SHAHKlf\~AH-f'-\E ~()W})l+V~\

t<ENE:W~\ ~8~'(
2. Fundamental Physics of Solar Radiation Si~EJ,~~ OL
~F~-L\~3
/1t2
])A\:-?-9S IO~

This chapter describ~s the basic aspects of the transfer of cn'Crgy by electromagnetic
radiation as one <iqhreefundament~i physical transfer processes. From thc,bth~ri

elementary proc~~~~, heat, ~onduction and convection. arc convective proc~sses ()q.!

great impo~ance}of atmospheric energy transfen, but will nOI be coverp.9 jn,tI1ei\l

scope ofthl5 te!,!.! . . I I

The fundamental physical concepts and functions introduced by Planck. Kirch

hotfand Stefan-Boltzmann are introduced and the clccu'ol11ilgnctie spectrum emitted!

by the sun is presented. Using this framework the solar constant and the extraterres- i

trial radiation as a measure of the radiant flux received by the earth from ~lle sun arc':

calculated. i ' r'" i il

All matter emits electromagnetic radiation alall wavelength:; due to 1!S atomic,

and molecular agitation unless it is at a temperature or 0 K. The intensity and the::

. spectral distribution of the' radiation is solely detennincd by the temperature and;:

the material properties of the emitting body (particularly of its :.url:,ce). Doth ard! ,

de5cribedby the fundamental radiation laws of KirchholT and Planck.

A good approximation of intensity and spectral distribution of the radiation ofi

a given body can,be made by using the idealized concept of a black bodi::, A per-'i:

feet black body is an object that docs not rencct any radiation whatever. but fully

absorbs all radiation falling on it. It emilS the maximum amount of energy along all.

.. wavelengths and into all directions.

(2.1) ..:

where k :::::1.381 10- 2 :1 WSK-I is Boltzmann's constant, II = ;6~G26 .'
10- 34 Ws2 is Planck's constant ilOd c == 2.998 . lOti ms I is the :vaeuun~ vcloc- i
ity oflig.ht. ' " . .i
,;' A mo;epract!c~.l for~lll!lation of Planck's law takes Into account that tpe' [lhO-ill "
t9nsnwy~ is<?~~()p'ic~nr~i~:sp~cdc,e.g. within a small solid angle.: Theil for theli i
'~ ) : ' ~ .; . , '1" ' !'. f. , -'. -1
 6 2. Fundamental Pllysics ofS"olar Radiation

calculation of the energy flux..dens~ty of black-body radiation at temperature '1' into

a unit solid anglf; asa fiiilction of fr~quency a factor 1" / (' has to be appl ied and it
. becomes:

Lv(ir\P2./~~~:~~;:U;~[Wm-2sr-lsJ
; . (,,- :c
(2.2)
" .. j : ~ !'
. This exp're~~i(m Jt'- I:'ll\e~.the Planck lunction ami \:;\11 abo be wnllen in terms 'of
'wavelength:' . '. ,.." ...

L (T) - 2hc?- 1 [Wm- 2 sr- llI.m- l l, (2.3)

>. ~,\5:ehcl>'kT_l '.! ."

The hemispherical spectral' radiant nux emerging from a unit surface (radiant
exitance) then is (Fig. 2.1):

(2.4)

For each temperature the black-body emission approaches zero for very small
and very large wavelengths. The curve for a wann black body Iics above the curve.
for a cooler black body at each wavelength. 1';'
Approximately, the sun (more strictly, its gascous ~urfacc) is a blacK-body emit
ter. The effective surf~ee temperature is ,..., 5780 K. . 0>

The relationshipbetween the waveleJ;lgth ofa black body's maximum emission

'\m and the corresponding absolute temperature is given by Wiell's Jisplacelllcnt
law which results fron~ taking the derivative of Planck's equation:

\ _ 2891, t mK:
Am - T . (2.5)

"

