NR 1

Rzeknes
Augstskola
Ekonomikas un vadbas fakultte
Reionlistikas zintniskais institts

Latgales Tautsaimniecbas ptjumi

Socilo zintu urnls
Latgale National economy research
Journal of Social Sciences

Nr. 1(4)

Rzekne, 2012
Latgales Tautsaimniecbas ptjumi. Socilo zintu urnls Nr. 1(4)
Rzekn: RA Izdevniecba, 2012. 412 lpp.
Tira 100 eks.
ISSN 1691-5828

Redakcijas kolija / Editorial Board
Gintautas Buinskas, Utenas koleda, Lietuva/ Utena University of Applied Sciences,
Lithuania
Zuzana Hajduova, Bratislavas Ekonomikas Universitte, Slovkija/ University of
Economics in Bratislava, Slovakia
Mart Srg, Emer., Tartu Universitte, Igaunija/ Emer., University of Tartu, Estonia
Aleksandra Stecjun, Budeta un valsts kases akadmija, Maskava, Krievija/ The
Budget and Treasury Academy of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation,
Moscow, Russia
Tlis Freimanis, Rzeknes Augstskola, Latvija/ Rezekne Higher Education Institution,
Latvia
Raivis Kaknis, Rzeknes Augstskola, Latvija/ Rezekne Higher Education Institution,
Latvia
Rita Liepia, Rzeknes Augstskola, Latvija/ Rezekne Higher Education Institution,
Latvia
Iveta Mietule, Rzeknes Augstskola, Latvija/ Rezekne Higher Education Institution,
Latvia
Irna Silinevia, Rzeknes Augstskola, Latvija/ Rezekne Higher Education Institution,
Latvia
Oegs UgaRebrovs, Rzeknes Augstskola, Latvija/ Rezekne Higher Education
Institution, Latvia

Galvenais redaktors/ Editor in chief
Biruta Garana, Rzeknes Augstskola, Latvija/ Rezekne Higher Education Institution,
Latvia

Redaktors/ Executive editor
Einrs Ulnicns, Rzeknes Augstskola, Latvija/ Rezekne Higher Education Institution,
Latvia

Angu valodas korektors/ English language proofreader
Mris Mednis, Latvija/ Latvia

Visi krjum ievietotie raksti recenzti.
Prpublicanas gadjum nepiecieama Rzeknes Augstskolas Reionlistikas zintnisk
institta atauja.
Citjot atsauce uz izdevumu obligta.

urnls ir iekauts Index Copernicus zintnisko izdevumu datu bz/ The journal is
included in the database of Index Copernicus scientific publications

Adrese/ Address
Rzeknes Augstskolas Reionlistikas zintniskais institts/ Rezekne Higher Education
Institution, Scientific Institute for Regional Studies
Atbrvoanas aleja 90
Rzekne, LV 4601, Latvija/ Latvia
2 Latgales Tautsaimniecbas ptjumi

PRIEKVRDS

urnla ceturtais numurs veltts 2012. gada 19. apra
starptautiskajai zintniskajai konferencei Tautsaimniecbas attstbas
problmas un risinjumi, kuru kopgi rko Rzeknes Augstskolas
Ekonomikas un vadbas fakultte un Reionlistikas zintnisk institta
socilo zintu virzienu ptjumu grupa. Rakstu lielk daa ir konferenc
nolastie referti.
Rakstu autori prstv dadas Latvijas un daas rvalstu
augstskolas un koledas. Ptjumi aptver plau jautjumu loku un,
atbilstoi konferences nosaukumam, tie galvenokrt ir veltti Latvijas
tautsaimniecbas problmm. Pttas ne tikai problmas, bet ir izteikti ar
prieklikumi to risinan. T, piemram, N.Jefimovs ptjis Latvijas
komercbanku darbbu pdjo desmit gadu pirmskrzes un krzes
periodos un izteicis virkni prieklikumu kredtportfea kvalittes vadbas
pilnveidoan, lai neatkrtotos komercbanku sektor agrk pieauts
kdas. V. epste iesaka bir kott valsts uzmumu akcijas, kas
aktiviztu vrtspapru tirgu Latvij. L. Leitne ptjusi valsts atbalsta
instrumentu piemroanas problmas atjaunojamo energoresursu
raoan. Vairki autori pievrsuies atseviu ekonomisks darbbas
veidu izptei. T I. Baltia, Z. Zamuka, V. Stramkale un G. Strazds pierda
iespju Latvij attstt kaepju audzanu un iedru prstrdi.
Viedtekstliju raoanas iespjas un problmas Latvij ptjuas I. ahta,
I. Baltia un M. Pce. Virkne autoru analiz trisma attstbas problmas
Latvij un Latgales reiona pievilcbu trisma kontekst L. Melece un
M. Ruci, I. Dembovska un I. Silicka, I. Silinevia. I. Mavutova un
S. Babauska ptjuas veselbas aprpes uzmumu konkurtspjas
rdtjus. Dai ptnieki pievrsuies atseviu ekonomikas problmu
risinanai. Piemram, S. Volvenkins analiz reklmas ziojumu kvalitti.
Pasaules mroga problmu risinan iesaistjusies J. Lonska, ptot
tdu teritorijas attstbas indikatoru k cilvku materil labkljba,
cilvku apmierintba ar dzvi, laimes indeksa u.c. savstarpjo sasaisti
un nonkot pie secinjuma, ka laimes indeksam ir vja sasaiste ar cilvku
materilo stvokli. No materilm vrtbm ir atkarga cilvku
apmierintba ar dzvi.
aurki, tau oti nozmgi, ir ptjumi par Latgales
tautsaimniecbas problmm. It pai jatzm I. Biuknes ptjums par
ES struktrfondu nozmi Latgales attstb. Autores ieteikto prieklikumu
realizcija sekmtu Latvijas reionu attstbas izldzinanos, t.sk.
straujku Latgales attstbu.
K ierasts, ar aj urnla numur plai prstvti ekonomikas
teorijas jautjumi, it pai matemtisko metou pielietoanas iespju
Socilo zintu urnls Nr. 1(4) 3

ekonomikas jautjumu risinan ptjumi. Te jpiemin P. Grabusta
ieguldjums, k ar vairku Armnijas zintnieku devums.
Visbeidzot jatzm, ka urnls turpina sadarbbu ar juridisko
jautjumu ptniekiem. K pai nozmgi atzmjami ekonomikas un
tieslietu robeproblmu risinjumi. Piemram, gan juristiem, gan
ekonomistiem nozmgs ir jautjums par juridisks personas
makstnespjas procesu, par kura jauns redakcijas piemroanu raksta
I. Kronis. Cita uzmuma tirdzniecbas vai pakalpojumu zmes
izmantoanai ir ar ekonomiskas sekas, par ko liecina I. Vitkutes
Zvezdinenes un G. Roenes raksts. N. Mikalauskenes, D. Perkumenes un
V. Laukaittes rakst izteikto prieklikumu realizcija sekmtu tiesas
procesu patrinanos, kam btu ar pozitvs ekonomiskais rezultts.
urnla redakcija cer uz tlku sadarbbu ar visiem autoriem.

Dr.oec. Biruta Garana
urnla galven redaktore


SATURS/ CONTENTS

Iluta Arbidne. Apgrozmo ldzeku jdziena interpretcija
zintniskaj un nozares literatr/ Interpretation of term
Current assets in research and literature of field 9
Linda Balode. Tradicionl latvieu lauku sta. Kurzemes reiona
piemrs/ Traditional Latvian country house. Courland region
example 25
Ilze Baltia, Zaiga Zamuka, Veneranda Stramkale, Guntis Strazds.
Kaepju audzanas un iedru prstrdes iespjas Latvij/
Hemp growth and fibre processing possibilities in Latvia 42
Inese Biukne. Eiropas Savienbas struktrfondu nozme
Latgales attstb/ The European Union structural funds
significance in the development of Latgale 54
Valda Bratka, Artrs Prauli. Darba ragums Latvijas piena
lopkopbas saimniecbs ES kontekst/ Labour productivity on
Latvia dairy farms in the EU context 69
Iveta Dembovska, Inese Silicka. Cluster approach in the tourism
business/ Klastera pieejas izmantoana trisma uzmjdarbb 88
Biruta Garana. Rentabilittes analze/ Analysis of profitability 103
Artrs Gaveika. Eiropas Savienbas rjo un iekjo robeu
raans tiesiskie prieknosacjumi/ Legal principles of the
creation of the internal and external border of the European
Union 113
Pteris Grabusts. Klasterizciju raksturojoo parametru ietekme
uz datu analzes rezulttiem/ Impact of parameters
characterizing clustering on data analysis results 138
Nikolajs Jefimovs. Galvens tendences Latvijas banku sektora
kredtportfea kvalittes vadb 2004.2011. g./ The main trends
in loan briefcase quality management of Latvian bank sector in
20042011 152
Zhenya Karapetyan, Gohar Shakhparyan, Aram Arakelyan. Models
of advertisement and clients attendance of the market using a
Fourierseries approximation/ Tirgus reklmas un klientu
apmekljuma modei, izmantojot Furj rindu tuvinjumus 170

Hayk Khachatryan, Nora Mkrtchyan, Aram Arakelyan.
Optimization of supply chain with uncertainties/ Piedvjuma
des optimizcija ar maingajiem 179
Ivars Kronis. Juridisks personas makstnespjas process: jaun
likuma piemroanas pirm gada problmas/ Insolvency process
of legal entities: the new law first years application problems 189
Lga Leitne. Valsts atbalsta instrumentu piemroanas
problmas enertik/ The problems in the application of state
support instruments in energy sector 199
Jeena Lonska. Teritorijas attstbas indikatoru savstarpjs
sasaistes patnbas/ Peculiarities of interrelation of territorial
development indicators 216
Inese Mavutova, Santa Babauska. Latvian health care company
competitiveness determining indicators and their improvement
possibilities / Latvijas veselbas aprpes uzmumu
konkurtspju noteicoie rdtji un to pilnveidoanas iespjas 234
Ligita Melece, Mrti Ruci. Development of tourism in Latvia:
issues and potentials/ Trisma attstba Latvij: problmas un
iespjas 251
Iveta Mietule, Rita Liepia. Darba samaksas izmaiu tendences
Latvij ekonomisks krzes period/ Wage trends in Latvia
during the downturn in economy 269
, ,
. :
/ Tiesas pavle par sodu:
prieknoteikumi un pielietoanas problmas Lietuv/Criminal
court order: assumptions and problems of applicattion in
Lithuania 280
Artrs Prauli, Ligita Melece. Lauku saimniecbu pamatldzeku
atraoanas analze Latgal/ Reproduction of farms longterm
assets in Latgale 293
Maka Salkhinashvili, Giuli Giguashvili. Particularities of
intellectual property development in Georgia/ Intelektul
pauma attstbas paskumi Gruzij 311
Irna Silinevia. Lingvokultoroloiskie elementi k pilstu
pievilcbas faktori/ Linguocultural aspects as an attractiveness
factors of cities 317

Ingrda ahta, Ilze Baltia, Madara Pce. Tekstilnozares attstbas
inovatvi risinjumi/ Innovative solutions in textile development 329
Inga na, Raitis ns. Restructure of the enterprise to micro
enterprise to use tax advantages in order to increase profitability,
case study/ Uzmuma prstrukturana mikrouzmum
nodoku priekrocbu izmantoanai un rentabilittes
palielinanai, piemra analze 346
Vineta epste. Vrtspapru tirgus Latvij attstbas iespjas un
problmas/ Securities market in Latvia development
opportunities and problems 358
Sergejs Volvenkins. Quality analysis regarding advertisements of
small and mediumsized enterprises/ Latvijas mazo un vidjo
uzmumu reklmas ziojumu kvalittes analze 373
, .

/ Cita uzmuma
tirdzniecbas vai pakalpojumu zmes izmantoanas ekonomisks
sekas/ The Economic consequences of use of anothers
companies trade mark or service mark 385
rika ubule, Pteris Grabusts. Niskanena klasisk biroja darbbas
modea pielietojuma potencils iespjas/ Potential application
opportunities of Niskanens classical model of bureau
performance 399



APGROZMO LDZEKU JDZIENA INTERPRETCIJA
ZINTNISKAJ UN NOZARES LITERATR
INTERPRETATION OF TERM CURRENT ASSETS IN
RESEARCH AND LITERATURE OF FIELD
Iluta ARBIDNE
Mg.oec, docente, Rzeknes Augstskola
Ekonomikas un vadbas fakultte
Tlrunis: +371 26 498 925, epasts: iluta.arbidane@inbox.lv
Rzekne, Latvija

Abstract. The quality and comparability of financial statements are determined by
single and unbiased interpretation of legislative acts and their application. Latvia in its
economic development has faced the influence of various economic schools, inter alia
regarding interpretation and application of various notions. The article summarizes the
interpretations of the terms assets and current assets in research and literature of
the field; besides, the historical development of the term current assets in Latvia is
explored. Basing on the results of the research there are formulated the definitions of
the terms assets and current assets and provided suggestions for their introduction
and application to facilitate single understanding of terminology.
Keywords: assets, current assets, ressources.

Ievads
Pdjo gadu procesi ekonomik ir krasi mainjui attieksmi pret
rcb esoo resursu prvaldbu k vienu no ietekmgkajiem
uzmjdarbbas procesiem. odienas uzmjdarbba raksturojas ar
augstu dinamiku un riska pakpi. Tpc ir svarga finanu situcijas
modelana. Uzmuma ldzeku prvaldbas procesi ir nozmgs
instruments uzmuma finanu stvoka izskaidroanai, uzlaboanai un
racionalizcijai, k ar jaunu projektu, darbbas modeu izstrdei un
ievieanai.
Uzmumu vadbai ierobeotu resursu apstkos rodas aizvien
lielka interese racionli izmantot resursus, kas vienlaicgi veicina ar
uzmumu konkurtspjas saglabanu un paaugstinanu gan vietj,
gan starptautisk mrog. Ptot zintnisko literatru un starptautisko
pieredzi, ir jsecina, ka pastv daudz un dadas uzmjdarbbas
vadanas efektivittes nodroinanas koncepcijas un metodes, bet
pasaules praks arvien biek uzmumi koncentrjas uz uzmuma
vrtbas optimlu vadanu un ts palielinanas iespjm.
Komerclikuma (3.) 18.pant, definjot jdzienu uzmums, ir teikts, ka
t ir organizatoriski saimnieciska vienba, kur ietilpst komersantam
piederoas ermeniskas un bezermeniskas lietas, k ar citi saimnieciski
labumi (vrtbas), kurus komersants izmanto komercdarbbas veikanai.

Tas auj secint, ka uzmuma vrtba, kas sev iekauj piederoos
labumus, ir k indikators, kas nosaka uzmuma veiksmgu darbbu,
nkotnes attstbas iespjas.
Uzmuma vrtbu raksturo t rcb esoie resursi, k ar to
finansanas avoti. Uzmuma manta un viss, kas tam pieder, ir
attiecinms uz t aktviem, tie dod noteiktu priekstatu par uzmuma
potencilu. Savukrt finansanas ldzekus pau kapitla un aizemt
kapitla (vai piesaistt kapitla) veid pieemts saukt par pasviem.
Msdiens katram uzmjam ir svargi plnot ldzekus, kuri tiks
izmantoti uzmjdarbbas proces, lai vi vartu jau iepriek paredzt,
kdi finansanas avoti bs nepiecieami.
Maingas ekonomikas apstkos palielins visu uzmumu
finansil stvoka nozme, jo uzmumi var pai izvlties k
piegdtjus, t ar pircjus, uzmumi pai ir tiesgi ar savu kapitlu
piedalties citu uzmumu veidoan, ieguldot savus ldzekus citu
uzmumu stattu fond, vai iegdties to vrtspaprus, paredzot
nkotn gt ekonomiskus labumus.
Ptjuma mris ir izvrtt jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki
interpretciju zintniskaj un nozares literatr.
Ptjuma uzdevumi:
Izptt jdziena aktvi interpretciju rvalstu un Latvijas
zintniskaj un nozares literatr;
Izptt jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki vsturisko attstbu
Latvij;
Izptt jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki interpretciju Latvijas un
rzemju zintniskaj un nozares literatr;
Izdart secinjumus un sniegt prieklikumus par jdzienu
lietoanu un interpretciju.
Ptanas metode ir Latvijas un rvalstu zintnisks un nozares
literatras kvalitatvs ptanas metodes kontentanalze un specilo
gadjumu ptjuma metode.
Jdziena aktvs interpretcija
Aktvs ir franu izcelsmes vrds actif, kas tulkojum nozm
rosgs, darbgs (37.). Ldzgs tulkojums ir ar no latu valodas vrdam
activus. Uzmuma ldzeki jeb aktvi ir darbgi, jo tie piedals
uzmjdarbbas proces (33.). Ekonomiskaj literatr atrodamas
vairkas aktvu (angu valod Assets; vcu valod Aktiven; spu
valod Aktivo), k ekonomisko kategoriju raksturojoas defincijas
(35.).
Daudz plaka un visaptveroka ir aktvu defincija, kas ir
atrodama dads finanu jdzienus skaidrojos vrdncs, kur aktvi

tiek definti k resursi ar ekonomisko vrtbu, kas ir prvaldtja
paum vai tos kontrol ar cerbm, ka tie nkotn sniegs ekonomisko
labumu (38.). Ldzg veid aktvus k jdzienu defin ar lielk daa
rietumu autoru (D.Alexander, A.Britton, A.Jorissen (6.), Belkaouni (11.),
Kieso D.E., Weigandt J.J., Warfield T.D. (19.), Greener M. (16.)) uzsverot gan
piederbu un kontroli, k ar nkotnes aspektu. Aktvi ir uzmumam
piederoie ekonomiskie resursi, kas paredzti izmantoanai nkotnes
darbb ar mri gt peu (Needls B, Powers M. (25.)). Ar Starptautiskie
grmatvedbas standarti vr uzmanbu uz to, ka tie ir resursi, kuros ir
ietverts nkotnes potencilais labums, kas tiei vai netiei veicina naudas
un ts ekvivalentu piepldumu uzmum. Krievu autori (Kovaovs A.
( A), Lapusta M. (a .), Skamajs L. ( ) (20.),
Kohs R. ( ) (22.), Arhipovs A. (, .) (8.)) o jdzienu defin
k uzmum esoos materilos un nematerilos ldzekus, k ar naudas
ldzekus un tiesbas uz paumu vai naudas ldzekiem. Savukrt
Kovaevs V. ( ) (21.) aktvus defin, k paum esous
ldzekus, kas raduies pagtnes notikumu d k ar k kontroljamus
resursus un izdevumus, kas nkotn dos labumu.
Aktvu jdzienam no grmatvedbas viedoka latvieu valod ir
vairki skaidrojumi. Aktvi ir uzmuma paum vai prvaldjum
esos materils vrtbas, pardsaistbas, nauda u.c. saimnieciskie
ldzeki, kas tiek uzrdti grmatvedbas bilanc (36.). Aktvi ir
grmatvedbas bilances daa, kur atspoguoti un sagrupti pc to
funkcionls lomas uzmumu un organizciju ldzeki (36.). No bilances
uzbves viedoka aktvi ir bilances kreis puse, kas naudas izteiksm
atspoguo uzmuma ldzekus (7.). Analizjot s defincijas, jsecina, ka
ts vairk defin aktvu atraans vietu vai ar to struktru, bet nepasaka
paa jdziena btbu. Vispreczk jdziena btba tiek atklta Latvijas
Grmatvedbas Standart Nr1.(5.), kas aktvus defin, k uzmuma
resursus, kuri iegti sav rcb pagtnes notikumu rezultt un no
kuriem nkotn uzmumam ir sagaidms ekonomisks izdevgums.
Autore uzskata, ka defincija latvieu valod vispreczk atklj aktvu
ekonomisko btbu, kas ar sakrt ar jdziena definjumu vairku
rzemju autoru skatjum. Izvrtjot iepriek apskatts jdziena aktvs
defincijas, jsecina, ka latvieu valod pieejamajs defincijs ir
iztrkstoa btiska komponente attiecb uz atzanas un kontroles
kritrijiem. Autore iesaka papildint o definciju ar vrdiem ir ticami
novrtjami un paum vai kontrol esoi, k rezultt autores
piedvt jdziena aktvi defincija ir da: aktvi ir uzmuma rcb
vai kontrol esoie resursi, kuri iegti sav rcb pagtnes notikumu
rezultt, ir ticami novrtjami un no kuriem nkotn uzmumam ir
sagaidms ekonomisks izdevgums.

Latvijas Republikas Gada prskatu likums nosaka gada prskata
struktru, k ar sagatavoanas krtbu. Saska ar o likumu visi Latvij
reistrtie komersanti, uzmumi un uzmjsabiedrbas, ar bezpeas
organizcijas sastda gada prskatu, kas ir ne tikai grmatvedbas
dokuments, bet ar pamats uzmuma finanu un saimniecisks darbbas
analzei. Uzmuma gada prskatu izmanto gan uzmuma iekjie datu
izmantotji, piemram, augstk un vidj lmea vadba, panieki, gan
rjie, piemram, kredtiestdes, biras, statistikas un finanu kontroles
institcijas u.c. Ir svargi, lai aj likum btu nodefinti jdzieni, kuru
izpratne neradtu aubas dadiem gada prskatu lietotjiem. Izvrtjot
Latvijas likumdoanas aktus Likumu par grmatvedbu, Gada prskatu
likumu 1.LGS Finanu prskatu sagatavoanas pamatnostdnes
jsecina, ka ajos likumdoanas aktos netiek ievrota vienota pieeja
attiecb uz sadau Lietotie termini no dadiem viedokiem. Pirmkrt,
nav skaidrs, pc kda principa tiek izvlti skaidrojoie termini, k ar
jdzienu skaidrojumi ir atirgi un ar paviri. Lai sekmtu vienotu
terminoloisko izpratni un to pielietojumu, autore iesaka, papildint
1.LGS standart lietoto termina aktvi definciju, k ar papildint
likuma sadau Likum lietotie termini ar jdziena aktvs definciju.
Apgrozmo ldzeku jdziena vsturisk attstba
Dados literatras avotos uzmuma aktvi tiek iedalti pc
vairkm klasificanas pazmm, no kurm galvens ir aktvu
funkcionanas forma, piedalans saimniecisk proces raksturs un
aktvu apgrozbas trums, atseviu darbbas veidu apkalpoanas
raksturs, aktvu formanas finanu avotu raksturs, aktvu likvidittes
pakpe. Saska ar Gada prskatu likumu aktvi iedals:
Ilgtermia ieguldjumi;
Apgrozmie ldzeki.
Uzmuma pamatdarbbas cikls ir laiks starp produkcijas
raoanai vai pakalpojumu snieganai nepiecieamo materilu iegdi un
preu realizciju vai pakalpojumu snieganu (18.). Apgrozmie ldzeki
veido btisku uzmuma bilances aktvu dau. Pc apgrozmo ldzeku
kopsummas var spriest par uzmuma potencilu, makstspju,
likviditti un citiem btiskiem saimniecisko darbbu raksturojoiem
rdtjiem.
Apgrozmie ldzeki ir uzmuma rcb esoie resursi, kas
pieejami ikdienas darjumu veikanai un tiek izmantoti, lai nodrointu
produktu raoanas (pakalpojumu snieganas) neprtrauktbu. No
grmatvedbas uzskaites teorijas viedoka apgrozmie ldzeki ir aktvi,
kas var tikt prvrsti naudas form viena raoanas cikla laik (26.).

Vrtjot jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki terminoloisks pieejas
attstbu Latvij, jsecina, ka t veidojusies dados ekonomisks domas
attstbas periodos. Var izdalt trs posmus, t.i., Brvs Latvijas laika
posms no 1918. 1940.g., PSRS laika posms 1940. 1991.g., atjaunots
Latvijas Republikas laika posms no 1991.g. ldz msdienm.
Latvij laika posm no 1918. 1940. g. kontu plnu aktv tika
atspoguota ieguldt manta un rcbas manta (9.). I. Millere savos
ptjumos par grmatvedbas attstbu Latvij norda, ka ds iedaljums
atbilda odienas ilgtermia ieguldjumu un apgrozmo ldzeku
klasifikcijai.
Krievij jdzienu apgrozmie ldzeki sk lietot 1918.g. beigs,
kad pc Tautas bankas reglamenta tiek noteikts, ka apgrozmo ldzeku
sastv ietver summas, kas btu vajadzgas, lai iegdtos materilus un
degvielu, veiktu darbinieku darba samaksu, administrcijas atalgoanu,
radtu uzkrjumus manu remontiem un celtniecbai, soda naudu
samaksai, k ar visprjiem un citiem izdevumiem, kas ir jsedz tuvkaj
atskaites period (14.). da jdziena interpretcija izrietja no
funkcionjoa uzmuma un valsts struktru prakses un tika
nostiprinta ar likumu 1923.g. 10.aprl. Tiei aj laik Krievij
ekonomiskaj literatr, nostiprinjs viedoklis, saska ar kuru
apgrozmo ldzeku aprite ir o ldzeku efektivittes rdtjs.
Trifanovs N.S. rakstja: Apgrozmo ldzeku aprite raoanas uzmum
ir viens no btiskkajiem racionalizcijas rdtjiem. Maksimli tras
manevranas uzdevums ir apgrozmo ldzeku tempa patrinana
(28.).
Socilisma laika ekonomika ieviesa savas korekcijas ar
terminoloijas izpratn. T laika ekonomik nacionlo mantu iedalja
darba ldzekos (pamatfondi jeb pamatldzeki autore), darba
priekmetos un apgrozbas priekmetos. Darba priekmeti bija lietas vai
lietu kompleksi, ko cilvki raoanas proces apstrdja ar darba rkiem,
lai izgatavotu raoanas ldzekus vai darba priekmetus. Darba
priekmetus patrja vien darba proces un to vrtba pilnb prgja
raojamo produktu vrtb. Raoanas uzmumos darba priekmeti tika
saukti par raoanas krjumiem. Politiskaj ekonomik darba
priekmetus sauca par apgrozmajiem fondiem. Apgrozbas priekmeti
bija produkcijas krjumi, ldzeki norinos un naudas ldzeki (23.).
Apgrozbas priekmetus sauca par apgrozbas fondiem, bet apgrozmo
fondu un apgrozbas fondu kopumu par apgrozmajiem ldzekiem (10.).
No t var secint, ka t laika ekonomika ar apgrozmajiem ldzekiem
saprot visu darba priekmetu un apgrozbas priekmetu kopumu un taj
ietilpst k raoanas, t gatavs produkcijas krjumi, ar debitoru pardi
un naudas ldzeki. Ldzga izpratne par o definjumu ir ar tdiem

krievu autoriem, k V.Djaenko (.. (15.)), M.Usoskins
(.. (29.)). Vlkajos darbos o pau definciju, tikai k divu
kategoriju, t.i. apgrozmo un apgrozbas fondu kopsummu, izmanto ar
tdi krievu autori, k I. Usatovs (. (30.)), M.Vitebskis
(.. uu (31.)), V.Geraenko (B.C. (17.)) un citi.
Jatzm, ka A.Birmans (A.M. (12.)) un N.umovs (..
(27.)) savos jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki skaidrojumos tiei norda uz to,
ka tie ir naudas ldzeku ieguldjumi gan apgrozmajos gan apgrozbas
fondos. Vlkajos A.Birmana (13.) ptjumos doma tiek attstta:
Apgrozmie ldzeki ir nepiecieami, lai uzmums neprtraukti var
norinties par materilajm vrtbm, k ar avanst nepabeigto
raoanu, nkamo periodu izdevumus, nostto produkciju un citus
norinus. Vi norda uz to, ka apgrozmie ldzeki ir btiski, lai
nodrointu uzmumu makstspju. Autore uzskata, ka apgrozmo
ldzeku definciju btiski uzlaboja krievu zintnieks P.evtjaks
(.. (32.)): Apgrozmie ldzeki ir naudas ldzeki, kas tiek
avansti, lai veidotu apgrozmos un apgrozbas fondus ar mri
nodroint saimniecisko procesu neprtrauktbu.
70.gadu vid krievu zintnieks P.Bunis (.. (14.)) sav
ptjum par dadu autoru defincijm attiecb uz apgrozmajiem
ldzekiem, izveidoja viaprt pilngu definciju, kas iekva iepriekjo
gadu definciju traktjumus: Apgrozmie ldzeki ir paa vrtbas
kustbas un aprites forma socilistisk uzmum vai apvienb, kas
avansjas naudas veid, lai veidotu izejvielu, materilu, pusfabriktu,
gatavs produkcijas, inventra, instrumentu krjumu un citu tri
atjaunojoos materilo vrtbu. Veicot apgrozmo ldzeku defincijas
attstbas analzi PSRS laika posm, autore secina, ka t laika ekonomik
vienldzgi tika izmantotas dadas defincijas un o skolu prstvjus var
iedalt divs das. Pirmie uzskatja, ka apgrozmie ldzeki ir apgrozmo
un apgrozbas fondu kopums naudas izteiksm, piemram, V.Djaenko,
M.Usoskins, M.Vitebskis, A.Borodavkins (.. ) u.c. o
ptnieku viedoklis pc autores domm raksturo ekonomisks kategorijas
veidoans principus, bet neatklj to saturisko btbu, kas btu jdefin
ar k dinamiska kategorija, kas atrodas neprtraukt kustb. da
ptnieku nostja apgrozmos ldzekus sadala pc funkcionls formas,
bet neapvieno kopj cikl. ds uzskats pc btbas atbilst stingri
noteiktai administratvai saimniekoanas sistmai.
Otra daa autoru o jdzienu definja k vrtbu vai naudas
ldzekus, kas tiek avansti raoanas un apgrozbas cikl, piemram,
A.Birmans, S.Barngolcs (.. ), P.evtjaks, P.Bunis un citi.
Saska ar o autoru viedokli jsecina, ka atirb no iepriek minto
ptnieku viedoka, apgrozmie ldzeki tiek apskatti proces.

Jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki interpretcija
V.Palijs ( ..(24.)) norda, ka ekonomikas attstb kop
90.gadu vidus ir notikuas btiskas izmaias, ldz ar to radot principili
jaunu pieeju dadm ekonomiskm kategorijm un to izpratnei.
Msdienu izpratn iepriek apskatt jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki
definjums ir uzskatms par neaktulu. Latvija kop 90.gadu vidus ir
piedzvojusi btiskas ekonomisks sistmas izmaias, prejot no
plnveida ekonomikas uz tirgus ekonomiku. Mainoties politiskajai un
ekonomiskajai situcijai, Latvijas zintn un praks aizvien vairk sk
atzt un lietot tirgus ekonomikai raksturgos ekonomisko kategoriju
skaidrojumus, pievroties Rietumu un ASV zintnieku ptjumiem aj
jom.
Kop 1992.g. 14.oktobra Gada prskatu likums nosaka gada
prskata struktru, sastdanas un apstiprinanas krtbu, k ar
skaidro likum izmantoto terminoloiju. Gada prskatu likums (1.), MK
noteikumi Nr.808 Noteikumi par biedrbu, nodibinjumu un
arodbiedrbu gada prskatiem (4.) u.c. saistoie likumdoanas akti
nosaka, ka ldzeki, kas paredzti ilgai lietoanai (ilgk par vienu gadu)
vai ieguldti ilglietojam paum ir ilgtermia ieguldjumi. Citi ir
apgrozmie ldzeki. Gandrz identiski apgrozmie ldzeki tiek skaidroti
ar prjos LR saistoajos normatvajos aktos.
Latvijas grmatvedbas standarts Nr.1. Finanu prskata
sagatavoanas pamatnostdnes (5.) nosaka, ka apgrozmie ldzeki tiek
klasificti k apgrozmie ldzeki dos gadjumos:
tos paredz realizt vai patrt uzmuma pamatdarbbas cikla
ietvaros;
tos tur galvenokrt tirdzniecbas nolkiem vai slaicgi un ja tos
paredz realizt 12 mneos pc bilances datuma;
t ir nauda vai ts ekvivalents, kam ir neierobeotas lietoanas
iespjas.
Izvrtjot LR normatvos aktus attiecb uz apgrozmo ldzeku
terminoloisko pieeju, jsecina, ka Gada prskatu likum, k ar citos
saistoajos likumdoanas aktos apgrozmie ldzeki vispr nav definti.
K redzams no iepriekmint, tad Latvijas Grmatvedbas standarti ar
nedod skaidru priekstatu par apgrozmo ldzeku jdziena piemroanu.
Ptjuma ietvaros autore ir apkopojusi atseviu autoru un dados
avotos pieejams jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki (aktvi) defincijas, kas
atspoguo to btbu un veidojos komponentes, kas ir apkopotas
1.tabul.


1.tabula
Jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki defincijas

N.p.
Jdziena formuljums Avots
k.
1 2 3
1. ldzeki, kurus paredzts realizt vai Ludbors A. Apgrozm kapitla
patrt uzmuma pamatdarbbas cikla vadana nelielos uzmumos.. Rga:
(parasti viena gada) laik Lietis informcijas dienests,
2007. 11.lpp.
2. ldzeki, kas tiek izmantoti uzmuma Krauklis V., is G., Krauklis J.
ikdienas darbb (krjumi, naudas Likumdoanas aktu terminu
ldzeki u.c.) un kas uzmum atrodas vrdnca. Rga: Sensers R, 1999.
tikai slaicgi; tie ir naudas ldzeki vai ar 33.lpp.
var tikt prvrsti naud vai patrti
nkam gada laik
3. ldzeki, kurus patr vien Nepors V. Ievads ekonomika. Rga:
saimniecisks darbbas cikl un kas laik Mulineo, 2006. 119.lpp.
pilngi maina savu rjo veidu.
Apgrozmie ldzeki viena saimniecisk
cikla laik prvras naud, par kuru
uzmums turpina papildint un no
jauna iegdties vajadzgos apgrozmos
ldzekus
4. ldzeki, kurus paredzts prvrst naud, Andne V. Ievads finansu
prdot vai izlietot tuvko 12 mneu grmatvedb. Rga: Latvijas
laik vai parast saimniecisks darbbas Universitte, 2004. 8.lpp.
cikl
5. ldzeki, kurus paredzts izlietot Rurne M. Uzmjdarbbas
uzmjdarbb viena gada vai viena organizcija un plnoana. Rga:
raoanas cikla laik Biznesa augstskola Turba, 2002.
222.lpp
Ludbors A. Finanu grmatvedba
tirdzniecb. Rga: Lietis
informcijas dienests, 2003. 62.lpp.
6. uzmuma nauda un stermia aktvi, Kue L. u.c. Ekonomikas un finanu
kurus iespjams un plnots prvrst vrdnca. Rga: Norden AB, 2003.
naud vai izlietot tuvko 12 mneu 32.lpp.
laik. Apgrozmos ldzekos ietilpst
krjumi, debitoru pardi, stermia
saistbas, naudas ldzeki bank un kas
7. uzmuma ldzeki (krjumi, debitoru Klauss A. Kontrolings: AZ
pardi, stermia investcijas un naudas skaidrojovrdnca. Rga: Preses
ldzeki), kurus paredzts prvrst Nams, 2000. 16.lpp.
naud, prdot vai izlietot tuvkos 12
mneu laik vai uzmuma prskata
gad, ja tas ir ilgks par vienu gadu
(piemram, celtniecbas uzmumiem)

1.tabulas turpinjums
8. resursi, kas apkalpo produkcijas Konkurtspja un kvalittes vadbas

raoanas procesu un realizcijas problmas. Rga: Banku augstskola,
procesu. (Namedova redakcij) 2000. 10.lpp.
9. aktvi, kurus budeta iestde plno Krtba, kd budeta iestdes krto
izmantot gada laik vai kuru apmaksa grmatvedbas uzskaiti [tiesaite]
paredzta gada laik no bilances datuma LR Ministru kabineta 2009.g.15.dec
noteikumi Nr.1486 [atsauce
2012.g.13.feb.]. Pieejas veids:
http://www.likumi.lv/doc.php?id=
202636&from=off
10. naudas ldzeki, izejvielas, skla, Par pauma tiesbu atjaunoanu uz
kurinmais, materili, iepirktie raojumi uzmumiem un citiem pauma
un preces, tara, nepabeigtie raojumi un objektiem. [tiesaite] LR 1993. g. 30.
neizpildtie pastjumi, viengadgie marta likums [atsauce
stdjumi, gatavie raojumi, preces un 2012.g.13.feb.]. Pieejas veids:
izpildtie pastjumi, raa, darba un http://www.likumi.lv/doc.php?id=6
produktvie dzvnieki, darbarki un 0054
inventra priekmeti, kuri paredzti
slaicgai (mazk par gadu) lietoanai, un
citas atvietojamas vai patrjamas lietas,
kuras nepiecieamas uzmuma
darbbai
12. ir vieta bilanc, kur uzmums atspoguo KENNON, J. Current Assets on the
visus skumus, kurus var prvrst naud Balance Sheet. [online]. [Cited
s laika period, t.i. kas nav lielks par Ferbuary 13 2012]. Aviable from
vienu gadu Internet:http://beginnersinvest.abo
ut.com/od/analyzingabalancesheet
/a/currentassetsonthebalance
sheet.htm
13. Bilances konts, kas atspoguo aktvus, Farlex Financial Dictionary.[online]
kurus var prvst naud viena [Cited Ferbuary 13 2012]. Avaible
uzmjdarbbas gada laik. Apgrozmie from Interbet: http://financial
aktvi ir nauda, debitori, krjumu, dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/C
vrtspapri, nkamo periodu izdevumi urrent+Assets
un citi likvidjamie aktvi, kurus viegli
var prvrst naud
14. aktvi, kuri tiks prvrsti skaidr naud US Business Law /Taxes. [online].
gada laik, un aktvi, kuri tiks izlietoti [Cited Ferbuary 13 2012]. Aviable
uzmjdarbb viena gada laik. Dai no from Internet:
apgrozmo ldzeku piemriem ir http://biztaxlaw.about.com/od/glo
krjumi un izejvielas ssaryc/a/currentassets.htm
15. aktvi, kurus paredzts izmantot (prdot Online dictionary [online]. [Cited
vai patrt) viena gada laik Ferbuary 13 2012]. Aviable from
internet:http://moneyterms.co.uk/c
urrent_assets/

16. nauda kas, debitoru pardi, krjumi, Business. [online] Online
vrtspapri un citi resursi, kurus vartu encyclopedia.[Cited Ferbuary 13
prvrst naud viena parast uzmuma 2012]. Aviable from Internet:
darbbas cikl, kas parasti mazks par http://en.mimi.hu/business/curren
vienu gadu t_assets.html
17. aktvi, kurus tri var prvrst naud. aj SBA Loan Terms: Current Assets
kategorij ir: skaidra nauda, ieguldjumi [online], [Cited Ferbuary 13 2012].
kontos, krjumi un debitoru pardi Aviable from Internet:
http://www.hjventures.com/SBA/C
urrentAssets.html
18. aktvi, kurus paredzts prvrts naud Online Financial Glossary. [online].
viena gada laik. Tie ir nauda, debitori un [Cited Ferbuary 13 2012]. Aviable
krjumi form Internet:
http://www.moneychimp.com/glos
sary/current_assets.htm
19. aktvi, kurus aj prskata period var The new international websters
prvest par naudu, debitoru pardu, pocket business dictobary of the
krjumiem u.c. english language. USA: Trident press
international, 1998. 62 p
20. organizciju aktvi, kas pastvgi maina Oxford University Press. A
savu formu un apgrozs no naudas uz dictionary of accounting. United
precm un atpaka Kingdom: Oxford University Press,
2005. 114 p.
21. ldzeki, kurus var prvrst naud Financial times lexicon. [online].
samr tri, parasti gada laik. Tie ietver [Cited Ferbuary 13 2012]. Aviable
sev pau naudu vai naudas ekvivalentus, from Internet: http://lexicon.ft.
debitoru pardus un krjumus com/term.asp?t=currentassets
22. aktvi, kas sev ietver materilos Damodaran A, Investment
raoanas krjumus, naudas ldzekus un Valuation: Tools and Techniques for
ldzekus norinos Determining the Value of Any Asset.
New York:John Wiley & Sons,
2006.40.p
23. uzmuma aktvi mantas, naudas
ldzeku un norinu veid, kas piedals /
tekos aprites proces un aprit ne , ; . . . ..
mazk k vienu reizi gad . .:
, 2002. . 2425.
24. ldzeki, ko izmanto uzmums, lai , . .
stenotu t pareizjo darbbu.
Apgrozmajos ldzekos ietver krjumus, . []
nepabeigtos raojumus, gatavo
produkciju, debitoru pardus, naudas .
ldzekus kas un naudas ldzekus [ 13 ,
kontos 2012.]. :
http://www.financial
lawyer.ru/newsbox/business_plan/
141528131.html

