1-COMMON RAIL

Solenoid or piezoelectric valves make possible fine electronic

control over the fuel injection time and quantity, and the higher
pressure that the common rail technology makes available provides
better fuel atomisation. To lower engine noise, the engine's electronic
control unit can inject a small amount of diesel just before the main
injection event ("pilot" injection), thus reducing its explosiveness and
vibration, as well as optimising injection timing and quantity for
variations in fuel quality, cold starting and so on. Some advanced
common rail fuel systems perform as many as five injections per
stroke.[10]
Common rail engines require a very short to no heating-up time,
depending on the ambient temperature, and produce lower engine
noise and emissions than older systems.[11]
Diesel engines have historically used various forms of fuel injection.
Two common types include the unit injection system and
the distributor/inline pump systems. While these older systems
provide accurate fuel quantity and injection timing control.

FIG-COMMON RAIL FUEL SYASTEM

In common rail systems, a high-pressure pump stores a reservoir of

fuel at high pressure up to and above 2,000 bars (200 MPa;
29,000 psi). The term "common rail" refers to the fact that all of
the fuel injectors are supplied by a common fuel rail which is nothing
more than a pressure accumulator where the fuel is stored at high
pressure. This accumulator supplies multiple fuel injectors with high-
pressure fuel. This simplifies the purpose of the high-pressure pump
in that it only needs to maintain a commanded pressure at a target
(either mechanically or electronically controlled). The fuel injectors
are typically ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are electrically
activated, a hydraulic valve (consisting of a nozzle and plunger) is
mechanically or hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into the
cylinders at the desired pressure. Since the fuel pressure energy is
stored remotely and the injectors are electrically actuated, the
injection pressure at the start and end of injection is very near the
pressure in the accumulator (rail), thus producing a square injection
rate. If the accumulator, pump and plumbing are sized properly, the
injection pressure and rate will be the same for each of the multiple
injection events.

1.1-FACTORE I COMMON RAIL FULE

FEEDING SYSTEM
They are cam driven, and injection pressure is proportional to
engine speed. This typically means that the highest injection
pressure can only be achieved at the highest engine speed and
the maximum achievable injection pressure decreases as engine
speed decreases. This relationship is true with all pumps, even
those used on common rail systems. With unit or distributor
systems, the injection pressure is tied to the instantaneous
pressure of a single pumping event with no accumulator, and thus
the relationship is more prominent and troublesome.
They are limited in the number and timing of injection events that
can be commanded during a single combustion event. While
multiple injection events are possible with these older systems, it
is much more difficult and costly to achieve.
For the typical distributor/inline system, the start of injection occurs
at a pre-determined pressure (often referred to as: pop pressure)
and ends at a pre-determined pressure. This characteristic results
from "dumb" injectors in the cylinder head which open and close at
pressures determined by the spring preload applied to the plunger
in the injector. Once the pressure in the injector reaches a pre-
determined level, the plunger lifts and injection starts

2-FUEL RAIL PRESSURE SENSOR

The air-fuel mixture for gasoline engines is expected to
facilitate maximal engine power with maximal fuel
efficiency; on the other hand its composition must also
support optimal exhaust-gas treatment. This is achieved
by precisely adapting the amount of fuel injected to the
intake air mass.
The high-pressure sensor measures the fuel pressure in
the high-pressure fuel rail of engines with gasoline direct
injection. This information is required by the engine
control unit for exactly metering the injected fuel mass.
The CNG high-pressure sensor measures the pressure in
the pressure control module.
The sensing element consists of a metal membrane onto
which strain gauges are mounted. When pressure is
applied the gauges are detuned and generate an electric
voltage. This voltage changes proportionately with
pressure. It is amplified and digitized by an electronic
evaluation circuit.

FIG-RAIL PRESSURE SENSOR

3-.ECU (ENGINE CONTROL UNIT)
An engine control unit (ECU), also commonly called an engine
control module (ECM), is a type of electronic control unit that
controls a series of actuators on an internal combustion engine to
ensure optimal engine performance. It does this by reading values
from a multitude of sensors within the engine bay, interpreting the
data using multidimensional performance maps (called lookup
tables), and adjusting the engine actuators accordingly. Before
ECUs, air-fuel mixture, ignition timing, and idle speed were
mechanically set and dynamically controlled
by mechanical and pneumatic means.