.>, "2.2 Radiant Flux ~mitted by the Sun

--..:;

Integration of Planck's function (Eq. 2.3) over the entire wavelength domain leads
to the fundamental Sle!an-Bollzmann law, which givcs the total radiant nux density
emiued by a blackbody at temperature T (emittcd raJiation per unit time and area):

M._ = LX, M >.(T) d'\ = "! 1"" L>. (T) d'\ = aT'1 '(2.6)

where a = 21r 5 k4j15c2 h 3 = 5.67. .1O-1:! Wm -2 K -.1 is the Stcfan~Boltzlnann ;1:

constant. '.' ,' ' . . ' , .. I ' .. ,I
Inserting T = 5780 K yields the radiant cxitance from the sun's surface:

M.;", = 5.67.10-8 .57804 WIl1-:l ,~ I i,

:(2.7)
= 6.33 .107 Wm-,2 . \:

. \
, I

i;
\.,

I.

i~

 2.3 Solar Constant 7

WithAnm ,= 41Tr:"" and 1'Stu, = G.% . UI" 111, tile total radiant lluxemiltcd by
the sun is: 1,11' ,
.Ii,

<P 8,,11 =.11[.,," . A. It "

. d .
~;t [l~~I'l t:.~ ";;:~
= 6:33 ,10 Wm-2:~4. 3.14 (G.9G 10" m)~
7
;(2.8)
~.
= I 3.85
.'
. 10:-16 W.
! .: ~
I'
;

2.3 Solar Constant

i . i q!l
From energy' conservation principles the total radiant nux through the surfu9c of
thesun (<P8~~). e,quals;the flux through any spherical surface eoncentrk Lo thei sun., :
Espepia1\y,/p'~~spher~wilh a radius f d the mean distance between ~U'l an,d car'll,
I

it is (Fig, 2;3): ,1 :'. ~ ,. . ,!

';1'\: ~t'i'l :; 2' : . '\ t:'
~lIT6uttA-[~~~=47rrSE.. c i~f9)
ii'
.
The ratio f. = {r.urJr ::;)2 = 2.165 10 -,", :::: 1j.W20(l i~ called dilL/fioll/actor
and is an often
used number in sun-earth astronomy. .
From this. the solar radiant flux passing through a unit area at the mean distance
of the earth from the sun is:

E.c = J.M.tln. = 1367 Wm- 2 .. Will" (2.10)

1 res is called an astronomic unit: 1 A.U.:::: 149.601:111011 km.

,.

0.0 J!l:.~-'-:'=---,---l...~=~~=-e::~==d
o 3 '
r:
',I ;1'
'i ; ,. ., :1,
Fig. 2.1. Spectra ofcmiucd blac~-body radi~tion ror T 6000 K to 4000 Kin steps or 500 K.
 ;! .

8 2. Fundamental Physics of Solar Radiation

Esc is called the solar constant. This value has changed in the past as new md;
-:-.c:..> surement techniques (e.g. satellites) have been applied. !n the li~erature a value 91'
1353 Wm- 2 is given frequently. This value is out of date. . '
The solar. cqnstant is the solar radiant flux received on u surface of unit area
perpendicular to the sun's direction at the average sun-earlh distancc outside the
earth's atmosphere.

2.4 Total Solar Radiant Flux Re~civcd by the Earth

I ..

Being Ac the cross sectional area of thz earth disk as s'Cen by the sun' and '/"c If'!'
6371 km the mean earth radius, it is: ,,, '. 'I' '. i'

<Pc ~ AeE8c:= 1fr;E"c

(2.11)
= 3..142. (6.371 . 106 m)2. 1367 Wm- 2 = L7;j 10 17 W.
<Pc is the mean total radiant flux the earth receives from the sun. From this, the total
solar energy received by the earth per year is: ' .'

