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Bradley Efron
Science 340, 1177 (2013);
DOI: 10.1126/science.1236536
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http://www.sciencemag.org/content/340/6137/1177.full.html#ref-list-1
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PERSPECTIVES
resentatives from the major phytoplankton major nutrients, such as carbon and nitrogen. in the ocean, these are exciting times to study
classes in the oceandiatoms, dinoagel- Superoxide also oxidizes dissolved manga- the dynamics of superoxide in seawater. The
lates, and cyanobacteriacan also produce nese to solid manganese oxides, which are analytic capabilities exist, correspondence
extracellular superoxide (6, 9, 10). More- efcient trace metal sorbents and powerful with other disciplines provides a good stream
over, eld studies have found elevated super- oxidants of organic materials (12). When of ideas and hypotheses, and there are still
oxide concentrations in areas of high phyto- these minerals settle out of the water col- more questions than answers.
plankton abundance (5, 7). Hence, it is now umn, they inuence the distribution of trace
accepted that phytoplankton are the main elements and nutrients. Furthermore, super- References and Notes
1. J. M. Diaz et al., Science 340, 1223 (2013); 10.1126/
source of particle-associated superoxide in oxide promotes the degradation of dissolved science.1237331.
the upper, photic, oceanic water column (see organic matter, with implications for the 2. R. M. Baxter, J. H. Carey, Nature 306, 575 (1983).
the gure). marine carbon cycle. Further interactions and 3. E. Micinski, L. A. Ball, O. C. Zariou, J. Geophys. Res. 98,
Diaz et al. show that extracellular pro- biogeochemical roles of superoxide in the 2299 (1993).
4. S. P. Hansard, A. W. Vermilyea, B. M. Voelker, Deep Sea
duction of superoxide is widespread among ocean are likely. Res. I 57, 1111 (2010).
taxonomically divergent heterotrophic bac- Given its functions in other systems, 5. A. L. Rose, A. Godrant, M. Furnas, T. D. Waite, Limnol.
teria from a range of different environments. superoxide may play a role in the chemical Oceanogr. 55, 1521 (2010).
6. A. L. Rose, E. A. Webb, T. D. Waite, J. W. Moffett, Environ.
Some of their bacterial cultures are marine interactions among microorganisms at sea. Sci. Technol. 42, 2387 (2008).
isolates; these bacteria can potentially gen- Superoxide is potentially toxic to organ- 7. S. A. Rusak, B. M. Peake, L. E. Richard, S. D. Nodder, W. J.
MATHEMATICS
Bayes theorem plays an increasingly
Bayes Theorem in the 21st Century prominent role in statistical applications but
remains controversial among statisticians.
Bradley Efron
T
he term controversial theorem They wondered what the probability was that a daily basis, correctly predicting the actual
sounds like an oxymoron, but Bayes their twins would be identical rather than fra- vote in all 50 states. Statisticians beat pun-
theorem has played this part for two- ternal. There are two pieces of relevant evi- dits was the verdict in the press (2).
and-a-half centuries. Twice it has soared to dence. One-third of twins are identical; on Bayes 1763 paper was an impeccable
scientic celebrity, twice it has crashed, and the other hand, identical twins are twice as exercise in probability theory. The trouble
it is currently enjoying another boom. The likely to yield twin boy sonograms, because and the subsequent busts came from overen-
theorem itself is a landmark of logical rea- they are always same-sex, whereas the like- thusiastic application of the theorem in the
soning and the rst serious triumph of statis- lihood of fraternal twins being same-sex is absence of genuine prior information, with
tical inference, yet is still treated with suspi- 50:50. Putting this together, Bayes rule cor- Pierre-Simon Laplace as a prime violator.
cion by most statisticians. There are reasons rectly concludes that the two pieces balance Suppose that in the twins example we lacked
to believe in the staying power of its current out, and that the odds of the twins being iden- the prior knowledge that one-third of twins
popularity, but also some signs of trouble tical are even. (The twins were fraternal.) are identical. Laplace would have assumed
ahead. Bayes theorem is thus an algorithm for a uniform distribution between zero and one
Here is a simple but genuine example of combining prior experience (one-third of for the unknown prior probability of identi-
Bayes rule in action (see sidebar) (1). A phys- twins are identicals) with current evidence cal twins, yielding 2/3 rather than 1/2 as the
icist couple I know learned, from sonograms, (the sonogram). Followers of Nate Silvers answer to the physicists question. In modern
that they were due to be parents of twin boys. FiveThirtyEight Web blog got to see the parlance, Laplace would be trying to assign
rule in spectacular form during the 2012 an uninformative prior or objective prior
Department of Statistics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA U.S. presidential campaign: The algorithm (2), one having only neutral effects on the
94305, USA. E-mail: brad@stat.stanford.edu updated prior poll results with new data on output of Bayes rule (3). Whether or not this
can be done legitimately has fueled the 250- of selection bias or regression to the mean.
year controversy. These would be false discoveries.
If P(A) is the probability of A and P(B) is the
Frequentism, the dominant statistical para- False discovery rates (FDRs) (5) are a
probability of B, then the conditional probability
digm over the past hundred years, rejects the of A given B is P(A|B) and the conditional
recent development that takes multiple test-
use of uninformative priors, and in fact does probability of B given A is P(B|A). Bayes theorem ing into account (6). Here, it implies that the
away with prior distributions entirely (1). In says that 28 genes with z values above 3.40 (red dashes
place of past experience, frequentism consid- in the figure) are indeed interesting, with
ers future behavior. An optimal estimator is P(A|B) = P(B|A)P(A) the expected proportion of false discoveries
P(B)
one that performs best in hypothetical repeti- among them being less than 10%. This is a fre-
In the twins example, A is twins identical and B
tions of the current experiment. The resulting quentist 10%: how many mistakes we would
is sonogram shows twin boys. The doctors prior
gain in scientic objectivity has carried the says P(A) = 1/3; genetics implies P(B|A) = 1/2 average using the algorithm in future studies.
day, though at a price in the coherent integra- and P(B|not A) = 1/4, so P(B) = (1/2)(1/3) + We expect only 2.8 of the z values exceeding
tion of evidence from different sources, as in (1/4)(2/3) = 1/3. Bayes theorem then gives 3.40 to be null, that is, only 10% of the actual
the FiveThirtyEight example. number observed. Larger choices of the cutoff
The Bayesian-frequentist argument, unlike P(A|B) = (1/2)(1/3)/(1/3) = 1/2 would yield smaller FDRs.
most philosophical disputes, has immediate This brings us back to Bayes. Another
The two pieces of evidence thus balance out, and
practical consequences. Consider that after interpretation of the FDR algorithm is that
the likelihood of the boys being fraternal is equal