25. naudas ldzeki, ar kuru paldzbu tiek ,
avansti uzmuma apgrozmie ldzeki, .
kas savukrt piedals raoan un []
apgrozb
. [ 13
, 2012.]. :
http://ggau.by/moodle/mod/resou
rce/view.php?id=412
26. ldzeki, kas viena raoanas cikla vai
kalendra gada laik var prvrsties
naud .
[ 13 ,
2012.]. :
http://fmaster.org.ua/oborotnye
sredstvapredpriyatiya.html

1.tabul apkopojot dadas apgrozmo ldzeku defincijas, autore
secina, ka jdziena interpretcij nav vrojama vienota pieeja.
Jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki (aktvi) definciju komponentu
analze norda uz sekojom sakarbm:
1. pc apgrozmo ldzeku funkcionanas laika
12 mneu laik, tekoais gads, prskata gads vai viens gads (1.,
2., 3., 5., 6., 7., 9., 10., 12., 13., 14., 15., 16., 18., 19., 21., 23.,
26. defincijas);
Raoanas cikls (1., 3., 4., 5., 8., 23., 25., 26. defincijas);
2. apgrozmo ldzeku definjums, atifrjot pa veidiem (2., 6., 7.,
10., 13., 14., 16., 17., 18., 19., 21., 22., 23., 24. defincijas);
3. spja prvrsties naud (3., 4., 6., 12., 13., 16., 17., 18., 19., 21.,
26. defincijas);
4. priet no vienas formas cit (20., 3., 25.defincijas);
5. pc ldzdalbas uzmjdarbbas procesu nodroinan
a. ikdien, pareizj darbb (2., 10., 24.defincijas);
b. raoanas proces (8., 25.defincijas);
c. realizcijas proces (8.defincijas).
Izanalizjot augstk mints defincijas, autore konstatja, ka
lielkoties defincijas var iedalt divs das, t.i., vienas, kurs jdziens
tiek skaidrots no funkcionanas laika un aprites, savukrt cits tiek
skaidrotas apgrozmo ldzeku sastvdaas. Vrtjot apgrozmo ldzeku
ekonomisko btbu, jsecina, ka lielk daa autoru defincijs balsts uz
laika faktoru, neemot vr apgrozmo ldzeku aprites ciklu, kas ne
vienmr ir viena gada robes. Pie tam, apgrozmie ldzeki aprit ne tikai
raoanas, bet ar finanu cikl, ko autore uzskata par btisku defincijas

sastvdau, lai nodrointu skaidru un vienotu priekstatu par ptmo
kategoriju.
K redzams no defincijm, tad dadi autori defincijs lieto gan
aktvus, gan ldzekus, k ar atsevios gadjumos resursus vai
grmatvedbas jdzienu bilances konti. Var uzskatt, ka da pieeja
norda par atirgu jdziena interpretciju un nesniedz vienotu izpratni
par t lietoanu.
Autore uzskata, ka Latvij jdzienu apgrozmie ldzeki turpina
lietot k tieo tulkojumu no krievu valodas , jo
da jdziena interpretcija pirms 1940.g. Latvij netika lietota. Rietumos
un ASV tiek lietots un skaidrots jdziens apgrozmie aktvi no angu
valodas current assets. Izptot atsevii jdziena sastvdau ldzeki,
autore ir konstatjusi, ka vrdncs un zintniskaj literatr jdziena
skaidrojums nav dots un visbiek tiek lietots, izmantojot sinonmu
manta, resursi vai aktvs. Ldz ar to autore uzskata, ka emot vr
jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki vsturiskos attstbas aspektus, k ar
msdienu tendences attiecb uz ekonomik lietojamm kategorijm un
jdzienu interpretcijm, korekti btu lietot jdzienu apgrozmie aktvi
jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki viet. da jdziena lietoana nodrointu
ar vienotu izpratni attiecb uz starptautisko praksi, k ar finanu un
grmatvedbas jom lietojamiem Starptautiskajiem grmatvedbas
(finanu prskatu) standartiem.
Ptjuma rezultt autore ir izstrdjusi un piedv apgrozmo
aktvu definciju. Apgrozmie aktvi ir uzmuma rcb vai kontrol
esoie ldzeki: krjumi, ldzeki norinos, nkamo periodu izdevumi,
stermia vrtspapri un naudas ldzeki vai to ekvivalenti, kas aprit no
viena veida cit vien uzmuma raoanas un finanu cikl. Izvrtjot
Latvijas likumdoanas aktus Likumu par grmatvedbu, Gada prskatu
likumu 1.LGS Finanu prskatu sagatavoanas pamatnostdnes, k ar
citus saistoos likumdoanas aktus, kurus izmanto, lai sastdtu
kvalitatvus un saldzinmus gada prskatus, autore likumdevjiem
iesaka ajos dokumentos sniegt korektu apgrozmo ldzeku (aktvu)
definciju, kas sekmtu vienotu terminoloisko izpratni un to
pielietojumu.
Secinjumi un prieklikumi
1. Latvijas likumdoanas aktos Likums par grmatvedbu, Gada
prskatu likums 1.LGS Finanu prskatu sagatavoanas
pamatnostdnes netiek ievrota vienota pieeja attiecb uz sadau
Lietotie termini no dadiem viedokiem. Lai sekmtu vienotu
terminoloisko izpratni un to pielietojumu, autore iesaka
papildint 1.LGS standart lietoto termina aktvi definciju, k ar

papildint likuma sadau Likum lietotie termini ar jdziena
aktvs definciju.
2. Izvrtjot jdziena aktvs defincijas, tiek secints, ka latvieu
valod pieejamajs defincijs ir iztrkstoa btiska komponente
attiecb uz atzanas un kontroles kritrijiem. Autore iesaka
papildint o definciju ar vrdiem ir ticami novrtjami un
paum vai kontrol esoi, k rezultt autores piedvt
jdziena aktvi defincija ir da: aktvi ir uzmuma rcb vai
kontrol esoie resursi, kuri iegti sav rcb pagtnes notikumu
rezultt, ir ticami novrtjami un no kuriem nkotn uzmumam
ir sagaidms ekonomisks izdevgums.
3. Jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki terminoloisks pieejas attstba
Latvij veidojusies dados ekonomisks domas attstbas
periodos. Var izdalt trs posmus, t.i., Brvs Latvijas laika posms no
1918. 1940.g., PSRS laika posms 1940. 1991.g., atjaunots
Latvijas Republikas laika posms no 1991.g. ldz msdienm.
4. Latvij jdzienu apgrozmie ldzeki turpina lietot k tieo
tulkojumu no krievu valodas , jo da
jdziena interpretcija pirms 1940.g. Latvij netika lietota.
Rietumos un ASV tiek lietots un skaidrots jdziens apgrozmie
aktvi no angu valodas current assets.
5. Gada prskatu likum, k ar citos saistoajos likumdoanas aktos
apgrozmie ldzeki vispr nav definti. Latvijas Grmatvedbas
standarti ar nedod skaidru priekstatu par apgrozmo ldzeku
jdziena piemroanu.
6. emot vr jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki vsturiskos attstbas
aspektus, k ar msdienu tendences attiecb uz ekonomik
lietojamajm kategorijm un jdzienu interpretcijm, korekti btu
lietot jdzienu apgrozmie aktvi jdziena apgrozmie ldzeki
viet. da jdziena lietoana nodrointu ar vienotu izpratni
attiecb uz starptautisko praksi, k ar finanu un grmatvedbas
jom lietojamiem Starptautiskajiem grmatvedbas (finanu
prskatu) standartiem.
7. Ptjuma rezultt autore ir izstrdjusi un piedv apgrozmo
aktvu definciju. Apgrozmie aktvi ir uzmuma rcb vai
kontrol esoie ldzeki: krjumi, ldzeki norinos, nkamo
periodu izdevumi, stermia vrtspapru un naudas ldzeki vai to
ekvivalenti, kas aprit no viena veida cit vien uzmuma
raoanas un finanu cikl.
8. Izvrtjot Latvijas likumdoanas aktus Likumu par grmatvedbu,
Gada prskatu likumu 1.LGS Finanu prskatu sagatavoanas
pamatnostdnes, k ar citus saistoos likumdoanas aktus, kurus

izmanto, lai sastdtu kvalitatvus un saldzinmus gada prskatus,
autore likumdevjiem iesaka ajos dokumentos sniegt korektu
apgrozmo ldzeku (aktvu) definciju, kas sekmtu vienotu
terminoloisko izpratni un to pielietojumu.
Izmantot literatra un avoti
1. Gada prskatu likums (Latvijas Vstnesis, Nr. Nr.166 (4358),
0.10.2010.) (stjas spk ar 03.11.2010.). [tiesaiste], [atsauce 2012. gada
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Summary
The aim of the research is to evaluate the interpretation of the term current
assets in research and literature of the field. The tasks of the research are to explore
the interpretation of the term assets in research and literature of the field in Latvia
and abroad, to trace the historical development of the term current assets in Latvia,
and to research the interpretation of the term current assets in research and

literature of the field in Latvia and abroad. The research methods are qualitative
research methods content analysis and cases studies recognized in research and
literature of the field in Latvia and abroad.
In the legislative acts of Latvia Law on Accounting and Annual Accounts
Law, Accounting Standard of Latvia No.1 Basic Guidelines for Preparing Financial
Statements do not observe a single approach to the section Used Terms from
various aspects. In order to facilitate single terminological understanding and its
application the author suggests to supplement the definition of the term assets used
in Accounting Standard of Latvia No.1 as well as add the section of the law Terms
Used in the Law by the definition of the term assets. The author suggests to
supplement this definition by the words are credibly estimable and being in
possession or under control; as a result, the definition of the term assets provided
by the author is as follows: Assets are resources being in the disposal or control of an
enterprise, which are gained in disposal as a result of past events, are credibly
estimable and from which the enterprise shall gain economic benefit in the future.
The development of the terminological approach of the notion current assets
in Latvia has occurred in various periods of the economic thought. There can be
distinguished three periods: the period of Independent Republic of Latvia (1918
1940), the period the USSR (19401991), the period of the Renewed Republic of
Latvia (1991present). In Latvia the term current assets is still used as direct
translation from Russian because such interpretation of the
term was not used before 1940. In the West and USA there is used and explained a
term current assets in English.
In the Annual Accounts Law as well as other related legislative acts current
assets are not defined at all. The Accounting Standards of Latvia also do not provide a
clear view on the application of the term current assets. Taking into consideration
the aspects of the historical development of the term current assets and
contemporary trends in relation to the categories and interpretations of terms
applied in economics, it would be correct to use in Latvian the term apgrozmie
aktvi (current assets) instead of apgrozmie ldzeki. Such application of the
term would also ensure single understanding in relation to the international practice
as well as the International Accounting (Financial Statements) Standards used in the
field of finance and accounting. As a result of the research the author has developed
and offered the definition of current assets. Evaluating the legislative acts of Latvia
Law on Accounting and Annual Accounts Law, Accounting Standard of Latvia No.1
Basic Guidelines for Preparing Financial Statements as well as other binding
legislative acts applied to draft qualitative and comparable annual accounts, the
author suggests legislators to provide a correct definition of the term current assets
in these documents to facilitate single terminological interpretation and application.


TRADICIONL LATVIEU LAUKU STA.
KURZEMES REIONA PIEMRS
TRADITIONAL LATVIAN COUNTRY HOUSE.
COURLAND REGION EXAMPLE
Linda BALODE
Bc.arch., maistrantras studente
Latvijas Lauksaimniecbas universitte
Tlrunis: 29794764, epasts: linda.balode2010@inbox.lv
Jelgava, Latvija

Abstract. The traditional way of life concerns not only treatment of things, but
important is also the environment of traditional management. Development plans have
to define the context of the cultural landscape protection and management of premises
and areas around the old rural homesteads, having regard to land rights, and should be
targeted for biodiversity conservation process. Such areas are not only of local but also
of global importance. A highly measurable art is the skill to use and involve the ancient
country estate in the landscape and ancient heritage of the most valuable items in the
modern landscape, synthesis of the modern landscape of cultural value. As a result,
visual character of poor quality is reduced, by giving new modernist trends to Courland
traditional country yard landscape areas. Traditional country house landscape for
contemporary original, harmonious environment, which is malleable in balance with
man and nature, under the umbrella of cultural landscape values. Scientific research
results provide an important contribution to the future of rural municipal
administrative territorial development to enhance, restore or create new sustainable
landscapes, based on balanced and harmonious relationships between economic
activities, social needs and cultural environment.
Keywords: Country house, harmonious environment, Courland farmsteads, sustainable
landscapes, traditional country yard.

Ievads
Tradicionl lauku viensta Latvij ar savu apkrtjo ainavu ir
augsti vrtjams un saglabjams kultrvsturiskais mantojums. Daudzu
tradicionlo lauku vienstu mi sniedzas iepriekjos gadsimtos, par ko
liecina milzu dikoki, kas sastopami gandrz katr lauku stas pagalm.
Lielajos pagalma kokos cilvki saskatja dieviso kltbtni, varenbu un
svti tos godja. Pateicoties latvieu dzves uztverei un vsturiski
senajam dzves veidam, tradicionlajs latvieu lauku sts ir tik daudz
veco senatnes liecinieku.
Kurzemes reiona vienstas no reionls arhitektras un
ainavisko patnbu viedoka veido kultrvsturisks telpas identitti, kas
pai svargi ir apzint pareizjs administratvi teritorils reformas
attstbas laik. Etnisk kopba un ts tradicionls izpausmes kultr,

mksl, sadzv un saimnieciskaj aprit ir faktori, kas jievrt
turpmk lauku kultrainavisks vides saglaban un prmantoan.
Tradicionlais dzvesveids, ir ne tikai attieksme pret lietm, bet
svarga ir ar pati vide, kur notiek tradicionl saimniekoana. Augsti
novrtjama mksla ir prasme pielietot un iesaistt seno lauku stu
ainavu, un senu mantojuma vrtgkos priekmetus msdieng ainav,
t sintezjot msdienu ainav kultrvsturisks vrtbas. Rezultt, ap
tradicionlajm lauku stm mazintos vizuli nekvalitatvais raksturs,
kas msdiens ir izveidojies ekonomisku un politisku apsvrumu d.
Lauku stas ainavas iegtu laikmetgi oriinlu, harmonisku vidi, kas ir
plastiska ldzsvar ar cilvku un dabu, ko vieno kultrvsturisks ainavu
vrtbas. Rastos ilgtspjga, esttiska un praktiska lauku ainavisk telpa
ap Kurzemes lauku stm, ldzi cilvkam un laikam, nezaudjot galvens
senu vrtbas.
Zintnisk darba ptjuma objekts tradicionls lauku vienstas
kultrainava un ts identitte Kurzemes kultrvsturisks telpas
kontekst, ievrtjot enzes procesus laika izteiksm.
Msu sabiedrb aktulais izpratnes lmenis par kultrvsturisko
mantojumu dieml vl joprojm ir 20.gs. otrs puses lmen un progress
ir oti minimls. Latvij ir vrojama veco koka ku demonta, kas
Skandinvij bija raksturgs 70. 80.gados. Kop Latvijas neatkarbas
atganas ir pagjui 20 gadi, bet likumdoan nav noformulta strikta
attieksme pret kultras mantojumu (12.). Pasaul sabiedrbas
izgltoanai pievr oti lielu uzmanbu. Eirop krasas izmaias attieksm
pret kultras mantojumu un tradcijm notika pc kultras revolcijas,
kad bija zudui vairki Stokholmas priekpilstu rajoni, noldzinti
daudzi Eiropas mazpilstu centri un uz sabrukanas slieka atrads
daudzi viduslaiku pilstu centri. Attieksme pret vecajm km un lauku
stm bija tikpat noraidoa k msdiens Latvij. Vrtgs lauku stas
strauji zaud savu pastvanu un vsturisks vrtbas, bezpaldzgi
pakaujoties liktea un ekonomiskajai ietekmes varai (1.att.).
Rietumvalstis ieguldja lielus ldzekus sabiedrbas izgltoanai par
vsturiskajm vrtbm. Tika organizti sabiedriski paskumi, izveidotas
nodoku atlaides kultras piemineku paniekiem, atviegloti kredti,
masveid izdoti informatvi izdevumi, veidotas izstdes, pilstm un
apdzvotm vietm izstrdti rekonstrukcijas un attstbas projekti,
veicinta tradicionls amatniecbas attstba, vietjo materilu raoana,
izveidoti informcijas centri (14.).

1. attls. Kurzemes zemnieku lauku sta Kalnji Vrmes pagast
(autors: Linda Balode, 2011 g.)

Kurzemes lauku ainav atrodams bagtgs kultras mantojums
(pai teritorijs, kuras neskra kar t.s. Kurzemes katla zon), kas
liecina gan par tautas senvsturi un saimniekoanas tradcijm, gan
objekti, kurus apvij noststi un ticjumi. Intensificjoties lauku trismam,
palielins interese par vsturiskm un interesantm vietm Latvijas
laukos. Lai dus objektus mekltu, inventarizcijas veid atzmtu un
tdjdi paglbtu no aizmirstbas, kop 2009.gada marta tiek stenots
Igaunijas un Latvijas programmas projekts Neapzints kultras
mantojuma vrtbas kopj dabas un kultras telp (Unknown cultural
heritage values in common natural and cultural space). Projekta laik
izstrdja un apstiprinja specilu metodiku kultras mantojuma
identifikcijai etros Ziemelatvijas rajonos (Limbai, Valka, Valmiera,
Alksne). Kurzemes reion da veida inventarizcija un ilgtspjgas
tradicionlo lauku stu nkotnes ainavas stratijas izpte un izstrde
nav veikta, kas ir ptjuma novitte.
Ptjuma metodika ietver: dabas pamatnes elementu un
urbanizts telpas mijiedarbbas, administratvi teritorilo plnojuma
attstbas koncepciju un kultrainavisks telpas esttisks,
socialiekonomisks un ekoloisks kvalittes izpti. Tam pamat ir
esos situcijas un attstbas tendenu saldzinjums, izlases veida
inventarizcija ar fotomateriliem no Kurzemes tradicionlajm lauku
stm. Lauku pavaldbu teritorijas attstbas projektu analze ainavisks
telpas kontekst un socioloisks aptaujas rezulttu apkopojums.
Ptjum izmantots metodes veiktas plnoti, pa krtm, sistematisk
grafika veid (2.att.).


2. attls. Ptjuma metou secba

Zintnisk darba hipotzes piemums postul, ka izkopjot prasmi
ilgtspjgi apsaimniekot kultrainavisko vidi un iesaistot tradicionls
lauku stas elementus pareizj ainav, btu iespjams saglabt
Kurzemes lauku stai raksturgo tlu un vsturisks iezmes.
Zintnisk darba mris ir izptt transformcijas procesus un
izdart prognozes atbilstoi jaunajm socilekonomiskajm un ainaviski
telpiskajm prasbm Latvij. Ldz ar to zintnisk darba uzdevumi ir:
1) izptt reionls iezmes un vides mrogu; 2) prognozt sagaidms
funkcionls un kompozicionls prvrtbas ainav.
Koki nozmgkie lauku stu ainavisks telpas organizcijas
elementi
Tradicionl Kurzemes lauku stas ainava nav iedomjama bez
kokiem un krmiem. Kokaugi tradicionls lauku stas ainaviskaj telp
ir vieni no nozmgkajiem telpisks organizcijas elementiem. Koki un
krmi sekm dabisks vides elementu pareizu savstarpjo attiecbu
veidoanos. Tie atjauno skbeka saturu gais, paaugstina gaisa mitrumu,
ierobeo vja darbbu, uztver putekus, slp trokus, papildina gaisu ar
daudzm teriskajm vielm, kas labvlgi ietekm, nostiprina un uzlabo
msu veselbu (6.).
Ierkojot lauku stu, senatn vietu tradicionlajai lauku stai un
ldumiem izvljs tajs viets, kur auga ozoli un liepas, jo tur bija
visauglgks augsnes. Vietu paai stai izvljs jau esou lapu koku

pudur, jo nebija laika gaidt brdi, kad jaunie stdjumi izaugs. Prjos
kouma augu stdjumus, saska ar dabu un ainavisko reljefu, saimnieki
veidoja savm rokm. Sen tradcija vsta, ka nevis liepu stdja pagalm,
bet pagalmu veidoja ap kuplu liepu, jo ts lapotnei jau uzreiz bija jsarg
kas no ugunsnelaimes (3.att.).
Liepm ir sevii labvlga aura pret saimes sievm un meitm
stas pagalm. Bez tam liepa ir oti izturgs koks pret saku nobradanu.
Ts spj paciest gan cilvku, gan dzvnieku iemts takas gar pau
stumbru. Pa retai liepai vai ozolam tika atstts ar plaajos trumos, ko
izmantoja laukstrdnieki pusdienas laik k paslptuvi no spoas saules
un pusdienoanas vietu. Ozoli tika stdti ar Jkalni.

3. attls. Kurzemes zemnieku lauku sta Zbaki Vrmes pagast

Vai ar Juguns pakalnu meklja tur, kur jau auga kupls ozols,
deru krustpunkt. os kokus joprojm dab iesj si, jo deru
krustpunktos tie iekrto ziemas barbas krtuves, un parasti pavasar
kda no zlm ar iesakojas. Vl ozola vieta bija stvu upju krastu un
gravu augmals k ar iebraucam cea skum. Senajm tradcijm
raksturgi, ka pagalm bez centrl koka liepas, vl auga mtes un
auglbas koks bele. Savukrt pldzis bija sargtjs no aunuma
ienkanas st. Kava, osis, goba, vksna, vlkos laikos ar kastaa,
varja augt stas ziemeu pus vai pie dzvnieku aplokiem, kur tos
izmantoja nonojumam. Biei vien stas ziemeu vai ziemeaustrumu
pus aizsardzbai no stipri aukstajiem vjiem un sniega tika rind stdts
egu dzvogs. No skuju kokaugiem 19. gadsimta laikos, lauku stu
pagalmos bija sastopamas ar pa kdai no muias atnestai tjai, jeb
dzvbas kokam, ko iestdja koumdrzi. Pie dam stm pards pat
vesel rind stdtas tjas. Savukrt kavas un ous neatstja nedz
trum, nedz saku drz. Ne velti Latvijas lauku ainav dikoku ir vairk

nek kaimivalsts, ko var izskaidrot ar seno latvieu mlestbu pret
kokiem un ainavas izjtu. Dikoki ir neatsverams skaistuma elements
Kurzemes lauku stu ainav. Lauku sts lielie koki funkcionja, k
zibens novedji, vasaras karstum radja maigi patkamu patvruma nu.
Tos izmantoja ar k biu dravas, vai k robezmes. Par robezmju
kokiem vairkum tika izvlti liela auguma koki, k egles, ozoli, vksnas,
kam miz tika iegriezti krusti vai kdas citas dievis zmes. Savukrt
latvieu agrko laiku bikopba visos laikos ir ptta un aprakstta,
sniedzot ar labu ilustratvo materilu. Stendes apvid, k ar cituviet
Kurzem, skoties 20. gadsimtam, dravniecba iegja modernaj fz. No
liel dravas koku skaita, kas reiz bijis msu meos, palikui tikai
nedaudzi. Daudzs mjs gan vl bija bluu stropi, tau ar tos jau
izspieda modernie biu skapi (4.att.).

4. attls. Kurzemes zemnieku lauku sta Ozoli Vrmes pagast

Vecie klui, kas bija gan vertikli, gan slpi guloi, pamazm
satrunja un pazuda. Ldz ar jauno laiku stropiem ieviess ari
modernkas bikopbas metodes. Msdiens medus izmantoana ir
kuvusi aizvien niecgka, to aizstj mkslgi veidots medus vai cukurs,
kura dziedniecisks vrtbas ne teju nav saldzinmas ar dabgu biu
medu. Tradicionlajs Kurzemes lauku sts vienmr bija pa kdai biu
saimei, kas odien tiek pamazm aizmirstas (3.).
Lielie vecie koki lauku st ir ne tikai esttisks ainavas elements,
bet ar dabas piemineklis, un, ja kds no tiem tiek traumts vai aiziet boj,
zaudjums ir neaprinms. Ir jdara viss, lai iespjami ilgk o skaisto
stas rotu saglabtu ar nkamajm paaudzm. Ar katru gadu veco
aizsargjamo dikoku skaits samazins. Tie cie no dabas stihijm,
dabiski noveco, vai cilvku radts sekas tos neatgriezeniski noposta.
Galvenie dikoku vrtanas rdtji ir koka apkrtmrs 1,3 metrus no
zemes, k ar aptuvenais vecums, ko populrzintniskaj literatr
precizja Latvijas dikoku ptanas pamatlicjs, mekopis, Staislavs
Sali 20. gs. 60. gados. Preczi koku vecumu nav iespjams noteikt, jo

vairkum o koku dobumi ir satrupjui vai tuki. Tomr ir vajadzgi ar
veci koki, jo tiei ie koki kalpo par mjvietu vai barbas bzi daudziem
mea iemtniekiem, tai skait mea kaitku dabiskajiem ienaidniekiem
(8.). pai vrtga ir veco lapu koku kreves (krokain) miza, kas nodroina
piemrotu dzves vidi lielam daudzumam dzvo organismu (13.). Ja ap
lieliem, savrup augoiem veciem kokiem ir nodrointi gaiki apstki,
tad di koki ir dzvesvieta ne tikai kukaiu sugm, bet ar dadm
gaismas prasgm rpju sugm. Dikoku raksturgk atraans vieta ir
rpus mea, lauku stu un muiu tuvum (4.).
Ilgtspjga, dabai draudzga lauku stas ainava
Latvietim sta vienmr bijusi dzves telpa, kur katram elementam
ir praktiska un ar esttiska vrtba. Lai ar mintais pamatprincips
saglabjas, drza labiekrtoana mains ldzi laikam. Vides
labiekrtoana arvien biek tiek veikta oti prdomti un drza kopjais
veidols tiek saskaots ar mjas stilu un saimniekiem btiskm
vajadzbm. Tiek augsti vrtts ne tikai esttiskais, bet ar ekoloiskais,
praktiskais un ilgtspjgais tradicionls lauku stas labiekrtoanas
princips. Ekonomiski veiksmgas, savstarpji socili vienotas un
ilgtspjgas attstbas prieknoteikums ir kvalitatva apkrtj un lauku
stas ainavisk vide (5.att.).

5. attls. Kurzemes zvejnieku lauku sta, Ncas novads

Vide ir vrtga pati par sevi k dzves pamats, k ar ekonomisko un
socilo iespju galvenais avots, nodroinot dabas resursus, iedzvotju
nodarbintbu, iespju atpsties un pavadt brvo laiku. Mazprveidot
vide un lauku stu ainava ir viens no visvrtgkajiem Kurzemes reiona
resursiem. o teritoriju uzturana un stiprinana ir galvenais
paskums turpmkai reiona ilgtspjgai attstbai. Tradicionlo
Kurzemes lauku stu teritorijas nepiecieams pasargt no nepiemrotas
attstbas. Vietj lmen vairums cilvki prot novrtt dabas vrtbas,

dabas un pilstu ainavas, bet neizprot k ts iespjams saglabt un dabai
labvlgi apsaimniekot. Reions var lepoties ar savm augstvrtgajm
teritorijm, kur kultrainavas un daba saglabjusies ldz msdienm.
Nepiecieams ne tikai saglabt esoo situciju reion, bet ar jmekl
pozitvas saiknes starp vides, socilo un ekonomisko ietekmi katr stas
ainaviskaj telp atsevii (6.att.).

6. attls. Kurzemes lauku stu ainavisko telpu iedaljums

Telpisks plnoanas un reionlas attstbas politikai jbt
ldzsvarotai un jintegr sabiedrbas atirgs prasbas, idejas un mri.
Ir btiski svargi, lai Kurzemes lauku stu attstbas politika, kas attiecas
uz nodarbintbu, infrastruktru un investcijm, galvenokrt tiktu
noteikta saska ar ilgtspjgas harmonijas principiem. Visai ainavu
arhitektras mkslas kultrai raksturgas divas savstarpji vienotas, bet
atirgas tendences: mkslas veidu sintze, jeb apvienoans, k ar
tendence tiem stabilizties ar specifikas smalkku izkopanu. Dakrt
prsvaru gst tikai viena no tendencm, izpauoties sav starp
nevienmrgi (9.). Tas attiecinms ar uz ilgtspjgu lauku ainavu, kas sev
ietver divas nozmgas sadaas: ekoloisko, dabas veidoto un esttisko,
cilvka radto ainaviskaj telp. Cilvki neprtraukti cenas izmaint
apkrtjo ainavu sev par labu, nenovrtjot turpmks sekas, ko rcba
var dot. Pirmais solis uz ilgtspjgku ainavisko telpu btu
nepiecieamba atzt ekoloisko realitti un socilekonomisks
problmas valst kopum un tad izvrtt ar atsevio ainavisko telpu
iespjas attstties. Ikviena dabas vide var bt esttiski pievilcga, tau
ekonomiska spiediena ietekm t iztrjas. Vides vrtbu zudums
uzskatms joprojm par neveiksmgu, tomr oti nepiecieamu
kompromisu ekonomiskajai attstbai. Nav pareizi uzskatt vidi par tdu

k fonu cilvcisks darbbas izpausmei un attstbai. Cilvks ir dabas daa
un apkrtj vide nevar bt tikai dekorcija. Ilgtspja lauku stas
ainavisk vid prasa, lai cilvks btu dabas daa, kas papildintu dabas
ciklu, to nekd veid netraumjot un neminot izjaukt. Lauku stas
iedzvotjiem ir jsaglab dabiskais ldzsvars un bioloisk daudzveidba.
Pamats ekonomiski spcgai lauku teritoriju izveidei un
attstbai izkopta tradicionls lauku stas identitte ar
maksimli saglabtu bioloisko vides daudzveidbu
Aizskarot tmu par bioloisko daudzveidbu lauku st, noteikti ir
jmin plao agroainavu izveidi lauku ainaviskaj telp, kas btiski maina
tradicionlo, latvieu kultrainavisko vidi. Apvienojot mazkas lauku
platbas, iegstot lielus aramzemes kultivjamos laukus, btiski tiek
degradta bioloisk daudzveidba, tdjdi samazinot ar esttisko
lauku vienstu veidolus un proporcionlo mrogu. Msdiens
lauksaimniecb domin koncentrta, diezgan specializta, augstraga
un tehnoloiski moderna agrr industrija, kas strauji prem lauku
teritorijas, izspieot no ts vrtgs kultrainavas un tradicionls
Kurzemes lauku stas. Pamazm tiek zaudti vrtgi ainavu apvidi,
dabiskas lauku stu ozes, kas ir pamats Kurzemes reionlajai
identittei. Kurzemes reionam kopum un atsevism lauku stu
teritorijm ir savas vrtbas un kvalittes, kas ts dara uniklas.
Daudzveidba un teritoriju savstarpj atirba sniedz iedzvotjiem
identittes sajtu un ir svargs elements kopj ainavu telp. (7. un
8. att.).

7. attls. Lbieu zemnieku zvejnieku sta BDM


8. attls. Kurzemes zemnieku sta Ozoli Vrmes pagasts

Svargs moments ir vietj mroga socialekonomisko aktivitu
palielinana, kas darbotos k iedzvotju skaita ldzsvarotjs saistb ar
dzves vides veidoanu un saimniecisko attstbu. Daudzveidga pieeja
Kurzemes reiona vietjo ainavu kultras mantojuma un laikmetgs
kultrvides izmantoanas principiem stiprintu reionls iezmes un
vietjo identitti jeb piederbu. Kaut ar ainavisks telpas identitte ir k
pamats ilgtspejgas un uz apkrtj fona ekonomiski spcgas teritorijas
izveidei, ar reionlo un vietjo identitti vien bs par maz, lai
nodrointu ilgspjgu attstbu, attstoties blakus reionu teritorijm ar
stiprku identitti un skaidru nkotnes attstbas vziju.
Kurzemes reiona lauku teritorijas bez ekonomiski pozitvm
iecerm un risinjumiem nesps pilnb sasniegt savus vlamos
rezulttus. Telpisk stratija atbalsta procesus, kas ietver sev
daudzveidgus vietjos risinjumus (9.att.).

9. attls. Ilgtspjgi tradicionlas lauku stas principi

Atbalstot neliela mroga ilgtspjgas attstbas aktivittes,
veiksmgi tiktu sekmti ainavisks telpas ekoloiskie, socilie un
ekonomiskie uzlabojumi, kas autu sajust identitti ne tikai vietj lmen,
bet ar reionlaj.
Daudzas pasaules valstis 1992. gad Riodeaneiro parakstja
starptautisku konvenciju par bioloisks daudzveidbas saglabanu.
Latvija t ir izsludinta par likumu 1995. gad. Tas nozm, ka Latvija,
tpat k citas valstis, ir izvirzjusi mri saglabt ilglaicgu bioloisko
daudzveidbu. Lai is mris tiktu sasniegts, ir svargi saglabt visu esoo
biotopu daudzveidbu ar vism tajos mtoajm sugm. Tikai td veid ir
iespjams nodroint lauku st dzves vietu pc iespjas lielkam augu
un dzvnieku sugu skaitam. Lielk daa no aptaujtajiem Kurzemes
iedzvotjiem atzst, ka viena no reiona lielkajm vrtbm un
bagtbm ir ts diezgan neskart daba. Ne tikai tpc, ka t ir oti
daudzveidga, ainaviski pievilcga, bet ar bagta ar retu augu un
dzvnieku sugm, kas saglabjus pateicoties maigajiem Kurzemes
piekrastes klimatiskajiem apstakiem. Msdienu industrializtaj vid
aizvien straujk das ainavas tiek zaudtas un aizvien grtk
atjaunojamas. Daba k dabiska, neskarta za oze ir viens no msdienu
trisma galvenajiem resursiem. Ne velti, obrd ar mazk skartu dabas
vidi saisttais trisma piedvjums ir viens no pieprastkajiem Eiropas
trisma produktiem. K iemesls tam ir jmin daudzu, galvenokrt augsti
industrializto, valstu pieredze. rvalstu pieredze pierdjusi, ka dzvs
dabas bagtbas var tri izzust, bet to atjaunoana prasa milzu ldzekus.
Msdiens lauku stu pagalmi tiek intensvi pauti, izbruti ar
mkslgiem bruakmeiem, vecie koki izvkti un dobumainie zari
izzti, kas ir par pamatu vairumam putnu un dzvnieku bganai no
skaistajiem lauku stu pagalmiem (10. att.).

10. attls. Kurzemes zvejnieku sta Pa rags, Rucavas zvejniekciems


Vecos dobumainos augu kokus un ar piemjas liepu un ozolu
dobumus izmanto dobumpertjas, liels zltes un mea pces. Zltes ir
vienas no aklkajm kaitku izncintjm lauku stu pagalmos. Iztrot
pagalmus no veciem dobumainiem zariem, tiek atemta mjvieta zltm,
kas izncina laputis uz augu kokiem un rou krmiem. Ar mjas strazds
ir tipisks lauku stas ainavisks telpas iemtnieks, kur labprt dzvo stu
un drzu tuvum. Tas mjo koku dobumos vai ar bros, kurus agri
pavasaros apzingi, dabu mloi cilvki izvieto pa pagalma kluskajiem
nostriem, koku zariem un u nojumm. Lauku stas pagalms un
drzs ir dzves vieta daudziem augiem un dzvniekiem. Lielajai cemaltei
labvlgus apstkus nodroina intensva lauku stas taku iemdana.
Acain ntru raibea kpuru vieng barba ir ntres, kurm lauku sta ir
viena no raksturgkajm auganas vietm. Maijrozte ir oti raksturgs
tradicionls Kurzemes lauku stas koumkrms, kas kalpo k lieliska
paslptuve eiem. Savukrt bagtas augsnes apliecinjums lauku st ir
sliekas. Ja augsne ir sablvta, ts, izfiltrjot caur savu ermeni lielu
daudzumu augsnes, palielina trdvielu daudzumu un uzirdina zemi.
2002. g. ptjums par augsnes auglbu un bioloisko daudzveidbu
bioloiskaj lauksaimniecb liecina, ka ievrojot bioloisks
lauksaimniecbas noteikumus, dubultojas mslu vabou skaits augsn,
sekmjas slieku vairoans par 50%, bet sspru skaits pieaug par 60%,
k ar dubultojas zirneku skaits lauku ainav (11.). Katrs is kukainis nes
savu labumu lauku stas apkrtjs ainavas dabiskai attstbai.
Lauku st viegli noteikt augsnes auglbu vadoties pc apkrtn
sastopamm nezu audzm. Ts labi raksturo augsnes auglbu, mitrumu
un pat augsnes reakciju lauku stas ainaviskaj apvid, kur augs labprt
aug. Zintnieki pieradjui, ka starp nezlm un kultraugiem ir sava
veida simbioze, kas mijiedarbb saglab augsnes kvalitti. K piemrs
tiek mintas prkones un zvres, kas vienmr sastopamas auzu sjumos.
Auzas augsni skbina, savukrt nezles augsnes skbuma lmeni
normaliz. Lauku sjumos monokultras nodara kaitjumu augsnes
veselbai, bet kaitjumu mazina attiecgs nezles, kas savieas reiz ar
iesto kultraugu. Ja zemei un ldz ar to augam trkst kdas vielas, daba
to saviem spkiem izldzina, nekaitjot apkrtjai videi. Td mums
vajadztu iemcties saprast nezau patieso stbu un to spt novrtt. Ik
viena nezle, kas kompostjusies nonk atpaka uz lauka, ir labkais
mikroelements, kas zemei ir nepiecieams, lai sptu raot veselgus un
pilnvrtgus augus. Ap belm izncinot saauguo zli, k to dara
pasaules lielkajs beu plantcijs, boli nekad nav tik pilnvrtgi k
augui piemjas nepautaj drza str. K msu seni novrojui, lai
puu dobes lauku stas pagalmos ziedtu tras bez nezlm, ts ir jrav
dilsto mnes, vislabk mea zm, kas no janvra ldz jlijam ir

dilsto mness fz. Vl viens vecka gada gjuma cilvku btisks
novrojums ir 18. jnija priekpusdiena ldz pulkstens vieniem pc
vasaras laika. Visi aj dien izravtie augi ar vism saknm vairs neataug
nekad. Tau juzmans, lai nesavainotu dergos augus. o nezu
iedarbgo apkaroanas metodi vl nevienam nav izdevies pamatot, ar ko
tas ir izskaidrojams, bet lauku st os datumus ma vr un pielietoja
(7.). Dzvojot pilst, viegli ir piemirst cieo saikni ar dabu. Paemot
naudu no bankomta, ieprkamies veikal, radam atkritumus, ko k
nevajadzgus izmetam. Savukrt dab viss notiek mijiedarbb, veidojot
noslgtus lokus. Lielo pilstu dzve izjauc dabiskos vielas ciklus un liek
piemirst msu cieo saikni ar dabu. Prlieku intensva raas ievkana un
atkritumu raoana btiski samazina ekosistmas produktivitti, kas var
novest ldz sabrukumam. Par spti m tendencm, sabiedrba rkojas t,
it k daba btu viena no tautsaimniecbas patrjamajm sastvdam.
Zviedrij izveidot programma Dabas solis ietvaros izstrdti principi,
k samazint saimniecisks raoanas ietekmi uz dabu, ko plai izmanto
jau Zviedrijas pavaldbas uzmumos un skols. Saska ar ekoloisks
ietilpbas principu tiek paskaidrots, ka cilvka saraotajm vielm un
vielm, kas iegtas no zemes dzlm nedrkst aut uzkrties ekosfr. K
ar jizvairs no jebkdm manipulcijm ar ekosfru, kas var samazint
ts produktivitti un sugu daudzveidbu (5.). Mint programma ir
niecgs solis, lai dotu cerbu, bet tomr gjiens pretm ilgtspjgai
nkotnei (10., 177.). Konkrtu lauku stu, kultras mantojuma
sakrtoana un Kurzemes reiona kopgas pievilcbas palielinana
investoru, tristu un plaas sabiedrbas acs veidotu nozmgu augupeju
ekonomiskaj attstb un reionls identittes nostiprinan.
Telpisks attstbas politikai jbt vrstai uz kultras mantojuma
integrtu prvaldi, kas tiek uzlkota k evolucionrs process, kura
ietvaros tiek saglabts is mantojums un emtas vr moderns
sabiedrbas vajadzbas. Kurzemes reions sastv no daudzveidgm
ainavm un kultrainavm. Ts veido nozmgu Eiropas mantojuma dau
un kalpo k liecba par pagtnes un tagadnes attiecbm starp cilvku un
via dabisko un paa radto vidi (11. att.).

11. attls. Lauku stas pagtnes un tagadnes liecba
(autors: Linda Balode, 2011) g.)