Qe ;= 5.51::102~ J = 1.53 lOllS kWh. (2. If)

" ,
~.r.:'.~c~~p~
...lnl(th. ,~;Wumb~r. 'with the annual world primary energy consum~tion!n
i ' ,.
~:"'I 1997 ' 102" '10'1;)
;.,",-.,."..2 ", kWh'
resuI
15'In a ...lac,or
+ 0 r rv 1500L\7.\
1, . . . . : '-':l:hi:;1<~>.,i: ;"';:;1 ": '! '
2 BP Statistical R~Yiew of World Energy, 1998 (hllp:llwww.bp.<.:om/bpstats)

. W"'""""fIihC,m) i .,
Fig. 2.2. Spectra 'ofcmiUcd black-body radiation for T = 6000 K (sun liurfacc' , T ~ 10001<,
,I,.!.
i
I

and T = 300 K (earth surface) in a logarithnic scale. The straight line iudie tei; 'the wave
length or maximum emission as a rUllction :'If temperature as glvCII by Wien'li' 9isplacem\":llt
law. . '
 2.5 Extraterrestrial Radiation '. 9

2.S Extraterrestrial Radiation

The orbit of the earth around the sun is slightly clliplicai with the sun al 011F of
the foci and therefore causes a change of the sun-earth distance: r!;,'} throughout the
year. This variation is expressed by the ecccntril:ily correction faclor (0 (Spencer.
1971):

f~ = (fES):!
rES r'
I
I,
I

::::! 1.00011 + 0.034221 ~d + Q.OU128HiH Ii (2.13)

" ........... 11.'.1" .\., ,

+0.000719~ 2d + 0.000077 Sill '2d, " . 'C'(2:l4) , ;

.. ! : _J! : -. l ""'jH
where d =.~'Ir(n ,... 1)/365 is the day angle in radian:; and Ii is the number of the
day in the year (n = 1 on 1 January).
In most applications the simpler ap['lroximation

fU ::::!
JUO'
1 + 0.033 . cos ( ~ H) (2.15)

can be used..;, .
With this, the'extraterrestrial radiation at normal in~idence is given by:
I :~ ." it
:j)' ! :.Pt >Ht i,: :: -! 'tr:\ -
;iyou:: ~"Gac: . :
I'~ ~:oltl + 0.033. cos C~~n) ].
.
, (~.l6)

': .

Fig. 2.4 gives the annual variation according to Eq. 2.16.

, .
:1
't I

. !

. I ' i ~ \.

sun

-
;":. . . .......''.. . . . - -1---
L
. ~.' :.

1 i
; ..... '...... .
.... / ,. !

Fig. 2.3. Sun-Ea.,,!h gcomelry.

l. !
 10 2. Fundamtntal Physics of Solar Radiation
I'
1420

1400

j
'"'E
s:
1380

1360

/
1340

1320

0 90 180 270 360

day ot year

Fig. 2.4. Annual variation of the extratcrrestrial irraLliancc at normal incidcnce d;lc to thc
varying sun-earth. distance. .

.,

.,

 3. Solar Geometry

The amount of solar radiation reaching the earth surfate is affected by several in
fluences. If the highly variable attenuation of solar radiation by tlte atmosphere is
set aside for~ 'moment, the specific astronomical situation of the car&h 's revolu~ion
around thesuo'~ndit~rotalion around it:; polar axis an: the dOl\1inatil~g cOCCI:;. :~' ,
A~ the irradiance'on a plane nonnal to the su,n\ rays is exactly described by the
extraterrestria}iadiation, the angular displacement oi' the SUIl'S position' from this
nOnllal incidence has to be derived from astronomical alit! geographical considcra
tions~ Irradiarice on any surface is than given by

G = G" cosO, (3.1)

where G, is the irradiance on a plare norl11allo the sun's direction'a~d 0 is1the

angle of incidence.

