as follows:
Conventional duct-based ventilation systems Such powerful ventilation also keeps the
are unsuitable for smoke control purposes, temperature down, thus minimising damage
even with air change rates of 8 times per to the building.
hour. The entire area quickly becomes filled Sprinklers are not necessary. Water damage
with smoke and locating the fire is difficult. can thus be minimised and there is no risk of
For smoke control, the exhaust fans must petrol from leaking petrol tanks being
have a capacity of at least 250,000-400,000 spread via water from a sprinkler system.
m3/hour, depending on fire size and car park Tests with cold smoke are not representative
layout. of fire situations.
While the car park is being evacuated, the jet The quantity of air to be extracted also de-
fans must be switched off as they otherwise pends on car park layout.
increase the mixing of air and smoke. Car parks can be emptied of smoke up to five
If the jet fans and exhaust fans are run at full times faster than conventional duct-based
speed after evacuation is complete, the systems with air change rates of 10 times per
spread of smoke can be kept within a limited hour.
area. The fire also remains visible at all times. Jet ventilation allows unconscious casualties
This allows fire development to be observed to be located and given treatment more
during the entire extinguishing process, thus quickly.
providing improved safety for the firefight- Novenco has video recordings showing the differ-
ers and faster fire extinction. ence in smoke control between jet ventilation sys-
tems and conventional systems.
Conclusion
Closed car parking facilities are ventilated more
efficiently by Novenco jet fans than by conven-
tional duct-based systems.
18
MU 13734 10.06
Novenco develops and manufactures
ventilation and re ghting systems that
are marketed and distributed world-wide
through subsidiaries and agents.
Novenco A/S Industrivej 22 DK-4700 Naestved Denmark Tel. +45 70 12 42 22 Fax +45 55 75 65 50
www.novenco.biz