Lauksaimniecisks, merpniecisks un rpniecisks raoanas
pamienu attstba un izmaias pilstu plnoan, transport un citos
infrastruktras veidos, trism un atptas paradumos patrina Eiropas
kultrainavu transformciju, un tm var bt ar negatvs iespaids uz to
kvalitti un izmantoanu. Tas sakms ne vien par vrtgajm, daji
dabiskajm ainavm, bet attiecas ar uz visu veidu kultrainavm un
tradicionlo Kurzemes lauku stu ainavm. Lauku stu zemniekiem un
mekopjiem, izmantojot dabai draudzgus savas zemes
apsaimniekoanas pamienus un praksi, veidotos nozmgs ieguldjums
ilgtspjgas bioloiss daudzveidbas saglaban un atjaunoan (2.).
Ainavu politikas pamat nozmgi btu vietjs sabiedrbas un publisko
iestu kopgi izstrdti stratiskie principi un pamatnostdnes, kas
raksturotos ar specifiskiem paskumiem, nodroinot Kurzemes reiona
ainavu plnoanu, prvaldbu un aizsardzbu. Plnojot, atjaunojot un
radot jaunas ainavas Kurzemes reiona ainaviskaj telp, jem vr
nkotn iespjams ainavisks izmaias. Jnodroina regulra ainavas
kopana, kas izpaustos k harmoniskas, dabai draudzgas prmaias
ainaviskaj vid, ko veido ekonomiskie, vides un socialie procesi (1.)
Harmoniska un rta tradicionl lauku stas ainava veicintu
kultrainavas un lauku ainavas ilgtspjgu attstbu, kas, apmierinot
iedzvotju vajadzbas socili taisng un videi draudzg veid,
neapdraudtu nkamo paaudu vajadzbu apmierinanu (skat.
12. attl). Tas attiecas ar uz efektvku pieejamo resursu, lietusdeu,
ekotehnoloiju, lauku stu atkritumu prstrdi, vietjo augu un drzeu
bioloisko audzanu, iespjami plaku izmantoanu savm, vai tirgus
vajadzbm.

12. attls. Ilgtspjgas attstbas pamats ldzsvars un harmonija tradicionlaj
lauku stas ainav


Teritorijas attstbas plnus ir jdefin kontekst ar
kultrainavisks telpas aizsardzbas un regulcijas zonm ar ap vecajm
lauku vienstm, emot vr zemes paumu tiesbas, k ar jveido
mrtiecgs bioloisks daudzveidbas saglabanas plnojums.
Kurzemes vienstu ainavu veidoanos btiski ir ietekmjis valsts
maingais politiski ekonomiskais stvoklis. Laika ritjums ietver sev
daudzveidgu kultrvsturisko informciju, kas liecina par lauku stu
attstbas daudzslaino mrogu un proporcijas btisku maiu.
Kurzemes tradicionlo lauku stu teritorijas ir nozmgas ne tikai
vietj mrog, bet ar globli. Teritoriju kvalitatvo pabu apzinanai
un attstbai ir svarga valstiski ekonomisk nozme, jo sakrl
arhitektra un ts ietvero ainaviski daudzveidg rtelpa veidojas k
bagtgs trisma resurss. Sintezjot tradicionls Kurzemes lauku stu
iezmes msdienu ainav, btiski uzlabotos kultrvsturisks telpas
esttisk kvalitte. Rezultt mazintos vizuli nekvalitatvais raksturs,
pieirot jaunas modernisma tendences Kurzemes tradicionlo vienstu
ainaviskajs telps. Tradicionls lauku stu ainavas iegtu laikmetgi
oriinlu, harmonisku vidi, kas ir plastiska ldzsvar ar cilvku un dabu,
ko vieno kultrvsturisks ainavu vrtbas.
Nepiecieama efektvka un prdomtka plnota zemes
izmantoana, lai t btu zaka, dabai draudzgka un daudzveidgka.
Izvrtjot vrtgko dabas teritoriju saglabanas iespjas, nepiecieams
neitralizt vai kompenst jebkuru ainavu struktras piesrojumu. Ja
nepiecieams, jveic ar nozmgu ekosistmu restaurciju saska ar
dabisks vides principiem un attstbu. Kvalitatva dzves vide lauku stas
ainaviskaj telp ir nepiecieama ne tikai dabai, augiem un dzvniekiem,
bet ar cilvka dabgai un ilgtspjgai pastvanai. Veidojot cilvka
dzves telpu, liela uzmanba jpievr videi draudzgu un cilvkam
nekaitgu bvniecbas materilu izvlei, prdomtiem arhitektras
risinjumiem, k ar jnodroina drou un pieejamu vidi cilvkiem ar
kustbu traucjumiem. Visos ajos jautjumos btiska ir veselga,
pretmnkoa socil vide un sabiedrbas iesaistana ilgtspjgu lauku
ainavisko telpu plnoan, lmumu pieeman un aizsardzb.
Zintniski ptniecisk darba rezultti sniedz nkotn nozmgu
pienesumu lauku pavaldbu administratvi teritorilai attstbai lai
uzlabotu, atjaunotu vai radtu jaunas ilgtspjgas ainavas, kas balsttas uz
sabalanstm un harmoniskm attiecbm starp saimniecisko darbbu,
socilajm vajadzbm un kultrvsturisko vidi.

1. Likums par Eiropas ainavu konvenciju. Parakstta Florenc, 2000.g. 20. maij.
Latvijas Vstnesis. 2000. 20.okt.
2. Vadlnijas Eiropas kontinenta ilgtspjgai telpiskajai attstbai. Eiropas
Reionls plnonas ministru konference Hannover (CEMAT). Rga: VARAM,
2000.gada septembris, 12. sesija. 36 lpp.
3. DRAVI, K. Kurzeme aizgjuos laikos. Rga: Jumava, 2000. 548 lpp.
4. ENI, G. 100 dikie un svtkie. Rga: A/s Lauku Avze, 2008. 296 lpp.
5. HOLMBERG, J., ROBERT, K. H., ERICSSON, K. E. SocioEcological principles for a
Sustainable society. (1994) No: International Society for Ecological Economic
III. Korsika
6. LASIS, A. Mazdrziu apstdjumi. Rga: Zvaigzne, 1984. 223 lpp.
7. PAUNGGER, J., POPPE, T. Der lebendige Garten. Munchen, in der Verlagsgruppe
Random House GmbH, 2006. 359 lpp.
8. SALI, S. Latvijas dikoki un retie koki. Rga: Zinatne, 1974. 116 lpp.
9. ZEILE, P. Esttika. Rga: Zvaigzne, 1989. 407 lpp.
10. WACKERNAGEL, M., E.Rees, W. Our Ecological Footprint. UK: John Wiley and
Sons, 1996. 176177lpp.
11. Augsne [tiesaiste]. Eiropas komisijas publikcija [atsauce 2012.g. 17.janv.].
Pieejas veids: http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/environment/soil_lv
12. NIKODEMUS, O. Par ainavu, kas nav tikai ainava [tiesaiste]. Zintnes vstnesis
[atsauce 2012.g. 18.janv.]. Pieejas veids:
http://www.lza.lv/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=609&Itemid=47
13. OPMANIS, A. Latvijas izcilkie koki [tiesaiste]. Latvijas dabas piemineki. Koki
[atsauce 2011.g. 10.dec.]. Pieejas veids:
http://www.dabasretumi.lv/Pieminekli/koki.htm
14. ZVIEDRRNS, J. Senu ku fasu apdare [tiesaiste]. Vides vstis [atsauce
2011.g. 7.dec.]. Pieejas veids: http://www.pilis.lv/a_pnm/view_rec.php?id=26
Summary
Natural environment and rural landscape fence is one of the most valuable
resources in the region of Courland. The area maintenance and strengthening is the
main event of the region's future sustainable development. Traditional country house
in Courland area must be protected from inappropriate development. The region can
boast of their highquality sites and cultural landscapes where nature is still visible. It
is necessary not only to maintain the current situation in the region, but also to look
for a positive link between environmental, social and economic impacts. Spatial
planning and regional development policy must be in balance with each other and
integrate their different requirements, ideas and objectives. It is essential for the
Courland farmhouse development policies related to employment, infrastructure and
investments, primarily to be determined in accordance with the principles of
sustainable harmony. People are constantly trying to change the landscape in their
favour to the detriment of future consequences that such actions may bring. The first
step towards more sustainable landscape area would be to recognize the reality of
ecological and socioeconomic problems in the country as a whole and then to
examine the individual landscape area that can develop. Environment is not properly
considered as a background for the expression of human activity and development.
Sustainability of the farmstead picturesque environment requires the person to be a
part of nature, to complement the natural cycle, in any way without damaging it and

without trying to mess up. Merging of the smaller rural areas that result in large fields
of arable land under cultivation, has significantly degraded biodiversity. This
deteriorates the aesthetics and rural farmsteads image, and the proportional scale.
Today, agriculture is dominated by concentrated, very specialized, highlyproductive
and technologically advanced agrarian industry that is rapidly taking over the
countryside, displacing valuable cultural and traditional rural homesteads of
Courland. Valuable landscape areas, the farmhouse natural oasis that form the basis
of Courlands regional identity, gradually perish. A varied approach must be used to
the region of Courland local landscape heritage and contemporary cultural use of the
principles of strengthening the regional characteristics and local identity, or
affiliation. Support should be provided to smallscale sustainable development
activities and to a variety of local solutions to successfully promote the picturesque
area of ecological, social and economic improvements to feel not only local but also
regional identity. Most of the surveyed population of Courland recognizes that one of
the region's most valuable assets and wealth is its relatively pristine nature. Not just
because it is very diverse, scenically attractive, but also rich in rare plants and animal
species survived thanks to the soft Courland coastal climate. In today's industrialized
environment, which is accelerating, these landscapes will be lost and more difficult to
revive. Today, farmhouse courtyards are finely mown, paved with artificial
cobblestones, old trees with hollows and twigs have been removed and cut, which
have been the basis for most of the birds and animals fleeing from a farmhouse in the
beautiful country house. While living in the city, the close connection with nature can
be easily forgotten. Big city life destroys the natural substance cycles. Overly intensive
harvesting and waste production significantly reduces the productivity of ecosystems,
which can lead to failure. Despite these trends, the society is acting as if life would be
one of the consumable components of the economy. Harmonious and comfortable
traditional farms contribute to the cultural landscape and the countryside by
sustainable development that meets the needs of the population in a socially just and
environmentally sound manner, secure the next generation requirements. This refers
to more efficient use of the available resources, rainwater, environmental technology,
a farmhouse in the waste. Local fruits and vegetables, organic farming, the widest
possible use of their own, or market needs. More effective and intelligent land use
planning is required in order to be greener, environmentally friendly and diverse. In
assessing the most valuable natural areas conservation opportunities, any pollution
of the landscape structure is neutralized or offset. If necessary, an important
ecosystem restoration should be performed, in accordance with the principles of the
natural environment and development. On the basis of natural and sustainable
functioning, quality of living environment field fence picturesque area is necessary
not only to nature, plants and animals but also to humans. When you create a human
living space, great care must be taken of the selection of environmentally and human
friendly building materials, well thought out architectural solutions, as well as of
providing people with mobility problems, with a safe and accessible environment. All
these matters are essential to a healthy, supportive social environment and
community involvement in sustainable rural landscape space planning, decision
making and defence. Scientific research results provide an important contribution to
the future of rural local government administrative territorial development to
enhance, restore or create sustainable landscapes, based on a balanced and
harmonious relationship between economic, social and cultural needs of the
environment.

KAEPJU AUDZANAS UN IEDRU PRSTRDES
IESPJAS LATVIJ
HEMP GROWTH AND FIBRE PROCESSING POSSIBILITIES IN
LATVIA
Ilze BALTIA
Dr.sc.ing., asoc.prof., Rgas Tehnisk universitte
Tlrunis: +371 67089822, epasts: ilze.baltina@rtu.lv
Rga, Latvija
Zaiga ZAMUKA
Ms.sc.ing, maistrante, ptniece, Rgas Tehnisk universitte
Tlrunis: +371 67089822, epasts: zaiga.zamuska@rtu.lv
Rga, Latvija
Veneranda STRAMKALE
Dr. agr., direktore, Latgales lauksaimniecbas un zintnes centrs
Tlrunis: +371 29465004, epasts: strzin@apollo.lv
Vini, Latvija
Guntis STRAZDS
Dr. habil.sc.ing., prezidents, Viegls rpniecbas uzmumu asocicija
Tlrunis: +371 29488338, epasts: stragu@latnet.lv
Rga, Latvija

Abstract. Use of hemp fibre is rapidly increasing in Europe. This tendency is related to
carbon and glass fibre substitution with recycled and biodegradable raw materials for
use in car production. Scientists and manufacturers work to obtain new composite
materials where hemp fibre will be as reinforcement. Hemp fibres are light and with
high tensile strength comparing with other technical fibres. Advantage ecofriendly
utilization possibilities. The research work to determine hemp fibre efficiency was
carried out for two years at the Latgale Agricultural Research Centre. In this work
different hemp fibre varieties were used. To determine the most suitable varieties for
Latvian climatic conditions all the varieties were tested at the laboratories of Riga
Technical University, Institute of Textile Material Technologies and Design. We are
looking for new possibilities to make technical textile samples from different hemp fibre
varieties. In cooperation with Laboratories of the Scientific Institute of Food Safety,
Animal Health and Environment BIOR the amount of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in
different variety cannabis plants were determined. It was concluded that amount of THC
of different openair cultivation varieties grown in Latvia is different but anyway this
amount is much below the acceptable norm.
Keywords: Composite materials, fibre, hemp, THC.


Ievads
Latvij kaepes audzja jau 8. gadsimt (20.). Kaepes tolaik
izmantoja gan prtik, gan ar audumu auan. Kaepju audumus
izmantoja aprbu gatavoan, k buru un maisu audumus, k ar
izmantoja medicn kaepju audumam ir antibakterilas pabas.
Viduslaikos kaepes bija viens no populrkajiem augiem Latvij (19.).
Pc pirm pasaules kara 1923. gad kaepes Latvij audzja 371
hektru platb. Skot ar 1930. gadu kaepju audzanu vis pasaul
apturja kaepju narkotisko pabu d, k ar sinttisko iedru
raoanas aizskuma un arvien pieaugoo apjomu rezultt (18.).
obrd, kad ir pagjis gandrz viens gadsimts kop liel kaepju
uzplaukuma, Latvij, tpat k citur pasaul, dom par dabisko iedru un
it pai kaepju iedru izmantoanas atskanu izmantoanai
tekstilmaterilos. Kaepju iedru popularittes pieaugums
skaidrojams ar to, ka sinttisko iedru paizmaksa sk palielinties
naftas produktu cenu kpuma d. Ldz ar to sinttisko iedru ieganas
cenas ir ldzvrtgas dabisko iedru cenm. Bez tam kaepju iedras ir
atjaunojamas, bioloiski sadals ldz ar to no tm var izgatavot videi
draudzgus produktus. Kaepju iedrm ir labas fizikli mehnisks
pabas tm ir augsta stiprba, labas mitruma absorbcijas spjas.
K viena no plakajm sfrm, kur var izmantot kaepju iedras
ir kompoztmaterilu raoana. Kompoztmaterilu pamat var bt
tekstilmaterils neausts drnas, no kurm, k piemram, viens no
plak izmantojamiem veidiem ir polimra ar zemu kuanas temperatru
pievienoana un presana, iegstot kompoztmaterilu ar vlamo formu.
Kaepju iedru izmantoanai kompoztmaterilos ir vairkas
priekrocbas: iedru augst stiprba, iedru zemais blvums, iedru
ieganas vienkrba (9.). Ldz ar to var iegt materilu ar lielu stiprbu,
mazu masu un zemkm izmaksm, saldzinot, piemram, ar misko
iedru materiliem.
Kompoztmaterilu pabas ir atkargas no to izgatavoanas
materila. Tpc liela uzmanba jpievr kaepju iedru kvalittei to
audzanas un novkanas faktoriem, un it pai to pirmapstrdei.
Pirmapstrde ir nepiecieama, lai iedras atdaltu no stiebra, tau
vairkos ptjumos, kur ptta iedru atdalana mehniski, ts tilinot
vai apstrdjot ar enzmiem, vai miskm vielm, ir pierdts, ka iedru
pabas mains. Kompoztmaterilu pabas ietekm ar citi faktori:
iedru orientcijas virziens materil, iedru garums, diametrs,
iedru masas daa materil (9.;3.;5.).
Ir pierdts (6.;4.;10.), ka, jo lielka kaepju iedru procentul
masa pret polimrmaterilu, jo grtk ir nodroint saeri starp
kaepju iedrm un polimrmaterilu presanas laik. Tpat ir ar ar

diametru jo lielks kaepju iedru diametrs, jo grtk nodroint
saeri ar polimrmaterilu. Saska ar citiem ptjumiem, secints, ka
vislabks kompoztmaterila mehnisks pabas ir tad, ja kaepju
iedru procentulais daudzums ir 3035%. Ja kaepju daudzums tiek
palielints ldz 40%, tad fizikli mehnisks pabas pasliktins.
Kaepju iedru kompoztmaterilus var izmantot mjsaimniecbas
precs, iepakoan, interjera priekmetos, lauksaimniecb, bvniecb
un automobiu rpniecb izmantojamos priekmetos (11.;15.).
Bvniecb kaepju iedru un polilaktda (PLA) kompoztmaterili tiek
izmantoti konstrukciju izgatavoanai. o iedru kompoztmaterilus
izmanto ar iedru pltu izgatavoanai (5.). Msdiens jau daudziem
automobiiem detaas ir izgatavotas no atjaunojamm sastvdam.
Aptuveni 1,5 miljoni transportldzeki ir ar detam, kas izgatavotas
izmantojot dutu, kaepjus, kenafu, kombinjot ts ar polipropilnu,
poliesteri, poliuretnu, polivinilhlordu (11.;15.).
Balstoties uz vairkm Eiropas Savienbas direktvm (Eiropas
parlamenta un padomes direktva 2000/53/EK (2000. gada 18.
septembris) par nolietotiem transportldzekiem; un Eiropas parlamenta
un padomes direktva 2005/64/EK (2005. gada 26. oktobris) par
mehnisko transportldzeku tipa apstiprinjumu attiecb uz to
otrreizju izmantojambu, prstrdjambu un reenerjambu (14.)),
aprints, ka ldz 2015.g. vidji 30 kg no automobiu svara jbt
atjaunojamiem. Gada laik Vcij sarao aptuveni 4 miljoni jaunas
automanas. Ldz ar to var secint, ka atjaunojamo neausto drnu noiets
turpmkajos gados pieaugs.
Latvij kaepju augu audzana katru gadu aizvien palielins.
2011. g. kaepju sjumu platbas jau sasniedza 400 hektrus. emot vr
Latvijas Industrilo Kaepju asocicijas rcb esoo informciju, ka
2012.g. skum ir iepirktas uz pusi vairk kaepju sklas, nek 2011.g.,
k ar emot vr to, ka kop 2011. g. kaepju audztji var saemt
vienotos platbu maksjumus, var secint, ka kaepju sjumi
turpmkajos gados aizvien pieaugs (21.).
Kaepju augi satur ar THC psihotropu vielu. Lai vartu pretendt
uz vienotajiem platbu maksjumiem, saska ar Ministru kabineta
noteikumiem, jpiedals kaepju THC monitoring. Latvij, tpat k cits
Eiropas Savienbas valsts, ir noteikts, ka kaepes tiek uzskattas par
narkotiskm, ja tajs esoais THC daudzums sasniedz 0,2% (13.;21.).


Citu valstu ptjumu apskats par THC daudzumu kaeps
Neskatoties uz pozitvajm kaepju pabm, kaepes ir augi, kuri
satur psihi iespaidojoas vielas. Kaepju aug ir vairki desmiti dadu
kanabinodu, tau tikai 9tetrahidrokanabinols (THC) ir psihi
iespaidojoa viela (14.).
Psihoaktvs vielas kaepju augos satur ziedi, lapas, svei, k ar
stubljs. Kaepes iedala sjas kaeps (Cannabis sativa L.) un Indijas
kaeps (C.Indica), k ar savvaas kaeps (C.ruderalis). Sjas kaeps
narkotisks vielas daudzums ir ne vairk, k 0,51% no auga. ds
procents nerada lielu psihotropo efektu. Indijas vai savvaas kaeps
narkotisks vielas daudzums ir 37%, daos gadjumos pat 30% (1.).
Narkotisko vielu attstbu kaeps ietekm gan kaepju irne, gan
klimatiskie apstki Latvij, uz lauka audzjot, piemram, Indijas
kaepes, kas tiek uzskattas par narkotiskm, ie augi daji vai pavisam
savas narkotisks pabas zaud (14.).
obrd Eiropas Savienbas regulas nosaka, ka kaepes ir
narkotiskas, ja THC lmenis tajs sasniedz 0,2% (14.;7.;9.). 1984.gad
pieaujam THC norma kaeps Eiropas Savienb bija 0,5% (7.).Katru
gadu kaepju irns esoo THC daudzumu prbauda un t rezultt
Eiropas Savienbas ietvaros nosaka audzanai atauto kaepju iru
daudzumu. Piemram, 2011.g. irnes Finola audzana atauta tikai
pris valsts Somij, Igaunij, Zviedrij (17.).
2011. g. 1. mart Latvijas valdb apstiprinti Zemkopbas
ministrijas sagatavoti Ministru kabineta noteikumi, kas nosaka kaepju
THC satura uzraudzbu. Saska ar iem noteikumiem, lauksaimniekiem,
kas pretend uz vienoto platbas maksjumu, jpiedals kaepju THC
monitoring,k ar izvirzti nosacjumi, ka THC saturs kaeps nedrkst
prsniegt 0,2% (21.).
Dados citu valstu ptjumos noteikts THC daudzums kaeps
atkarb no irnes, auganas vietas, auganas apstkiem.
Kand audztas irnes Finolas augos THC daudzums ir mazks
par 0,3% (1.). Ungrij audztai kaepju irnei Fedrina noteiktais THC
daudzums 0,02% (12.). ie dati apstiprina to, ka THC daudzums
dadm irnm ir atirgs.
Itlij veikta THC noteikana irnes Carmagnola kaepju augiem,
kas novkti dados laikos pc sjas (1.att.).


1. attls. Kanabinodu (CBD) un THC daudzums kaepju augos auganas laik
(8.)

Attl redzams, ka kopjais kanabinodu daudzums pieaug augos
auganas laik ldz pat 80.dienai pc sjas. Pc tam to daudzums
samazins. Tpat ir ar ar THC daudzumu kaeps vislielkais tas ir 80
dienas pc sjas, kas sakrt ar augu ziedanas laiku (8.).
Ldzg ptjum, kas ar veikts Itlij, noteiktas THC daudzuma
izmaias, mainoties kaepju sjas laikam, bet novkanas laiks visiem
kaepju augiem bijis viens. THC daudzums noteikts trs irnm
Carmagnola, Red petiole, Kompolti. Pc iegtajiem datiem secints, ka
mainot sjas laiku, mains ar THC daudzums kaepju augos sjot
kaepes 25 dienas vlk, nek parasti, THC daudzums novkanas laik ir
par 0,01% lielks (2.).
Ptjumos apskatta auganas apstku ietekme uz THC un citu
kanabinodu daudzuma izmaim. Secints, ka THC daudzumu var
samazint, ja augi augui vsos apstkos, tiek msloti ar slpeka
mslojumu (4.). THC daudzumu augos palielina sausi un vjaini
klimatiskie apstki (4.). Tau cit ptjum, eksperimentjot ar
laistanas bieumu, secints, ka, mainot laistanas bieumu, nemains
THC daudzums augos (2.).
1. tabul apkopoti dati par THC daudzumu kaeps, ja audztas
dadas irnes dads Itlijas viets. Saldzinti vriie un sieviie
augi, k ar novkanas laika ietekme uz THC daudzumu.

1. tabula
THC daudzums kaeps atkarb no vairkiem faktoriem (9.)

irne, audzanas vieta Mnesis THC, %
Charmagnola Anzola (Bo)
Sieviie augi Jlijs 0,01
Augusts 0,03
Septembris 0,02
Vriie augi Jlijs 0,01
Augusts 0,02
Fibranova Rovigo
Augusts 0,02
Septembris 0,04
Augusts 0,01
Ungherese Rovigo
Augusts 0,35
Augusts 0,02
Ungherese Budrio (Bo)
Augusts 0,44
Augusts 0,01

Pc 2. tabulas datiem redzams, ka sieviajos augos THC daudzums
ir lielks, nek vriajos, k ar THC daudzums atiras, ja augi novkti
dados laikos. THC daudzumu ietekm ar kaepju auganas vieta.
Materili un metodes THC daudzuma noteikanai kaeps
Latvij THC daudzums noteikts 2010. un 2011. g. audztm
kaepm. Kaepju paraugi emti no Latgales Lauksaimniecbas Zintnes
centra (LLZC), k ar no privtm zemnieku saimniecbm Bauskas
novad, Iecavas novad, Krslavas novad, Burtnieku novad. Latgales
Lauksaimniecbas Zintnes Centr kaepes audztas izminjuma
laucios: 2010. g. katra irne 1m2 platb, 2011. g. 12m2 platb.
THC daudzums noteikts saska ar Eiropas komisijas regulu
Nr. 796/2004. Regula paredz, ka no attiecgs irnes kaepju augoa
auga em 30 cm garu dau, kur ir vismaz viena sievi ziedkopa.
Paraugu emanu veic laika posm, kas skas 20 dienas pc ziedanas
skuma un beidzas 10 dienas pc ziedanas beigm, dienas laik,
ievrojot noteiktu sistmu, lai nodrointu, ka paraugi attiecgajam

laukam ir raksturgi un netiek emti lauka mals. Vien paraug ietilpst
50 augu daas.
s paraugu vkanas metodes pamatojums apstiprinjies ar
literatras datu analizanas laik, kad iegta informcija par to, ka
sieviajos augos esoais THC daudzums ir lielks, nek vriajos augos
un, ka THC daudzums vislielkais ir ziedanas laik.
Katrs paraugs ievietots papra maisi, t k THC ir jtgs pret
gaisu (skbekli) un ultravioletajiem stariem, kas izsauc THC oksidanos.
Izvtie augi nav tik jtgi pret gaisu un ultravioletajiem stariem,
tdjdi THC sadalans process tiek apturts. Tpc paraugi glabanai
pirms testanas izvti temperatr ldz 70C un turti papra maisios
tum, vs viet.
THC daudzums noteikts prtikas drobas, dzvnieku veselbas un
vides zintniskaj institt Bior.
2010. g. jnij bija silts un saulains laiks, nokriu daudzums
neprsniedza normu. Jlij novroti karsti un sausi laika apstki. Ar
august laika apstki bija karsti un sausi.
2011. g. jnij laika apstki bija saulaini un silti temperatra par
aptuveni 30 prsniedza normu. Jlij bija karsts un sauss laiks, vrojams
mitruma deficts augsn. Augusta skum pieturjs karsts un sauss
laiks, bet augusta beigs palielinjs nokriu daudzums.
THC daudzums Latvij audzts kaeps
Pc iegtajiem THC rezulttiem var secint, ka narkotisks vielas
daudzumu ietekm tas, kdas irnes kaepes audztas. THC daudzumu
neietekm Latvijas reions, kur augi audzti (2. tab.).

2. tabula
THC daudzums Latvij audzts kaeps 2010. un 2011. gad

irne Auganas vieta THC (%)
Audzanas gads: 2010
Bialobrzeskie LLZC <0,05
Fedora 17 LLZC <0,05
Felina 32 LLZC <0,05
Futura 75 LLZC <0,05
Epsylon 68 LLZC <0,05
Finola LLZC <0,05
Prii LLZC <0,05
Bialobrzeskie Bauskas novads <0,05
Fedora 17 Iecavas novads <0,05
Uso 31 Krslavas novads <0,05

Audzanas gads: 2011
Bialobrzeskie LLZC <0,05
Beniko LLZC <0,05
Epsylon 68 LLZC <0,05
Fedora 17 LLZC <0,05
Ferimon 12 LLZC 0,05
Futura 75 LLZC <0,05
Prii LLZC <0,05
Santhica 27 LLZC <0,05
Tygra LLZC 0,06
Uso 31 LLZC <0,05
Wojko LLZC 0,06
Prii Burtnieku novads <0,05
Finola LLZC 0,07

2010. g. THC daudzums noteikts irnm Bialobrzeskie, Epsylon
68, Fedora 17, Felina 32, Finola, Futura 75, Prii, Uso 31. Vism
irnm, neatkargi no audzanas vietas, THC daudzuma rezultti ir
bijui viendi mazki par 0,05%.
2011. g. audztajm kaepm pards varicijas atkarb no
irnes. THC daudzums noteikts tm pam irnm, kam tas noteikts
2010. g., k ar klt vl nkuas irnes Santhica 27, Ferimon 12, Tygra,
Wojko. Pc 2011. g. datiem redzams, ka irnm Bialobrzeskie, Beniko,
Epsylon 68, Fedora 17, Futura 75, Prii, Santhica 27, Uso 31 THC
daudzums ir mazks par 0,05%. irnei Ferimon 12 THC daudzums ir
0,05%, irnm Tygra un Wojko 0,06%, bet irnei Finola 0,07%.
Saldzinot ar Eiropas Savienb noteikto pieaujamo THC normu, var
secint, ka Latvij audzts kaeps narkotisks vielas THC daudzums ir
daudz mazks par pieaujamo. Ttad Latvij, audzjot uz lauka, nevar
izaudzt narkotiskas kaepes.
irnes Finola audzana no 2011. g. Eiropas Savienbas valstu
ietvaros ir atauta tikai Somij, Zviedrij un Igaunij. Lai gan irnes
Finola augos esoais THC daudzums 2011. g. raai ir palielinjies, tik un
t tas ir mazks par atauto. Ldz ar to irnes Finola audzanu vartu
ataut ar Latvij.
1. Kaepju iedru audzana un izmantojambas iespjas turpina
pieaugt, un tuvkajos gados var gaidt kaepju materilu
pielietojuma paplainanos.
2. Plakais kaepju iedru pielietojums ir kompoztmaterilos.
Kaepju iedru kompoztmaterilu priekrocbas ir to labs

mehnisks pabas, mazais svars un saldzinoi zemas
izmaksas.Kompoztmaterilus, kuru sastv ir kaepju iedras,
var izmantot mjsaimniecbas precs, interjera priekmetos,
lauksaimniecbas un bvniecbas precs, automobiu rpniecb.
3. Visas kaepes satur narkotisks vielas. Eiropas Savienb atauts
audzt kaepes, kurs esoais THC daudzums neprsniedz 0,2%.
THC daudzumu kaeps ietekm kaepju irne, auganas vieta,
auganas apstki, novkanas laiks. Maksimlais kanabinodu
daudzums kaeps tiek sasniegts augu ziedanas laik.
4. No literatras apskata var secint, ka sausu un vjainu kaepju
auganas apstku ietekm palielins THC daudzums augos, bet
THC daudzumu var samazint, ja augu auganai nodroina vsus
apstkus un augus mslo ar slpeka mslojumu.
5. Nosakot THC daudzumu irnei Finola 2 gadu laik, iegti dati, ka
s irnes augos THC daudzums ir gandrz 3 reizes mazks, nek
pieaujamais Eiropas Savienbas ietvaros. Ldz ar to o irni vartu
ataut audzt ar Latvijas teritorij.
6. Latvij audzts sjas kaepes nevar bt par pamatu narkotisko
vielu ieganai.
7. Kaepju audzana un pirmapstrde Latvij var attstties k jauna
un perspektva nozare.
8. Latvij audztm kaepm THC daudzums atkargs no irnes, no
maingiem laika klimatiskajiem apstkiem. THC saturs sjas
kaeps Latvij ra apstkos ir vairakkrt mazks par pieaujamo.
Ldz ar to ts var audzt iedru un eas ieganai.
9. Kaepju iedras ir perspektva, otrreizji prstrdjama Latvijas
vietj izejviela, ko var izmantot jaunu inovatvu produktu
raoan.
Apliecinjums
publikcija izstrdta un sagatavota Eiropas Socil fonda ldzfinansta projekta
Starpnozaru zintnisks grupas izveidoana viedo tekstiliju jaunu funkcionlo
pabu attstanai un integranai inovatvos izstrdjumos. Lguma Nr.
2009/0198/1DP/1.1.1.2.0./09/APIA/VIAA/148 ietvaros.


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http://www.letonika.lv.resursi.rtu.lv/groups/default.aspx?r=2&q=ka%C5%86
epes&id=966307&g=1
20. Tribine.lv: Zias, Kaepes tiem interesanti / Internets
http://www.tribine.lv/ekonomiskakrize/Kanepestiesam
interesanti/10106
21. Zemkopbas ministrija: THC monitorings / Internets
http://www.zm.gov.lv/index.php?sadala=2045&id=12048
Summary
Hemp fibre usability increases more and more thereby hemp fibre growing
areas are increasing too. Hemp growing areas increase in Latvia like in other
countries. The point of increasing hemp areas in Latvia is that farmers can receive
payments for growing hemp.
One of the major areas where hemp fibre can be used is composite materials.
Hemp fibre nonwovens can be used as an initial material for making of composites.
Composites from nonwovens and polymer material can be made using heat press or
injection moulding. And as a result, composite with strong form can be obtained.
Composite material obtains several good characteristics: reduced weight,
reduced costs and increased strength, if hemp fibres are used as reinforcement in
composites. But attention should be paid to the quality and mechanical properties of
hemp fibre. To ensure that bond between polymer and hemp fibres will be good
enough, attention should be paid to the fibre diameter, length and to the fibre weight
ratio comparing with polymer material. It was found out that he best hemp fibre mass
amount in composite is 3035%.
Although the hemp fibre has great physical properties, all the hemp plants
contain narcotic substance. In European Union it is allowed to grow only Cannabis
Sativa plants that do not contain more than 0.2% of tetrahydrocannabinol. To control
the amount of THC, control tests are carried out. After results obtained from these

tests, the list of varieties that are allowed to grow can be changed. For example, it is
forbidden to grow variety Finola in all European countries except Finland, Estonia
and Sweden.
In various other research works the THC amount in hemp plants were
estimated depending on hemp variety, growing conditions and growing region. It was
concluded that the amount of THC is different if different variety is used and if hemp
grows in different country.
Also the effect of growth conditions changes the amount of THC. The results
show that the THC amount may be reduced if the plants grow under cool conditions
and if the nitrogen fertilizer is used in the growth time. THC amount increases if the
growing conditions are dry and windy.
In a research work, which was carried out in Italy, it was concluded that the
greatest amount of cannabinoids in plants are during the flowering time. After that it
slightly decreases. In a similar study it was found out that female plants have a higher
amount of THC than male plants. And it was concluded that hemp plant growth region
in Italy does not affect the amount of THC.
In cooperation with the Scientific Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and
Environment BIOR, the amount of THC in hemp plants grown in Latvia was
determined. It was concluded that the THC amount varies depending on the varieties
but the Latvian region where hemp plants were grown does not affect amount of THC.
The amount of THC in hemp plants changes over years. The maximum amount of THC
was found in variety Finola and it was 0.07%. But it is significantly lower than
acceptable norm. So the main conclusion can be that if hemp is grown in openair
areas it is not possible to obtain narcotic plants in Latvia.


EIROPAS SAVIENBAS STRUKTRFONDU NOZME
LATGALES ATTSTB
THE EUROPEAN UNION STRUCTURAL FUNDS SIGNIFICANCE
IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATGALE
Inese BIUKNE
Mg.oec, klientu apkalpoanas menedere SIA Studio Moderna
Tlrunis: 29566569, epasts: inese.biuksane@inbox.lv
Rga, Latvija

Abstract. The European Union structural funds financing is apportioned unevenly
among the regions, including counties and cities. When allocating the received
structural funds financing, the level of social and economic development of an area is
not taken into account. Besides the problems of poor municipalities cofunding in the
uptake of the European Union structural funds are not considered. The existing
problems do not allow to the regions of Latvia to develop and to compete equally, all in
all impeding development and growth of the country. According to the authors opinion,
in order to solve the social and economic problems Latvia makes inefficient use of the
allocated European Union structural funds financing.
Keywords: Latgale region municipalities, regions of Latvia, the EU Structural Funds.

Ievads
Latvijai pc iestans Eiropas Savienb (turpmk ES) tpat k
prjm dalbvalstm ir pieejami ES struktrfondi. ES struktrfondu
finansjums un t optimla izmantoana ir viens no svargkajiem
Latvijas ekonomikas izaugsmes aspektiem. Vienmrga finansjuma
sadale starp reioniem radtu vienldzgas iespjas valsts teritoriju
attstbai. Tpc autore darb apskats un analizs ES struktrfondu
ieguldjumus Latvijas reionos, skk apskatot, Latgales reionu.
ES Kohzijas politika ir kopja ES politika, kuras mris ir mazint
btiskas dadu reionu socilekonomisk attstbas lmea atirbas un
mazk attstto reionu atpalicbu. Lai gan ES ir viena no turgkajm
pasaules dam, joprojm pastv ievrojamas dzves lmea atirbas
gan starp ES dalbvalstm, gan to reioniem. Td ES reionl politika ir
izveidota, lai sniegtu atbalstu tiem reioniem, kam izvietojuma vai
vsturiski veidojuos apstku d ir grti konkurt vienotaj
tirg. Reionls politikas mris ir veicint raoanas attstbu un
paaugstint dzves lmeni reionos, k ar izldzint atirbas to starp
(6.).
Galvenais valsts vidja termia plnoanas dokuments 2007.
2013. g. ir Valsts stratiskais ietvardokuments, kas nosaka kopjo ES
struktrfondu apguves stratiju. To papildina trs darbbas programmas

un darbbas programmu papildinjumi, ar kuru paldzbu tiek vadtas ES
struktrfondu investcijas Latvij. ES fondu vadbu Latvijas normatvo
aktu sistm regul Eiropas Savienbas struktrfondu un kohzijas fonda
vadbas likums un 26.06.2007 MK noteikumi Nr. 419 Krtba, kd
Eiropas Savienbas struktrfondu un Kohzijas fonda vadb iesaistts
institcijas nodroina plnoanas dokumentu sagatavoanu un o fondu
ievieanu (3.).
Latvijas Pavaldbu savienba (turpmk, LPS) ir biedrba, kas uz
brvprtbas principiem apvieno Latvijas Republikas novadu
un republikas pilstu pavaldbas ar mri veidot pavaldbu politiku
Latvij, kopgi risint problmas un aizstvt pavaldbu intereses (4.).
LPS uzskata, ka nkamaj 2014. 2020.g. plnoanas period ES
struktrfondu izlietojums ir jmaina no pareizj nozaru principa uz
teritorilo principu un ikvienai pavaldbai ir jdod iespja piedalties ES
fondu apguv atbilstoi savm priorittm un savai attstbas
programmai. LPS uzsver, ka pavaldbm ir jpieir noteikta
finansjuma kvota, kuras lielums btu atkargs no konkrts pavaldbas
iedzvotju skaita.
Ptjuma veikanas periods ir 01.01.2007. 01.01.2011. Ptjum
netiek emtas vr aktivittes ar nacionla lmea ietekmi (ts ir
aktivittes, kur projekta samjs ir viens pa visu Latvijas teritoriju,
piem., Nodarbintbas valsts aentra vai Latvijas Investciju un attstbas
aentra). Aktivittes ar nacionla lmea ietekmi (1.2.1.1.1., 1.2.1.1.4.,
1.2.1.2.1., 1.2.1.2.2., 1.2.1.2.3., 1.2.2.1.2., 1.2.2.1.5., 1.2.2.4.1., 1.3.1.1.1.,
1.3.1.1.3., 1.3.1.1.5., 1.3.1.2., 1.3.1.3.1., 1.3.1.3.2., 1.3.1.4., 1.3.1.5., 1.3.1.7.,
1.3.2.3., 1.4.1.1.1., 1.4.1.1.2., 1.4.1.2.1., 1.4.1.2.2., 1.5.1.1.1., 1.5.1.2.,
1.5.1.3.1., 1.5.1.3.2., 1.5.2.1., 1.5.2.2.1., 2.1.1.3.2., 2.1.2.1.1., 2.2.1.1., 2.2.1.3.,
2.2.1.4., 2.3.1.1.2., 2.3.1.2., 2.3.2.1., 3.1.4.1.1., 3.1.4.1.2., 3.1.4.1.3., 3.1.4.2.,
3.2.2.1.1., 3.3.1.1., 3.3.1.2., 3.3.1.3., 3.3.1.4., 3.3.1.5., 3.4.1.6., 3.5.1.3.,
3.5.1.4.) netiek emtas vr ar mri, lai labk vartu novrtt ES
struktrfondu finansjuma sadali starp reioniem.
Laika period no 06.10.2011. ldz 07.11.2011. tika veikta Latgales
reiona pavaldbu anketana par ES struktrfondu apguvi 2007.
2013.g. plnoanas period ar mri noskaidrot pavaldbu lielks
problmas un ieguvumus ES struktrfondu apguv. No 19 aptaujtajm
Latgales reiona pavaldbm tikai viena pavaldba nepiedaljs
anketan (Ciblas novada pavaldba).
Ptjuma veikanai izmantotas metodes: apraksto, anketana,
dokumentu un statistisks analzes metode.