I he denvation of these relationshif.s requires the introduction of basic aslro~

nomica! quantities in order to calculate 'the position vf the sun for any: loCaliol,l ,on
the canh and for any time.
If second-order effects as reflection from adjacellt ~urraccs and obstruction by
neighboring structures are neglected, im,diance is fully l.k:termined by lhe geol11qlri~
constellation of the sun and the receive" plane.: . .

the position of the sun in the sk)' and

the slope and orientation of the surface.

Trigonometric relationships describing the inllw.:nce of the eanh's revolution

around the sun and the canh's rotation around it:> own axis ( ---> diurnal changes of
irradiancc) .
Annual variations of the irradiance arc mainly callsed by the varying position of
the polar axis.w~th respect to the sun (in .addition to the varying wn-earth distancC').
., ~f; i. .
.;~' -.~~;-::'Jl .~t.;~".1 ~\:r -:~.~~~: _ .

3~FSun~Earth Astronomy

)~_~ ,: ,1' .

The ~~ithrevolves around th~ sun in a plane called eclifJlic planc. The:eanh's axis.
(polar a.l'ds) is inclined at 23.45 (constant in time) with respect to the nonnal t.o
, the ecliptic plane. The same then holds for the angle between the canh's equatorial
plane and theccliptic plane.

I
 12 3. Solar Geometry

U
, ~ 23 4'5 0
"
.,
:;m
(360(284 +
305
It)) , I (3.2)

The following equation gives the declinallon. in degrees, with an accuracy of

0,05 (Spencer, 1971):
6 = (0.006918:- 0.399912cosd+ O.07U2::Jhiud
-0.006758 co:; 2d + 0.000907 :oill2fl) , 100/". (3.3)
whered = 27r(n - 1)/365 is the day angle ill radiims.

3.2 Solar Time

Daily variations of solar radiation are u:ually calculated on the basis of solar time,
which is defined in the following way:
A solar day is the time interval betw~cn two consecutive crossings of the slIn's
path with the local meridian. The lengtL of thi:. interval changes from uay1lo,day
(deviation < 30 sec). Only its mean valu~ cquab :;4 h, ! . ',' ;i'
Solar 110011 then is the time of the crc: slIlg of the ~un 's path with the local merid
ian.
The variation of the solar day lengtl, i::, caused by (i) the ellip~ical pamoqhe
earth around the sun (Kepler's second aw: The radius vector" from the' sun ;toa

25

20

15
.
0; 10
Q)
& 5
c:
,g Q
.. ~
:. 'fi 5
Q)
-q ..to

-15
-

-20

~5L------------------------------------
o 100 200 300 365
day of year

Fig. 3.1. Annual variation or the ~olar dccilnJIIOn,

 \I!
:i

3.2 Solar Time 13

planclsweeps out equal areas in cqualtilt:cs) ano (ii) the till oCthe cartl~'s axis with
respect to the ecliptic plane. This difference between the solar time and the lqcw'
mean ~ime ~n ~ninute:i is expressed by the t:ll1pirical C'ili<l1101I u/liIlU: E (Fig..3.2):
; .
E!~ 9;81~iI112D:~; 7.53cosB - 1.5~-;il1 B. I .
(3.4)
i
..~qef~:P.l~(j.69: ~ ((!1 81)/~64 in degrees.
1: - ..! il" , ..
For a ~ighera,ccjira!=ythefollowing fonnula can be used (Spcncer, :197 \): .1
;; ~ i .;-\.. '!' ,:1. .: 1 ' . -,' ~.
=
E '(0:000075 + 0.001868 cosd -0.032077 :-liB d \I ~
',;: : ,\i,--q:j-, . .
j' -:-0,PI,~6~5co:;2d - 0.04084\)si1l211) (l1')U 4/ .. ) (3.5)
where d again is the day angle.