FIG-ENGINE CONTROL UNIT

3.1 WORKING OF ECU

Control of air/fuel ratio
Most modern engines use some type of fuel injection to deliver
fuel to the cylinders. The ECU determines the amount of fuel to
inject based on a number of sensor readings. Oxygen sensors
tell the ECU whether the engine is running rich (too much
fuel/too little oxygen) or running lean (too much oxygen/too little
fuel) as compared to ideal conditions (known as stoichiometric).
The throttle position sensors tell the ECU how far the throttle
plate is opened when you press the accelerator. The mass air
flow sensor measures the amount of air flowing into the engine
through the throttle plate. The engine coolant temperature
sensor measures whether the engine is warmed up or cool. (If
the engine is still cool, additional fuel will be injected.)
Air/fuel mixture control of carburetors with computers is
designed with a similar principle, but a mixture control solenoid
or stepper motor is incorporated in the float bowl of the
carburetor.
Control of idle speed
Most engine systems have idle speed control built into the
ECU. The engine RPM is monitored by the crankshaft position
sensor which plays a primary role in the engine timing functions
for fuel injection, spark events, and valve timing. Idle speed is
controlled by a programmable throttle stop or an idle air bypass
control stepper motor. Early carburetor-based systems used a
programmable throttle stop using a bidirectional DC motor.
Early Throttle body injection (TBI) systems used an idle air
 control stepper motor. Effective idle speed control must
anticipate the engine load at idle.
A full authority throttle control system may be used to control
idle speed, provide cruise control functions and top speed
limitation.
Control of variable valve timing
Some engines have Variable Valve Timing. In such an engine,
the ECU controls the time in the engine cycle at which the
valves open. The valves are usually opened sooner at higher
speed than at lower speed. This can the increase the flow of air
into the cylinder, increasing power and fuel economy.
Electronic valve control.
Experimental engines have been made and tested
that have no camshaft, but have full electronic control of the
intake and exhaust valve opening, valve closing and area of the
valve opening.] Such engines can be started and run without a
starter motor for certain multi-cylinder engines equipped with
precision timed electronic ignition and fuel injection. Such
a static-start engine would provide the efficiency and pollution-
reduction improvements of a mild hybrid-electric drive, but
without the expense and complexity of an oversized starter
motor.
The first production engine of this type was invented (in 2002)
and introduced (in 2009) by Italian automaker Fiat in the Alfa
Romeo MiTo. Their Multiair engines use electronic valve control
which dramatically improve torque and horsepower, while
reducing fuel consumption as much as 15%. Basically, the
valves are opened by hydraulic pumps, which are operated by
the ECU. The valves can open several times per intake stroke,
based on engine load. The ECU then decides how much fuel
should be injected to optimize combustion.
At steady load conditions, the valve opens, fuel is injected, and
the valve closes. Under a sudden increase in throttle, the valve
opens in the same intake stroke and a greater amount of fuel is
injected. This allows immediate acceleration. For the next
stroke, the ECU calculates engine load at the new, higher RPM,
and decides how to open the valve: early or late, wide-open or
half-open. The optimal opening and timing are always reached
and combustion is as precise as possible. This, of course, is
impossible with a normal camshaft, which opens the valve for
the whole intake period, and always to full lift.
The elimination of cams, lifters, rockers, and timing set reduces
not only weight and bulk, but also friction. A significant portion
of the power that an engine actually produces is used up just
driving the valve train, compressing all those valve springs
thousands of times a minute.
 Once more fully developed, electronic valve operation will yield
even more benefits. Cylinder deactivation, for instance, could
be made much more fuel efficient if the intake valve could be
opened on every downstroke and the exhaust valve opened on
every upstroke of the deactivated cylinder or "dead hole".
Another even more significant advancement will be the
elimination of the conventional throttle. When a car is run at
part throttle, this interruption in the airflow causes excess
vacuum, which causes the engine to use up valuable energy
acting as a vacuum pump. BMW attempted to get around this
on their V-10 powered M5, which had individual throttle
butterflies for each cylinder, placed just before the intake
valves. With electronic valve operation, it will be possible to
control engine speed by regulating valve lift. At part throttle,
when less air and gas are needed, the valve lift would not be as
great. Full throttle is achieved when the gas pedal is depressed,
sending an electronic signal to the ECU, which in turn regulates
the lift of each valve event, and opens it all the way up.