ES fondi Latvijas plnoanas reionos
Apskatot pieirt finansjuma apjomu pa reioniem, redzams, ka
vislielko finansjumu saem Rgas reions 1357,91 milj. Ls, bet
vismazko Kurzemes reions 559,25 milj. Ls. Latgales reions
samis 550,47 milj. Ls, Vidzemes reions 511,76 milj. Ls un
Zemgales reions 518,45 milj. Ls laika period no 01.01.2007. ldz
01.01.2011. Tomr, ja vrt pieirto struktrfondu finansjumu uz
vienu iedzvotju, tad vislielkie ieguldjumi veikti Vidzemes reion
2214,75 Ls. Kurzemes reion ieguldti 1885,98 Ls, Zemgales reion
1869,86 Ls un Latgales reion 1643,14 Ls. Vismazkais pieirtais
finansjums uz vienu iedzvotju ir Rgas reionam 1246,06 Ls (sk.
1.att.).

1.attls. ES struktrfondu pieirtais finansjums sadaljum
pa plnoanas reioniem un teritoriju attstbas lmea indeksi
laika period no 01.01.2007. 01.01.2011.
(autores izstrdts pc 1.; 2.; 7. datiem)

Rangu korelcijas analze liecina, ka starp teritorijas attstbas
indeksu un ES struktrfondu finansjuma apjomu ir ciea korelcija
(0,9710). Tas nozm, ka socilekonomiski augstk attsttie reioni ir
samui lielku ES struktrfondu finansjumu.
Savukrt, starp teritorijas attstbas indeksu un ES struktrfondu
finansjumu uz 1 iedzvotju korelcija ir negatva (0,7824) jo

socilekonomiski augstk attstts reions, jo mazks ES struktrfondu
finansjums tiek pieirts uz 1 iedzvotju.
emot vr nevienmrgo iedzvotju skaita sadaljumu Latvijas
reionos, tika saldzints ar finansjums uz 1 iedzvotju pa darbbas
programmm (2.att.).

2.attls. ES struktrfondu ieguldjumu apjoms pa darbbas programmm
Latvijas reionos uz 1 iedzvotju laika period no 01.01.2007. 01.01.2011.
(autores izstrdts pc 2.; 7. datiem)

3. darbbas programm Infrastruktra un pakalpojumi un
2. darbbas programm Uzmjdarbba un inovcijas vislielkais
pieirtais finansjums uz 1 iedzvotju bija Vidzemes reion 1681,34
Ls un 473,99 Ls, bet 1. darbbas programm Cilvkresursi un
nodarbintba vislielkais finansjums tika ieguldts Rgas reion
159,54 Ls uz 1 iedzvotju.

1. darbbas programm Cilvkresursi un nodarbintba
ieguldtais finansjums Vidzemes reion bija 2,7 reizes mazks nek
Rgas reion 59,43 Ls uz 1 iedzvotju. Rgas reionam pieirtais
finansjums uz 1 iedzvotju bija ievrojami lielks nek prjiem
reioniem un tas bija pateicoties tam, ka veikti milzgi ieguldjumi
cilvkresursu piesaistei zintnei, doktora studiju programmu stenoanai
un nodarbinto apmcbm komersantu konkurtspjas veicinanai.
Rgas reions ir visbagtkais reions izgltbas iestu un uzmumu
skaita zi ar relatvi (t.i. uz vienu iedzvotju), ldz ar to im reionam ir
pieirts lielks finansjums.
Lai gan 2. darbbas programm Uzmjdarbba un inovcijas
kopjais pieirtais finansjums Rgas reionam bija 3,1 reizi lielks
(342,15 milj. Ls) nek Vidzemes reionam (109,52 milj. Ls), tomr
finansjums uz 1 iedzvotju bija lielks Vidzemes reionam 473,99 Ls.
Tas izskaidrojams ar faktu, ka Vidzemes reion ir vismazkais
iedzvotju skaits Latvij.
Ldzgi ir ar 3. darbbas programm Infrastruktra un
pakalpojumi: vislielkais finansjums uz vienu iedzvotju pieirts
Vidzemes reionam 1681,34 Ls, bet vismazkais: Rgas reionam
772,55 Ls. Vidzemes reionam pieirtais finansjums uz vienu
iedzvotju bija 2,2 reizes lielks nek Rgas reionam. Savukrt, kopjais
finansjums Vidzemes reionam (388,50 milj. Ls) saldzinjum ar Rgas
reionu (841,90 milj. Ls) tika pieirts uz pusi mazks. Tpat k
2. darbbas programmas ietvaros, pieirt finansjuma lielumu uz vienu
iedzvotju nosaka iedzvotju skaita lielums katr reion.
Rangu korelcijas analze liecina, ka starp IKP un ES struktrfondu
finansjuma apjomu ir ciea korelcija (0,9997). Tas nozm, ka lielkie
ES struktrfondu ieguldjumi tiek veikti tajos reionos, kuros ir lielkais
IKP apjoms (3.att.).


3.attls. ES struktrfondu pieirt finansjuma apjoma un
iekzemes kopprodukta attiecba sadaljum pa Latvijas reioniem
laika period no 01.01.2007. 01.01.2011.

Vislielkais IKP apjoms bija Rgas reionam 10 806 021 tkst. Ls,
vienlaikus aj reion tika veikti vislielkie ES struktrfondu
ieguldjumi 1 357,91 milj. Ls. Vismazkais IKP apjoms bija Vidzemes
reion 1 065 875 tkst. Ls, attiecgi ES finansjuma apjoms tika
pieirts vismazkais 511,76 milj. Ls.
Latgales reionam bijar treais lielkais IKP (1 358 320 tkst. Ls)
saldzinjum ar prjiem reioniem, un ar ES struktrfondu
finansjums tika pieirts k treais lielkais 550,47 milj. Ls.
Starp IKP un ES struktrfondu finansjumu uz 1 iedzvotju
korelcijas koeficients ir negatvs (0,8360) jo lielks IKP apjoms
attiecg reion, jo mazks pieirtais ES struktrfondu finansjums uz
1 iedzvotju.
Starp IKP uz 1 iedzvotju un ES struktrfondu finansjumu uz 1
iedzvotju korelcijas koeficients ar ir negatvs (0,7819). Tas nozm,

ka reionos ar lielku IKP uz 1 iedzvotju, pieirts mazks ES
struktrfondu finansjums uz 1 iedzvotju.
2. darbbas programmas Uzmjdarbba un inovcijas
finansjums Latvijas reionu griezum tika pieirts emot vr kopjo
aktvo uzmumu skaitu katr reion (4.att.).

4.attls. 2. Darbbas programmas Uzmjdarbba un inovcijas
pieirt finansjuma apjoma un aktvo uzmumu skaita attiecba
sadaljum pa Latvijas reioniem laika period no 01.01.2007. 01.01.2011.

T k visvairk aktvo komersantu (mikro, mazo, vidjo un lielo)
atrodas Rgas reion (72 490), tad ar ES struktrfondu finansjums im
reionam tika pieirts vislielkais 342,15 milj. Ls. Savukrt, Zemgales
reion, kur atrodas vismazk aktvo komersantu (14 011), ES
struktrfondu finansjums tika pieirts vismazkais 104,87 milj. Ls.
Savukrt, atbalsts mikro, maziem, un vidjiem komersantiem pai
atbalstmajs teritorijs tiek pieirts, emot vr teritorijas attstbas
indeksu attiecg reion. Latgales un Vidzemes reionos, kuri ir
socilekonomiski vismazk attstti, mikro, mazo, un vidjo komersantu
attstbai tiek pieirts vislielkais ES struktrfondu atbalsts.


ES fondi Latgales plnoanas reion
Latgales reionam kopjais pieirtais ES struktrfondu
finansjums 2007. 2013.g. plnoanas periodam sastdja 550,47 milj.
Ls, kuri novirzti trs darbbas programmu stenoanai. Lielk
finansjuma daa tiek pieirta 3. darbbas programmas Infrastruktra
un pakalpojumi stenoanai 399,28 milj. jeb 73%, mazk 2. darbbas
programmai Uzmjdarbba un inovcijas 115,81 milj. Ls jeb 21%
un 1. darbbas programmai Cilvkresursi un nodarbintba 35,39 milj.
Ls jeb 6% no kopj pieirt finansjuma (5.att.).

5.attls. Latgales reionam pieirtais ES struktrfondu finansjuma
apjoms un patsvars sadaljum pa darbbas programmm laika
period no 01.01.2007. 01.01.2011. (Ls, %)
(autores izstrdts pc 2. datiem)

Kopum var atzmt, ka pastv milzgas atirbas finansjuma
sadal ne tikai reionu skatjum, bet ar novadu un pilstu skatjum
(6.att.).

6.attls. Pieirtais kopjais ES struktrfondu finansjums Latgales novados un
pilsts laika period no 01.01.2007. 01.01.2011. (Ls)


Viss darbbas programms lielkie finansjumi pieirti tdos
Latgales novados un pilsts, k Daugavpils, Rzekne, Rzeknes novads,
Krslavas novads un Lvnu novads.
Lielkais ES struktrfondu finansjums uz 1 iedzvotju Latgales
reion tika pieirts Baltinavas novadam 9770,26 Ls, bet mazkais
Vrkavas novadam 122,84 Ls uz 1 iedzvotju. Jem vr btisks
aspekts, ka is finansjums uz 1 iedzvotju tika pieirts trs darbbas
programmu stenoanai. Kopum var secint, ka ES struktrfondu
finansjums Latgales reiona novados un pilsts uz vienu iedzvotju
bija oti mazs saldzinot ar vidjo lmeni valst.
ES struktrfondu kopj finansjumu piesaiste pa Latgales
novadiem un pilstm nav tiei saistta ar attiecgs teritorijas attstbas
lmeni (7.att.).

7.attls. ES struktrfondu pieirtais finansjums saldzinjum
ar teritoriju attstbas indeksu Latgales novados un pilsts laika
period no 01.01.2007. 01.01.2011.

Latgales plnoanas reiona pavaldbu anketanas rezultti
Pc Latgales reiona novada pavaldbu anketanas rezulttiem
tika konstatts, ka vairum Latgales reiona pavaldbu ES struktrfondu
projektus ldzfinans ldz 25% no sev pieejamajiem finanu resursiem.
Tau vairums pavaldbu anketanas laik ir atzinuas, ka ES
struktrfondu projektus btu gatavas ldzfinanst 1015% apmr no
sev pieejam finansjuma. Rzeknes novada pavaldba nevarja nordt
konkrtu ES struktrfondu projektu ldzfinansjuma apmru (8.att.).


8.attls. Latgales reiona novada pavaldbu patreizjais ldzfinansjuma
apmrs kds tiek un kdu pavaldbas btu gatavas nodroint ES
struktrfondu projektu stenoanai
(autores izstrdts)

Pavaldbas atzina, ka projekti bez ES struktrfondu
ldzfinansjuma nebtu realizti (9.att.).

9.attls. Latgales reiona novada pavaldbu projektu stenoanas statuss bez
ES struktrfondu ldzfinansjuma (pavaldbu skaits un patsvars)
(autores izstrdts)

Lielkais vairums Latgales reiona pavaldbu atbalsta ES
struktrfondu finansjuma sadali pc socilekonomisks attstbas
rdtjiem lielku finansjumu pieirot mazk attsttiem reioniem
un novadiem (10.att.).
Krslavas novada pavaldba uzskata, ka Latvijas reioniem un
novadiem ir jpieir kvota atkarb no iedzvotju skaita, ldzgi k
Eiropas Lauksaimniecbas fonda lauku attstbai projektiem pilstu un
lauku teritorijs, kas izmantojami saska ar priorittm.

10.attls. Latgales reiona novadu pavaldbu viedoklis pc kdiem faktoriem
btu jpieir ES struktrfondu finansjums Latvijas reionos un novados
(pavaldbu skaits un patsvars)
(autores izstrdts)

Savukrt, Viakas novada pavaldba uzskata, ka ES struktrfondu
finansjums ir vairk jnovirza lauku pavaldbm, vairk jatbalsta
uzmjdarbba un jsniedz pabalsti (subsdijas) un stipendijas imenm
dzvei laukos.
1. Finansjuma sadal pa reioniem Latvija neem vr kopjo ES
politikas mri atbalstt socilekonomiski mazk attsttos
reionus. Latvija vislielko ES struktrfondu finansjumu piera
tiem reioniem, kuriem bija vislielkais IKP apjoms, tdjdi nevis
izpildot ES politikas mri, bet gan tiei pretji vl vairk
palielinot dadu reionu socilekonomisk attstbas lmea
atirbas un mazk attstto reionu atpalicbu. Vislielkais IKP
apjoms bija Rgas reionam 10 806 021 tkst. Ls, vienlaikus aj
reion tika veikti vislielkie ES struktrfondu ieguldjumi

1 357,91 milj. Ls. Vismazkais IKP apjoms bija Vidzemes reion
1 065 875 tkst. Ls, attiecgi ES finansjuma apjoms pieirts
vismazkais 511,76 milj. Ls. Pc autores domm Latvija neefektvi
izmanto ES struktrfondu pieirto finansjumu esoo
socilekonomisko problmu risinanai valst. Eso finansjuma
sadale neauj Latvijas reioniem vienldzgi attstties un konkurt,
kopum bremzjot valsts attstbu.
2. ES struktrfondu pieirtais finansjums 2. darbbas programmai
Uzmjdarbba un inovcijas Latvijas reionu griezum tika
pieirts emot vr kopjo aktvo uzmumu skaitu katr reion.
T k visvairk aktvo komersantu atrodas Rgas reion (72 490),
tad ar ES struktrfondu finansjums im reionam tika pieirts
vislielkais (342,15 milj. Ls), savukrt, Zemgales reion, kur
atrodas vismazk aktvo komersantu (14 011), ES struktrfondu
finansjums tika pieirts vismazkais (104,87 milj. Ls).
3. Latgales reionam kopjais pieirtais ES struktrfondu
finansjums 01.01.2007. 01.01.2011. sastdja 550,47 milj. Ls.
Lielk finansjuma daa (73%) tika novirzta 3. darbbas
programmas Infrastruktra un pakalpojumi paskumu
stenoanai, atlikus finansjuma daa paredzta 2. darbbas
programmas Uzmjdarbba un inovcijas (21%) un 1. darbbas
programmas Cilvkresursi un nodarbintba (6%) paskumu
stenoanai.
4. Pastv milzgas atirbas finansjuma sadal ne tikai reionu
skatjum, bet ar novadu un pilstu skatjum. T piemram,
Latgales reion vislielkais finansjums tika ieguldts Daugavpil
(147,77 milj. Ls), bet vismazkais Vrkavas novad (288,55 tkst.
Ls). Vislielkais ES struktrfondu finansjums uz 1 iedzvotju tika
pieirts Baltinavas novadam (9770 Ls), bet mazkais Vrkavas
novadam (123 Ls).
5. Finansjuma sadal ar Latgales reion netiek emts vr ts
teritorijas socilekonomisks attstbas lmenis. Rzeknei, kurai
attstbas indekss ir viszemkais vis Latgales reion (1,796),
pieirtais ES struktrfondu finansjums bija ievrojami mazks
(76,59 milj. Ls) nek Daugavpilij, kurai attstbas indekss ir krietni
labks (0,693), bet pieirtais finansjums ir 1,9 reizes lielks
(147,77 milj. Ls) nek Rzeknei. Visvairk tiek atbalstti tie novadi
un pilstas, kuru projektiem un paskumiem ir vislielk ietekme
uz Latvijas tautsaimniecbu un ekonomiku kopum.
6. Pc Latgales reiona novada pavaldbu anketanas rezulttiem
tika konstatts, ka vairum Latgales reiona pavaldbu ES
struktrfondu projektus ldzfinans ldz 25% no sev pieejam

finensjuma. Tau vairums pavaldbu atzina, ka esoais
ldzfinansjuma apjoms tm ir prk liels slogs un ts btu gatavas
ES struktrfondu projektus ldzfinanst tikai 1015% apmr no
sev pieejam finansjuma. Pavaldbas atzst, ka projekti bez ES
struktrfondu ldzfinansjuma nebtu realizti, ldz ar to var
secint, ka Latgales reionam bez ES struktrfondu atbalsta ir
niecgas iespjas attstties.
7. Lielkais vairums Latgales reiona pavaldbu atbalsta ES
struktrfondu finansjuma sadali pc socilekonomisks attstbas
rdtjiem lielku finansjumu pieirot mazk attsttiem
reioniem un novadiem.
Pilnveidojot ES fondu apguves politiku, Finanu ministrijai btu
jem vr di aspekti:
1. Lai mazintu ES struktrfondu nevienmrgo finansjuma
sadali starp reioniem, autore piedv ES struktrfondu
finansjumu sadalt pc trs kritrijiem:
jpieir kvotu lielums, kas tiei atkargs no iedzvotju
skaita teritorijas attstbai, kur ir mazks iedzvotju
skaits, jpieir lielku ES struktrfondu finansjumu uz
vienu iedzvotju;
pc IKP apjoma uz vienu iedzvotju lielku ES
struktrfondu finansjumu jpieir tiem reioniem,
kuriem IKP uz vienu iedzvotju ir zemks par valst vidjo;
pc teritorijas attstbas indeksa lielku ES struktrfondu
finansjumu jpieir socilekonomiski mazk attsttiem
reioniem
da veida finansjuma sadale sekmtu cilvkresursu
prvietoanos uz mazapdzvotm teritorijm, novrot cilvkresursu
koncentranos tikai teritoriju lielajos administratvajos centros.
Cilvkresursu koncentrans mazk apdzvots teritorijs veicintu
socilekonomiski atpalikuo reionu attstbu.
2. T k Latvijas ldzfinansjums projektu realizanai no ES
fondu ldzekiem ir nepietiekams un nabadzgs pavaldbas
(piemram, lielk daa no Latgales reiona pavaldbm) nevar
nodroint pietiekamu ldzfinansjumu projektu iesniedzjiem,
tad vajadztu nodroint pavaldbas ar avansa maksjumiem
projektu realizanas laik.
3. Lai pavaldbm un uzmumiem nepasliktintu saimniecisko
un finansilo stvokli, Valsts kasei vai Latvijas Hipotku un
zemes bankai btu jpieir bezprocentu aizdevums
pavaldbm un uzmumiem ldz brdim, kad tie apgs ES
struktrfondu izlietoto naudu.

1. Par teritorijas attstbas indeksa aprinanas krtbu un t vrtbm
[tiesaite]. LR Ministru kabineta noteikumi Nr.482 [atsauce 2012.g. 1.janv.].
Pieejas veids: http://www.likumi.lv/doc.php?id=211208.
2. Eiropas Savienbas fondu vadbas informcijas sistma [tiesaite]. Finanu
ministrija [atsauce 2012.g. 1.janv.]. Pieejas veids: https://vis.esfondi.lv.
3. ES fondi [tiesaiste]. Finanu ministrijas publikcija [atsauce 2012.g. 5.febr.].
Pieejas veids: http://www.esfondi.lv/page.php?id=414
4. LPS [tiesaiste]. Latvijas Pavaldbu savienbas publikcija [atsauce 2012.g.
2.febr.]. Pieejas veids: http://www.lps.lv/LPS/
5. Lursoft statistika [tiesaite]. IT Lursoft datu bze [atsauce 2012.g. 6.janv.].
Pieejas veids: http://www.lursoft.lv/lursoftstatistika/.
6. Reionl politika un kohzija [tiesaite]. rlietu ministrijas publikcija
[atsauce 2012.g. 1.febr.]. Pieejas veids: http://www.es.gov.lv/ricibas
jomas/regionalapolitikaunkohezija
7. Statistikas datubzes [tiesaite]. Centrls statistikas prvaldes datu bze
[atsauce 2011.g. 2.febr.]. Pieejas veids:
http://data.csb.gov.lv/dialog/statfile16.asp.
Summary
Allocation of the received funding according to the regions of Latvia does not
take into account the common aim of the EU policy to support the socially and
economically less developed regions the greatest part of the EU structural funds
financing Latvia allocates to the regions having the largest volume of GDP, thus
instead of fulfilling the aim of the EU policy Latvia increases differences in the social
and economic development level of various regions and backwardness of the less
developed regions. The largest volume of the GDP was in the Riga region 10,806,021
thousand Ls, simultaneously this region gets the biggest investments of the EU
structural funds 1357.91 million Ls. The smallest volume of GDP was in the Vidzeme
region 1,065,875 thousand Ls, accordingly the allocated EU funding is the smallest
511.76 million Ls. To the authors opinion, in order to solve the social and economic
problems present in the country, Latvia inefficiently makes use of the allocated EU
structural funds financing. The current financing allocation does not allow the regions
of Latvia to develop and to compete equally, all in all impeding the development of
the country.
The allocated EU structural funds financing for the 2nd activity program
Entrepreneurship and Innovations among the regions of Latvia was apportioned
considering the common number of active companies in each region. Since the largest
numbers of active merchants are located in the Riga region (72,490), respectively the
financing of the structural funds to the region was the largest (342.15 million Ls), in
its turn, to Zemgale region, in which there are fewest active merchants (14,011), the
allocated EU funding was the smallest (104.87 million Ls).
The total financing of the EU structural funds allocated to the Latgale region
from 01.01.2007 to 01.01.2011 constitutes 550.47 million Ls. The biggest part of
funding (73%) is switched to implementation of the 3rd activity program
Entrepreneurship and Services arrangements, and the remaining part is provided
for implementation of the 2nd activity program Entrepreneurship and Innovations
(21%) and the 1st activity program Human Resources and Employment (6%)
arrangements.

There are huge differences in the funding allocation not only in the scope of
regions, but also counties and cities. For instance, in the Latgale region the greatest
funding was invested in Daugavpils (147.77 million Ls), but the smallest in Vrkava
county (288.55 thousand Ls). The largest EU structural funds financing per capita was
allocated to Baltinava county (9770 Ls), but the smallest to Vrkava county
(123 Ls).
For allocation of funding also in the Latgale region the social and economic
development level of the territory is not taken into account. To Rzekne, which has
the lowest index of development in the whole Latgale region (1.796), the allocated
EU structural funds financing is extremely smaller (76.59 million Ls) than to
Daugavpils, the index of which is much better (0.693), and the allocated funding is
1.9 times larger (147.77 million Ls) than to Rzekne. The greatest support is granted
to the counties and cities, projects and arrangements of which have the largest
influence on the national economy and economics of Latvia in general.
According to results of the survey conducted in Latgale region municipalities,
it was established that in the majority of Latgale region municipalities the projects of
EU structural funds are cofinanced up to 25% from the available financial resources.
However, the largest part of municipalities admitted that the current amount of co
financing is a too big burden and they would be ready to cofinance the projects of
the EU structural funds only in amount of 1015% from the available financing. The
municipalities admit, that the projects without the EU structural funds cofinancing
would not have been implemented, thus conclusions can be drawn that Latgale region
without support of the EU structural funds would have had negligible possibilities for
development.
The majority of Latgale region municipalities support the allocation of the
received EU structural funds financing according to the social and economic
development indicators the largest financing should be allocated to the least
developed regions and counties.


DARBA RAGUMS LATVIJAS PIENA LOPKOPBAS
SAIMNIECBS ES KONTEKST
LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY ON LATVIA DAIRY FARMS IN THE
EU CONTEXT
Valda BRATKA
Dr. oec., Latvijas Valsts agrrs ekonomikas institta vado ptniece
Tlrunis: +371 67167909, epasts: valda.bratka@lvaei.lv
Artrs PRAULI
Dr. oec., Latvijas Valsts agrrs ekonomikas institta ptnieks
Tlrunis: +371 67552786, epasts: arturs@lvaei.lv
Rga, Latvija

Abstract. The agriculture and dairy sectors are important integral parts of Latvian
economy. Recently they have suffered a significant decline due to a price disparity and
outofdate technologies. At present most dairy farms work with losses or low
profitability. As the effectiveness of labour force is the key prerequisite of successful
agrimanagement, the comparative analysis of labour productivity of dairy farms in the
Baltic States and the EU are performed. Special attention has been paid to the structure
of labour force, revealing the proportion of paid labour in total labour resources. In
contrast to previously done research the focus is on international comparison within the
Baltic States and the EU average level.
Keywords: Comparative analysis, dairy farms, labour, productivity.

Ievads
Lauksaimniecbas un piena lopkopbas nozares attstbas dinamiku
nosaka virkne faktoru, t.sk. bioloiskie, tehniskie un tehnoloiskie,
organizatoriskie un ekonomiskie, kuri var veicint vai bremzt piena
raoanas apjomu kpumu, t kvalittes uzlaboanos, materilo un darba
resursu ekonomiju. Darba resursi ir viens no galvenajiem raoanas
faktoriem, kura racionl izmantoana nodroina lauksaimniecbas
produkcijas raoanas apjomu un efektivittes pieaugumu. Agrraj
sektor darba resursu nozme ir rkrtgi liela, jo nepietiekams
nodroinjums ar darba resursiem var novest pie nespjas nodroint
ieplnotu darba apjomu, optimlo agrotehnisko termiu neievroanas
un, rezultt, pie lauksaimniecbas produkcijas apjomu sarkuma.
Darba resursu izmantoanu lauksaimniecb raksturo virkne
patnbu, kuru pamat ir darba un raoanas sezonalitte, darba perioda
un raoanas perioda atsevis lauksaimniecbas nozars nesakritba.
Pareizj orientcija uz peas maksimizciju nosaka augkopbas
nozares ar oti izteiktu sezonalitti dominjoo stvokli lauksaimniecb.
Lopkopba nodroina darbinieku vienmrgku noslodzi gada garum un

taj ir izteikts raoanas procesa cikliskums. Proti, darba periods un
raoanas periods sakrt ilguma zi, jo aj apaknozar baroanas un
lopu aprpes un kopanas procesi katru dienu atkrtojas neatkargi no t,
vai tiek raota lauksaimniecbas produkcija. (26.,55.)
Pdjos gados Latvijas lauksaimniecba un it pai piena lopkopbas
nozare piedzvoja btiskas izmaias cenu disparittes, eso un
potencil kvalifict darbaspka aizpldes no laukiem uz lielkajm
Latvijas pilstm un rzemm, k ar tehnisk nodroinjuma fizisks un
morls novecoans d. Tas negatvi ietekmja lauku saimniecbu
darbbas rezulttus un darbaspka izmantoanas efektivitti, k rezultt
daudzas saimniecbas joprojm strd ar zaudjumiem vai oti zemu
rentabilitti. Tas nosaka ptjuma aktualitti un liecina par
nepiecieambu apzint un analizt darba raguma atirbas dada
ekonomisk lieluma un reionl izvietojuma Latvijas piena lopkopbas
saimniecbs.
Ptjuma mris ir analizt darbaspka struktru un ragumu
dada ekonomisk lieluma un reionl izvietojuma Latvijas piena
lopkopbas saimniecbs, saldzinot ar s nozares rdtjiem cits Baltijas
valsts un ES.
Lai sasniegtu ptjuma mri, bija formulti di ptjuma
uzdevumi:
1. analizt darbaspka ragumu Latvijas piena lopkopbas
saimniecbs;
2. izptt algot un nealgot darbaspka proporciju Latvijas piena
lopkopbas saimniecbs;
3. veikt darbaspka raguma un struktras saldzinoo analzi
piena lopkopbas saimniecbs Latvij, Baltijas kaimivalsts un
ES.
4. izvrtt slaucamo govju skaita uz 1 LDV (lauksaimniecbas
darba vienba)1 un algot darbaspka patsvara kopjos
darbaspka resursos atkarbu no hronoloisk faktora un
Latvijas piena lopkopbas saimniecbu reionl izvietojuma.
Ptjuma periodu liel mr noteica statistikas datu pieejamba: no
SUDAT (Saimniecbu uzskaites datu tkla) datu bzes (16.) iegtajai
informcijai tie bija 2002.2009. gads, no FADN (Farm Accountancy Data
Network) datu bzes (10.) 2002.2008. gads (saldzinjumam ar
Baltijas kaimivalstm 2004. 2008. gads). Atirbas saimniecbu
grupjum pa ekonomiskajiem lielumiem liedza iespju izmantot
informciju no Baltijas kaimivalstu nacionlajm datu bzm, kuras
satur statistiskos datus par ilgku laika periodu. Ptjum ir izmantota
monogrfisk, saldzinos un koeficientu analzes, grupanas, datu
1 Lauksaimniecbas darba vienba (Agricultural Work Unit) ir 1 cilvkgads (1840 stundu).

statistisks apstrdes, dedukcijas un indukcijas metode. Ptjuma bze ir
piena lopkopbas saimniecbas (41. specializcija saska ar FADN
tipoloiju).
Lauksaimniecbas ieguldjums nodarbintb un bruto
pievienotaj vrtb
Pdjo 5 gadu laik augkopb, lopkopb un medniecb
nodarbinto patsvars saglabjies relatvi pastvgs, svrstoties intervl
no 1,1% 2008. gad ldz 1,26 % 2005. gad (1. tab.).
1. tabula
Vidjais darbinieku skaits darba laika vienbs gad, procentos no visiem
Latvijas tautsaimniecb nodarbintajiem, 2005. 2010. gad
(autoru aprini, izmantojot (7.) datus)

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Lauksaimniecba,
mesaimniecba un 2,25 2,27 2,08 2,07 2,23 2,29
zivsaimniecb
Augkopba, lopkopba un
1,26 1,25 1,11 1,10 1,21 1,22
medniecba

Relatvi neliels darbinieku skaits var atstt iespaidu, ka
lauksaimniecba vairs nav ierindojama starp Latvijas ekonomikas
attstbai vitli svargajm nozarm. Tomr dati par nozares rdto bruto
pievienoto vrtbu ES kontekst liecina par pretjo.
2. tabula
Lauksaimniecbas, medniecbas un zivsaimniecbas rdts bruto pievienots
vrtbas patsvars tautsaimniecbas kopj bruto pievienotaj vrtb
atsevis ES dalbvalsts 2000. 2010. gad, procentos

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
Vidji ES (27 dalbvalstis) 2,3 2,2 2,1 1,7 1,7 1,7
Luksemburga 0,7 0,7 0,6 0,4 0,4 0,3
Lielbritnija 1,0 0,9 1,0 0,7 0,8 0,7
Beija 1,4 1,2 1,1 0,9 0,7 0,7
Vcija 1,3 1,1 1,1 0,8 0,9 0,9
Dnija 2,6 2,2 1,9 1,3 1,0 1,2
Latvija 4,6 4,6 4,4 3,5 3,0 4,1
Ungrija 5,4 4,6 4,8 4,0 4,2 3,5
Grieija 6,6 5,9 4,9 3,7 3,1 3,3
Lietuva 6,3 5,4 4,7 4,3 3,7 3,4
Bulgrija 13,6 11,8 10,7 7,7 6,9 5,3
Rumnija 12,1 12,6 14,1 8,8 7,4 6,7

2. tabul ir apkopoti dati par Latviju, k ar 5 ES dalbvalstm ar
vislielko un vismazko lauksaimniecbas, medniecbas un
zivsaimniecbas radts bruto pievienots vrtbas patsvaru
tautsaimniecbas kopj bruto pievienotaj vrtb. Pc minto nozaru
patsvara Latvija atrodas 8. viet aiz Ungrijas, Polijas un Slovkijas.
Latvij o nozaru ieguldjums par 1,8 ldz 2,4 procentpunktiem prsniedz
vidjo rdtju ES, neprprotami liecinot, ka lauksaimniecbas nozme
Latvijas nacionlaj ekonomik joprojm ir lielk, nek vidji ES.
Statistikas datu (3. tab.) analze liecina, ka pdjo 10 gadu laik
gaas un piena raoanas apjomu pieauguma trends nebija vienmrgs,
atsevios gados bija vrojami kritumi, tomr kopum iedzvotju
nodroinjums ar svargkajiem lopkopbas produktiem uzlabojs.
Tomr tendence viennozmgi neliecina, ka pieauga ar lopkopbas
nozares raoanas un resursu izmantoanas efektivitte.
3. tabula
Atseviu svargko lopkopbas produktu raoanas rdtji
Latvij 2000. 2010. gad

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
Kautsvar, tkst. t 61,7 63,3 73,2 79,7 86,1 79,9
Gaa
Attiecb pret 2000 g., % 102,6 118,6 129,2 139,5 129,5

Rinot uz 1 iedz., kg 26 27 32 35 38 36
Attiecb pret 2000. g., % 103,8 123,1 134,6 146,2 138,5
Tkst. t 825,0 813,7 786,4 815,1 835,5 834,5
Piens
Attiecb pret 2000. g., % 98,6 95,3 98,8 101,3 101,2

Rinot uz 1 iedz., kg 348 348 340 356 369 373
Attiecb pret 2000. g., % 100,0 97,7 102,3 106,0 107,2

Darbaspka izmantoanas efektivittes teortiskie aspekti
Darba ragumu ietekm rkrtgi plas faktoru klsts: esou
tehnoloiju izmantoana un jaunu tehnoloiju ievieana, darba
organizcijas uzlabojumi, darba metodes, darba laika izmantoanas
intensitte. (17.,231.) Dai ptnieki norda, ka darba potencila vadba ir
raoanas potencila vadbas sastvdaa. No zemes platbu un materilo
resursu izmantoanas liel mr ir atkarga ar darba potencila
izmantoanas efektivitte. (26.,53.) Citi zintnieki (13.,515.) ir
prliecinti, ka darba ragums ir atkargs ne tikai no tehnisk
nodroinjuma un raoanas tehnoloijas, bet ar no zintniski tehnisk
progresa rezulttu ievieanas praks, darbaspka kvalifikcijas un
iniciatvas. Tas ir likumsakargi, jo saraot produkcija ir cilvka darba un
citu raoanas faktoru (iekrtas, izejvielas, elektroenerija) kopjs

mijiedarbbas rezultts. Jo efektvk tiek izmantoti ie raoanas faktori,
jo lielk ir cilvka darba efektivitte. (2.,56.) Tpc ir jpiekrt
atzinumam (28.,1.), ka gan raoanas tehnoloija, gan darba resursi ir
ekonomisks izaugsmes svargkie faktori.
Literatr (15.,9.; 18.,364.) ir nordts, ka lauksaimniecisks
raoanas ragumu ietekm saraots produkcijas realizcijas cenas,
atbalsta mehnisms (subsdijas un nodoki), k ar iekjie faktori (darba
organizcija, vadbas kvalitte u.c.). Savukrt piena lopkopb k
raoanas intensitti un darba ragumu noteicoie faktori ir minti
rjie (klimatiskie, ekonomiskie, demogrfiskie un resursu pieejambas),
reguljoie (normatvais un administratvais reguljums, ties un neties
nozares atbalsts), iekj tirgus (infrastruktra, monopolizcija) un
raoanas (darba, materilo un finanu resursu pieejamba) faktori.
(22.,122.) Tpat, analizjot piena lopkopbas ekonomisko efektivitti,
jem vr s nozares specifika: produkcija tiek raota visa gada
garum, raoanai piemt augsta darbietilpba un kapitlietilpba, gatava
produkcija tri bojjas un ts kvalitte ir atkarga no govju irnes,
augstas prasbas selekcijas n zootehniskajam darbam, k ar vajadzba
pc augsti produktvs augkopbas panodroinjumam ar lopbarbu.
(24.,208.)
Pc dau ptnieku uzskatiem (21.,6668.) lopkopbas saimniecbu
darbbas efektivitti nav iespjams novrtt ar kda atsevia rdtja
paldzbu. T viet ir ieteicams izmantot rdtju komplekso modeli, kur
ietilpst materilo, darba un finanu resursu sabalanstbu, k ar
raoanas potencilu un rentabilitti raksturojoo rdtju grupas.
Savukrt k darba resursu raksturojoie rdtji ir minti, pirmkrt,
darba ragums un darbinieku algas patsvars saimniecbas iemumos,
otrkrt, pea, rinot uz vienu darbinieku, un pea, rinot uz darba
apmaksai iztrto vienu naudas vienbu. Citiem autoriem (22.,121.) ir
diametrli pretjas domas, proti, darba ragumam ir jierada paa vieta
piena lopkopbas darbbas efektivitti raksturojoo ekonomisko rdtju
vid. Tas raksturo raoanas darbietilpbu, raoanas tehnoloisko
nodroinjumu un zintniskitehnisk progresa atziu izmantoanu.
Tiei darba ragums ir integrlais rdtjs, kas auj spriest par raoanas
stvokli ikvien uz peas ganu orienttaj uzmum. im viedoklim
piekrt ar citi zintnieki (25.,193.), kuri uzskata darba resursus par visu
prjo raoanas resursu virzoo spku. Inovatvo risinjumu trkums
raoan var radt papildu vajadzbas pc raoanas resursiem (t.sk.
darbaspka), bet zems darba ragums var bt lauksaimniecbas
produkcijas materilietilpbas un paizmaksas pieauguma iemesls. Ldz
ar to darba ragums ir piena raoanas efektivittes pieauguma
galvenais noteicoais faktors. (22.,123.124.)

Vairkos ptjumos (K. L. Haden un L. A. Johnson, H. S. ElOsta un
J. D. Johnson, C. W. Rougoor, Z. Stefanides un L. W. Tauer) ir tiei akcentta
darbaspka nozme, proti, tas ir ierindojams to faktoru vid, kas spjgi
ietekmt saimniecbas rentabilitti. (citts pc 5.,242.) Citos ptjumos ir
mints, ka darbaspku raksturojoie kritriji izgltba un profesionl
pieredze ietekm lauku saimniecbu darbbas efektivitti. Piemram,
darba ekonomikas klasiis F. Welsh (1970) uzskatja, ka izgltbai piemt
raoanas vrtba (productive value of education), kura izpauas
divjdi: pirmkrt, k strdnieka efekts, kas auj darbiniekam sasniegt
arvien labkus rezulttus, ja vien pastv raoanai nepiecieamie resursi,
un asignjoais efekts (allocative effect), kas uzlabo darbinieka spjas
iegt un interprett informciju par citiem raoan izmantotiem
resursiem. (citts pc 11.,5.)
Ragums ir viens no visprpieemtajiem ekonomisks darbbas
efektivittes visprinoiem rdtjiem, (19.,449.; 27.,13.) kuru var
aprint dados lmeos uzmum, tautsaimniecbas nozar,
noteikt teritorij, visas valsts mrog utt. (18.,361.) Parasti ar ragumu
saprot cilvka darba efektivitti, raojot produkciju (2.,55.56.) Cits
literatr (17.,231.) sastopamais darba raguma definjums ir
izvrstks t ir cilvku potencila izmantoanas efektivitte noteiktos
apstkos (darba laika ilgums, cilvka fizisks un psiholoisks spjas,
darba apstki u. c.) Darba ragumu aprina k iznkumu, rinot uz
vienu ieguldt resursa daudzumu. (14.,489.) Piemram, G. Blaas (3.,512.)
raoanas faktoru raguma analz iesaka izmantot iznkuma (output)
un darba vienbas (work unit) attiecbu. Citi autori (25.,195.) iesaka
izmantot analiz darba raguma inverso rdtju darbietilpbu, kas
paldz izdalt ar atseviiem elementiem un opercijm saisttos darba
izdevumus visa raoanas procesa garum.
Lauksaimniecb darba raguma mranai parasti izmanto
produkcijas daudzumu naturlajs mrvienbs, rinot uz vienu cilvka
darba vienbu. Kaut gan cilvka darba patriu mdz izteikt laika
vienbs, lauksamniecbas k nacionls ekonomikas nozares lmen ir
ieteicams izmantot strdnieku skaitu. (2.,55.56.) Savukrt P. Vaskis
(19.,449.450.) izlietoto laiku, kuru izmanto raguma mranai, uzskata
par integrto rdtju, jo o lielumu personific ar ar darbaspka
kvalifikciju un motivciju, produkta kvalitti, t izgatavoanai izmantoto
fizisko kapitlu, tehnoloiju, raoanas organizciju un vadbas
efektivitti. Dai autori (piemram, Z. Chrastinov) darba ragumu mra
ar peu vai pievienoto vrtbu, rinot uz vienu darbinieku. (8.,489.) Citi
(4.,214.) analiz saraots produkcijas daudzumu vai neto pievienoto
vrtbu uz vienu darbaspka vienbu (average work unit). Runjot par
ptjumiem piena lopkopbas nozar (J. B. Kauffmann un L. W. Tauer,

H. S. ElOsta un J. D. Johnson), k darbaspka efektivittes rdtju mdz
izmantot algot darbaspka izmaksas uz 1 govi. (citts pc 5.,237.)
Savukrt ptjum (17.,234.), kas bija veltts darbinieku raguma
saldzinoajai analzei vcu un ehu ferms, darba produktivittes
mrjumiem bija izmantoti laiks, kas patrts vienas govs slaukanai. aj
publikcij k darbaspka raguma rdtju autori izmanto slaucamo
govju skaitu, rinot uz 1 LDV.
Darbaspka struktras analze
Visaugstkais algot darbaspka patsvars bija vrojams Latvijas
piena lopkopbas saimniecbs Pierg un Vidzem, viszemkais Latgal
un Zemgal (4. tab.). Taj pa laik jatzm, ka reionos, kur aktvi
izmantoja algot darbaspka resursus, t patsvara svrstbas bija relatvi
nelielas. Tas var liecint par o reionu lauku saimniecbu prdomtu
politiku cilvkresursu vadbas jom. Gadu griezum vislielks atirbas
starp reioniem pastvja 2004. un 2005. gad, visvienveidgk
saimniecbu darba resursu struktra bija 2002. un 2008. gad.