The maximum value of E i5'16.5 minutes (for day It "" 303). :i'

Solar time differs from standard time (i.e. the tillle we an: used towork ~ith,

detennined by the time zone) duc to (i) variation or the kllt;th of ~he solar day,
and (ii) a difference between the local longitudc ami the standard longitude or'thc
appropriate time zone (Fig. 3.3).
- solar time = local time + E
Note: local time oF standard time!
The 10caLtime is a function of the ac.tual (local) Illngitulk 1" (i.e.: ::;,!111C local
time only on ~he same meridian), the ::;tar.dard li111e I:. a runction ortimczoncs o.nly
(corresponding to standard longitudes L.:.
Usually, the standard meridiilns arcwul~ .
tiples of ISO E9f W of Grcenwich. The standard meridian for Centrill;Europell'for'
example, ilj 15E (TZ '" -I from Greenwich). . . .,

The true solar time (TST or LAT) is ca1criatc,1 i'rom local tillle (LST) using

iAT='LMT+E
,; !l .
=L::rr - DST + 4(L. - Ld T f;
/') :"'1"1
I

20 ~--------------------------------~

C 10 . . . . , ....... : .... .
].
<U

.""'0E 0
.g!II
-. 6
UJ -10 . J. .
!; ,
II

.20 L-..I.-L.-........L...I--'-.l.-J'-'--'-rL-'-'-..J-J-J.-'--'-J....J.-'--'-'--'-'

.0
240 300 360

".
I'

Fig. 3.2. The, equation

1';
ortimc.
,

....
,

-- . ..i
 : " ,I'

E~ample: Calculation ofthc'localtime at solar noon for Oldcllburg,'Octobet IS.

The local longitude is 8.20 East (= - 8.2), the standanJ longitude is ! S East (CET).

LST = LAT + DST - 4(Ls - Ld - E

= 12: 00 + 1- 4(-15 - (-8.2)) - 11

= 13 : 00 + 0 : 27 - 0 : 11

= 13: 13.

The hour angle w is a quantity which describes the solar time in trigonometric

reWlOnshlps, It equals the angular dlsp.lacement 01 the sun from the local, meridian

due to the rotation ofthe earth. One hour corresponds to an angle of IS (360?/ 4h .

Il'ie morntnghours are' negative an th~ afternoon hours arc positive by' convcn(ion." i ,

Ai solar 1100n w equals 0. ',,' , die,"

3.3 Position of the Sun

, " ~" ;1'
To calculate ih~ irradi;mce on any plane the position or Ihe slIn willJ r~spect' tJ!ihdl'

planc'(precis~ly: to the normal to that plane) must be known, The s~n 's position in

the sky hemisphere can be completely described by Iwo {ju<lnlities (Fig. 3,4):

*3mm - solar altitude u (elevation above horizon) ,

- solar azimuth 1/J

The sUli's altitude
,
is given by spherical trigonometry (with geographical latitude'; (/1):

sin u :::= sill 8 Sill + cos' () cos rjJ cos w (3.7)

The solar azimuth is given by:

, sin ex sin rjJ - sin 8
COS'lJl = ----'----
cos ex cos cP
Ij'
The quantity describing the angle between the incoming solar be,1Il1 radi#tion '"
and the normaito the receiving surrace is thc <lIlgle ... 1' incidencl.! () (Fig. 3.4).. ',\' .

Solar Time - - - - - - - _ . LocalTin,e -~---.-----~ Standard Time

.. . .
True SoIarJime (TSTl Local Slanda,d Tima (LST)
Local Sclar Time CIvil Tim<J ' ..,.
Local Apparenl Time (LAT) Local CIodo. Timo

Equation Of Time

Fig. 3.3. Commonly used tenns of time and their rc\alioll;hlll.

,
. : I;

This angle depends on

- geograp leal location (latitude)

- lime of year (declination), time of :ay (hour angk\

- OIientation or the plane (slope p, !i.lrrnc..: .lzimmi1 ~.)