3.2USE OF ECU
Such systems are used for many internathe common
configuration of a carbureted engine with a magneto
ignition system that does not rl combustion engines in other
applications. In aeronautical applications, the systems are
known as "FADECs" (Full Authority Digital Engine Controls).
This kind of electronic control is less common in piston-engined
light fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters than in automobiles.
This is due to equire electrical power generated by
an alternator to run, which is considered a safety advantage. [
4-FUEL INJECTOR
The fuel is delivered by the fuel pumps to the fuel injectors
or fuel valves. For the fuel to burn completely at the correct
time it must be broken up into tiny droplets in a process
known as atomisation. These tiny droplets should penetrate
far enough into the combustion space so that they mix with
the oxygen. The temperature of the droplets rise rapidly as
they absorb the heat energy from the hot air in the
cylinder, and they ignite and burn before they can hit the
relatively cold surface of the liner and piston.
Fuel injectors achieve this by making use of a spring loaded needle valve. The
fuel under pressure from the fuel pump is fed down the injector body to a
chamber in the nozzle just above where the needle valve is held hard against its
seat by a strong spring. As the fuel pump plunger rises in the barrel, pressure
builds up in the chamber, acting on the underside of the needle as shown. When
this force overcomes the downward force exerted by the spring, the needle valve
starts to open. The fuel now acts on the seating area of the valve, and increases
the lift. As this happens fuel flows into the space under the needle and is forced
through the small holes in the nozzle where it emerges as an "atomised spray".
At the end of delivery, the pressure drops sharply and the spring closes the
needle valve smartly.
The pressure at which the injector operates can be adjusted by adjusting
the loading on the spring. The pressure at which the injectors operate vary
depending on the engine, but can be as high as 540bar. Some injectors
have internal cooling passages in them extending into the nozzle through
which cooling water is circulated. This is to prevent overheating and
burning of the nozzle tip. Injectors on modern 2 stroke crosshead engines
do not have internal water cooling passages. They are cooled by a
combination of the intensive bore cooling in the cylinder head being close
to the valve pockets and by the fuel which is recirculated through the
injector when the follower is on the base of the cam or when the engine is
stopped. As well as cooling the injector, recirculating the fuel when the
engine is stopped keeps the fuel at the correct viscosity for injection by
preventing it from cooling down.
The animation opposite shows the principle on which one system operates.
Fuel injectors must be kept in good condition to maintain
optimum efficiency, and to prevent conditions arising which
could lead to damage within the cylinder. Injectors should be
changed in line with manufacturers recommendations,
overhauled and tested. Springs can weaken with repeated
operation leading to the injector opening at a lower pressure
than designed. The needle valve and seat can wear which
together with worn nozzle holes will lead to incorrect
atomisation and dribbling.

FIG- FUEL INJECTOR

4.1 TYPE OF FUEL INJECTOR

Solenoid injectors
These injectors operate within Common Rail systems. They
are the most frequently used supply systems of high
pressure engines. They enable the separation of high
pressure generation function and fuel injection performance.
In consequence, they provide flexibility and adaptation of the
injection system to the engine higher than conventional
systems. Since fuel is located in the chamber with constant
high pressure, it is possible to model the injection freely by
means of sending electrical impulses to the injectors. A
programmer, supplying solenoid valve of the injector with
power, activates the sprayer (beginning of injection). After
disconnection of the power supply, injection is finished.
Injected fuel dose is proportional (with given pressure) until
solenoid valve activation; yet, it is not dependent on engine
rotational speed or an injection pump. With CR of a new
generation, it is possible to perform several injections during
single working circulation of a piston. It influences the
reduction of fuel consumption, ensures more silent engine
operation and lower content of hazardous substances in
exhaust fumes.