4. tabula
Algot darbaspka patsvars kopjos darbaspka resursos piena lopkopbas
saimniecbs Latvijas reionos 2002. 2009. gad

Vidji Pierga Vidzeme Latgale Kurzeme Zemgale V, %
2002 0,60 0,58 0,52 0,36 0,84 0,45 33
2003 0,35 0,36 0,36 0,18 0,53 0,20 44
2004 0,33 0,35 0,36 0,39 0,35 0,08 42
2005 0,32 0,40 0,45 0,15 0,35 0,11 52
2006 0,31 0,45 0,42 0,15 0,32 0,15 48
2007 0,24 0,42 0,35 0,12 0,30 0,55 45
2008 0,26 0,39 0,32 0,19 0,23 0,19 33
2009 0,22 0,34 0,29 0,15 0,18 0,18 36
Vidji 0,33 0,41 0,38 0,21 0,39 0,24

V, %2 19 20 49 54 70

Lai noteiktu algot darbaspka lomu kopjos darbaspka resursos,
5. tabul ir apkopoti dati par dada ekonomisk lieluma saimniecbm
piena lopkopbas un jaukts lopkopbas nozars, k ar vidjo radtju
Latvijas lauksaimniecb.
2 V varicijas koeficients

5. tabula
Algot darbaspka patsvars kopjos darbaspka resursos dada
ekonomisk lieluma piena un jaukts lopkopbas saimniecbs
Latvij 2002. 2009. gad

Eiropas lieluma vienbas

Gads Vidji
2 < 4 4 < 8 8 < 16 16 < 40 40 < 100 100 < 250 >= 250
VL 0,34 0,10 0,17 0,42 0,65 0,86 0,99 0,99
2002 PL 0,60 0,03 0,57 0,34 0,93 1,00 1,00
JL 0,07 0,00 0,01 0,00 0,70
VL 0,32 0,03 0,11 0,52 0,51 0,89 0,98 0,94
2003 PL 0,35 0,00 0,26 0,58 0,72 0,93 1,00
JL 0,09 0,00 0,04 0,27 0,71
VL 0,33 0,05 0,09 0,29 0,50 0,84 0,95 0,99
2004 PL 0,33 0,09 0,21 0,32 0,66 0,93 1,00
JL 0,16 0,00 0,03 0,21 0,53
VL 0,37 0,03 0,14 0,30 0,59 0,83 0,97 1,00
2005 PL 0,32 0,08 0,14 0,38 0,70 0,93 1,00
JL 0,12 0,01 0,00 0,08 0,54
VL 0,34 0,04 0,11 0,27 0,52 0,84 0,96 1,00
2006 PL 0,31 0,06 0,07 0,28 0,63 0,90 0,99
JL 0,08 0,00 0,03 0,33 0,33
VL 0,34 0,03 0,10 0,34 0,47 0,74 0,94 1,00
2007 PL 0,24 0,00 0,05 0,24 0,45 0,76 0,95 1,00
JL 0,06 0,02 0,01 0,06 0,56
VL 0,37 0,06 0,22 0,34 0,53 0,76 0,94 0,99
2008 PL 0,26 0,02 0,06 0,25 0,46 0,79 0,95 1,00
JL 0,18 0,01 0,03 0,42 0,49 0,88
VL 0,34 0,06 0,18 0,29 0,51 0,76 0,93 0,99
2009 PL 0,22 0,01 0,03 0,18 0,48 0,80 0,94 1,00
JL 0,20 0,00 0,20 0,24 0,51 0,55
VL vidji Latvij, PL piena lopkopba, JL jaukt lopkopba

Veikt saldzino analze liecina, ka algot darbaspka patsvars
palielinjs ldz ar saimniecbu ekonomisk lieluma pieaugumu. Tomr
tas nebija identisks dadas specializcijas saimniecbs. Ldz
2006. gadam ieskaitot algot darbaspka patsvars piena lopkopbas
saimniecbs bija augstks nek vidji Latvijas lauksaimniecb. Kop
2007. gad attiecba saglabjs viengi saimniecbs lielks par
40 ELV3. das izmaias radja gan algot darbaspka patsvara
pieaugums vidji lauksaimniecb, gan ar t samazinjuma piena
lopkopb. Analizjam perioda pirmajos piecos gados jauktaj lopkopb
algoto darbaspku izmantoja mazks nek piena lopkopb. Tomr
3 ELV Eiropas lieluma vienba

turpmkajos gados jaukts lopkopbas saimniecbu atsevis grups
situcija mainjs uz pretjo. Proti, 2007. gad tas bija vrojams
saimniecbs virs 40 ELV, 2008. gad saimniecbs virs 8 ELV, bet
2009. gad saimniecbs no 4 ldz 40 ELV.
Latvijas piena lopkopb vidjais algot darbaspka patsvars
kopjos darbaspka resursos prsniedza ES rdtju, tomr starpba ar
katru gadu kuva arvien mazk izteikta: ja 2002. gad tie bija 50, tad
2008. gad tikai 10 procentpunktu (6. tab.). Daji tas ir izskaidrojams ar
diametrli pretjiem procesiem laika gait Latvijas saimniecbs algot
darbaspka nozme saruka (visbtiskk saimniecbs no 4 ldz 8 ELV,
vismazk virs 100 ELV), bet ES arvien vairk pieauga. Gan Latvij, gan ES
algot darbaspka patsvars palielinjies ldz ar saimniecbas ekonomisk
lieluma pieaugumu, bet Latvij tas joprojm bija ievrojami lielks. Ja ES
saimniecbs virs 100 ELV is rdtjs bija no 30 ldz 47 %, tad Latvijas
saimniecbs 95 100 % robes.
6. tabula
Algot darbaspka patsvars kopjos darbaspka resursos
dada ekonomisk lieluma Latvijas un ES piena lopkopbas
saimniecbs 2002. 2008. gad4
(autoru aprini, izmantojot (10.;16.) datus)

Vidji
< 4 4 < 8 8 < 16 16 < 40 40 < 100 >= 100
Latvija 0,60 0,03 0,57 0,34 0,93 1,00 1,00
2002
ES 0,10 0,01 0,01 0,03 0,07 0,30
Latvija 0,35 0,00 0,26 0,58 0,72 0,93 1,00
2003
ES 0,12 0,00 0,02 0,03 0,08 0,33
Latvija 0,33 0,09 0,21 0,32 0,66 0,93 1,00
2004
ES 0,14 0,01 0,01 0,03 0,03 0,09 0,42
Latvija 0,32 0,08 0,14 0,38 0,70 0,93 1,00
2005
ES 0,14 0,02 0,01 0,02 0,04 0,09 0,42
Latvija 0,31 0,06 0,07 0,28 0,63 0,90 0,99
2006
ES 0,15 0,01 0,01 0,02 0,04 0,10 0,44
Latvija 0,24 0,00 0,05 0,24 0,45 0,76 0,95
2007
ES 0,13 0,01 0,06 0,07 0,07 0,12 0,45
Latvija 0,26 0,02 0,06 0,25 0,46 0,79 0,95
2008
ES 0,16 0,07 0,08 0,07 0,07 0,12 0,47
2008. Latvija 0,43 0,67 0,11 0,74 0,49 0,79 0,95
pret
1,60 8,00 7,00 2,33 1,71 1,57
2002. ES
4 Latvij 2007. un 2008. gad bija piena lopkopbas saimniecbas, kuras veidoja atseviu
ekonomisk lieluma grupu >= 250 ELV, tdjdi prvrot >=100 ELV grupu par 100
< 250 ELV. T k FADN datu bz vislielks saimniecbas veido ekonomisk lieluma grupu
>=100 ESU, tabul dati par saimniecbm virs 250 ELV netiek iekauti saldzinjuma
neiespjambas d.

Kaut gan abu valstu lauku saimniecbs ldz 40 ELV btisko
atirbu nebija, Igaunijas piena lopkopbas saimniecbs algot
darbaspka vidjais patsvars darbaspka resursos prsniedza 70 %, bet
Lietuv tas svrstjs 8 10 % robes (7. tab.). Tas liecina, ka Igaunijas
piena lopkopb domin lielas, bet Lietuv mazas un vidjas
saimniecbas. Analizjot rdtja izmaias hronoloisk griezum,
jatzm, ka algot darbaspka patsvars bija samazinjies Lietuvas lauku
saimniecbs no 8 ldz 40 ELV. Tas var liecint par lielku nealgot
darbaspka (saimniecbas panieka un imenes loceku) iesaisti un
noslodzi raoanas proces.
7. tabula
Algot darbaspka patsvars kopjos darbaspka resursos
Igaunijas un Lietuvas dada ekonomisk lieluma piena lopkopbas
saimniecbs 2004. 2008. gad

Gads Vidji
< 4 4 < 8 8 < 16 16 < 40 40 < 100 >=100
2004 0,74 0,03 0,13 0,43
2005 0,73 0,04 0,15 0,45 1,00
Igaunija
2006 0,71 0,04 0,06 0,38 0,82 1,00

2007 0,72 0,04 0,10 0,40 1,00
2008 0,73 0,01 0,12 0,48 0,82 1,00
Vidji 0,73 0,03 0,11 0,43 0,82 1,00
2004 0,08 0,01 0,04 0,25 0,54
2005 0,08 0,01 0,03 0,26 0,57
Lietuva
2006 0,06 0,01 0,01 0,13 0,38 0,63

2007 0,11 0,01 0,03 0,10 0,50
2008 0,10 0,02 0,03 0,09 0,47
Vidji 0,09 0,01 0,03 0,16 0,49

Darbaspka raguma analze
Vislielkais slaucamo govju skaits, rinot uz 1 LDV, bija vrojams
Piergas un Vidzemes, vismazkais Latgales piena lopkopbas
saimniecbs (8. tab.). Saldzinot ar vidjo lmeni valst, rdtjam Pierg
bija tendence pakpeniski izldzinties. Piemram, ja 2002. gad reiona
rdtjs prsniedza vidjo 1,9 reizes, tad kop 2004. gada prsniegums
veido jau tikai 1,1 1,3 reizes. Vidzem das svrstbas nebija vrojamas
un rdtjs vis analizjam perioda laik bija stabili 1,1 1,3 reizes
augstks par vidjo Latvij. Savukrt Latgal radtja izmaias iezmja
citu trendu, proti, 2002. gad slaucamo govju skaits uz 1 LDV bija
identisks vidjam, vlk tas ska neprtraukti sarkt ldz 60 % no vidj

2007. gad, kuram sekoja pakpenisks darbaspka noslodzes kpums
(2009. gad 78 % no vidj).
8. tabula
Slaucamo govju skaits, rinot uz 1 LDV, piena lopkopbas saimniecbs
Latvijas reionos 2002. 2009. gad

Vidji Pierga Vidzeme Latgale Kurzeme Zemgale V, %
2002 5,8 11,1 6,7 5,9 2,8 7,8 44
2003 6,0 11,0 6,1 5,9 5,1 6,1 35
2004 6,6 8,1 6,2 6,2 6,2 6,2 13
2005 6,6 7,9 7,6 4,4 6,3 6,3 21
2006 6,6 7,6 8,0 4,3 6,4 6,7 22
2007 6,3 8,5 8,3 3,8 7,1 3,6 38
2008 6,9 7,9 8,4 5,0 6,8 6,9 19
2009 6,8 8,1 8,7 5,3 6,2 6,3 21
Vidji 6,4 8,8 7,5 5,1 5,9 6,3
V, % 16 14 17 23 19

Lai novrttu slaucamo govju skaita uz 1 LDV (4. tab.) un algot
darbaspka patsvara kopjos darbaspka resursos (8. tab.) atkarbu
2002. 2009. gad no hronoloisk faktora (svrstbas pa gadiem) un
saimniecbas reionl izvietojuma, bija veikta divfaktoru dispersijas
analze (two factor ANOVA) un formultas hipotzes (1.,203.206.):

hronoloiskajam faktoram H0: 2002 = 2003 = = 2009
H1: visi i nav viendi
reionl izvietojuma faktoram H0: Pierga = Vidzeme = = Zemgale
H1: visi i nav viendi

No analzes rezulttiem (9. tab.) ar 95 % varbtbu var secint, ka
Latvijas piena lopkopbas saimniecbs slaucamo govju skaits uz 1 LDV
statistiski nozmgi neatrs hronoloiskaj (hipotzi Ho nav izdevies
noraidt), bet atrs reionlaj griezum (jo F > Fcrit). Savukrt algot
darbaspka patsvars bija statistiski nozmgi atirgs gan gadu, gan
reionu griezum.
9. tabula
Divfaktoru dispersijas analzes rezultti ( = 0,05)
(autoru aprini)

Rdtjs Faktors F Fcrit
Slaucamo govju skaits uz 1 Gadi 0,192 2,359
LDV Reionlais izvietojums 9,734 2,714
Algot darbaspka patsvars Gadi 3,990 2,359
kopjos darbaspka resursos Reionlais izvietojums 5,934 2,714

Dai autori (23.,18.) akcent raoanas tehnisks aprkotbas pau
nozmi lauksaimniecisks raoanas darba efektivittes celan. Citi
(8.,59.60.) ir prliecinti, ka darba ragums lauksaimniecb ir ciei
saistts gan ar ieguldjumiem tehniskaj nodroinjum, gan ar cilvku
kapitl. Pastv viedoklis (12.,59.60.; 14.,489.), ka lielku ragumu ir
iespjams sasniegt, veicot ieguldjumus tehniskaj nodroinjum vai
kpinot darba efektivitti. T ir tiei saistta ar zintniskitehnisko
progresu, kas rodas ar fizisk kapitla uzkranas rezultt (jaunu
iekrtu iegde un atbilstoas infrastruktras radana), mainot attiecbu
starp raoanas faktoriem par labu lielkai kapitlietilpbai un radot
prieknoteikumus darba efektivittes ilgtermia pieaugumam. Tomr tas
prasa cilvku kapitla uzkranu, proti, augsti kvalificto darbaspku un
investcijas darbinieku izgltb, lai vii btu spjgi strdt ar modernm
iekrtm. Ir atzts (5.,242.), ka saimniecbas darbaspka kvalifikciju liel
mr nosaka apmcbas, kuras organizja iepriekjais un pareizjais
darba devjs. Ar labk veselbas aizsardzbas sistma var dot zinmu
ieguldjumu darbinieku raguma paaugstinan.
Tehniskais progress un uzmuma ekonomisk efektivitte liel
mr ir atkargi no raoanas organizatorisks formas. paa loma aj
proces ir atvlta raoanas koncentrcijai, jo t ir jaudgks tehnikas,
progresvs tehnoloijas un labks darba organizcijas ievieanas
prieknoteikums. (20.,167.168.) Piemjas (imenes) lauku saimniecbas
ir sliktk nodrointas ar iekrtm un tehniku, k ar tajs praktiski
nepastv darba dalana, k rezultt ragums mdz bt zemks, nek
liels saimniecbs. D. Allen un D. Lueck (1998) nonca pie secinjuma, ka
piemjas (imenes) lauku saimniecbas turpins domint aramzemju
saimniecbu grup, jo tajs ir iespjams gt minimlo labumu no darba
specializcijas. (citts pc 11.,4.) emot vr, ka lopkopb, atirb no
augkopbas, ir iespjama darbaspka aurka specializcija (26.,54.), par
pamatotu jatzst viedoklis (11.,5.), ka liellopu audzanas sektor
dominjos bs lielas saimniecbas, kuras vinns uz raoanas
koncentranas rina.
Tomr statistiskie dati neapstiprina iepriek izteikt apgalvojuma
patiesumu Baltijas valstu piena lopkopbas sektor. Analizjot
darbaspka ragumu Latvijas saimniecbs attiecb pret ES vidjo
lmeni (10. tab.), var secint, ka, palielinoties saimniecbu lielumam,
atirba kst arvien izteiktka. Ja Latvijas saimniecbs ldz 16 ELV
ragums prsniedza vai bija viends ar vidjo ES lmeni, tad
saimniecbs virs 100 ELV t veidoja tikai vienu piektdau, situcijai
uzlabojoties 2007. un 2008. gad. No teikt izriet, ka Latvijas vidjs un
liels piena lopkopbas saimniecbs darbaspks tiek izmantots
ekstensvi, t efektivitte btiski atpaliek no ES vidj rdtja. Raoanas

koncentrcija, k ar mehanizcija un automatizcija ES nodroina
iespju kpint darbaspka ragumu daudz lielk mr, nek tas ir
iespjams Latvij.
10. tabula
Slaucams govis, rinot uz 1 LDV, dada ekonomisk lieluma
Latvijas piena lopkopbas saimniecbs
2002. 2008. gad attiecb pret ES vidjo lmeni5

Vidji
< 4 4 < 8 8 < 16 16 < 40 40 < 100 >= 100
2002 0,24 0,61 1,33 0,41 0,40 0,23
2003 0,25 1,14 0,88 0,88 0,44 0,21
2004 0,31 0,91 1,05 1,36 0,93 0,39 0,23
2005 0,30 1,01 1,08 1,25 0,83 0,37 0,22
2006 0,31 1,04 1,33 1,29 0,91 0,40 0,22
2007 0,38 1,07 1,09 1,09 0,85 0,49 0,41
2008 0,38 0,89 0,97 1,16 0,82 0,52 0,36

Analizjam perioda laik Latvijas vismazko piena lopkopbas
saimniecbu grup darbaspka noslodze saruka, saldzinot ar vidjo
nozar (11. tab.). Ja 2002. gad t veidoja 88 % no vidj lmea, tad
2009. gad tikai 37 %. Izsekojot noslodzei ekonomisko grupu griezum,
var konstatt, ka tai bija raksturga tendence pieaugt, sasniedzot
maksimumu (1,8 2 reizes lielku par vidjo nozar) saimniecbs no 16
ldz 40 ELV. Savukrt nkoajs pc lieluma saimniecbu grups t
samazinjs.
Tpat Baltijas kaimivalsts darbaspka vislielk noslodze bija
vrojama piena lopkopbas saimniecbs no 16 ldz 40 ELV, pirmaj viet
ierindojoties Lietuvai. Latvij o saimniecbu grupas ietvaros noslodze
veidoja 75 85 % no Lietuvas lmea un 89 104 % no Igaunijas lmea.
Ar prjs saimniecbu grups slaucamo govju skaits uz 1 LDV Lietuvas
saimniecbs bija lielks nek kaimivalsts. Vidji Latvijas piena
lopkopbas nozar slaucamo govju skaits uz 1 LDV bija no 91 % ldz
100 % no Lietuvas lmea un no 61 ldz 72 %, rinot attiecb pret
Igaunijas rdtjiem. Tas liecina, ka Lietuvas piena lopkopb, atirb no
Igaunijas, tomr domin ts saimniecbas, kurs slaucamo govju skaits uz
1 LDV mazk atiras no Latvijas rdtjiem.

5 Sk. 3. parindes atsauci.

11. tabula
Slaucams govis, rinot uz 1 LDV, Baltijas valstu dada ekonomisk lieluma
piena lopkopbas saimniecbs 2002. 2009. gad

Gads Vidji
< 4 4 < 8 8 < 16 16 < 40 40 < 100 >=100
2002 5,8 5,1 3,0 9,6 6,1 10,1 8,9
2003 6,0 3,6 5,3 6,7 13,2 11,3 8,3
2004 6,6 3,3 5,6 10,8 14,2 10,1 8,3
Latvija
2005 6,6 3,6 5,9 9,7 12,7 9,9 7,9

2006 6,6 3,1 6,0 9,7 13,5 10,4 7,9
2007 6,3 2,6 4,8 8,2 12,5 12,8 14,56
2008 6,9 3,1 5,0 9,1 12,5 13,9 13,0
2009 6,8 2,5 5,5 9,3 13,2 14,4 14,9
Vidji 6,4 3,4 5,1 9,1 12,2 11,6 10,5
2004 9,2 5,3 9,1 13,6
2005 9,3 5,3 9,3 13,8 10,0
Igaunija
2006 9,4 4,1 7,2 13,2 12,0 10,1

2007 10,4 4,5 7,4 13,8 11,6
2008 10,9 4,1 8,1 14,1 10,9 12,3
Vidji 9,8 4,7 8,2 13,7 11,5 11,0
2004 7,3 5,5 8,4 14,2 18,3
2005 7,0 4,9 8,8 14,2 15,6
Lietuva
2006 6,6 3,9 5,4 10,9 17,1 20,6

2007 6,9 4,0 5,2 12,0 14,7
2008 7,6 4,2 6,0 12,7 16,6
Vidji 7,1 4,5 6,8 12,8 16,5

Visaugstkais algot darbaspka patsvars bija Latvijas piena
lopkopbas saimniecbs Pierg un Vidzem, viszemkais Latgal un
Zemgal. Reionos, kur aktvi izmantoja algot darbaspka resursus,
patsvara svrstbas bija relatvi nelielas, liecinot par lauku saimniecbu
prdomtu politiku cilvkresursu vadbas jom. patsvars palielinjs
ldz ar saimniecbu ekonomisk lieluma pieaugumu un ldz 2006. gadam
ieskaitot piena lopkopbas saimniecbs tas bija augstks nek vidji
Latvijas lauksaimniecb. Kop 2007. gad attiecba saglabjs viengi
saimniecbs lielks par 40 ELV. Kaut ar Latvijas piena lopkopb
vidjais algot darbaspka patsvars kopjos darbaspka resursos
6 Latvij 2007. 2009. gad bija sevii piena lopkopbas saimniecbas, kuras veidoja
atseviu ekonomisk lieluma grupu >= 250 ELV, tdjdi prvrot >=100 ELV grupu par
100 < 250 ELV. ajos gados grup virs 250 ELV slaucamo govju, rinot uz 1 LDV, skaits
bija attiecgi 7,40; 8,75 un 10,97.

prsniedza ES rdtju, tomr starpba ar katru gadu kuva arvien
mazk izteikta. Igaunijas piena lopkopbas saimniecbs algot
darbaspka vidjais patsvars darbaspka resursos prsniedza 70 %, bet
Lietuv tas svrstjs 8 10 % robes.
Vislielkais slaucamo govju skaits, rinot uz 1 LDV, bija Piergas
un Vidzemes, vismazkais Latgales piena lopkopbas saimniecbs.
Atirb no Vidzemes Pierg darba ragumam bija tendence
pakpeniski izldzinties ar vidjo lmeni valst. Atirbas starp
darbaspka ragumu Latvijas un ES piena lopkopbas saimniecbs kuva
arvien izteiktks, palielinoties saimniecbu lielumam. Ja Latvijas
saimniecbs ldz 16 ELV ragums prsniedza vai bija vienda ar vidjo
ES lmeni, tad saimniecbs virs 100 ELV tas veidoja tikai vienu piektdau.
Ldz ar to Latvijas vidjs un liels saimniecbs darbaspks tika
izmantots ekstensvi un t efektivitte btiski atpalika no ES vidj
rdtja. Raoanas koncentrcija, k ar mehanizcija un automatizcija
ES nodroina iespju kpint darbaspka ragumu daudz lielk mr,
nek tas ir iespjams Latvij.
Divfaktoru dispersijas analzes (ANOVA) rezultt bija ar 95 %
varbtbu konstatts, ka Latvijas piena lopkopbas saimniecbs
slaucamo govju skaits uz 1 LDV statistiski nozmgi neatrs
hronoloiskaj, bet atrs reionlaj griezum. Savukrt algot
darbaspka patsvars bija statistiski nozmgi atirgs gan gadu, gan
reionu griezum.
Lai veicintu darba raguma pieaugumu Latvijas piena lopkopbas
saimniecbs, ir nepiecieama darbietilpgo raoanas procesu
mehanizcija un automatizcija, mazinot mazraga roku darba patsvaru,
k ar neprtraukta raoanas tehnoloiju, kuras ir orienttas uz resursu
taupgu izlietojumu, pilnveidoana. Nopietns rslis ce uz darba
raguma paaugstinanu ir piena lopkopbas saimniecbu mazs lielums
un nozares relatvi liela sadrumstalotba. To var prvart ar piena
lopkopbas saimniecbu cieku kooperciju un savstarpjo integrciju,
raoanas koncentrciju uz darba specializcijas un dalanas rina,
darba organizcijas prdomtu vadbu. Tpat saimniecbm ir oti aktvi
jizmanto ieguldjumu subsdijas raoanas bzes paplainanai un
atjaunoanai, kuras var paldzt inovciju ievieanai lauksaimnieciskaj
raoan.
Raksta ierobeotais apjoms liedza iespju veikt padziintu un
vispusgu darba raguma un t ietekmjoo faktoru analzi Latvijas piena
lopkopbas saimniecbs. Tam ir nepiecieams veltt turpmkos
ptjumus, pau uzmanbu pievros ES progresvs pieredzes
premanas iespjm un raoanas koncentrcijas pozitv efekta uz
darba ragumu Latvijas lauku saimniecbs veicinanai.

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20. , . .
.
. 2010. Nr. 3 (24), . 167172.
21. , . ., , . .
.
. 2008. Nr. 12, . 6670.
22. , . .
. .: XXI :
. . :
, 2011., . 121124.
23. , . .
.
. 2010. Nr. 2, . 1722.
24. , . .
. .:
.
, 1. : , 2005., . 207210.
25. , . ., , . .
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. ,
4. : , 2009., . 193196.
26. , . .
. . 2009. Nr. 3, . 5356.
27. , . .

. . . . .
, 2010. 22 .
28. , . : .
. 2006. Nr. 1, c. 16.
Summary
Over the last 5 years the number of people employed in Latvian agriculture
and hunting was low and relatively stable, ranging from 1.10 % in 2008 to 1.26 % in
2005. Although the statistical data reveal that the proportion of gross added value
created by agriculture, hunting and fishing sectors in Latvia is higher by 1.8 to 2.4
percent points compared to the average level in the EU. It means that these sectors

are still playing a more significant role in the development of Latvian economy than
in other regions of the EU.
Various factors have a large impact on the productivity of labour in agriculture.
For instance, the use of current technology and technique, the organization of
production, the intensity of land cultivation and the potential of available labour
force. Some researchers argue that the productivity of labour depends on the
scientific progress as well as the introduction of technological breakthrough in
practice. This opinion is wellgrounded as an output is the result of interaction
between the human labour and other productive factors (equipment, raw materials
and electricity). Therefore both technology and labour force are prerequisites of
sustainable economic growth.
There is a lack of consensus on evaluation methods of operating effectiveness
of livestock breeding farms. Some experts suppose that labour productivity is the best
parameter, which should be emphasized amidst other ratios, due to its integral nature
and ability to feature several aspects of livestock breeding farm activities (for
instance, technological labourintensity and scientific progress). However, others
argue that the effectiveness can not be assessed using one definite parameter or ratio.
Consequently the integral model of parameters evaluating the balance of material,
labour and financial resources as well as profitability has to be developed.
In agricultural economics the productivity of labour is usually measured as the
proportion of production output (in natural or financial units of measurement) to the
input (hours, number of workers or average work units, hereinafter AWU).
Sometimes the output is expressed as gross or net added value, profit or sales. In
some research projects dealing with the dairy sector, the productivity of labour is
measured in hours spent on cow milking or workers salary and other labour
expenses per cow. In this paper the productivity of labour in a farm is defined as a
number of cows per AWU.
The highest proportion of paid labour in total amount of labour resources was
in Greater Riga and Vidzeme regions, the lowest one in Latgale and Zemgale. As the
fluctuations of proportion were insignificant, it was indicative of farms well
developed approach to planning and using of labour resources in longterm
perspective. The most significant differences between farms in different regions of
Latvia were noted in 2004 and 2005; the most homogenous structure of paid and
unpaid labour was in 2002 and 2008. The positive correlation between the economic
size of farms and the paid labour proportion was unveiled: the larger were dairy
farms the higher was the paid labour proportion. Compared to the average level in
Latvian agriculture the paid labour proportion in dairy farms was higher until the
year 2006, since then it has been the case for farms of economic size above 40 ESU.
The average proportion of paid labour in Latvian dairy farms was higher than
on average in the EU. Nevertheless this difference diminished over the years if in
2002 it was 50, then in 2008 just 10 percent points. The divergence of labour force
usage in Latvia and the EU could partly explain the above mentioned approximation.
In Latvia significance and amount of paid labour has decreased (the most remarkable
drop took place in farms of economic size from 4 to 8 ESU, the least considerable one
was observed for farms above 100 ESU), while in the EU it increased. The proportion
of paid labour in Estonian and Lithuanian dairy farms below 40 ESU was similar, even
though in Estonian diary sector the average proportion of paid labour was above
70 %, in Lithuanian sector it fluctuated in the range 8 % to 10 %.

The largest number of cows per AWE was observed in Greater Riga and
Vidzeme regions, the smallest one in Latgale. Compared to the average level in the
country, the labour productivity in Greater Riga demonstrated gradual decrease (in
2002 the regional productivity exceeded the average level by 1.9, but since 2004 by
just 1.1 1.3 times). In Vidzeme these fluctuations did not take place and during the
analyzed period regional productivity was constantly 1.1 1.3 times higher than the
average one in Latvia.
To evaluate the dependence of labour productivity and proportion of paid
labour in total labour resources in regional (location in different regions of Latvia)
and chronological (different years within the analysed period 2002 to 2009) factors,
the twofactor ANOVA was performed. The conclusion was made with the probability
of 95 % that there were significant differences between labour productivity in dairy
farms located within different regions. Moreover, the proportion of paid labour in
dairy farms within various regions and years was dissimilar too.
In literature the opinion is given regarding positive effect of the production
concentration on labour productivity and productive costs. It is argued that the
specialisation of labour and production is more likely to occur in livestock breeding
farms than in crop farming. Thus the most prospective and economically justified
form of production is supposed to be large dairy farms. However, the data on labour
productivity in dairy farms in the Baltic States did not support the theory of
production concentration.
Disproportion between the labour productivity on dairy farms in Latvia and
the EU was more considerable in the large farms. If in Latvian farms below 16 ESU the
productivity was similar or even exceeded the one in the EU, in farms above 100 ESU
it was just 20 % of the latter. The conclusion can be drawn that in the mediumto
large and the large Latvian dairy farms the labour force was used extensively and its
workload was below the average EU level. It means that the benefit of production
concentration is not used in Latvia on the same scale as in the EU. A similar situation
was observed in Estonia and Lithuania where the highest labour productivity was in
farms of economic size from 16 to 40 ESU. Lithuanian farms demonstrated the largest
workload of labour force in the Baltic States. In Latvian farms of the same size the
labour productivity was 75 % 85 % of the Lithuanian level and 89 % 104 % of the
Estonian level.
Further more detailed research into causes of the revealed significant
differences and disparities between Latvian regions, Latvia in general and the EU
dairy sectors should be done with special attention being paid to factors affecting
labour productivity on the microeconomic and macroeconomic levels.


CLUSTER APPROACH IN THE TOURISM BUSINESS
KLASTERA PIEEJAS IZMANTOANA TRISMA
UZMJDARBB
Iveta DEMBOVSKA
Mg.oec., Lecturer in the Faculty of Economics and Management
Rezekne Higher Education Institution
Phone: +371 26674855, email: iveta.zaluksne@inbox.lv
Rzekne, Latvia
Inese SILICKA
Mg.soc.sc., Lecturer in the Faculty of Economics and Management
Rezekne Higher Education Institution
Phone: +371 29467160, email: isilicka@inbox.lv
Rzekne, Latvija

Abstract. One of the approaches to development of the tourism industry at the regional
level, based of market rules and principles are creation and development of tourism
clusters. Clusters span numerous different companies, contribute to more efficient
solution of socioeconomic problems in the country as a whole, and in certain regions.
Clusters centre around different companies, which have not cooperated in the past, to
encourage their development. The cluster approach should make radical changes to
content of the tourism development policy; it means that there is a need to promote and
develop the system of relationships between economic operators and the national
authorities rather to support individual companies or industries. Practically it enables
creation and implementation of large transsectoral and interregional investment and
innovation projects.
Keywords: Cluster, regional competitiveness of tourism cluster, tourism cluster.

Introduction
During the last decades, attention to tourism as a specific form of
socioeconomic relations both in individual countries and in the world as
a whole is steadily growing. Under globalisation conditions when
intercommunication between nations and regions is constantly
expanding, economic development problems of individual nations exceed
the separate national boundaries.
Topicality of the research: level of economic development of the national
tourism industry and analysis of socioeconomic situation in Latgale, and
the need for an innovative approach to deal with the complex problems
of the crisis period, forms the basis for use of organisation of the tourism
business cluster in the region of Latgale.
The methods applied: systemic and comparative analysis of
theoretical concepts and methodology, monographic, logically
constructive method.

Goal of the paper: to perform a study on possibilities to use the cluster
approach for the tourism business.
The following objectives are set to attain the goal:
1. To analyze concept of cluster and tourism cluster.
2. To carry out an analysis of the importance of tourism cluster in
the regional economy.
3. To carry out an analysis of the foreign experience in creation
and development of clusters in the tourism business.
4. To examine Latvia's cluster experience and to draw up
proposals for the creation of the tourism business.
1. Place and importance of the tourism cluster in the regional
economy
The term cluster is a polysemantic notion denotating more a form
of phenomenon (group, collection), but not the content (15).
The Database of Academic terms AkadTerm provides 7
explanations to the notion of cluster and one of them is that the notion
of cluster is a group of objects with a particular set of features (14).
According to the general scientific interpretation a cluster is a
collection of several uniform elements, which can be viewed as an
independent unit with certain characteristics.
In the science of Economics, the notion cluster for the first time was
introduced by an American scientist Michael Porter. Porter defines
clusters as concentration of interrelated companies and institutions in a
geographical region, to resolve either individual sectoral problems, or
transsectoral problems (10).
M. Porter believes that it is a group of companies located in the
same region and being mutual related (suppliers, producers, et al.), and
coordinating their cooperation with the national and local authorities,
educational institutions, managers of the objects of infrastructure,
working in a particular industry and which activities are governed by a
joint action programme.
Clusters are covering a large number of different companies from
the product manufacturers and service providers, suppliers of dedicated
equipment, new technologies, materials, complementary and
replacement goods to undertakings providing infrastructure. In some
developed countries, clusters also include national authorities,
educational establishments, standardization centres, different
associations that provide specialized training and technical support,
information and research. Cluster contributes to more effective solution
of social and economic problems in the country as a whole and in certain
regions.

In accordance with studies of Economists having examined the
cluster definitions, such as Martin and Sunley (5), Fernandes (4),
Rosnfeld (8), Flowers and Easterling (3), Simmie (9), clusters are a direct
path to innovations, geographical concentration enables the companies
to work with greater efficiency, promoting creation of new types of
companies. Participants of the cluster have access to the cluster
information providing assistance in training of qualified staff increasing
the level of education for the population. Consequently, the cluster could
be described as a means to improve competitiveness in the region.
While most of the authors define the concept of a cluster in respect
of traditional sectors, it can be applied also in the tourism sector. This is
because the tourist satisfaction depends not only from attraction of the
area, but also from quality and operational efficiency of hotels,
restaurants, shopping centres, and transport infrastructure.
There are several definitions of a tourism cluster. Equally to the
netting, the clusters are a group of tourism companies with a purpose is
to promote, to encourage and to support development and use of
knowledge in the management. The aim of tourism cluster is to enhance
competitiveness of the partners involved through their cooperation and
interaction, by providing common learning and exchange of knowledge
(19).
Research of Professor Joao Matos Ferreira (18) (Portugal)
proposes several definitions, including those provided by M. Beni (1).
M. Beni defines a tourism cluster as a set of tourism objects, which are
concentrated in a limited geographical area with facilities and the quality
of services, collective responsibility, social and political coherence, work
coordination and cultural associations with excellent management of the
cluster of companies, resulting in comparative and competitive
advantages (1).
There are no significant differences between definitions of the
cluster of general nature and the tourism cluster, as was concluded in the
research by Prof. Ferreira. Whereas studies of the tourism cluster
concept are few, great interest is displayed by conceptual model of the
tourism cluster presented by Prof. J. Ferreira (18). According to the
authors opinion, his model fills a gap in research and it can be used in
regions.
The model displays an interactive system of tourism, which is in a
dynamic equilibrium and depends on the harmony of three basic
components: the tourism product, which consists of resources and
tourist attractions; the tourism destination and the tourism cluster.
Where the first two components of the related system are operating
efficiently, the tourism cluster also functions productively.

The model displays decisive factors being of particular importance
to the tourism cluster, elements such as companies and agents, which are
combined thus supporting themselves on the market by means of
internal competition strategy between organisations, as well as by means
of external competition strategy with other tourism clusters.
In the model proposed by Ferreira the main feature is interaction
of components in order to ensure competitiveness. In addition, according
to the authors opinions, namely competitiveness is a key element in
order the cluster to achieve success. The model takes into account not
only the governments role in defining the policy that affects
competitiveness of the cluster, but also in ensuring the tourism products
and services, emphasizes the role of universities (higher education
institutions) as importance of the main strategic participant in studies of
development, innovation and differentiation, as well as education and
training of human resources.
The most important variables for competitiveness of the tourism
cluster are attitudes and perceptions, which affects also development of
the region. In Figure 1 (18), Prof. Ferreira presented a conceptual model
of the tourism cluster, which provides regional competitiveness.
In order to ensure overall quality of the tourism products, each
element of the introduced tourism cluster model is cooperating with
others, determining competitiveness of the cluster.
In opinion of the authors, Prof. Ferreira most completely takes into
account the factors and their interactions in the tourism cluster model.
Taking into account international experience in formation and
development of clusters, this approach could be used for development of
the tourism cluster model in the region of Latgale.
2. Foreign experience in formation and development of
clusters
When analyzing the global experience for organization of clusters,
it should be noted that there are two approaches to formation of a cluster
(21):
In 8090ies M. Porter (11) has proposed classic liberal approaches
based on the open market, which is a selfregulation of economic
players. Such mechanisms have no direct government intervention
and/or aid.
Contemporary European approach called competitiveness pole,
which has been developed in France (13) from 2006, and based on the
partnership between business, government and local authorities. The
state has its interest in global competitiveness of economics and to reach
the world level with competitiveness pole, expressed in the form of

providing different types of state aid. Such support is granted by
implementation of the territorial development policy.
In opinion of the authors, it is appropriate to use the experience of
other countries having a long standing history in formation and
development of clusters. In this respect, very close to Latvia is the
experience of Finland the country, which has more than once been at
leading positions of the World Economic Forum studies the prospective
competitiveness index (Growth Competitiveness Index), and the current
competitiveness index (Business Competitiveness Index).
In Finland during the time period from 1991 to 1993, using the
theory of Porter, a series of largescale studies was carried out, which
was published in 1995 under the title Advantage Finland The Future of
Finnish Industries (12). This study has analysed the structure, described
trends and evaluated competitiveness prospects of the Finnish cluster.
Idea of the cluster approach seemed very attractive to the public, this
approach was included in training materials for economic institutions,
programs, as well as in training courses for managers and officials,
making the cluster approach to micro and macroeconomic processes
as analytical tool to officials and leaders at all levels (12)
Finnish economists took as the basis the Porters diamond model,
which was supplemented in the light of actual conditions in the country,
and the global economic processes.
Finnish scientists have established the final product characteristics
of the industrial sector of international competitiveness, combined in
clusters: by exceeding in this sector their product share of the global
market, compared to the states total global trade share, and production
exports in the industry are exceeding imports. The potential
competitiveness was fixed in cases when the rate of increase, sales
volume, profits and investments, as well as labour productivity in the
said sector are above the average global indicator of level in the sector
(12).