0= f(l/J,o;OJ,fl,[).
, -r:its ci:lc~iation:tw'o additional ar.gles have 10 be introduced: The slope an~le - .
F, flbetween th~C()liector plane 'and the horizontal surface which varies betwecn 0 Cor .
, a hOrizontal plane and \10 for a vertical plane. Ihe surface azimuth angle ~( as t]1e
.. deviation orlhe nonnal of the pLane from the local ml.!liulan. AI IS counted clockwise
~ from N where Its value IS 0, (thus for S it is 11:10 0 ) on both flbnisphl.!res. !:'l0te that
in the literature often a"value of 180 for an orientation towaru~ the equator is used!

-Then it is:

~oso == Sir~O:(Sill q,cosli + COSSill fj cos ~f)

+'co~o cosw (cos q, cos (3 - Sill C') sill ,'i {'(,,, ~d
-' cos 0 Sill (:J sill ~(:;iuw) (3.10)

,. ~/.
a c of SOl.l~.e special situations simplilied I.!xpressiolls can be given:
pri:.:;ontal surfaces: Ii :::. O(i.f!., (os Ii =- 1. sill:} . 0)

. cos 0 = Sill 0sini/J + cos 0 cos q, ::os w

! ,.,

For horizontal surfaces () equals the zmith angk U; (ScI.! Fig.3,4 ).

The 900 complel11cill of thc zenith angle is thl! solar elevation angle (~ (solar

altitude).

Vertical surtbccs facing towards the equator: ;:I =:.c: \JO" . ')
hemisphere arid "'( = 00 for the south'!n1 hemisphere

cos 0 = ':- sill c5 cos if> + cos is Sill'~ co:;..; , (3.12)

Inclined surfaces facing towards the equator with a tilt angle equal to the absolute
value of the latitude (northem hemis<')hen:: /1 = 1(1. Ai = lHO"; :;outhcm hemi
sphere, (j = -I/J, [ 0):
e-
cos 0 = co:; 0 cos w (3.13)

Fotsolar noon (w = 0) it is: O = 101 .

Sunrise and sunset 0;. == 90 0

sill 0 sinq, = - cos 0 co:; if> cos w

In thi~ case, the sunset hour angle w.,. is:

sin 0 sill q,. .
cosw =,- " =,~tallol(ul(~
, cOSu cosq}
 4. Intcnlction ~f Sohar Rcldiu(jol1 wilh the Atmosl)hcrc

"
In 111l' pn;vlOu;; chapters unly the cxtrall;rn:slilal radiiltllliT lIiI,' beell c.m:.ilicl'ed; I.C,. " ,

lhe radiative lran::.fer lhrough the <lInlO~phCll' ',V;l~ Illli 11l1l1len..:..:d by tile atlllllsplier,:.

--. delerminislic wdi.ltiun calculation; unly :"llal' geolilclry

As solar radiation passcs through thc carth '!i .11111051'1\..:1'1:, ~umc ur

it b absorbed
or scallercd by air molecules, waleI' vapor, aerosuls, and clollds, TIIO.: solar rlll.li:qiul\
thilt passes lhrough directly 10 the carlh's SlIl:racc is calh.:d dire..:t solar mdill:ion,
Thc radlallon that'has' been"scaUcrcd oul of the Jircct beam IS called dill'use solar
'tfadiation, The direct component of supJighl ana the difiusc componcnt of skylight
- falling together on a hOrizontal sur ace rna e up goa
e e l!l\.n~ .t lC Irradmnce e;su ace requires l1ow.e ge C le influence
of [he atmosphere. Look'ing at the different components in the atmosphere which
COlild influence the radiation transfer, mainly two groups have to b~ considered:
The gaseous molecules of dry air which are uniforllily mixed both in the horizontal
and in the vertical below heights of 80 kill and the highly vIHiable mnounts of water
vnpor (H20) nnd aerosol particles. Water vapor is present in a runge between 0 and
4 per ccnt ofthe humid atmosphere with r. vertical profile showing a strong decrease
of concenlration with height.
Pinally, thci[~(itlid and solid water cODtainetJ ill c1\)lld~ ha~ [\J be consHkr~'d as iI
main atlcm:a(()I' of solar radiation if; thc atmusphere. ' ..