Piezoelectric injectors
With Common Rail systems of third generation, piezoelectric
injectors have appeared. Their main advantage is a short
switching time, approx. 0,1 ms. This is approx. ten times
faster than with solenoid injectors. In consequence, the
beginning of injection may be freely adjusted as well as fuel
dose volume, and multi-phase injection may be performed.
Solenoid injectors` inertia has allowed for one initial injection
in order to silence combustion noise. Piezoelectric elements
group is used as an element controlling the injector
operation. Owing to such a fast activation, intervals between
injections may be shortened, which facilitates optimisation of
engine operation. The amount of fuel, including a small dose
of initial injection, is measured very precisely, which is
reflected in fuel consumption reduction. In systems equipped
with piezoelectric injectors, fuel pressure is increased and it
may reach over 2000 bars.
4.2-INJECTOR ASSEMBY MAIN PARTS
1.Neesle valve
2.Compression spring
3.Nozzle
4.Injector body
4.3-NEEDLE VALVE
Needle valves are basically used in fluid pipelines for controlling the
flow of fluid. If we look the design and operating mechanism of
needle valves, we will come to understand that needle valves are
quite similar in design and operating mechanism with globe valve.

FIG-NEEDLE VALVE
4.3.1-WORKING OF NEEDLE VALVE
Needle valve will provide the precise control over the fluid flow. When
handle wheel will be rotated in clockwise direction, steam and its tapered
and slender point will move in downward direction and will be tightly fixed
into a vale seat provided over the inlet and hence there will not be any
leakage of fluid through the valve once valve is closed completely.
When handle wheel will be rotated in anti-clockwise direction, steam and its
tapered and slender point will move in upward direction and valve will be
opened from closed position and will permit the flow of fluid through the
valve. Fluid flowing via needle valve will turn at 90 degree angle and will
pass through the valve seat at which slender or tapered point of valve stem
will be seated during closed position of valve
4.3.2 USE OF NEEDLE VALVE
1. Needle valves are basically used for controlling the fluid flow into the
delicate gauges of the system, which might be damaged if high pressure
fluid will be delivered suddenly.
2 Needle valves could also be used in various industrial equipment where
motion of work must stop slowly at the end of operation.
3. Needle valves are usually used for controlling and adjusting the fluid
flow precisely. Needle valves are much in demand where lower flow rate
will be required.
4.. Needle valves could be used under throttling condition, complete open
condition or in complete closed position
4.3.2 NOZZLE
Nozzle is that part of an injector through which the liquid fuel
is sprayed into the combustion chamber.
The nozzle should fulfill the following functions.
1.Atomization:
This is a very important function since it is the first phase in
obtaining proper mixing of the fuel and air in the combustion
chamber.
2. Distribution of fuel:
Distribution of fuel to the required areas within the
combustion chamber
3. Prevention of impingement on walls:
Prevention of the fuel from impinging directly on the walls of
combustion chamber or piston. This is necessary because
fuel striking the walls, decomposes and produces carbon
deposits. This causes smoky exhaust as well as increase in
fuel consumption.
4. Mixing:
Mixing the fuel and air in case of nonturbulent type of
combustion chamber should be taken care of by the nozzle.
TYPES OF NOZZLE
1.Pintle Nozzle:
The stem of the nozzle valve is extended to form a pin or
pintIe which protrudes through the mouth of the nozzle
It provides a spray operating at low injection pressures of
8-10 Mpa
The spray cone angle is generally 600
ADVANTAGES OF PINTLE NOZZLE-
It avoids weak injection and dribbling.
It prevents the carbon deposition on the nozzle hole.

FIG PINTLE NOZZLE

2.The Single Hole Nozzle:
In this type of nozzle at the center of the body there is a single hole which is
closed by the nozzle valve. The size of the hole is usually of the order of 0.2
mm. Injection pressure is of order of 8-10MPa and spray cone angle is about
15 degree. One of the major disadvantages of this nozzle is that they tends to
drible. Besides, their spray angle it too narrow to facilitate good mixing unless
higher velocities are used.
3. Multi Hole Nozzle:
This nozzle consists of a number of holes bored in the tip of the nozzle. The
number of holes varies from 4 to 18 and the size from 35 to 200 micro
meters. The hole angle may be from 20 degree upwards. These nozzles
operate at high injection pressure of the order of 18 MPa. Their advantage lies
in the ability to distribute the fuel properly even with lower air motion
available in open combustion chambers.
4. Pintaux Nozzle
This type of nozzle is a type of Pintle nozzle which has an auxiliary hole drilled
in the nozzle body. It injects a small amount of fuel through this additional
hole which is called pilot injection in upstream direction slightly before the
main injection. The needle valve does not lift fully at low speeds and most of
the fuel is injected through the auxiliary hole. The main advantage of this
nozzle is better cold starting performance. A major drawback of this nozzle is
that its injection characteristics are poorer than the multihole nozzle.