Figure 1. Structure of Prof. Ferreiras tourism cluster model (20).

When developing the prospective tourism cluster in Latgale these
theses are very important in respect of the sectoral exports exceeding
imports, confirming the need to concentrate efforts on the incoming
tourism.

As shown by the Finnish experience, it is important to realize that
key factors for competitiveness of contemporary cluster are highly
advanced transsectoral links, as well as participation of scientific and
educational establishments. Therewith conditions of business
cooperation are dictated by the market, and establishment of a system of
training of qualified personnel and the national innovations is impossible
without participation of the state.
From the point of view of Finnish scientists, the most important
elements of the cluster, such as health care and business service clusters
(these are clusters that are comparable to tourism, customeroriented),
will be continuous innovations, as well as increasing domestic and
external demand.
Organisational elements of cluster can be viewed from example of
the Finnish water tourism Saimaa Holiday, which brings together nine
different types of service providers at the shores of Saimaa lake with
Linnansaari and Kolovesi national parks. The main activity is
concentrated in two areas, each on their own shore of the lake, and in
two different communities. Already for nine years operators were active
in the status of officially registered association.
The main cooperation is going on in business planning, marketing
and joint sales of a variety of related products. Canoe trips, a village of
holiday houses, restaurant, equipment hire, small shop and tour
programs are offered at a single point of sale. Even though activities
belong to different operators, for tourists it is not important, what is the
particular business structure and to whom it belongs. A customer selects
the services, guided by their own interest, and demand for combined
marketing efforts has increased a number of times. While water tourism
Saimaa Holiday network is of a small scale, this business model
demonstrates viability, growth and efforts to reduce the impact of
seasonality.
From the authors point of view, interesting and encouraging
experience is development of the Egyptian tourism cluster. A brief
overview of the history and the conditions laid down in this African
country is reflected in the study Cluster Initiatives in Developing and
Transition Economies (2). Quoting this study, you can see the
importance of tourism cluster development for the national and regional
economy:
TOURISM IN EGYPT: COMPETITIVENESS STRATEGY FOR
DEVELOPMENT OF LABOUR FORCE
Issue. In Egypt the tourism industry plays a vital role in the
economic growth. In 1999 USAID has launched its Workforce
Development Initiative project. In 1999 the tourism sector employed

more than 14% from the Egyptian labour force, however, only some of
the employees had sufficient skills or knowledge required by their
employers. In fact, companies other than the international hotel chains
paid no attention to training of their employees. In addition, Egyptian
universities and educational establishments primarily implemented the
officiallyformalized training programs that were very poorly connected
with practical requirements of the sector. As a result, tourists arrived in
Egypt to see the pyramids and other historical monuments, but rarely
returned, partly because of a poor quality services they received. In the
face of strong competition from other tourist destinations, in order for
Egypt to be competitive in the future, it has started to understand the
need to offer more than just its historic sites. The tourism industry must
be staffed with highly skilled workforce.
Providing support to the project initiative, which was based on the
principles and methods of cluster and which was a starting point for the
cluster initiative, the parties involved met together with the participation
of: private sector managers (representing hotels and accommodation,
restaurants, travel agencies, guidebook organisations, attractions, et al.),
industry and business associations, providers of education and training
and government representatives. Stakeholders critically reviewed the
tourism sector, examined the strengths and weaknesses with special
emphasis on the competitiveness of labour force in the sector.
Implementation of the project. The team at USAID (US Government
Agency for International Development) quickly discovered that it was
hard to find local professionals who can organize practical training in the
industry. As a result, the main idea of the strategy was the ability to
implement vocational training, which from the Egyptian employers point
of view would become a relevant and appropriate support. The project
was targeted at 24 star hotels (since these hotels provide jobs for more
than 100,000 people, and in fact do not train them). Based on the model
developed by the American Hotel & Lodging Association, nine mobile
principal trainers of hospitality were prepared for training of the
project staff. These principal trainers conducted training for hotels within
one area at the same time, in order to increase the impact of the strategy
and to demonstrate the results to the hotel owners and managers, which
turned out to be important in order to succeed. District after district, they
systematically went through seven Egyptian administrative regions to
arrange the training of trainers courses. Original aim of the project was
to train 2000 service staff of 24 star hotels. Two years later this goal was
exceeded by more than 300 percent, in total 9755 people were trained,
including 8577 employees, 1156 hotel managers. In addition to the huge
number of trained people, specific proposals were provided to owners

and hotel managers how to increase revenues, to reduce costs and to
improve invariability and morale of the staff. As results from the cluster's
strategic planning process, important links were created between the
tourism enterprises and the tourism practical trainers, which allowed
for the project to provide training, which is practical, easy to apply, and
directed towards requirements of Egyptian tourism enterprises through
involvement of the private sector (hotel owners and managers) at every
stage (12).
When commenting the said example, from the authors point of
view it is necessary to take into account the importance of the role of
leaders who can combine and coordinate the process of the formation of
clusters, with participation of the government representatives, as well as
the importance of vocational training.
When analyzing the foreign experience, without a doubt it is
reasonable to have a look at the neighbours (Russian) experience where
the cluster approach in managing the tourism business is becoming
increasingly practised on a large scale. With the Russian Government's
decision to develop a tourist and recreational cluster in the North
Caucasus, this decision indirectly confirms conclusions by the author
about application of this method in the regional development. It is very
important that the cluster scales allow talking about some kind of
breakthrough such projects as the North Caucasus tourism and
recreation cluster could double the regional GDP (22). The Russian
project requires significant investments: 450 billion rubles
( 11,700,000,000), including 60 billion rubles ( 1,560,000,000)
provided as a state aid (22). Taking into account that more than 80,000
people at the age of working capacity need employment, priority for the
country is that 100,000 people will work in the cluster (22). In
accordance with Mr. Khloponin, representative of President of the
Russian Federation in the North Caucasus Federal District, words (23) ...
the main idea of the project to create a network of ski resorts according
to the publicprivate partnership model. Despite of significant difference
for situation in the North Caucasus region of Russia and the Latgale
region in Latvia, the regions have common problems: high level of
unemployment and socioeconomic development lagging behind. From
the authors' point of view, the publicprivate partnership model is the
best way to enhance the development level of Latgale region.
3. Experience of Latvian clusters
Latvia still has very little experience in organization of clusters. In
the authors opinion, scientists and practitioners have not given proper
attention to the topic of clusters.

According to studies of some researchers, unequal regional
development determines that only the Riga region is really competitive,
and this factor impedes the development of clusters. Thus authors of the
research Role of clusters in developing the competitiveness of the
regions of Latvia write: If economic development and competitiveness
of Latvian statistical regions are analysed by the methodology given by
the World Economic Forum, the only Latvian region that can be viewed
as a competitive one on the global market is Riga region which is at the
transition stage to the innovationdriven one. All the rest of the territory
of Latvia is at the efficiencydriven stage; consequently its
competitiveness on the global market is relatively low (16).
According to conclusions of the research Role of clusters in
developing the competitiveness of the regions of Latvia, effective cluster
operation is possible, it seems doubtful, that only at the innovation stage
of economic development at least in the tourism sector. As
demonstrated by results of determining the role of clusters in
competitiveness of a region, clusters usually develop only in competitive
regions, usually located in the innovation stage, further increasing their
competitiveness, that is becoming a factor in the competitiveness of these
regions, but in other regions the clusters are indicators of
competitiveness, suggesting that the region has just reached the
threshold level of competitiveness (16).
In the authors opinion, the authors are making a fundamental
mistake by assuming that the cluster development is possible for highly
developed economies, but the authors think that clusters can be simple
tools with which economic situation in the region can be changed in a
positive way.
Final conclusion of the research is that only the Riga region has a
real competitive capacity, as to the whole other Latvias territory, which
is at the efficiencydriven stage and is far behind Riga, it has to find other
instruments which would raise its competitiveness for example,
augmentation of industrial productivity, thus creating the background
for the formation and development of clusters, which in their turn would
encourage further improvement of the territory. However, for the time
being clusters may not be factors to increase competitiveness of the
Vidzeme, Kurzeme, Zemgale and Latgale regions, due to the level of
development of Latvias peripheral areas, because effective clusters
cannot be created in such economic and social environment (19).
However, the mere fact that the research has been made on promotion of
the cluster competitiveness in Latvia's regions, can be considered a
positive development in the regional policy issues and a change in the
researchers attitude.

Analysis of tourism clusters in Latvia is not profoundly studied,
although some attention has been paid to this problem, in such an
important document that determines the development of the tourism
industry, The Latvian Tourism Marketing Strategy 20102015. Section
Development of Latvia's tourism product has recognized the role of
clusters in the development of tourism in Latvia: According to the
strategies of focusing and deep penetration, the formation of tourism
products and the promotion of a certain tourism destination is a regional
scale development of the tourism sector and promoting its
competitiveness at the international level. By a tourism cluster we
understand a group of tourism service providers, organizations and
institutions (suppliers, service providers, local governments, tourism
organizations, education establishments), which creates synergies
through an efficient and concerted functioning in a certain geographical
location, thus not only enhancing the competitiveness of each individual
member of the group, but also the satisfaction of the end user the
visitor. A cluster also promotes mutual positive competition among the
members of the group, thus increasing quality and productivity and
facilitating innovations (20).
Fully supporting the position of authors of this strategic document
with regard to the importance of clusters for regions, the authors
observation is that in this document a cluster is not considered to be key
instrument by means of which it is possible to radically improve the
situation in regions. It may be inferred from the following example
provided in the document: for the tourism cluster Sigulda and the vicinity
of Sigulda tourists are guaranteed attractions and activities for winter
and summer seasons, and the required services (accommodation,
catering, transport, guides, souvenirs etc.). Tourism companies in Sigulda
cooperate by offering a joint discount card Siguldas Spieis (Sigulda
Walking Stick) and by packaging the tourist offer (e.g., skiing +
accommodation + SPA services). Thus they seek to ensure that visitors
stay longer and are provided a full scale service. The Sigulda TIC
functions as a coordinator, organizer, and initiator and implementer of
activities for marketing the destination (20). In the authors opinion,
cooperation of Sigulda tourism businesses is not a full cluster, but we can
talk about elements of Sigulda clusterization, which in itself is a positive
phenomenon. In order to improve competitiveness and innovation in
Latvia, discussions have been recently started with regard to
development of the territory's economy and clusters as a national
priority. However, Latvia expressed its support for the European Cluster
Memorandum, indicating that the clusters are important factors for
raising of capital, people and knowledge.

As mentioned by Prof. Tatyana Volkova in her work Potential for
development of clusters in Latvia (17), a necessity to establish clusters
in Latvia is mentioned in the National Development Plan, Industrial
Development Guidelines of Latvia for 20042013 and in Latvia's National
Lisbon Programme 20052008. The Ministry of Economy in 2007
entered into collaborative agreements with the relevant organisations
with regard to elaboration of development strategies for the Forest
cluster, Furniture Manufacturing and related sectors (industries) cluster,
Metalworking and related sectors (industries) cluster, Biofuels and
related sectors (industries) cluster, Food Production and related sectors
(industries) cluster, Textile and related sectors (industries) cluster,
Information Systems cluster, Pharmaceutical and related sectors
(industries) cluster, Electronics and related sectors (industries) cluster.
For example, the Latvian IT cluster is successfully functioning since 2001
with a view to promote cooperation among IT companies and related
organisations in order to increase competitiveness of IT enterprises on
the international markets. Development of activities of other clusters is
also successful, but the need to create new clusters still remains topical,
especially in the service sector, and to strengthen their competitiveness.
Latvia has a great potential to develop clusters in creative industries,
which are rapidly growing in Europe and in the world. Leading
associations, organizations of these industries should take initiative in
the creation of such clusters.
Conclusions and proposals
1. Although most authors define the notion of cluster in relation to
traditional sectors, it is possible to apply it also to the tourism
sector. This is because the tourist satisfaction depends not only on
attractiveness of the site, but also on quality and operational
efficiency of hotels, restaurants, shopping centres, and transport
infrastructure.
2. According to the authors opinions, Prof. Ferreira most perfectly
takes account of factors and their interactions in the tourism
cluster model. In the light of international experience in formation
and development of clusters, this approach could be used for
development of the tourism cluster model in the region of Latgale.
3. According to the authors' opinion, it is appropriate to use
experience from other countries, having a long history of formation
and development of clusters. According to the conducted research,
Finnish experience is very close to Latvia for competitiveness of
contemporary cluster, significant factors are highly developed
intersectoral links, as well as participation of scientific and

educational establishments. Consequently, conditions for business
cooperation are dictated by the market, as well as training of
qualified personnel and creation of national innovation system is
not possible without participation of the state.
Bibliography
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http://mpra.ub.unimuenchen.de/14853/1/MPRA_paper_14853.pdf Model
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Kopsavilkums
Rakst izvirzt aktualitte ir tas, ka valsts trisma nozares ekonomikas
attstbas lmenis un Latgales socili ekonomisks situcijas analze nosaka, ka
vajadzga novatoriska pieeja, lai risintu krzes perioda sarets problmas, un tas
veido pamatu izmantot trisma uzmjdarbbas klastera organizanu Latgales
reion.
Rakst izptts, ka lielk daa autoru defin klastera jdzienu attiecb uz
tradicionlm nozarm, tau to ir iespjams piemrot ar trisma nozar. Tas ir td,
ka tristu apmierintba ir atkarga ne tikai no vietas pievilcbas, bet ar no viesncu,
restornu, iepirkans centru, transporta infrastruktras kvalittes un darbbas
efektivittes.
Izvrtjot dadu autoru piedvtos klastera veidoanas modeus, autori
secina, ka prof. Ferreira vispilngk em vr faktorus un to mijiedarbbu trisma
klastera model. emot vr starptautisko pieredzi klasteru veidoan un attstb, o
pieeju vartu izmantot Latgales reiona trisma klastera modea izstrd.
Pc autoru domm, ir lietdergi izmantot citu valstu pieredzi, kam ir sena
vsture klasteru veidoan un attstb. Pc veikt ptjuma, Latvijai ir oti tuva
Somijas pieredze msdienu klastera konkurtspjai btisks faktors ir augsti
attsttas starpnozaru saiknes, k ar zintnes un izgltbas iestu ldzdalba. Ldz ar
to uzmumu sadarbbas nosacjumus dikt tirgus, k ar kvalificta personla
apmcba un valsts inovciju sistmas izveide nav iespjama bez valsts ldzdalbas.
Lai ievrojami palielintu trisma nozmgumu un ietekmi uz valsts
iedzvotju dzves lmeni un kvalitti ne tikai valst kopum, bet ar atsevios t
reionos, ir nepiecieams stenot btiskas izmaias trisma un atptas vadbas jom,
gan valsts, gan reionl lmen.

Klasteru analze trism Latvij praktiski nav dzii ptta, lai gan zinma
uzmanba ai problmai ir pievrsta, piemram, td svarg dokument, kas nosaka
trisma industrijas attstbu Latvijas trisma mrketinga stratija 2010.
2015.gadam.
Ptjum pielietots metodes: teortisko koncepciju un metodoloiju
sistmiska un saldzinoa analze, monogrfisk, loiskikonstruktv metode.


RENTABILITTES ANALZE
ANALYSIS OF PROFITABILITY
Biruta GARANA
Dr.oec., asoc. prof., vado ptniece
Rzeknes Augstskola, Reionlistikas zintniskais institts
Tlrunis: +371 29114989, epasts: gabi@parks.lv
Rzekne, Latvija

Abstract. In order to make a deeper analysis of the influencing factors of profitability
on the basis of the data from annual reports, in a situation when there is a possibility of
choosing between the profit or loss calculation methods, there is a need of another
profitability index profitability of the basic activity. Calculation formulas of the profit
of the basic activity according to the indexes of the method of turnover cost and the
method of payment for the period have been worked out. The article illustrates the
application of both the formulas to the business in Latvia as a whole and specifically in
Latgale on the basis of annual report for 2010.
Keywords: commercial profitability, economic profitability, financial profitability,
method of payment for the period, profitability of the basic activity, turnover cost
method.

Ievads
Komercsabiedrbas var izvlties veikt peas vai zaudjumu
aprinu vai nu pc apgrozjuma izmaksu vai perioda izmaksu metodes.
Apgrozjuma izmaksu metode auj aprint vienu no svargkiem
rentabilittes rdtjiem bruto peas rentabilitti, kas atspoguo
prdots produkcijas ienesgumu. Ja cita komercsabiedrba peu vai
zaudjumus rina pc perioda izmaksu metodes, nevar saldzint abu
komercsabiedrbu ienesgumu no darbbas, kuras veikanai ts dibintas
un funkcion. Rodas nepiecieamba izveidot tdu ienesguma rdtju,
kuru vartu aprint pc abm metodm un kas atspoguotu
komercsabiedrbas pamatdarbbas finansilo rezulttu. Tas savukrt
autu veikt plaku rentabilitti ietekmjoo faktoru analzi.
Mris izstrdt pamatdarbbas rentabilittes aprina formulas
un rentabilitti ietekmjoo faktoru analzes metodiku, k ar aprobt to
uz Latvijas, t.sk. Latgales, komercdarbbas 2010. gada prskatu datu
bzes.
Mra sasnieganai jatrisina sekojoi uzdevumi:
1) jizstrd pamatdarbbas rentabilittes aprina formulas;
2) jizstrd rentabilitti ietekmjoo faktoru analzes metodika;
3) japrob izstrdts formulas un metodika.
Mra sasnieganai izmantota dedukcijas metode, datu statistisks
apstrdes metode, analze.

Pamatteksts
Izmantojot gada prskatu datus, analtii aprina un analiz
komercilo, ekonomisko un finansilo rentabilitti, k ar to paveidus
atkarb no dadiem peas rdtjiem. Saldzinot ekonomisko
rentabilitti ar komercilo rentabilitti, var noteikt aktvu aprites ietekmi
uz ekonomisko rentabilitti, saldzinot finansilo rentabilitti ar
ekonomisko rentabilitti pards kapitla struktras ietekme uz
finansilo rentabilitti. Rezulttus izmanto gan novrtjot konkrtas
komercsabiedrbas darbbu noteikt period saldzinjum ar kdu citu
periodu, gan saldzinot to ar citm komercsabiedrbm, k ar ar nozares
vai kdas teritorijas vidjiem rdtjiem.
Gan aktvu aprite, gan kapitla struktra var ietekmt un ar nereti
btiski ietekm vienu no paniekiem svargkiem rdtjiem finansilo
rentabilitti. Bet ne mazk svarga paniekiem ir ar detaliztka
komercils rentabilittes analze. Komercilo rentabilitti ietekm rinda
faktoru: neto apgrozjums, raoanas izmaksas, administratvs
izmaksas, prdoanas izmaksas, prjs saimniecisks darbbas rezultts,
finanu ieguldjumu darbbas rezultts, procentu maksjumi, rkrtas
darbbas rezultts, nodoki no peas. Veicot konkrtas
komercsabiedrbas rentabilittes analzi, saldzina kda perioda datus ar
cita perioda datiem, kuri aprinti pc vienas metodes. Ja rodas
nepiecieamba veikt vairku komercsabiedrbu komercils
rentabilittes un to ietekmjoo faktoru saldzinou analzi uz gada
prskatu datu bzes, rodas problma sakar ar to, ka ts nepielieto vienu
un to pau peas vai zaudjumu aprina metodi. Pielietojot perioda
izmaksu metodi, nevar aprint bruto peu un tai atbilstou bruto
rentabilitti. Bet peas vai zaudjumu aprins pc perioda izmaksu
metodes auj aprint neto apgrozjumam atbilstou raoanas,
administratvs un prdoanas izmaksu kopsummu. To skai
apzmanai izmantosim terminu pamatdarbbas izmaksas. Materilo
izmaksu, personla izmaksu un norakstto ldzeku un materilo vrtbu
kopsummu sauksim par pamatraoanas perioda izmaksm.
Materils izmaksas
+ personla izmaksas
+ ldzeku un vrtbu norakstana
= pamatraoanas perioda izmaksas.
Lai aprintu neto apgrozjumam atbilstos pamatdarbbas
izmaksas, jveic sekojoas korekcijas:
Pamatraoanas perioda izmaksas
+ gatavs produkcijas un nepabeigto raojumu krjumu
samazinjums

gatavs produkcijas un nepabeigto raojumu krjumu
palielinjums
pau uzmuma kapitlieguldjumiem izpildtie darbi
= pamatdarbbas izmaksas.
Savukrt pamatdarbbas izmaksas var aprint ar, izmantojot
peas vai zaudjumu aprina pc apgrozjuma metodes datus.
Neto apgrozjums
raoanas izmaksas
administratvs izmaksas
prdoanas izmaksas
= pamatdarbbas izmaksas.
di aprints pamatdarbbas izmakss pc abm metodm
iekautas administrcijas izmaksas. Administrcijas izmaksas attiecas ne
tikai uz pamatdarbbu, bet ar uz citu komercdarbbu, konkrti, uz prjo
saimniecisko darbbu un finanu ieguldjumu darbbu. Tas var radt
neprecizitti pamatdarbbas rentabilittes aprinos. emot vr, ka
administrcijas izmaksas sastda tikai 45% no vism
komercsabiedrbu izmaksm, no kurm savukrt 6% sastda citas
komercdarbbas izmaksas, pamatdarbbas izmaksas var bt palielintas
par 0,3%. Aplses veiktas par komercsabiedrbm, kuri peu vai
zaudjumus aprina pc apgrozjuma izmaksu metodes, par 2010.g. (1.).
Ldz ar to var uzskatt, ka rentabilittes aprinu precizitte ir
pietiekama, lai vartu veikt analzi.
Ttad, abas peas vai zaudjumu aprina metodes auj noteikt
pamatdarbbas izmaksas ar pietiekamu precizitti. No neto apgrozjuma
atskaitot pamatdarbbas izmaksas, iegstam pamatdarbbas peu vai
zaudjumus. Pamatdarbbas peas vai zaudjumu attiecba pret neto
apgrozjumu veido pamatdarbbas rentabilitti. Pc msu domm, tas ir
viens no svargkiem rentabilittes rdtjiem, jo atspoguo ts darbbas
finansilo rezulttu, kuras veikanai uzmums pastv, un auj saldzint
sav starp ne tikai komercsabiedrbu, kuras pielieto dadas peas vai
zaudjumu aprina metodes, rentabilitti, bet saldzint ar dadu
nozaru, teritorilo vienbu pamatdarbbas rezulttus.
Pamatdarbbas rentabilittes rdtjs aprobts, aprinot un
saldzinot Latvijas un Latgales komercdarbbas rdtjus par 2010.g.
Aprinu ieteicams skt ar pamatdarbbas izmaksu aprinu atsevii pa
komercsabiedrbm, kas pielieto apgrozjuma izmaksu metodi un perioda
izmaksu metodi (1.tab. un 2.tab.).


1.tabula
Latvijas, t.sk. Latgales, komercsabiedrbu, kuras peu vai zaudjumus rina
pc apgrozjuma izmaksu metodes, pamatdarbbas
izmaksu aprins par 2010. g. (Ls)
(autores aprins, izmantojot (1.) datus)

Izmaksu postei Latvija Latgale
Prdots produkcijas raoanas
izmaksas 22 134 493 483 878 807 852
Administrcijas izmaksas 1 741 512 961 55 049 860
Prdoanas izmaksas 1 216 451 478 38 129 868
Pamatdarbbas izmaksas 25 092 457 922 971 987 580

2.tabula
Latvijas, t.sk. Latgales, komercsabiedrbu, kuras peu vai zaudjumus
rina pc perioda izmaksu metodes, pamatdarbbas izmaksu
aprins par 2010. g. (Ls)

Izmaksu postei Latvija Latgale

Materilu izmaksas 1 008 692 113 26 418 819
Personla izmaksas 268 420 446 6 787 647
Ldzeku un vrtbu norakstana 250 828 005 3 097 161
Pamatdarbbas perioda izmaksas 1 527 940 564 36 303 627
Gatavs produkcijas un nepabeigto
raojumu krjumu izmaias 66 452 504 5 237 005
Pau uzmuma kapitlieguldjumiem
izpildtie darbi 2 970 444 1 137
Pamatdarbbas izmaksas 1 591 422 624 41 539 495

Summjot pamatdarbbas izmaksas, kas aprintas pc abm
izmaksu metodm, iegstam pamatdarbbas peu un rentabilitti
kopum pa Latviju, t.sk. Latgali.
3.tabula
Latvijas, t.sk. Latgales, komercsabiedrbu pamatdarbbas
rentabilittes aprins par 2010.g.

Rdtji Latvija Latgale

Neto apgrozjums (Ls) 28 108 186 502 1 028 576 785
Pamatdarbbas izmaksas (Ls) 26 683 880 546 1 013 527 075
Pamatdarbbas pea (Ls) 1 424 305 956 15 049 710
Pamatdarbbas rentabilitte (%) 5,07 1,46


Latvijas komercsabiedrbu pamatdarbbas rentabilitte bija
ievrojami augstka nek Latgales komercsabiedrbu pamatdarbbas
rentabilitte. Rezultts nav negaidts, bet negaidta ir liel atirba starp
Latvijas un Latgales komercdarbbas pamatdarbbas rentabilitti. Pretja
situcija vrojama, saldzinot komercilo, ekonomisko un finansilo
rentabilitti par 2010. g.
4.tabula
Latvijas, t.sk. Latgales, komercdarbbas komercil,
ekonomisk un finansil rentabilitte 2010.g.

Pea vai zaudjumi (Ls) 3 410 123 7 234 026
Aktvu gada vidj vrtba (Ls) 34 460 790 281 1 105 726 788
Pau kapitla gada vidj vrtba (Ls) 9 168 930 862 335 105 558
Komercil rentabilitte (%) 0,01 0,70
Ekonomisk rentabilitte (%) 0,01 0,65
Finansil rentabilitte (%) 0,04 2,16

Latvijas komercdarbbas komercil, ekonomisk un finansil
rentabilitte atirb no pamatdarbbas rentabilittes, bija zemkas
nek Latgales komercdarbbas attiecgs rentabilittes situcij, kad
pamatdarbbas rentabilitte Latgal bija ievrojami zemka nek Latvij.
K rentabilitti ir ietekmjui dadi faktori?
Visi tie faktori, kas rada starpbu starp peu vai zaudjumiem un
pamatdarbbas peu, veido starpbu starp komercilo un pamatdarbbas
rentabilitti. Saldzinot ekonomisko ar komercilo rentabilitti, aprina
aktvu aprites ietekmi. Kapitla struktra ietekm finansilo rentabilitti
un ietekme ir vienda ar starpbu starp finansilo un ekonomisko
rentabilitti.
5.tabula
Faktoru, kas veido Latvijas, t.sk. Latgales, komercdarbbas starpbas starp
pamatraoanas, komercilo, ekonomisko un finansilo rentabilitti 2010.g.,
ietekmes aprins (autores aprins, izmantojot (1.) datus), (%)

Nr.
p.k.
1. Pamatdarbbas rentabilitte 5,07 1,46
2. Komercil rentabilitte 0,01 0,70
Faktoru, kas veido starpbu starp peu vai zaudju
3. miem un pamatdarbbas peu, ietekme (2.1.) 5,08 0,76
4. Ekonomisk rentabilitte 0,01 0,65
5. Aktvu aprites ietekme (4.2.) 0,00 0,05
6. Finansil rentabilitte 0,04 2,16
7. Kapitla struktras ietekme (5.4.) 0,03 1,51

Btisku negatvu ietekmi uz Latvijas komercdarbbas finansilo
rentabilitti atstja visi tie peas vai zaudjumu aprina postei, kas
rada starpbu starp zaudjumiem un pamatdarbbas peu (5,08
procentpunkti). To ietekm Latvijas komercdarbbas pozitva
pamatdarbbas rentabilitte prvrts negatv komercil un ldz ar to
ar ekonomisk un finansil rentabilitt. Aktvu aprites un kapitla
struktras ietekme ar bija negatva, bet neliela. Latgales komercdarbbas
finansilo rentabilitti 2010.g ar negatvi ietekmja postei, kas rada
starpbu starp peu un pamatdarbbas peu, bet mazk mr (0,76
procentpunkti). Pozitvi Latgales komercdarbbas finansilo rentabilitti
ietekmja kapitla struktra (1,51 procentpunkts).
Ttad, 2010.g. gan Latvijas, gan Latgales rentabilitti ievrojami
ietekmja tie peas vai zaudjumu aprina postei, kuri veido starpbu
starp peu vai zaudjumiem un pamatdarbbas peu. Peas vai
zaudjumu aprins auj noskaidrot katra postea ietekmi, nosakot t
patsvaru neto apgrozjum.
6.tabula
Latvijas, t.sk. Latgales peas vai zaudjuma aprina posteu,
kas veido starpbu starp peu vai zaudjumiem un pamatdarbbas
peu, patsvars neto apgrozjum 2010.g.
autores aprins, izmantojot (1.) datus)

Prjs saimniecisks darbbas rezultts
(Ls) 858 641 993 8 167 975
% no neto apgrozjuma 3,05 0,79
Finanu ieguldjumu darbbas rezultts
(Ls) 245 528 905 5 109 941
Procentu maksjumi (Ls) 563 934 358 14 986 782
rkrtas darbbas rezultts (Ls) 32 026 141 59 655
Nodoki no peas (Ls) 218 642 492 6 166 473

Vislielk negatv ietekme uz Latvijas komercdarbbas komercilo
rentabilitti bija zaudjumiem no prjs saimniecisks darbbas k ar
procentu maksjumiem. Savukrt Latgales komercsabiedrbas guva
peu no prjs saimniecisks darbbas un procentu maksjumu
patsvars neto apgrozjum bija mazks nek Latvij kopum.
7.tab. apkopoti komercdarbbas rentabilittes rdtji un to
ietekmjuie faktori par Latviju kopum, t.sk. Latgali, 2010. g.

7.tabula
Latvijas, t.sk. Latgales, komercdarbbas rentabilitte
un to ietekmjuie faktori 2010.g.
(autores aprins, izmantojot (1.) datus) (%)

Starpba starp Latgales
un Latvijas rdtjiem
Pamatdarbbas rentabilitte 5,07 1,46 3,60
Prjs saimniecisks darbbas
rezultts 3,05 0,79 3,85
Finanu ieguldjumu darbbas
rezultts 0,87 0,50 0,38
Procentu maksjumi 2,01 1,46 0,55
rkrtas darbbas rezultts 0,11 0,01 0,12
Nodoki no peas 0,78 0,60 0,18
Komercil rentabilitte 0,01 0,70 0,72
Aktvu aprites ietekme 0,00 0,05 0,05
Ekonomisk rentabilitte 0,01 0,65 0,66
Kapitla struktras ietekme 0,03 1,51 1,54
Finansil rentabilitte 0,04 2,16 2,20

Latgales saldzinjum ar Latvijas komercsabiedrbu
pamatdarbbas rentabilitte 2010.gad bija ievrojami zemka (par 3,60
procentpunktiem), komercil, ekonomisk un finansil rentabilitte
augstka. Latgales komercsabiedrbu finansilo rentabilitti pozitvi
ietekmja prjs saimniecisks darbbas rezultts un kapitla struktra,
k ar zemkie procentu maksjumi. Latgales komercsabiedrbm
galvenokrt jpaaugstina pamatdarbbas rentabilitte.
Pamatdarbbas rentabilittes aprinana ir padziinjusi analzi
un vusi konstatt faktus, kas, izmantojot tikai komercilo, ekonomisko
un finansilo rentabilitti, nebtu iespjams. Ieteicams rentabilittes
analz pielietot ar pamatdarbbas rentabilittes rdtju.
1. Veicot saldzinoo vairku komercsabiedrbu komercils
rentabilittes analzi, var rasties grtbas veikt rentabilitti
ietekmjoo faktoru analzi situcij, kad komercsabiedrbas
pielieto dadas peas vai zaudjumu aprina metodes. Perioda
izmaksu metode neauj aprint bruto peu. Tomr abas
metodes apgrozjuma izmaksu un perioda izmaksu metode ar
pietiekamu precizitti auj aprint pamatdarbbas peu vai
zaudjumus un ldz ar to saldzint pamatdarbbas rentabilitti
(pamatdarbbas peas vai zaudjumu attiecbu pret neto
apgrozjumu), ja analizjams komercsabiedrbas pielieto dadas
peas vai zaudjumu aprinanas metodes. Izstrdtas

formulas, ar kuru paldzbu, ar pietiekamu precizitti, var aprint
pamatdarbbas peu vai zaudjumus pc abm izmaksu metodm.
2. Analizjot atirbas starp komercilo un pamatdarbbas
rentabilitti, posteu, kas veido starpbu starp peu vai
zaudjumiem un pamatdarbbas peu vai zaudjumiem, ietekmi
var izteikt procentos no neto apgrozjuma.
3. Pielietojot izstrdto metodiku rentabilittes analz par
2010. g., aprinta pamatdarbbas rentabilitte kop pa
komercsabiedrbm, kuras pielieto apgrozjuma izmaksu metodi un
komercsabiedrbm, kuras izmanto perioda izmaksu metodi.
Latvijas komercsabiedrbu pamatdarbbas rentabilitte 2010. g.
bija 5,07 procenti, Latgales komercsabiedrbu tikai 1,46 procenti.
Taj pa laik Latgales komercsabiedrbu komercil, ekonomisk
un finansil rentabilitte bija ievrojami augstka nek Latvijas
komercsabiedrbm. Galvenais faktors, kur negatvi ietekmja
Latvijas komercsabiedrbu komercilo un ldz ar to ekonomisko un
finansilo rentabilitti, bija prjs saimniecisks darbbas izmaksu
prsniegums pr iemumiem. Latgales komercsabiedrbs prj
saimniecisk darbba pozitvi ietekmja komercilo rentabilitti.
Latgales komercdarbbas finansilo rentabilitti pozitvi ietekmja
ar kapitla struktra un zemkie procentu maksjumi. Latgales
komercsabiedrbm galvenokrt jpaaugstina pamatdarbbas
rentabilitte, Latvijas komercsabiedrbm juzlabo prjs
saimniecisks darbbas finansilais rezultts.
4. Pc msu domm, pamatdarbbas rentabilitte ir viens no
svargkiem rentabilittes rdtjiem, jo atspoguo ts darbbas
finansilo rezulttu, kuras veikanai uzmums pastv. To btu
ieteicams lietot rentabilittes analz. Pamatdarbbas rentabilittes
aprinana padziina analzi un auj konstatt faktus, kas,
izmantojot tikai komercilo, ekonomisko un finansilo rentabilitti,
nebtu iespjams. Ja tiktu izmantoti tikai pareiz lietotie
rentabilittes rdtji, secinjums btu, ka Latgales
komercdarbbas komercil, ekonomisk un finansil rentabilitte
2010. g. bija augstka nek Latvijas komercdarbbas, un nebtu
konstatts, ka 2010. g. Latgales komercils pamatdarbbas
finansilais rezultts pamatdarbbas rentabilitte bija
ievrojami zemks, nek Latvijas.
1. Latvijas Centrls statistikas prvaldes nepublictie materili: pieprasjums
1648_(pc darb.sk._Latgale_Latvija_2010

Summary
When analysing commercial profitability of several business companies,
certain difficulties may arise when analysing the factors influencing profitability in a
situation when business companies use different methods in calculation of profit or
loss. The method of payment for the period does not allow calculating the gross profit.
However, both methods the method of turnover costs and the method of payment
for the period afford the possibility to calculate the profit or loss of the basic activity
with sufficient precision, and in this way to compare the profitability of the basic
activity if business companies in their analysis use different methods of calculation of
profit or loss. There have been worked out formulas, with the help of which it is
possible to calculate the profit or loss according to both methods of costs.
When using the calculation of profit or loss according to data of the turnover
method, cost of the basic activity can be calculated in the following way:
Net turnover
production cost
administrative cost
sales cost
= cost of basic activities.
When using the method of calculation of profit or loss according to data of
payment for the period, calculation of the basic activities is the following:
Cost of materials
+ staff costs
+ writeoffs and value adjustments
+ decrease in stocks of finished goods and work in progress
increase of stocks of finished goods and work in progress
work performed for own purposes and capitalized
= cost of basic activities.
The difference between net turnover and the cost of basic activities constitutes
the basic activity profit. Profitability of the basic activity is calculated as relation of
the basic activity profit to the net turnover. The author considers that it is one of the
most important indexes as it reflects financial result of the activity, for performance
of which the business company exists and it is advisable to include it in the analysis of
profitability.
When analysing the difference between the commercial profitability and the
profitability of the basic activity, the influence of indexes, which makes the difference
between profit and loss, and profit of the basic activity and loss, can be expressed in
percentage of net turnover.
As a result of application of the above mentioned worked out method to the
analysis of Latgales business during the year 2010 in comparison with indexes of
profitability of Latvias business as a whole, there was calculated the total profitability
of business companies using the method of turnover cost and business companies
using the method of payment for the period. Latvias profitability of the basic activity
in 2010 was 5.07%, but the same of Latgales business companies was only 1.46%. At
the same time the commercial, economic and financial profitability of Latgales
business companies was considerably higher than that of Latvias business
companies. The profitability of Latgales commercial, economic and financial
profitability was 0.70%, 0,64% and 2,16% respectively, while Latvias commercial
activities were 0,01% , 0,01% and 0,04% respectively. An essentially negative

influence on the financial profitability of Latvias business was left by all the
calculation indexes of profit or loss, which caused the difference between loss and
profit of the basic activity (5.08 percentage points) by decreasing profitability of the
basic activity to negative commercial, economic and financial profitability. The main
factor with a negative influence on Latvias commercial, as well as economic and
financial profitability was the fact that other operating costs were higher than income
( 3.05% of net turnover). Other operating activities of Latgales business companies
had a positive influence on commercial profitability (0.79% of net turnover). The
capital structure (difference between financial and economic profitability was 1.51
per cent points) and lower interest payment had a positive influence on the financial
profitability of Latgales business, too.


EIROPAS SAVIENBAS RJO UN IEKJO ROBEU
RAANS TIESISKIE PRIEKNOSACJUMI
LEGAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CREATION OF THE INTERNAL
AND EXTERNAL BORDER OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
Artrs GAVEIKA
Mg. iur., docents, Valsts robesardzes koleda, pasniedzjs, Latvijas Universitte,
viesdocents Rzeknes Augstskola
Tlrunis: 29218920, epasts: argavs@inbox.lv
Rzekne, Latvija

Abstract. The proposed theme is topical from the perspective of state and public
security as well as the perspectives of the law enforcement institutions tasks in regard to
the Schengen Area. Tasks of law enforcement institutions should be based on
harmonized international legislation as well as the Latvian and the European Union
legislation. Taking into account the socioeconomic development level, the small size
and quantity of the population in the Republic of Latvia, law enforcement institutions
can not afford to tolerate any mistakes in the control of migration process. Such
mistakes are not permissible since in 2012 Latvian law enforcement institutions will
have to prove the Schengen evaluation committee the ability to implement the Schengen
acquis requirements on free movement of persons. The research was done during 2007
and 2012. The research emphasizes the fact that further strengthening of the status of
Latvia in the European Union and the Schengen Area is possible upon the improvement
of legislation, harmonization of basic concepts in legislation and terminology,
standardization of the practice of law according to uniform internationally accepted
principles in the context of internal and external borders legislation
Keywords: external border, foreigner, immigrant, internal border, refugee, Schengen
acquis.