'.I'Hblc 4.1. Cumposition or Ihe dry I\lmO~I)hel\; by \ l,lulllo.: (pPIII PilU, per million),
NihU;!l'l1 7iIof'y;----'
"Oxygen 20.'15 'V.
Argon 0.93%
Carbon Dioxide 350 ppm
Neoll 18 ppm
Hellul11 S pplll
Kryplon I ppm
Hydrogen 0.5 ppm
Ozone 0.0512 ppm (variuble)

,,~:'- .1
"'.. ..
r", ..
\,

II:

I.,

IJ
J ,
\
 20 4. Interaction of Solar Raui<ltion wilh Ihe I\lmosplll:n:
,

.: .;r-'

"::'1'~~~~~~~~~~~:.-..

,.:'

The angular dislrlbulion of the scallered radiati()1l i~ givcn by the R.lyk,ig[. scat
tering phase function for unpolarizcd incident wdiali,,\11 (Fig. 4.1):

.Jji.' . (4.1)

I'(V') i;; ,\ lIon-dimcnsional parameter and is II<.Jnlldizcu to ullily. i,e., it has the
prol"'I'(Y thal

,
"
'
. .~- f .Inr ~itl. V)(N"dO ,.:: : "]
7i .I'
1ro , (4,2)

\1ic ',Cilikrilll!, is used lit~ n:I;.liwly ,,111;111 i,,"I:des !.IIl'h ;1:, Illill\l:;cuk' water
{I l pl.~'"
or log, cloutl particles, alltl p;:rtdes rCSll!lIIsihk I'or the pulluted sky, In
 \/

22 4, Interactioll urSular Radbti<H1 with :1", /',1.111\';1'1 ..:,,;

.(

Relative Air
......4.l____= '. Mass
_z' :~..:.-- ..
;_-:::'-,-~;o"r.<,\,~,.,;., , .' _ ,,....~
. For an. assess.!nentof,extinction proCe~:;cs in HI": alm():;phc~c it is l!ccC'ssary lokllOw !$

the totalmus:; or.'optical PJlh' of ,.lniosphCIC whkh Ii.: be,lm IrJV(;fllCS 011 its way
to the surf!Ice (or the Ic\'e! ill question,. . ' ~. . . ' ', . . /~ .Z
.....
The rclalivc'palh length of direct sol'li b::<'!ll mdiallCl' Ihwu~h the .llmu:;pher..: is
,;iv"cn by the wtio between the vertical 0 )lleal );lIil 11/. lllld II "~ actual onticuh,llh'lll::'
t) Ie so HI' cam. II can bt) de;;cribed as a ilillctiull ()r~~. : ::lilh angh: a, 1I1l~ .2t::.~ ~ t\ ~~
'Tn, 1 , . .
,--.:. "'" - - - = IWC{)~ ;.... ni,,, (4 ..,)
7h elili Oz
Tit..: ~lllal1 I YUt"
i~ knuwn as Ill..: 1'f.4alil'C' ail' III<IS,\'. III ~vl.ll CIICI'l:\Y fur III" COIll
m'lmty AK/! IS llse9 (I'!g, ~,3), . .
--=Etj, (4,3) is slriellyvuliJ only for .1 plane paralld :!llllOspl!crc. In a rcal, spherical
atmosphere with refraction the relative uir mas:; AM is limited 10 about 36.5.
More accurate values for the relative air mass <.It standard pressure can be ob
tained from (Kasten, 1966):

(4.4)

Dctlnil ion of relative air nHiss for a horizollta I hOl1lllgencolis atmosphere:

.J;';'" (ld.~
Inr""~f'
0 pdz
...
;:'.(" ,

,-
~

'E 2000
:1.
~.
<:
~
z::. 1500
'iii
c
Q)
"0
X
::l
<;;:: 1000
C
ro
=i}
r\1
'
t:;{J(l
ro'
~ ti
C)

,0c.
o

AlpmJ
fi~, 4.2. Planck spcctnllll lur bl"ck budy a\ T=5780 K (Ihick curve) '(md'~bssrycd soh':"
l\
"pC~lra .11 tile lOr ()r the all11u);pho.:rc (cxlralcll'l!strial, thin (III'VC) ami OIl tI);7'[!nl'lh surI'a.;c
" (grey mea).

"

.,.

 /
'-I

, ','_, ~Bt definition, the, case of extraterrestri,ll radiation (i.e., no air mass at all) is
,~~, . ~escrJbedbyA~ O. " "
, ,~;' . : / ~'AM 1.5 is commonly lIsed as a reference air mass in data sheets of photo . .
;.~;:.,~.~
. - , voltaic modules. ' . '

4.2 SpcctralIr~c.-
~-'"' -- -: ::~~...~:-=::...... -

shift ufspc<.:lrulll
"
.. s[1cc;lrn 1'01' ..kar sky

ullsorpllua or :,llI1f)sph..,ri<.: com:I"lIll'lll~

" '

'Chc standard spectra in Ch:!ptcr 4.2 apply till" '..:lo~(l:ess (i.t'. 1.'1..:;:1') ski..:s {lidy. Thu::.,
approximations conccl'Iling the incuming l;Jdialion arc po!:>sibk when gco:l1clry ;l'l{!
atmo~pheric turbidity (amollllt'of water vapor, ;Jcrosob) arc known'. .
But: Most oflhe redu,;:lion in irmdian.:c is due 10 doud:;!
--+ a quantity describing Ihis llVcrall reduclion is,lhc dea/"l1(,s.~ index:

.r Gdt (4,6)
. kL = IG"dt'
normaliz.ulionofglobul irradi:mcc by corresponding exlnllcrreslri"I' rudi.llion . '
, value, -:-+ eljmi1'\atingseasonal;trimd, .
'k, 'relates tb~ global radiation to the cxtrntcrr,::strinl radiation .and therefore gives
a dimensionless Ilumber.glvinglhc pcrceni~ge of the reduction of cxtralcrreslri;1
radiation due 10 nbsorplion nnd scnllcrillg by ,IiI' molecules, aerosols, water vapour
3.nd clouds.
Convention: kL is commoilly used in a generic sense as well as for hourly valucs.
for daily anI..! monthly vu)ucs J<t and J?t arc used, respectively.

{)-
, ~ ..

t)~, ttl surr.,( )

, '{
"
!

:'>. Itadialhlll ('Iilllalulllg.v :!'I

---------.---
0u1uomu BudhUfl
~ Shot,......,. - I ,- L""II'WHV. """-1

100 6 21 6 31 2&

ATIdOSPHEItE

lIboorbed by
Walar Vapour,
OuSl, C0.i

,0 22

Fig. 5.2. Global mean ener bud crcenl of Ihe mean

mpu!. 100 %= 342 Wm- ,
50 <II'

4.00 ... ..:-....:'

12

300 9
Wrrr2 GJrrr2
200

100
3

0 - 0
90 60' 30 O -30' -60' -90'

N latitude S

Fig. 5.3. Mean mcriditlnal proIi Ie orcxtmlcrre~lrhll radi,llioil G u , global moialion G, direct
mdiation Co and dill'use radiation G u on II horizontal SUI'I;ICC, The 5c,IIe5 IIrc aver;!ge irradi
mlce (left. ill Wm- 2 ) and annual ~olar radiation (righI, ill GJm- 2 ),

"