Ievads
Piedvtais temats ir aktuls no valsts un sabiedrbas drobas
viedoka un ieklietu iestu darbbas perspektvajiem uzdevumiem
engenas telp, kuriem jbalsts uz harmoniski sakrtotu starptautisko,
Eiropas Savienbas (ES) un Latvijas normatvo reguljumu. Latvijas
Republika, emot vr ts socilekonomisko attstbas lmeni, nelielo
teritoriju un iedzvotju daudzumu, nevar atauties pieaut rupjas kdas
migrcijas procesu kontrol, vienlaicgi apliecinot krtj engenas
novrtan 2012.g. spju stenot engenas acquis prasbas personu
brvas prvietoans jom. Ptjuma laika periods 2007. 2012.g. Veicot
ES, engenas acquis un Latvijas Republikas tiesisk reguljuma
pilnveidoanu, reguljuma juridisko pamatjdzienu un terminoloijas
harmonizanu, juridisks prakses standartizanu pc vienotiem
starptautiski atztiem tiesbu principiem rjs valsts robeas tiesisk

reguljuma klst, bs iespjama turpmka Latvijas k tiesiskas valsts
statusa nostiprinana Eiropas un engenas telp.
Raksta mris izptt un izanalizt starptautisko, engenas acquis
un citu normatvo aktu prasbas personu brvas prvietoans jom un
engenas acquis attstbas gaitu, normatv reguljuma problemtiku
juridiskaj praks, atspoguot migrcijas politikas veidoanas tiesiskos
instrumentus emot vr Latvijas un citu valstu uzkrto pieredzi ES
integrcijas proces.
Raksta uzdevumi ir: izptt engenas lguma raans vsturiskos un
tiesiskos prieknoteikumus; izptt engenas lguma un engenas acquis
starptautisko nozmi cilvktiesbu aspekt; atklt tiesbu normu un
jdzienu problemtiku un piedvt iespjamos risinjumus.
Ptjum tiek izmantotas das metodes:
1. Vsturisk metode izptot normatv reguljuma attstbu
vsturisk kontekst, izptot engenas acquis normatv
reguljuma evolciju raksta kontekst.
2. Analtisk metode analizjot starptautisko, ES un engenas
normatvo reguljumu, tiesu praksi un informciju no Valsts
robesardzes darbbas rezultatvajiem rdtjiem.
3. Saldzino metode saldzinot starptautisko, ES, Latvijas
Republikas un kaimivalstu normatvo reguljumu valsts
robeas jdziena izpratn.
4. Monogrfisk jeb apraksto metode aprakstot starptautisko,
ES un engenas normatvo reguljumu un tiesu praksi valstu
robeu un personu robersoanas kontekst.
Veicot ES, engenas acquis un Latvijas Republikas tiesisk
reguljuma pilnveidoanu, reguljuma juridisko pamatjdzienu un
terminoloijas harmonizanu, juridisks prakses standartizanu pc
vienotiem starptautiski atztiem tiesbu principiem rjs valsts robeas
tiesisk reguljuma klst, bs iespjama turpmka Latvijas k tiesiskas
valsts statusa nostiprinana Eiropas un engenas telp Latvijas
tiesbsargjom iestdm to kompetences ietvaros stenojot valsts
robeas drobas, personu brvas prvietoans un tiesisks krtbas
nodroinanas funkcijas, tdejdi apliecinot Latvijas k uzticamas un
atbildgas ES un engenas dalbvalsts lomu kopj drobas un
demokrtijas telp.
Pamatteksts
Latvijas pievienoans engenas telpai ir viens no svargkajiem ES
integrcijas etapiem. Latvijas, tpat k citu dalbvalstu, iedzvotjiem
pavrus plaas brvas prvietoans iespjas Eirop, kas ir btisks
vsturisks sasniegums cilvktiesbu garantan un demokrtijas

tradciju nostiprinan, kam ir svarga nozme Eiropas valstu
turpmkaj straujk ekonomiskas attstb, ekonomiskaj un politiskaj
sadarbb ar treajm valstm, kopjs drobas un miera politikas
konsekvent realizcij. Tau brvas personu prvietoans iespjm ir
ar negatvas sekas transnacionls noziedzbas un nekontroltas
migrcijas izplatba, kas kopum var negatvi ietekmt atseviu
dalbvalstu ekonomiku un iekjo drobu un o seku novranai
iziroa loma ir visu dalbvalstu ieklietu iestu saskaotai rcbai.
Jebkur personu migrcijas proces tiek skartas cilvktiesbas un
ES dalbvalstu amatpersonm, kuras veic rjo un iekjo robeu
uzraudzbu un kontroli, jievro ts. Tpc turpmk pttie starptautiskie
normatvie akti ir svargi personu brvas prvietoans un ldz ar to ar
valstu robeu rsoanas kontekst. Apvienoto Nciju Organizcijas
(ANO) enerl Asambleja ar 1948.g. 10.decembr pieemto Visprjo
cilvktiesbu deklarciju pasludinja, ka Visi cilvki ir vienldzgi likuma
priek, un viiem ir tiesbas uz viendu likuma aizsardzbu bez jebkdas
diskrimincijas. Katram cilvkam ir tiesbas atstt jebkuru, ar savu valsti,
un atgriezties sav valst. Katram cilvkam ikvienas valsts teritorij ir
tiesbas brvi prvietoties un izvlties dzvesvietu. Katram cilvkam ir
tiesbas meklt patvrumu no vajanas cits valsts un izmantot o
patvrumu. Nevienu nedrkst patvagi arestt, aizturt vai izraidt.(12.).
Tau ANO Visprj cilvktiesbu deklarcij autors konstat
ar netieu migrcijas procesus ierobeojoo faktoru 29.panta
2.apakpunkt: stenojot savas tiesbas un brvbas, katram
cilvkam ir jpakaujas tikai tiem ierobeojumiem, kas noteikti
likum un kuru viengais mris ir piencgi atzt un cient citu
cilvku tiesbas un brvbas, k ar apmierint morles, sabiedrisks
krtbas un visprjas labkljbas taisngs prasbas demokrtisk
sabiedrb (12.).
Eiropas Cilvka tiesbu un pamatbrvbu aizsardzbas
konvencij 1950.g., it pai ts 4.protokol (18.), k viena no cilvka
tiesbm un pamatbrvbm tika pasludinta personas brva
prvietoans. Ar Latvijas Republikas Satversmes VIII noda
Cilvka pamattiesbas ir deklartas cilvku tiesbas uz
prvietoans brvbu: Ikvienam ir tiesbas brvi izbraukt no
Latvijas. Ikviens, kam ir Latvijas pase, rpus Latvijas atrodas valsts
aizsardzb, un viam ir tiesbas brvi atgriezties Latvij.... (1.).
Visi ie un ar citi starptautiskie normatvie akti cilvktiesbu
jom satur universlu normu, kura nosaka, ka valstu pienkums ir
cient un ievrot cilvka pamattiesbas un brvbas neatkargi no
rases, dzimuma, valodas un reliijas. Tas nozm, ka cilvka tiesbas
un brvbas ir jievro viss valsts un attiecb pret visiem

cilvkiem bez jebkdas diskrimincijas. iem nolkiem
starptautiskajs tiesbs tiek izstrdti standarti, pc kuriem valstis
veido nacionlo normatvo reguljumu cilvktiesbu jautjumos.
Ldz ar ko dabisks tiesbas k cilvktiesbas pards vairuma
valstu tiesbu sistms (51.).
Msdienu starptautiskajs tiesbs pastv ar cilvka tiesbu
un brvbu sekmanas un ievroanas princips, kas ir viens no
starptautisko tiesbu pamatprincipiem, kura nostiprinans
galvenokrt saistta ar ANO stattu pieemanu (56.).
Ar Eiropas Cilvktiesbu un pamatbrvbu aizsardzbas
Konvencijas 4.protokols paredz prvietoans brvbu ikvienam
cilvkam, kur likumgi atrodas kdas valsts teritorij, ir tiesbas
brvi prvietoties un tiesbas brvi izvlties dzvesvietu aj
teritorij. Ikvienam cilvkam ir tiesbas brvi atstt jebkuru valsti,
ieskaitot savu valsti. o tiesbu izmantoana nedrkst noteikt
nekdus ierobeojumus, izemot tos, ko nosaka likums un kuri
demokrtisk sabiedrb ir nepiecieami valsts un sabiedrisks
drobas interess, lai uzturtu sabiedrisko krtbu, nepieautu
noziegumus, aizsargtu veselbu un morli vai lai aizsargtu citu
cilvku tiesbas un brvbas (18.).
Kaut ar Visprj cilvktiesbu deklarcija paredz, ka
nevienu nedrkst patvagi arestt, aizturt vai pakaut izraidanai
(12.), tomr brvbas atemana ir paredzta Cilvktiesbu un
pamatbrvbu aizsardzbas Konvencij gadjumos, ja likumgi tiek
aizturta vai apcietinta persona, ar nolku neaut ai personai
nelikumgi ieceot valst, vai ja attiecb pret kdu personu tiek
veiktas darbbas ar nolku o personu deportt vai izraidt no
valsts (18.).
Cilvktiesbas pieauj rvalstnieku izraidanu, ja tas
nepiecieams, lai stenotu lmumu, kur pieemts saska ar
likumu (18.). Eiropas Cilvka tiesbu un pamatbrvbu aizsardzbas
Konvencija un ts septtais protokols paredz procesuls garantijas
rvalstnieka izraidanas gadjum. Ar aj gadjum
rvalstniekam ir atauts aizstvt savas tiesbas kompetents
instancs un pieprast savas lietas prskatanu.
ANO 1966.g. 16.decembra Starptautiskais pakts Par pilsoniskajm
un politiskajm tiesbm ar fakultatvo protokolu (Latvijai ir saistos
kop 1992.g. 14.jlija) (29) nosaka, ka katrai dalbvalstij japemas
respektt un garantt vism ts teritorij un jurisdikcij esoajm
personm aj pakt atzts tiesbas bez jebkdas atirbas neatkargi
no rases, das krsas, dzimuma, valodas, reliijas, politisks vai citas
prliecbas, nacionls vai socils izcelans, mantisk stvoka,

dzimanas vai citiem apstkiem. Atbilstoi pakta 12.pantam katram
cilvkam, kur likumgi atrodas kdas valsts teritorij, ir tiesbas brvi
prvietoties un izvlties dzvesvietu aj teritorij un mintajm
tiesbm nedrkst bt nekdu ierobeojumu, atskaitot tos, kas paredzti
likum. No iepriek mint izriet vl viens migrcijas procesus
ierobeojoais faktors: katram cilvkam, kur atrodas kdas valsts
teritorij nelikumgi, nav brvs prvietoans un dzves vietas izvles
tiesbu aj teritorij. Protokola 12.panta 3.apakpunkts konkretiz
migrcijas papildus ierobeojumus, un nosaka, ka pastv likumgi
pamatotie tiesbu ierobeojumi jautjumos, kas saistti ar valsts drobas,
sabiedrisks krtbas, iedzvotju veselbas un tikumbas, vai citu cilvku
tiesbu un brvbas aizsardzbu (14.).
ANO 1985.g. 13.decembr pieemt Deklarcija par to personu
tiesbm, kuras nav ts valsts pilsoi, kur vias dzvo 2.pants nosaka,
ka deklarcijas tekstu nevar iztulkot k rvalstnieka prettiesisks
iebraukanas un atraans kd valst attaisnoanu. Deklarcijas tekstu
nedrkst iztulkot k tdu, kas ierobeo s valsts tiesbas pasludint
likumus un noteikumus par rvalstnieku iebraukanu un to uzturans
noteikumus un apstkus vai noteikt atirbas starp pilsoiem un
rvalstniekiem. Tomr di likumi un noteikumi nedrkst bt neatbilstoi
valsts starptautiskajm saistbm, cilvka tiesbu jomu ieskaitot (15.).
Deklarcijas 5.pants nosaka, ka saska ar nacionlo likumdoanu un
attiecgu atauju valsts teritorij likumgi dzvojoa rvalstnieka
dzvesbiedram, nepilngadgajiem vai apgdb esoajiem brniem ir
jauj pievienoties un palikt kop ar rvalstnieku (15.). No iepriek
mint izriet ar imigrciju ierobeojoais faktors ja nav specils ar
likumdoanu paredzts ataujas, robekontroles institciju
amatpersonm nav tiesbu ielaist rvalstnieku valsts teritorij.
Eiropas Socil harta (62.), kura stjs spk 2000.g., un kurai
Latvija pievienojusies 2002.g. 3.mart, vienot dokument II da skaidri
izklsta individuls, civils, politisks, ekonomisks un socils tiesbas
(36.), kuras bauda ES iedzvotji, un kuru realizcijai ir nepiecieams
vispirms atrisint personu brvas prvietoans jautjumus ES telp.
Harta tiks iekauta ar jaunaj ES Konstitcij (36.) un kalpos k juridisks
kritrijs, ar kuru tiks vrttas un garanttas cilvka tiesbas. Valstm,
kuras tiecas pievienoties ES, jbt gatavm aizsargt cilvktiesbas un
pamattiesbas. Patiesb, tas ir viens no kritrijiem, ar ko jsastopas
valstm, pirms ts var uzskt iestans sarunas.
Viens no btiskkajiem starptautiskajiem reguljumiem un k
nkoais migrcijas procesus ierobeojoais faktors ir ANO enerls
asamblejas 2000.g. 15.novembra pieemt Konvencija 55/25 Pret
transnacionlo organizto noziedzbu (16.), kuras mris ir

starptautisks sadarbbas organizana efektvkai transnacionls
organizts noziedzbas apkaroanai (16.). Konvencijas treais pielikums
ir Protokols pret migrantu kontrabandu pa sauszemes, jras un gaisa
ceu, kas papildina Apvienoto Nciju Organizcijas Konvenciju pret
organizto noziedzbu. T mris ir starptautisks sadarbbas
organizana efektvkai transnacionls organizts noziedzbas
apkaroanai, kas saistta ar nelikumgu migrantu kontrabandu, ca ar to,
lai panktu migrantu tiesbu aizsardzbu. Protokols nosaka informcijas
apmaias organizanu dalbvalstu starp, k ar socili ekonomiskos
paskumus, pai tos, kas saistti ar nabadzbas izskauanu atbilstoi ANO
enerls asamblejas nostdnm (16.). Pc autora viedoka, im
protokolam ir btiska nozme ar no valstu robeu rsoanas
tiesiskuma viedoka, jo Protokola 11.panta 4.da dalbvalstm ir uzlikts
pienkums veikt nepiecieamos paskumus, lai noteiktu sankcijas
komercprvadtjiem par Protokola 11.panta 3.da minto saistbu
prkpumiem. LR Imigrcijas likuma 21.pant ir noteikts, ka
komercprvadtjs par saviem ldzekiem nogd rzemnieku atpaka
valst, no kuras vi atvests, vai valst, kas izsniegusi ceoanas
dokumentu, vai jebkur cit valst, kur rzemnieka ieceoana ir
garantta (2.). Dieml jkonstat, ka ne starptautisko tiesbu, ne Latvijas
mrog jdziens imigrcija un no t atvasintais jdziens imigrants nav
pietiekoi skaidri defints, neskatoties uz to, ka daudzs valsts, t.sk., ar
Latvij (2.) ir pieemts normatvais reguljums nelegls imigrcijas
ierobeoanai. T Vcij ar imigrantiem saprot personas, kuras rso
robeu nolk apmesties valst, Japn nacionlos pilsous un
rzemniekus, kuri ieceo no rzemm, Amerikas Savienotajs Valsts
rzemniekus, kuri ieceoja uz likumga pamata uz pastvgu dzvi valst
(55.). Saska ar Latvieu valodas skaidrojos vrdncas skaidrojumu
imigrants ir ieceotjs rvalstnieks, kas apmetas cit valst uz pastvgu
dzvi (50.).
Personu prvietoans brvbu reglamentjoajos starptautiskajos
normatvajos aktos pau vietu ieem starptautiskie normatvie akti
patvruma jom, jo tie vistiekaj veid ir saistti ar cilvktiesbu
ievroanu un valstu robeu rsoanu. Bgu jautjums starptautiski
aktuls kuva Pirm pasaules kara laik. Starptautisko sadarbbu bgu
jautjumos ska veidot Tautu Savienba, kas piema 1926.g. 12.maija un
1928.g. 30.jnija vienoans par bgiem, k ar 1933.g. 28.oktobra,
1938.g. 10.februra Bgu konvencijas un 1939.g. 14.septembra
Protokolu (58.), izveidojot Starptautisks darbbas modeli bgu problmu
risinanai. ajos dokumentos katras bgu kategorijas defincij ietverta
bgu izcelsme, teritorija, kuru vii ir atstjui, un diplomtisks
aizsardzbas trkums viu dzimten. di iedalot bgus kategorijs,

termina interpretcija bija vienkra un nebija grti noteikt bga
statusu. Lai gan pc o agrno dokumentu noteikumiem pareiz maz
personu vartu pretendt uz formlu bga statusu, tomr tdi gadjumi
vartu rasties un personas, kuras atbilst starptautisko dokumentu bgu
defincijm pirms 1951.g. Konvencijas, parasti tiek dvtas par
statutriem bgiem. Pc ANO enerlas asamblejas 1951.g. rezolcijas
tika izveidota Apvienoto Nciju Augstk komisra bgu Jautjumos
prvalde (UNHCR) (42.). s prvaldes Statti ir enerls asamblejas
1950.g. 14.decembra rezolcijas Nr. 428 pielikum (11.). Saska ar
Stattiem no Augstk komisra ANO uzdevum pieprasa nodroint
prvaldes kompetenc esoo bgu starptautisko aizsardzbu.
1951.g. 28.jnij Pilnvaroto konferenc piema Konvenciju par
bga statusu, kas detalizti reglament bgu un viu tiesbu
aizsardzbas standartus un t stjs spk 1954.g. 21.aprl, ldz ar to
kstot par galveno starptautisko normatvo aktu patvruma jom (13.),
uz kura tiesisks bzes tika pieemts ar Latvijas Republikas Patvruma
likums (6.), bet 1967.g. piema Protokolu par bgu statusu (8.), kas tlk
attsta Konvencijas noteikumus un piemro tos jaunajai situcijai. Tau
neskatoties uz visai plao patvruma starptautisko un ES normatvo
reguljumu, taj skait to normatvo reguljumu, kas pieemts ES, lai
panktu pc iespjas objektvku patvruma procedru norisi uz valstu
robem, novrst patvruma tiesbu aunprtgu izmantoanu nav
izdevies. Patvruma tiesbu aunprtgas izmantoanas tendences turpina
attstties oti straujos tempos ar Latvij (61.).
Katrai valstij ir sava teritorija, ttad ar savas robeas. Neskatoties
uz daudzajiem kariem un teritorilajiem strdiem, robeas starp valstm
20.gs. turpinja nostiprinties, bet robekontrole pastiprinties, ko
noteica suvernu valstu objektva tieksme pc neatkarbas un
patstvbas. Tau tas arvien vairk ierobeoja starptautisko
komunikciju, ekonomiskos un kultras sakarus starp daudzajm
Eiropas valstm.
Valstu robeu rsoanai devidesmito gadu beigs aizvien biek
ska pieprast specilas ataujas vzas (36.), kuru saemanai bija
nepiecieams savkt ne mazums dokumentu, veltt diezgan daudz laika,
naudas un iziet virkni birokrtisku procedru. Tau 20.gs. otraj pus un
it sevii pc 1995.g., kad engenas konvencijas dalbvalstis piln mr
ska stenot engenas konvencijas prasbas, ekonomisks integrcijas
procesu, bet tagad ar globalizcijas procesu, ietekm, ska attstties
atgriezenisks process robeas starp valstm pakpeniski kst aizvien
caurspdgkas, augstko attstbas pakpi iegstot tiei Eirop ES un
engenas lguma valstu mrog. K spilgtkais apliecinjums iem
procesiem, pc autora viedoka, ir engenas vzas (35.) (engenas

konvencij vza tiek definta k vienota vza, t nav definta ar citu
konvencijas terminu sarakst, tau citos engenas acquis normatvajos
aktos un cit aprit t tiek dvta par engenas vzu) ievieana, kas ts
samjiem dot iespju bez liekiem riem uz robem prvietoties
visai plaaj Eiropas reion. Msdienu integrcijas un globalizcijas
dialektika ir tda, ka iekjs robeas ceotjam kst mazk pamanmas,
bet rjs robeas tiek nostiprintas arvien vairk. Ne velti starptautisk
aprit pc 2004.g., kad notika ievrojama ES paplainans, it sevii no
treo valstu puses, ir pardjies tds termins k Fortress Europe
(Eiropas cietoksnis) (39.), kas pc autora viedoka ir stipri prsplts, jo
rjo robeu nostiprinana ir loisks un nepiecieams nosacjums ne
tikai ES un engenas lguma valstu, bet ar treo valstu interess,
nodroinot tiesisko krtbu Eirop, ierobeojot neleglo imigrciju un
starptautisko noziedzbu ar rpus ES un engenas zonas, piemram,
EUBAM (The European Union Border Assistance Mission) misiju veid
stiprinot robekontroles un tiesiskuma sistmu ES kaimivalsts un cits
treajs valsts k, piemram, Ukrain un Moldov (37.).
Jsecina, ka rjo robeu jdziena izveidoans
prieknosacjumiem ir duls raksturs:
cilvktiesbu sistmas btiskas komponentes personu brvas
prvietoans (ldz ar to ar daji dzves darba vietas izvles
brvbas) praktiska stenoana;
ekonomisks integrcijas un globalizcijas procesu attstba
starptautisks konkurences apstkos un nepiecieamba
nodroint tiesisko krtbu vienlaicgi daudzs valsts un
vairkos reionos.
1950.g. pavasar Eirop valdja sareta situcija. Aukstais kar
izvirzja nopietnus bruota konflikta draudus starp Austrumiem un
Rietumiem. Eiropai bija jatrisina svargs jautjums k izvairties no
pagtnes kdm un likt pamatus ilgstoam mieram starp tautm, kuras
vl nesen sav starp karoja. Problmas risinjums balstjs uz Francijas
un Vcijas attiecbu ievirzanu jaun gultn. Francijas rlietu ministrs
Roberts mans iesniedza Eiropas valstm plnu, kur paredzja izveidot
vienotu ogu un trauda tirgu, kas btu pakauts neatkargm valsts varas
institcijm, tdjdi Francijai un Vcijai radot kopgu intereu sfru.
Apvienojot galvens rpniecbas nozares, kas nepiecieamas ierou
raoanai, kar starp abm valstm ktu neiespjams. o prieklikumu
vienbalsgi atbalstja Vcija, Itlija, Nderlande, Beija un Luksemburga.
Eiropas Ogu un Trauda kopienas dibinanas lgums tika parakstts
1951.g. 18.aprl (stjs spk 1952.g. 23.jlij) un bija par pamatu
Eiropas un tagadjai Eiropas Savienbas attstbai (45.). Attiecb uz
personu brvas prvietoans tiesbm aj lgum diezgan visprinti un

deklaratvi tika skarts jautjums par dam darbaspka tiesbm (41.),
neskarot dalbvalstu robeu rsoanas jautjumus.
Eiropas apvienoans turpinjs ar Eiropas Ekonomikas kopienas
(EEK) un Eiropas Atomenerijas kopienas (EURATOM) dibinanu
Romas lgum 1957.g. 27.mart (stjs spk 1958.g. 1.janvr), kur
treaj sada par personu, pakalpojumu un kapitla brvu apriti personu
prvietoans brvbas un tiesbas tiek defintas vienot sistm ar
pakalpojumu un kapitla prvietoanos, paredzot, ka prvietoans
brvba nozm to, ka likvid jebkdu dalbvalstu darba mju
diskriminciju pilsonbas d attiecb uz nodarbintbu, darba samaksu
un citiem darba un nodarbintbas nosacjumiem un nozm turpmk
nordts tiesbas, ko var ierobeot, viengi pamatojoties uz sabiedrisks
krtbas, valsts drobas vai veselbas aizsardzbas apsvrumiem:
a) tiesbas pieemt faktiskos darba piedvjumus;
b) tiesbas aj nolk brvi prvietoties dalbvalstu teritorij;
c) tiesbas darba nolkos uzturties kd dalbvalst saska ar
normatviem un administratviem aktiem, kas reglament s
valsts pilsou nodarbintbu;
d) tiesbas palikt kd dalbvalst pc tam, kad darba attiecbas
aj valst beigus, atbilstgi nosacjumiem, kas ietverti
stenoanas reguls, kuras izstrds Komisija (17.). Ar aj
lgum dalbvalstu robeu jautjumi netiek skarti, tau
akcentti sabiedrisks krtbas, valsts drobas un veselbas
aizsardzbas nosacjumi iepriekminto brvbu stenoan.
Personu brvas prvietoans jom btisks starptautisks
normatvais akts Eiropas mrog ir 1961.g. Eiropas Socil harta (7.) un
1989.g. Kopienas Harta par darbinieku socilajm pamattiesbm, kas ES
pilsoiem paredz pamattiesbas attiecb uz brvu prvietoanos,
vienldzgu izturanos, socilo aizsardzbu un atbilstoiem ienkumiem.
1965.g. 28.aprl paraksttam (stjs spk 1967.g. 1.jlij) Briseles
lgumam, ar kuru izveidoja vienu Eiropas Komisiju un vienu Eiropas
Padomi, kas kalpoja vism trim toreizjm Eiropas Kopienm (EEK,
EURATOM, EOTK), bija vairk konceptuls raksturs, neskarot personu un
vl jo vairk robeu jautjumus. o lgumu atcla ar Amsterdamas lgumu
(25.).
Svargs datums Eiropas vstur bija ar 1968.g. 1.augusts, kad
likvidja pdjs muitas barjeras starp Eiropas Ekonomisks kopienas
dalbvalstm un tika piemroti viendi muitas nodoki importam rpus
Eiropas Ekonomisks Kopienas robem. Ska darboties Muitas
savienba. Muitas robeu un nodoku atcelanai bija ievrojami
pankumi pieauga tirdzniecbas apjoms, pieauga valstu nacionlais
kopprodukts un tika pozitvi novrtta kontinenta tirgus iespja bez

muitas robem. Tomr ekonomisk integrcija nebtu iespjama bez
efektvm prbaudm, ko uz Savienbas rjm robem veic muitas
dienests (46). Kaut ar vl joprojm netika defintas rjs robeas,
tomr Komisija akcentja rjo robeu pastiprintas kontroles
nepiecieambu visu dalbvalstu interess. Personu prvietoans brvba
un prbauu atcelana uz iekjm robem bija tikai daa no plakiem
stratiskiem mriem, kas paredzja izveidot iekjo tirgu ar
nosacjumu, ka personu brva prvietoans attiecs tikai uz tdm
personm, kuras bija uzskatmas par tirgus dalbniekiem darba
mjiem vai pakalpojumu sniedzjiem. Pakpeniski is jdziens ir
paplainjies, lai aptvertu visus Eiropas Savienbas pilsous, neatkargi
no viu ekonomisks darbbas, k ar treo valstu valsts piedergos, jo
pc prbauu atcelanas uz iekjm robem faktiski vairs nav
iespjams prbaudt personu valstisko piederbu un robeu rsoanas
likumbu.
Ldz ar to personu brvas prvietoans jdziena skotnj nozme
ska mainties, ko pierda turpmk engenas zonas izveidoans.
Svargkais solis, veidojot iekjo tirgu, kur nav ru personu
prvietoans brvbai, bija divi engen paraksttie starptautiskie
dokumenti, t.i., 1985.g. 14.jnij noslgtais engenas lgums (26) un
1990.g. 19.jnij noslgt engenas stenoanas konvencija jeb engenas
konvencija (33.), kas stjs spk 1995.g. 26.mart. engenas noteikumi
tagad ir spk lielkaj da Eiropas valstu, aptverot vairk nek 400
miljonus iedzvotju un teritoriju 4 268 633 km platb (59.) un tie bija
svargkie normatvie akti personu brvas prvietoans reglamentcij,
vienlaicgi paredzot robeu prbauu atcelanu uz dalbvalstu iekjm
robem, vienotu vzu sistmu un citus paskumus. Tau engenas
lgums konkrti nedefinja ne iekjs robeas ne rjs robeas,
prsvar akcentjot dalbvalstu kopjo robeu rsoanas un dajas
uzraudzbas normas. Tikai 24.pant tiek noteikta nepiecieamba prcelt
robeu prbauu intensitti no dalbvalstu kopjm robem uz rjm
robem (29.). Savukrt engenas konvencija jau definja rjo un iekjo
robeu jdzienus, kurus autors analiz turpmk Lisabonas lguma
kontekst. Jkonstat, ka engenas lgums un Konvencija darbojs
atsevii no citm Eiropas integrcijas institcijm un procesiem.
Skotnji engenas konvencija bija daa no ES sadarbbas tieslietu un
ieklietu jom. Tas nozm, ka t nebija Kopienas tiesbu aktu daa, bet
tikai starpvaldbu sadarbba, ldz ar ko var piekrist dau tiesbu
zintnieku viedoklim, ka, t k engenas Konvencija vl netiek efektvi
piemrota viss ES dalbvalsts, ES teritorija kopum btu japlko
atsevii no engenas zonas (59.).

1986.g. tika pieemts Vienotais Eiropas akts, kura galvenais mris
bija izveidot vienotu tirgu Eirop ldz 1992.g. 31.decembrim, nosakot, ka
iekjais tirgus aptver telpu bez iekjm robem, kur saska ar o
Lgumu ir nodrointa preu, personu, pakalpojumu un kapitla brva
aprite (34.). 1992.g. 7.februr tika parakstts un 1993.g. 1.novembr stjs
spk t.s. Mstrihtas lgums, ar kuru tika nodibinta ES. Ar Mstrihtas
lgumu iedibinja ES pilsonbas instittu, kas paredz ikvienam ts
pilsonim brvi prvietoties, izgltoties, strdt un ceot jebkur no ES
dalbvalstm: Ikvienam Savienbas pilsonim ir tiesbas brvi prvietoties
un dzvot dalbvalsts, ievrojot aj Lgum noteiktos ierobeojumus un
nosacjumus, k ar t stenoanai paredztos paskumus (26.). Ar
Mstrihtas lgumu izveidoja t.s. Eiropas Ekonomisko Telpu, kas paredzja
ar etras brvbas: personu, preu, pakalpojumu un kapitla brvu
kustbu. Lgums atspoguoja dalbvalstu mri bt ne tikai ekonomiskai
kopienai, bet veicint cieku sadarbbu un veidot ES, kas tika
apstiprints tikai 1999.g. oktobr pa galotu tikans laik Tamper,
lai Savienba veidotos par vienotu brvbas, drobas un taisnguma
telpu. Tas nozm pamattiesbu garantanu ES pilsoiem un taisngas
izturans nodroinanu ES nepilsoiem, legli dzvojoiem Eirop.
Iespjams, tpc atseviu tiesbu ekspertu viedoklis par ES pilsonbas
instittu nebija tik viennozmgs pat Rietumeiropas ekspertu vid:
Iespjam, ka ms ieejam valdbas varas r. Ms gaida izpildvaras
noteiktas, varbt pat czariski iekrsotas politikas ra. Tas nedrkst ms
baidt. Tomr bs jpatur redzeslok turp vedo attstba, un
nevajadztu to notut ar izpldum labkljbas formulm, piemram,
pilsou Eiropa. Daudz preczks btu apzmjums administrciju
Eiropa(44.). Brvbas, drobas un taisnguma telpa nozm ar
koordintu patvruma un imigrcijas politiku, izsniedzot vzas un
prvaldot dalbvalstu rjs robeas. Praktiski tas veido cieu nacionlo
robeapsardzbas un policijas spku, muitas un imigrcijas ierdu un
tieslietu sistmas darbinieku sadarbbu. Ldz ar ES pilsou tiesbm brvi
prvietoties vis ES teritorij, ievrojami palielinjs prrobeu
mobilitte un ldz ar to saasinjs nepiecieamba pilnb atteikties no
pasu prbaudes procedrm uz iekjm robem. T o situciju
raksturo Vcijas tiesbu zintnieki: Vcijas pilsoi sav ikdien gandrz
nepamana, ka kop 1957.g. vii dzvo ekonomiski un politiski saaugu
Eirop un kop 1993.g. ir Eiropas Savienbas pilsoi (EK lguma 17.p).
Tas saistts ar faktu, ka Eiropai ir aizvien visu aptveroka kopga tiesbu
sistma, kuru uz vietas tomr realiz dalbvalstu prvaldes. Td tri
rji pilsonis jt mazk prmaiu, nek tas ir patiesb. Lielk daa
Eiropas integrcijas patieso apmru sajt tikai paos gadjumos, proti,

rsojot citas valsts robeu, kas kop engenas II parasti notiek bez
personu kontroles(60.).
1997.g. 2.oktobr ES dalbvalstis parakstja t.s. Amsterdamas
lgumu (stjs spk 1999.g. 1.maij), kas paredzja: pastiprint
nodarbintbas politikas un pilsou tiesbu nozmi; atcelt atlikus
barjeras brvai pilsou kustbai un garantt drobu Eiropas Savienbas
dalbvalstu teritorij; dot Eiropas Savienbai lielkas balsstiesbas
globlajos jautjumos un gatavoties paplainans procesam (62.).
Lgum bija paredzts, ka dalbvalstm ir jkoordin
nodarbintbas stratija un kopgi jveicina darbaspka attstbu:
Savienbai ir di mri: veicint ekonomisku un socilu attstbu un
augstu nodarbintbu, k ar pankt ldzsvarotu un noturgu attstbu, jo
pai, radot telpu bez iekjm robem, stiprinot ekonomisku un socilu
kohziju un nodibinot ekonomisku un monetru savienbu, kuras
galamris saska ar o Lgumu paredz vienotu valtu...(10.) Politika,
kas ieskum Mstrihtas lgum bija apvienota zem nosaukuma
Tieslietas un ieklietas, ir diezgan plaa un daudzpusga. Amsterdamas
lgum politika tika iekauta trs aspektos brvbas, drobas un
tiesiskuma:
brvba, kur iekauta personu brva prvietoans, patvrums,
legl imigrcija,
tieslietas, tostarp civillietas un kriminllietas,
droba, gan iekjais, gan rjais aspekts terorisms,
noziedzba, narkotiku tirdzniecba, tirdzniecba ar cilvkiem,
nelegl imigrcija. Tdejdi attstot un precizjot t saucamo
trs plru sistmu. (59.)
Amsterdamas lgums izvirzja ar ideju par engenas acquis
communautaire, jeb engenas acquis (no franu valodas engenas
tiesbu kopums) (43.), kas btu jprem katrai dalbvalstij. Ar
juridiskaj literatr biei nav sastopams juridiski pamatots skaidrojums,
cik liela ir engenas zona un kdi tiesbu akti nosaka s zonas veidoanos
(49.). 1999.g. ES Padome definja engenas acquis jdzienu saprotot ar to
engenas lgumu un Konvenciju, pievienoans protokolus, engenas
Izpildu komitejas lmumus un deklarcijas, Centrls grupas lmumus
(19.). Amsterdamas lguma protokols paredz engenas acquis prneanu
uz jaunu EKL (Eiropas Kopienu lgums) IV sadau, kuras nosaukums ir
Vzu politika, patvruma politika, imigrcijas politika un cita politika, kas
saistta ar personu brvu prvietoanos un kur ietilpst EKL 61. un
turpmkie panti. Ldz ar to palaik daudzas engenas lguma jomas tagad
ir iekautas Kopienas darbbas jom. T k lielk daa engenas lguma
palaik ir daa no ES acquis, pdjs ES paplainans laik, kas notika

2004.g. 1.maij, kandidtvalstm vairs nebija atteikans izvles iespju
(engenas Protokola 8.pants) (59.).
Kopjais tirgus pilnb nevar tikt ieviests, balstoties viengi uz
brvu preu kustbu. Lai valstis apvienotos patiesi vienot ekonomisk
telp, ir nepiecieams nodroint ne tikai preu, bet ar personu, kapitla
un pakalpojumu netrauctu kustbu pri valstu robem. Lai to vartu
stenot, jrada iespja bez jebkdiem riem veikt uzmjdarbbu,
prvietojoties un uzturoties jebkur kopj tirgus dalbvalst. Brva
personu kustba no vism etrm vienot tirgus brvbm vistiek skar
cilvku. Tpc ir svargi noskaidrot, kdi normatvie akti nosaka o
prvietoans brvbu, cik tlu t attiecas uz ES pilsoiem un kdi ir
ierobeojumi treo valstu pilsoiem.
Brva darbaspka kustba regul kustbu, kur iesaisttas
nodarbintas personas, kas noteiktu laika periodu strd citas personas
pakautb un saem par to atalgojumu (atirb no brvas pakalpojumu
kustbas, kur persona vai nu pats ir uzmuma vadtjs vai saem maksu
par savu pakalpojumu tiei no klienta bez darba devja starpniecbas)
(48.).
Brvas darbinieku kustbas subjekti ir personas, kuras atbilst iem
prieknoteikumiem: tm darba devja uzdevum jveic konkrti
pienkumi, par to saemot atldzbu.
Ldzgi k ar citm pamatbrvbm, ar attiecb uz darbaspka
kustbu, ES likumdoana nosaka stingru ne diskrimincijas principa
ievroanu. Proti, tiek aizliegta jebkda darba mju nacionl
diskrimincija attiecb uz nodarbintbu, atalgojumu un citiem darba un
nodarbintbas nosacjumiem. Ne diskrimincijas princips darbojas ar
attiecb uz darbinieka imenes locekiem, pat, ja vii nav konkrts
dalbvalsts pamatiedzvotji. Par darbinieka imenes locekiem tiek
atzti darbinieka dzvesbiedrs; dzvesbiedra lejupjie, kas jaunki par
21 gadu; darbinieka un dzvesbiedra lejupjie, kas atrodas viu
aizgdb; darbinieka un dzvesbiedra augupjie, kas atrodas viu
aizgdnb (48.).
Brvba un taisngums tiek augsti vrtti ES, tie ir ES strakmei. ES
valstis ir uzticgas demokrtijai, ts respekt cilvktiesbas (47.) un
likumus. Bet brvba un taisngums var tikt pilnb izmantoti tikai
drobas apstkos. Brvba nav tikai personisk mobilitte t nozm
ar noteiktas pamattiesbas. Piemram, tiesbas uz brvbu un drobu;
vienldzba likuma priek; uzskatu, vrda un informcijas brvba;
tiesbas uz labu prvaldi un uz to, ka no ES institciju puses tiks novrsts
jebkds kaitjums, kas vartu tikt nodarts cilvkam. s tiesbas attiecas
uz ikvienu, kur legli dzvo ES, neatkargi no t, vai vi ir vai nav ES
pilsonis. Tiesbu visprjo principu avots tagad ir Lguma par ES 6.panta

otr daa, saska ar kuru ES ir jievro pamattiesbas, ko garant
1950.g. 4.novembra Eiropas Cilvktiesbu un pamatbrvbu aizsardzbas
konvencija un kas izriet no dalbvalstm kopgm konstitucionlajm
tradcijm, kuras ir Kopienas tiesbu visprgie principi (57.).
Eirop personu brvas prvietoans princips ir tlk attstjies ar
dos normatvajos aktos: Lgum par Konstitciju Eiropai (24.), kas
tomr daji radja institucionlu krzi, jo Francijas un Nderlandes
vltji noraidja o lgumu; Eiropas Padomes 1999.g. lmum izveidot
brvbas, drobas un tiesiskuma telpu (Tamper), 2001.g. lmum
izstrdt ES Konstitciju (Lken), 2002.g. lmum par kopjo migrcijas
un patvruma politiku (Sevi) (59.), Hgas programm (20.) 2005.g., kuru
pc autora viedoka vartu uzskatt par nozmgko konceptulo
dokumentu, sagatavojot tuvojoos engenas zonas paplainanos ar 10
jaunajm ES dalbvalstm, ieskaitot ar Latviju. 2007.g. 19.oktobr ES
lderi panca vienoanos par t saucamo reformu lgumu, kuru uzreiz
nosauca par mazo konstitciju un oficili parakstja 2007.g.
13.decembr. To dv par Lisabonas lgumu. Lgums izsauca daudzas
diskusijas par dalbvalstu suverenittes saglabanas jautjumiem, taj
skait ar Latvij. Autors piekrt Satversmes tiesas spriedum Par likuma
Par Lisabonas lgumu, ar ko groza Lgumu par Eiropas Savienbu un
Eiropas Kopienas dibinanas lgumu atbilstbu Latvijas Republikas
Satversmes 101.pantam viedoklim, ka Lisabonas lguma expressis verbis
norda uz dalbvalstu identittes un suverenittes respektanu, kas ir
uzsvrta vl vairk nek spk esoajos lgumos. Bet dalbvalstu robeu
kontekst autors pilnb atbalsta prof. J.Bojra viedokli, ka ldzdalba
Savienb, kas prstv tuvu pie pusmiljarda iedzvotju un vislielko
pasaul apvienoto ekonomisko potencilu, attiecgi palielina ar katras
atsevias ts dalbvalsts politisko prestiu, k ar rels ekonomisks un
rpolitisks iespjas. Ldz Latvijas ldzdalbai ES, Krievija pastvgi
atteics ratifict abu valstu savstarpjo robelgumu, piekopa pret Latviju
nedraudzgu un neldztiesgu tarifu politiku. Pc Latvijas uzemanas ES
2004.g., Krievijai ES spiediena rezultt vispirms ncs prtraukt pret
Latviju diskriminjou tarifu politiku, un t paa gada decembra skum
Krievijas prezidents jau pazioja par Krievijas gatavbu ratifict Latvijas
Krievijas robelgumu (62.). LES (Lgums par Eiropas Savienbu) 4.panta
otr daa noteica, ka ES respekt dalbvalstu vienldzbu, k ar nacionlo
identitti, kas raksturga to politiskajm un konstitucionlajm
pamatstruktrm, tostarp reionlajm un vietjm pavaldbm. ES
ievro valstu galvens funkcijas, tostarp valsts teritorils integrittes
nodroinanu, likumbas un krtbas uzturanu, k ar valsts drobas
aizsarganu. s funkcijas paliek katras dalbvalsts przi (32.). Tas
paredz pastvgu ES Padomes prezidenta posteni, kopjs rpolitikas

koordinatora pilnvaras, uzlabo balsoanas sistmu un paplaina gan
Eiropas Parlamenta, gan nacionlo likumdevju ietekmi (28.). Precizts
ES pilsonbas institts (ikvienas dalbvalsts pilsonis ir ES pilsonis, un ne
otrdi. ES pilsonba papildina attiecgs valsts pilsonbu un to neaizstj)
(52.) un defintas ES pilsou tiesbas, kurs tiesbas brvi prvietoties un
dzvot dalbvalstu teritorij (22..) ir pirmais punkts ES pilsou tiesbu
uzskaitjum.
ES pilsou tiesbas ir konkretiztas Eiropas Savienbas darbbu
jaunaj redakcij, kam, pc autora viedoka, ir noteico nozme ar valstu
robeu rsoanas kontekst un tas ar izriet no dau tiesbu zintnieku
atzinumiem: Cita starp ts ir das: tiesbas brvi prvietoties un dzvot
dalbvalstu teritorij; tiesbas balsot un kandidt Eiropas Parlamenta
vlans un dzves vietas dalbvalsts pavaldbu vlans ar tdiem
paiem nosacjumiem k attiecgs valsts pilsoiem; tiesbas ts tres
valsts teritorij, kur nav prstvta dalbvalsts, kuras pilsoi vii ir, uz
jebkuras dalbvalsts diplomtisko un konsulro iestu aizsardzbu ar
tdiem paiem nosacjumiem; tiesbas iesniegt lgumrakstu EP; rakstt
Eiropas ombudam un savienbas iestdm un padomdevjm struktrm
jebkur no Lguma valodm un saemt atbildi taj pa valod (ar
20.pants) (54.). ES pilsonba nav saistma tikai ar brvbm un tiesbm.
ES pilsoiem, k to nosaka Lgums, pamatlgumi uzliek ar pienkumus.
Atirb no tiesbm ie pienkumi pamatlgumos nav detalizti.
Pilsonba parasti nozm pilsou pienkumus pakauties valsts likumiem
bt lojlam pret ts varas institcijm. aj gadjum ES pilsou
pienkums ir pilnb respektt ES tiesbas, kuras kolziju gadjumos
preval pr nacionlo likumu normm (Doktrna par ES tiesbu
prkuma principu pr konstitucionlajm normm; piemrota Eiropas
Kopienas Tiesas liets EKT lieta 11/70 Internationale Handelgesellshaft
[197] ECR 1125.) (38.).
Suverenittes izpratne laika gait ir mainjusies, tau suverenittes
jdziens ir atzstams par juridisku jdzienu ar izpldum, tomr
nosakmm robem. Mint jdziena kontekst pai svarga ir valsts
funkciju deleana prvalstiskm organizcijm. da deleana ir
veicama, neaizskarot tautas suverenitti (32.).
Kop 20.gadsimta devidesmito gadu skuma Latvijas rpolitikas
galvenais uzdevums bija stiprint atgto neatkarbu un valstiskumu. Lai
stenotu o uzdevumu, k ar veiktu preju no plnveida uz tirgus
ekonomiku un centraliztas prvaldes viet ieviestu demokrtijas (1.)
tradcijas, Latvija uzska integrciju Eiropas un transatlantiskaj telp.
2004.g. 1.maij Latvija kuva par pilntiesgu ES dalbvalsti, kas
paredzja ar turpmko Latvijas pievienoanos engenas Konvencijai

2007.g. attiecb uz sauszemes un jras robem, bet 2008.g. ar lidostu
Rga (27.).
Viens no ES un engenas ievrojamkajiem sasniegumiem pdjo
vairk nek sedesmit gadu laik bija lielas bezrobeu telpas radana,
kur cilvki, robekontroles netraucti, var brvi prvietoties, k tas tiek
defints ar Lisabonas lguma 2.pant nosakot, ka ES piedv saviem
pilsoiem brvbas, drobas un tiesiskuma telpu bez iekjm robem,
kur personu brva prvietoans ir nodrointa saistb ar piemrotiem
paskumiem, kas attiecas uz rjo robeu kontroli, patvruma
mekltjiem, imigrciju un noziedzbas novranu un apkaroanu (22.).
Frze telpa bez iekjm robem pc autora prliecbas liel mr ir
deklaratva, populistiska un juridiski nekorekta, neatbilst vairkiem
citiem ES un engenas acquis normatvajiem aktiem, jo gan taj pa
pant ir definta iekjo un rjo robeu pastvanas iespja, gan ar
engenas konvencija nosaka rjo un iekjo robeu definjumus: rjs
robeas ir Lgumsldzju Puu sauszemes un jras robeas, k ar
lidostas un jras ostas, kas nav iekjs robeas, savukrt iekjs
robeas ir Lgumsldzju Puu kopgs sauszemes robeas, to lidostas
iekjiem lidojumiem un to jras ostas regulriem prvadjumiem tikai
no ostm vai uz tm citu Lgumsldzju Puu teritorijs, nepiestjot osts
rpus m teritorijm (22.). Dieml ar engenas konvencij dotais
rjs robeas definjums pc btbas ir neskaidrs un nepreczs, jo
formults ar izslganas metodi un bez iekjo robeu jdziena
definjuma nav saprotams. da veida definjumi krasi atiras no
vairkuma pasaules valstu robeu jdziena definjumiem, kas lielkoties
savstarpji ir oti ldzgi vai pat identiski, jo pamat balsts uz starpvalstu
robelgumiem un katra suverna valsts ar valsts robeu pamat saprot
valsts teritorijas (telpas) eometrisku norobeoanu no citm valstm vai
teritorijm, piemram, Polijas Republika (9.), Lietuvas Republika (4.) u.c..
Turklt engenas konvencijas iekjo robeu jdziena definjum, pc
autora prliecbas, ir mehniski iekauta un ar oti neskaidri izteikta cita
pilngi patstvga robeas rema jdziena daa, paredzot prvadjumu
diferenciciju atkarb no statusa. Vairum valstu nacionlaj
normatvaj reguljum, k ar robelgumos k atsevis juridisks
jdziens ir defints valsts robeas rems, ar ko vairum gadjumu saprot
krtbu, kd personas sauszemes transportldzeki, dzelzcea transports,
gaisa kui, kuoanas ldzeki rso valsts robeu, krtbu, kd mantas
un preces prvieto pri valsts robeai vai aizliedz (ierobeo) to
prvietoanu, dakrt ar robeincidentu izmeklanas krtbu un citu
darbbu veikanu uz valsts robeas (3.). Dieml ar engenas konvencij
vl joprojm saglabjusies frze telpa bez iekjm robem, kas
attiecinta uz iekjo tirgu atbilstoi Eiropas Kopienu dibinanas

lgumam (33.) un ir izplatjusies gan starptautiskaj, gan nacionlaj
aprit, radot kdainu izpratni par valstu robeu jdziena nozmi un lomu
valsts un konstitucionlajs tiesbs. Ar dai tiesbu zintnieki, pc
autora prliecbas, nepamatoti apgalvo, ka obrd ES nav ne savas
teritorijas, ne savu iedzvotju, bet ir noteikta publiska vara (dakrt
nodrointa ar ekskluzvu kompetenci) dalbvalstu teritorij un spja bt
par starptautisku attiecbu dalbnieci, it pai pc tam kad ES iegs
juridiskas personas statusu. Turklt, tpat k vairums valstm ldzgo
veidojumu, ar ES ir tapusi uz starptautiska lguma nevis kdas Eiropas
tautas deklarcijas pamata (53.).
Starp ieguvumiem, ko ES devusi saviem pilsoiem, ir tiesbas brvi
ceot ES robes un dzvot, k ar strdt jebkur no izvltajm ES
valstm (1.).
Starptautisko normatvo aktu un saistbu godga un konsekventa
izpilde ir starptautisks sadarbbas pamats jebkur sfr un it sevii
td sfr, k migrcijas procesu regulana. Tpc Latvijas
starptautiskajiem lgumiem un juridiskm saistbm ir pai svarga loma
valsts varas iestu darbbas tiesiskaj reglamentcij.
rjo robeu jdziena izveidoans prieknosacjumiem ir duls
raksturs:
cilvktiesbu sistmas btiskas komponentes personu brvas
prvietoans stenoana;
ekonomisks integrcijas un globalizcijas procesu attstba
starptautisks konkurences apstkos un nepiecieamba
nodroint tiesisko krtbu vienlaicgi daudzs valsts un
vairkos reionos. s tiesisks krtbas nodroinanai
engenas telp ir izveidots attiecgs kompensjoais
mehnisms robeu prbauu atcelanas uz iekjm robem
negatvo seku novranai, kura turpmkai attstanai ir
nepiecieama ar normatv reguljuma pilnveidoana.
Ne starptautisko tiesbu, ne Latvijas mrog jdziens imigrcija un
no t atvasintais jdziens imigrants nav pietiekoi skaidri defints,
neskatoties uz to, ka daudzs valsts, t.sk., ar Latvij, ir pieemts
normatvais reguljums nelegls imigrcijas ierobeoanai. T, Vcij ar
imigrantiem saprot personas, kuras rso robeu nolk apmesties
valst, Japn nacionlus pilsous un rzemniekus, kuri ieceo no
rzemm, Amerikas Savienotajs Valsts rzemniekus, kuri ieceoja uz
likumga pamata uz pastvgu dzvi valst. Nepiecieama jdzienu
imigrants un neleglais imigrants precza noteikana ar engenas
acquis ietvaros.

Neskatoties uz visai plao patvruma starptautisko un ES
normatvo reguljumu, taj skait to normatvo reguljumu, kas pieemts
ES, lai panktu pc iespjas objektvku patvruma procedru norisi uz
valstu robem, novrst patvruma tiesbu aunprtgu izmantoanu nav
izdevies. Patvruma tiesbu aunprtgas izmantoanas tendences turpina
attstties oti straujos tempos ar Latvij un tam pamat ir normatv
reguljuma nepilnbas, k ar bga statusa un patvruma procesa
metodikas nepietiekoa izpratne tiesbsargjoo iestu amatpersonu
darbb, kas var tikt novrsta tikai caur tiesisko izgltoanu.
rjo robeu nostiprinana ir loisks un nepiecieams nosacjums
ne tikai ES un engenas lguma valstu, bet ar treo valstu interess,
nodroinot tiesisko krtbu Eirop, ierobeojot neleglo imigrciju un
starptautisko noziedzbu ar rpus ES un engenas zonas, piemram,
EUBAM misiju veid stiprinot robekontroles un tiesiskuma sistmu ES
kaimivalsts un cits treajs valsts k, piemram, Ukrain un Moldov.
procesa attstb btiska loma ir sakaru virsnieku institta
kompetences turpmkai paplainanai.
Frze telpa bez iekjm robem, kas biei tiek lietota ES
normatvaj reguljum, pc btbas ir deklaratva, populistiska un
juridiski nekorekta, neatbilst vairkiem citiem ES un engenas acquis
normatvajiem aktiem, jo gan taj pa engenas konvencij ir definta
iekjo un rjo robeu pastvanas iespja, gan ar engenas
konvencija nosaka rjo un iekjo robeu jdzienus. Lai nepieautu
sabiedrbas un robeu rsojoo personu turpmku maldinanu, frze
telpa bez iekjm robem btu izsldzama no visiem ES un
nacionlajiem normatvajiem aktiem.
engenas konvencij dotais rjs robeas definjums pc btbas
ir neskaidrs un nepreczs, jo formults ar izslganas metodi un bez
iekjo robeu jdziena definjuma nav saprotams. da veida definjumi
krasi atiras no vairkuma pasaules valstu robeu jdziena
definjumiem, kas lielkoties savstarpji ir oti ldzgi vai pat identiski, jo
pamat balsts uz starpvalstu robelgumiem un katra suverna valsts ar
valsts robeu pamat saprot valsts teritorijas (telpas) eometrisku
norobeoanu no citm valstm vai teritorijm, kas btu jem vr ar
pie rjo un iekjo robeu jdzienu prskatanas un konkretizanas.
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43. VALKOVSKA, A., VECKRCIS, J., LIJEBERGA, K. Angu latvieu Eiropas
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Summary
In development of the term external borders it is possible to discover a dual
nature: 1) major component of human rights system i.e. implementation of freedom
of movement; 2) economic integration and globalization processes in the
development of international competition and the need to ensure the legal system
simultaneously in many countries and in several regions. In order to ensure law
enforcement in the Schengen area, appropriate compensatory mechanism has been
established in order to prevent any negative consequences due to the abolition of the
border checks at internal borders. In this matter it would be needed to further
develop and improve the regulatory framework.
Neither international laws nor the Latvian legislation sufficiently clearly
defines the concept of immigration and its derivative concept immigrant despite the
fact that in many countries, including Latvia a regulatory framework to limit illegal
has been adopted. For example, in Germany the term immigrants is interpreted as
persons who cross the border with the purpose to reside in the country, in Japan as
national citizens and foreigners who come from abroad, in the United States as
foreigners who arrived on a legal basis for permanent residence in the country. The
author urges the need to specify precise and accurate determination of the concepts
immigrant and illegal immigrant in the Schengen acquis.
Despite the very broad international and EU regulatory framework on asylum,
including the regulatory framework, adopted in the EU in order to maximize
equitable asylum claim processing procedures at the borders of the EU countries, the
author emphasizes that prevention of abuse of the asylum law has failed. Trends of
asylum rights abuse continue to develop and expand very rapidly including in Latvia,
since the regulatory framework is based on the gaps in legislation. Another problem
is lack of understanding among the officials of law enforcement institutions in respect
to refugees status and asylum granting procedures. Such issue can be dealt on the
basis of judiciary training for officials.
Strengthening of external borders is a logical and necessary prerequisite not
only for the EU and the Schengen countries, but also in the interest of third countries
providing a legal order in Europe, limiting illegal immigration and cross border crime
outside the EU and the Schengen area. Such example is shown in the EUBAM mission
in strengthening border controls and justice systems in the EU neighbouring
countries and other third countries such as Ukraine and Moldova. In the development

of this process the key role should be given to further expansion for the development
of liaison officers competence.
The phrase an area without internal borders is often used in the framework
of regulatory framework of European Union being rather declarative in nature. Such a
phrase is populistic and legally incorrect, inconsistent with other EU and Schengen
acquis legislation. This phrase is used in the Schengen Convention itself and is defined
in the concepts of external and internal borders. In order to prevent border crossing
persons further mislead with the phrase an area without internal borders, the
author proposes the phrase to be excluded from the whole EU and national
legislation.
In the authors opinion, the definition of external borders in the Schengen
Convention, is vague and imprecise since it has been defined by an exclusion method
and without a definition of internal borders the concept borders is not
understandable. This kind of definitions are quite different from majority of the
definitions of national borders in other countries, most of which are mutually very
similar or even identical, because they are based on the international border treaties
and each sovereign state with the term border understands geometrical segregation
of the national territory (space) from other countries or territories. Such definitions
should be also taken into account when reviewing, amending or specifying the
definitions of the external and internal borders.

KLASTERIZCIJU RAKSTUROJOO PARAMETRU
IETEKME UZ DATU ANALZES REZULTTIEM
IMPACT OF PARAMETERS CHARACTERIZING CLUSTERING
ON DATA ANALYSIS RESULTS
Pteris GRABUSTS
Dr. sc. ing., asoc. prof., Rzeknes Augstskola
Tlrunis: +371 26593165, epasts: peter@ru.lv
Rzekne, Latvija

Abstract. Clustering algorithms are used to group some given objects defined by a set of
numerical properties in such a way that the objects within a group are more similar
than the objects in different groups. All clustering algorithms have common parameters
the choice of which characterizes the effectiveness of clustering. The most important
parameters characterizing clustering are: metrics (the distance between cluster
elements and cluster centre), number of clusters k and cluster validity criteria. The goal
of the paper to perform the evaluation of the validity of metrics choice, to describe the
change with respect to the number of clusters for experimental data purposes and to
evaluate the credibility of clustering results. As an input data the table describing the
rating of Latvian state higher educational institutions for year 2011 has been used and
the goal of the experiment was to show, how by using the clustering methods it is
possible to analyze the mentioned data in an alternative way.
Keywords: clustering algorithms, metrics, kmeans, cluster validity.

Ievads
Msdiens ir uzkrjies liels daudzums datu dads zintnes,
uzmjdarbbas, tautsaimniecbas u.c. sfrs un rodas nepiecieamba
analizt tos labkai konkrts nozares vadanai. Biei uzmjdarbbas
vajadzbas stimul izstrdt jaunas intelektuls datu analzes metodes,
kas ir orienttas uz praktisku pielietojumu. Klasteranalzes k viena no
intelektuls datu analzes pamatuzdevumiem mris ir neatkargu
grupu (klasteru) un to raksturlielumu meklana analizjamos datos.
da uzdevuma atrisinana auj labk izprast datus, jo klasterizciju var
izmantot praktiski jebkur pielietojumu jom, kur nepiecieama datu
analze.
Klasteranalzes pamat ir hipotze par kompaktumu. Tiek
pieemts, ka apmcos kopas elementi pazmju telp atrodas kompakt
veid. Galvenais uzdevums formalizti aprakstt os veidojumus. Ir
pazstami daudzi klasterizcijas algoritmi tdi k Isodata, FOREL, k
vidjais (kmeans) u.c. Visiem klasterizcijas algoritmiem ir kopgi
parametri, kuru izvle ar raksturo klasterizcijas efektivitti. Svargkie
klasterizciju raksturojoie parametri ir di: metrika (klasteru elementu

attlums ldz klastera centram), klasteru skaits k, klasterizcijas
ticambas novrtjums.
Lai izvrttu klasterizcijas algoritmu darbbas efektivittes
aspektus, autors izvirzja mri veikt Latvijas valsts dibinto augstskolu
reitinga datu par 2011. gadu analzi. Ptjuma uzdevumi pakrtoti
izvirztajam mrim:
veikt metrikas izvles pamatotbas izvrtanu;
raksturot klasteru skaita izmaiu analizjamajiem datiem;
novrtt klasterizcijas rezulttu ticambu.
Ptjuma nolks bija pardt, k ar klasterizcijas metodm
alternatv veid var analizt dus datus. Galvens ptjuma metodes
dotaj darb ir apraksto metode, matemtisk modelana un
statistisk analze. Ptjuma laika periods ir 2011. gads.
1. Klasterizcijas metou pielietojums datu analz
Dads ptniecbas joms aktuls ir jautjums: K organizt
novrojamos datus prskatms struktrs?. Pastv viedoklis, ka,
atirb no daudzm citm statistiskm procedrm, vairum gadjumu
klasteranalzes metodes tiek izmantotas tad, kad nav nekdu hipotu
attiecb par klasm, bet vl aizvien notiek datu vkanas etaps.
Klasteranalzes metodes auj sadalt ptmos objektus ldzgu objektu
grups, ko sauc par klasteriem (6.). Klasterizcijas btba ir attlota
1. attl, kur divdimensiju telpas objekti sadalti 5 klasteros.

1. attls. Divdimensiju objektu telpas sadaljuma klasteros piemrs
Avots: autora izveidots attls

Klasterizcija atiras no klasifikcijas ar to, ka analzes veikanai
klasterizcijas proces nav nepiecieambas izdalt atseviu maingo
grupu. No viedoka klasterizcija tiek traktta k apmcba bez
skolotja un tiek pielietota ptjumu skotnj posm (9.).
Klasteranalzi raksturo divas patnbas, kas atir to no citm
metodm:
1) rezultts atkargs no objektu vai to atribtu dabas, t.i., tie var

bt viennozmgi noteikti objekti vai ar objekti ar izplduu
aprakstu;
2) rezultts atkargs no iespjams klastera un objektu attiecbas
klasteros dabas, t.i., jem vr objekta iespjam piederba
vairkiem klasteriem un objekta piederbas noteikana (stingra
vai izpldus piederba).
emot vr klasterizcijas svargo lomu datu analz, objekta
piederbas jdziens tika visprints uz tdu klau funkciju, kas nosaka
klau objektu piederbu konkrtai klasei.
Izdala divu veidu klases raksturojos funkcijas:
1) diskrt funkcija, kas pieem vienu no divm iespjamajm
vrtbm pieder/nepieder klasei (klasisk klasterizcija);
2) funkcija, kas pieem vrtbas no intervla [0,1]. Jo funkcijas
vrtbas tuvk 1, jo objekts vairk pieder konkrtai klasei
(izpldus klasterizcija).
Klasterizcijas algoritmi prsvar paredzti daudzdimensiju datu
izlau apstrdei, kad dati doti tabulas veid objektspaba. Tie auj
grupt objektus noteikts grups, kurs objekti saistti sav starp pc
kdas konkrtas krtulas. Nav svargi, k tiek dvtas das grupas
taksoni, klasteri, klases, galvenais, ka ts pietiekami preczi atspoguo o
objektu pabas. Pc klasterizcijas datus tlkai analzei izmanto citas
intelektuls datu analzes metodes, lai noskaidrotu iegto
likumsakarbu btbu un turpmks izmantoanas iespjas (5.).
Klasterizciju parasti izmanto datu apstrdes proces k pirmo
analzes soli. T identific ldzgu datu grupas, kas vlk var tikt
izmantotas datu kopsakarbu ptan (3.). Klasteranalzes process
formli sastv no diem etapiem:
analzei nepiecieamo datu savkana;
klau datu (klasteru) raksturojoo lielumu un robeu
noteikana;
datu grupana klasteros;
klau hierarhijas noteikana un rezulttu analze.
Datu analz tradicionli tiek pielietots kvidjais klasterizcijas
algoritms (2.). Tas minimiz kvalittes rdtju, kur noteikts k visu
punktu, kas pieder klastera apgabalam, attlumu ldz klastera centram
(metriku) (1.). Ar metriku aj kontekst tiek saprasta distance
(attlums) starp klaster ietilpstoajiem punktiem (7.). Parasti
klasterizcijas algoritmos ieejas datu vektors tiek saldzints ar citiem vai
ar iepriek noteiktu klastera centru. Attluma metrika ar nosaka
piederbu tam vai citam klasterim, tdjdi nosakot likumsakarbas
daudzdimensiju datu izlass attiecinot ieejas datus tai vai citai klasei
jeb klasterim (8.).

Eiklda attlums ((Euclidean distance) ir visbiek izmantojam
distance klasterizcij. Tas ir attlums starp divu punktu koordintm
daudzdimensiju telp, kas atbilst tos savienojo nogriea garumam un
ko aprina pc formulas (3.):
m
D XY (x
k 1
ik x jk ) 2 (1)
Manhetenas attlumu (Manhattan distance) aprina k

koordintu pru vrtbu starpbu absolto summu (3.):
d
DXY | x
k 1
ik x jk | (2)
Attluma vrtbu var izteikt ar ar Pirsona korelcijas koeficienta

(Pearson correlation coefficient) paldzbu. Izskaitot vrtba atrodas
intervl no 1 ldz 1 un raksturo punktu ldzbas pakpi (3.):
d
(x ik xi )( x jk x j )
1
d
rij d
k 1
d , kur xi
d x ik . (3)
(x
k 1
ik xi ) 2
(x
k 1
jk xj) 2 k 1
Kosinusa distance (Cosine distance) ir leisk starpba starp

diviem datu punktiem (3.):
n
X Y
X
i 1
i Yi
D XY cos( ) (4)
X Y n n
(X )
i 1
i
2
(Y )
i 1
i
2
Autors sav darb (4.) prbaudja klasisk klasterizcijas algoritma

kvidjais darbbas rezulttus ar dadm metrikm: Eiklda attlumu,
Manhetenas distanci, Kosinusa distanci un Pirsona korelcijas
koeficientu. Eksperimentu gait k kvidjais klasterizcijas algoritm
klasteru centru noteikanai secgi tika izmantotas mints etras
metrikas. Iegtie rezultti tika analizti un tika prbaudta klasterizcijas
kvalitte. Tradicionli klasterizcijas algoritmos izmanto Eiklda
attlumu, tau citas metrikas izvle atsevios gadjumos var bt
diskutjama. Tas atkargs no risinm uzdevuma, datu apjoma un
saretbas. Tika konstatts, ka klasterizcijas rezultti visu apskatmo
metriku izmantoan ir oti ldzgi. Nevienai no izvltajm metrikm
nebija izirga prsvara, kas autu pasludint to par labko.
Algoritms kvidjais izpilds du sou secb (9.):
(a) inicializ klasteru centrus wj (j nepiecieamo klasteru skaits
uzdevuma risinanai);
(b) grup visus apmcbas izlases punktus ap tuvk klastera centru,

t.i., katru punktu xi saista ar klasteru j*, kuram
|| xi w j || min || xi w j || ;
*
j
(c) izskaito jaunos klasteru centrus, t.i., visiem wj izskaito :

1
wj
mj
x i
x i klasterim j
, kur mj klasterim j piederoo punktu skaits;
(d) atkrto (b) soli tik ilgi, kamr iterciju laik nemains klasteru
centru vrtbas.

Algoritma darbbas rezultt tiek noteikti galgie klasteru centri wj,
ievrojot nosacjumu, ka attlumu kvadrtu summai starp visiem
punktiem, kas pieder grupai j, un klastera centru ir jbt minimlai.
Btisks jautjums kvidjais algoritma realizan ir klasteru
skaita un skotnjo centru noteikana. Vienkrkajos uzdevumos
pieem, ka apriori ir zinms klasteru skaits un par skotnjm m klasteru
centru vrtbm tiek piedvts emt apmcos kopas pirmos m
punktus.
Par algoritma kvidjais priekrocbm var uzskatt popularitti,
lielo efektivitti un procedras vienkrbu. Bet gadjum, kad objektu
izvietojums ir neviendabgs, algoritms var nedot labus rezulttus. Tad ir
jmaina parametri (klasteru skaits) un atkal jmina atkrtot algoritma
darbbas. Par trkumu tiek uzskatts tas, ka algoritms nav universls.
2. Klasterizcijas rezulttu ticambas novrtjums
Darba izstrdes laik aktualizjs jautjums par klasterizcijas
kvalittes kritrijiem, t.i., skaitliska kritrija noteikana, lai vartu
novrtt klasterizcijas rezulttu.
Literatr apskatti trs kritriji klasterizcijas ticambas
novrtan: rjais kritrijs, iekjais kritrijs un relatvais kritrijs (9.).
Raksta ierobeot apjoma d turpmk tiks apskatts tikai klasterizcijas
rjais ticambas indekss.
Ja dota datu izlase X un klasteru struktra C tiek iegta no X
klasterizcijas algoritma darbbas rezultt, tad rjais kritrijs saldzina
iegto klasteru struktru C ar specificta sadaljuma P kategorijm, kas
atspoguo potencilo klasteru struktru, ko vartu iegt no X. Datu
punktu prim xi un xj no izlases X pastv etri stvoki, k xi un xj
izvietojas klasteru struktrs C un P (9.):
Stvoklis 1: xi un xj pieder ldzgiem C klasteriem un ldzgm P
kategorijm.
Stvoklis 2: xi un xj pieder ldzgiem C klasteriem, bet atirgm
P kategorijm.
Stvoklis 3: xi un xj pieder atirgiem C klasteriem, bet ldzgm
P kategorijm.

Stvoklis 4: xi un xj pieder atirgiem C klasteriem un
atirgm P kategorijm.
Punktu pri visiem etriem stvokiem tiek apzmti ar a, b, c un d.
T k punktu pru kopskaits ir n(n1)/2, tad var iegt izteiksmi:
n(n 1)
M abcd , (5)
2
kur n ir datu izlases punktu skaits.
rj indeksa izskaitoanas demonstranas nolk pieem, ka
dota datu izlase ar 7 punktiem. 2. attl pardts punktu izvietojums
specifict sadaljum P un klasterizcijas rezultt iegtaj klasteru
struktr C.

2. attls. Punktu pri etru stvoku demonstranai (9.)

Attl redzams, ka, piemram, stvoklim 1 atbilst tikai divi
gadjumi (x1 un x3) un (x2 un x5). ie punkti vienlaikus pieder ldzgiem C
klasteriem un ldzgm kategorijm sadaljum P, t.i., atrodas vien un
taj pa klaster sadaljum P un vien un taj pa klaster struktr C.
Visiem etriem stvokiem atbilstoie punktu pri pardti 1. tabul.

1.tabula
Datu punktu gadjumu stvoki (9.)

Stvoklis Datu punktu pri Kop

a x1 un x3; x2 un x5 2
b x1 un x4; x3 un x4; x6 un x7 3
c x1 un x6; x2 un x4; x2 un x7; x3 un x6; x4 un x5; x4 un x7; x5 un x7 7
d x1 un x2; x1 un x5; x1 un x7; x2 un x3; x2 un x6; x3 un x5; x3 un x7; 9
x4 un x6; x5 un x6

Kad C un P ir noteikti, var izvlties kdu no daudzajiem
klasterizcijas kvalittes kritrijiem (9.). Dotaj ptjum klasterizcijas

kvalittes kritriji tika novrtti ar Randa indeksa un Huberta indeksa
paldzbu.
Randa indeksu skaito pc das formulas (3.):
ad
R (6)
M
Huberta indekss (3.):
n 1 n
1
M X
i 1 j i 1
ij Yij (7)
Abu indeksu vrtbas ir robes no 0 ldz 1. Lielka indeksa vrtba

liecina par lielku ldzbu starp C un P.
3. Latvijas augstskolu 2011. gada reitinga analze ar
klasterizcijas paldzbu
3.1. Reitinga dati
Lai vartu novrtt klasterizciju raksturojoo parametru ietekmi
uz klasterizcijas rezulttiem, tika veikts ptjums, kur tika izmantoti
Latvijas valsts dibinto augstskolu reitinga tabula par 2011. gadu (10.).
Augstskolu starptautiskie reitingi kst arvien populrki. Pastv
dadas metodoloijas augstskolu reitingu noteikan.
Reitings Webometrics Ranking ran vairk nek 20 000 augstks
mcbu iestdes pasaul (11.). Reitings balsts tikai uz Internet
pieejams informcijas par mcbu iestdi. Tiek izmantoti etri galvenie
indikatori: 10% no ranga vrtbas sastda augstskolas atpazstamba
Google mekltj; 50% rjo saiu skaits uz augstskolas mjas lapu;
10% akadmisks un publicans aktivittes dadu datu formt
Google mekltj (.doc, .pdf, .ppt); 30% elektronisko publikciju skaits
no Google Scholar (20072011) un dati no Scimago SIR (20032010).
aj reiting LU ierindota 822. viet, RTU 915. viet, LLU 3119.
viet, TSI 3436. viet, RA 3659. viet.
Reitings SCImago Institutions Rankings ran 3042 augstks
mcbu iestdes pasaul un balsts uz datiem par augstskolas
zintniskajm aktivittm (12.). etri indikatori ietver informciju par
publikciju skaitu (galvenokrt SCOPUS), zintnisks sadarbbas
rdtjus, augsta lmea publikciju skaitu utt. No Latvijas augstskolm
eit minta LU (1565. viet) un RTU (2794. viet).
Reitings QS World University Rankings veido 500 pasaules vadoo
augstskolu izlasi (14.). Tiek izmantoti 6 indikatori: 40% akadmisk
reputcija; 10% darba devju reputcija; 20% zintnisko darbu
citjamba; 20% studentu patsvars; 5% rzemju studentu patsvars;
5% starptautisko fakultu patsvars. Latvijas augstskolas aj reitingu
tabul nav prstvtas.

Reitings The Times Higher World University Ranking (THE) veido
400 pasaules vadoo augstskolu izlasi (13.). Tiek izmantoti 13 indikatori,
kas grupti 5 grups: 30% apmcbas vide; 30% ptnieciskais darbs;
30% citjamba; 2,5% inovcijas; 7,5% rzemju sakari. Latvijas
augstskolas aj reitingu tabul nav prstvtas.
Latvijas augstskolu reitinga izveid pamat emta THE
metodoloija un vrtanas kritriji jeb indikatori ir di:
I1 studjoo un akadmisk personla skaita attiecba;
I2 absolventu patsvars;
I3 akadmisk personla pamatdarb ar Dr. grdu patsvars
(starp vism augstskolm);
I4 akadmisk personla pamatdarb ar Dr. grdu patsvars
(konkrtaj augstskol)
I5 akadmisk personla pamatdarb patsvars;
I6 akadmisk personla vecuma struktra (30 50 g. veco
patsvars);
I7 rzemju studentu patsvars;
I8 publikciju skaits uz akadmisk personla 1 vienbu;
I9 izgltbas kvalitte (izcila un laba);
I10 augstskolas popularitte/ atpazstamba.
Augstskolu reitinga rezultjoie dati pardti 2. tabul.
2.tabula
Latvijas valsts dibinto augstskolu 2011. gada reitinga dati (10.)

Augst
I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 I10 Vieta
skola
LU 63 13,5 150 63 44,5 46 39,5 200 184 100 1
RTU 45 11 124,5 60 50 36 21,5 166 200 100 2
RSU 53 12,5 57 57 50 38 44 100 198 99 3
DU 45 10,5 33 59 49,5 55 2,5 138 82 96 4
LLU 35 11 49,5 60 26 39 0 38 148 99 5
REA 9 13,5 3 85 11 77 19 20 88 94 67
LNAA 0 50 7,5 69 50 67 0 0 82 89 67
VeA 18 10 7,5 38 42,5 38 0,5 58 96 87 8
LMA 6 13,5 3 10 50 52 0 0 154 97 9
RPIVA 68 14,5 12 46 38 47 0,5 0 68 88 1012
LMA 5 12 4,5 12 49 42 0,5 0 162 94 1012
BA 50 18 4,5 33 26,5 31 0,5 0 120 94 1012
LSPA 23 11 10,5 51 43,5 32 0 0 106 95 13
RA 63 12 10,5 36 39,5 65 2 0 48 86 14
ViA 30 11 4,5 27 34,5 66 0 20 80 83 1517
LKuA 8 10,5 4,5 25 43 47 1 0 122 93 1517
LJA 21 4,5 3 33 30,5 13 0,5 0 148 97 1517
LiepU 39 13 13,5 49 21 38 0 0 72 93 18

Turpmkajos ptjumos tika izmantotas o indikatoru skaitlisks
vrtbas. Netika emti vr eogrfiskie, socilie un politiskie aspekti, k
ar iegt vieta reitingu tabul.
3.2. Klasterizcijas rezultti
Ptjum tika izdarts minjums sagrupt augstskolas ar
klasterizcijas algoritma kvidjais paldzbu un prliecinties, vai ds
sadaljums atbilst matemtiski izskaitotajai augstskolas vietai reitinga
tabul. Eksperimentl daa tika veikta MatLab vid un iegtie klasteri
tika saldzinti ar SPSS klasterizcijas rezulttiem. Secgi izvloties
klasteru skaitu robes no 2 ldz 8 un pielietojot klasterizcijas algoritmu
kvidjais, tika iegti attiecgie klasteri un to komponenti (3. tab.).

3.tabula
Klasterizcijas rezultt iegtie klasteri un to komponenti

Klasteru Augstskolas
skaits klasteros
2 LU RTU Prjs
RSU
3 LU RTU RSU Prjs
4 LU RTU RSU DU Prjs
5 LU RTU RSU DU RPIVA RA Prjs
ViA LiepU
6 LU RTU RSU DU RPIVA RA REA Prjs
ViA LiepU LNAA

7 LU RTU RSU DU RPIVA RA REA LLU VeA LMA LKuA
ViA LiepU LNAA BA LSPA LMA LJA

8 LU RTU RSU DU RPIVA RA REA LLU VeA LMA LKuA LNAA
ViA LiepU BA LSPA LMA LJA
Avots: autora aprinu rezultts

Tabul redzams, ka pirmajos trijos klasteros ietilpstos
augstskolas reitinga tabul atrodas reitinga tabulas augj da. Tpat
secinms, ka 5,6,7 un 8 klasteru gadjum algoritma darbbas rezultt
izskaitoto etru klasteru sastvs ir nemaings. Atirbas skas ar piekto
klasteri. Ar ar SPSS iegtie rezultti ir ldzgi.
Klasteru vizualizcijai biei izmanto hierarhisko klasterizciju (2.).
Ja divi klasteri nokst vien grup lmen k un tie paliek kop ar
augstkos lmeos, tad du grupanu sauc par hierarhisko
klasterizciju. Jebkurai hierarhiskai grupanai pastv atbilstoa
kokveida struktra, ko sauc par dendrogrammu, kas parda k grupjas

klasteri. Hierarhisks klasterizcijas rezultt iegt augstskolu reitinga
tabulas datu dendrogramma pardta 3. attl.

3. attls. Augstskolu reitinga datu dendrogramma

Dendrogrammas analze liecina, ka rezultjoie klasteri btiski
neatiras no kvidjais klasterizcijas algoritma darbbas rezultt
iegtajiem klasteriem (3. tab.).
3.3. Klasterizcijas ticambas analze
Lai prbaudtu veikts klasterizcijas ticambu, tika izskaitoti
kvalittes rdtji Randa un Huberta indeksi astoiem klasteriem.
Klasteru struktra C (secgi ar klasteru skaitu robes no 2 ldz 8
klasteriem) tika saldzinta ar specifictajiem sadaljumiem P, kas satur
dadus potencilos klasterus. Piemram, ja klasteru struktra C sastv
no diviem klasteriem, tad em sadaljumu P ar trim klasteriem, izskaito
a, b, c, d vrtbas un izskaito kvalittes indeksu struktrai C un
identificanas kdu. Tad em sadaljumu P ar etriem klasteriem utt.
Izskaitots kopjs klasterizcijas kdas bija das:
2 klasteriem 5,56 %;
3 klasteriem 50%;
4 klasteriem 55,6%;
5 klasteriem 55,6%;
6 klasteriem 38,89%;
7 klasteriem 33,33%;
8 klasteriem 50%.

Starp vism C struktrm vismazk kda ir 7 klasteru gadjum,
t.i., 7 klasteru struktra aj gadjum ir visoptimlk. 4. attl pardti
izskaitotie Randa un Huberta indeksi.

4. attls. Randa un Huberta indeksi septiu klasteru gadjum

Tdjdi ir konstatts, ka doto datu izlasi vislabk raksturo 7
klasteru struktra (3. tab.). emot vr publiskaj telp izskanjus
runas par augstskolu restrukturizcijas nepiecieambu, no matemtisk
viedoka raugoties 7 izskaitotos optimlos klasterus vartu turpint
apvienot, iegstot, piemram, superklasteri ar LU, RTU, RSU un DU.
ds hipottisks sadaljums pardts 5. attl.

5. attls. Augstskolu sadaljums septiu klasteru gadjum
Avots: autora izveidots attls

Var secint, ka klasterizcijas kvalitti raksturojoie indeksi ir oti
lietdergi klasterizcijas algoritmu darbbas rezulttu analz. Ar to

paldzbu var izvlties optimlu klasteru struktru gadjumos, kad datu
sadaljums klasteros skotnji nav noteikts.
Klasteranalzes k viena no intelektuls datu analzes
pamatuzdevumiem mris ir neatkargu grupu (klasteru) un to
raksturlielumu meklana analizjamos datos. da uzdevuma
atrisinana auj labk izprast datus, jo klasterizciju var izmantot
praktiski jebkur pielietojumu jom, kur nepiecieama eksperimentlo
vai statistisko datu analze.
Visiem klasterizcijas algoritmiem ir kopgi parametri, kuru izvle
ar raksturo klasterizcijas efektivitti. Svargkie klasterizciju
raksturojoie parametri ir di: metrika (klasteru elementu attlums ldz
klastera centram), klasteru skaits k un klasterizcijas ticambas
novrtjums.
Lai izvrttu klasterizcijas algoritmu darbbas efektivittes
aspektus, tika izvirzts mris veikt Latvijas valsts dibinto augstskolu
reitinga datu par 2011. gadu analzi. Ptjuma uzdevumi bija pakrtoti
izvirztajam mrim:
veikt metrikas izvles pamatotbas izvrtanu;
raksturot klasteru skaita izmaiu analizjamajiem datiem;
novrtt klasterizcijas rezulttu ticambu.
Ptjuma nolks bija pardt, k ar klasterizcijas metodm
alternatv veid var analizt dus datus. Ptjuma laik tika konstatts,
ka metrikas izvle btiski neiespaido klasterizcijas kvalitti. Daudz
lielka nozme bija klasteru skaita izvlei. Reitinga datu klasterizcij un
pc ts veikts klasterizcijas indeksa izskaitoanas par optimlko tika
izvlta klasteru struktra ar septiiem klasteriem. Ptjuma
eksperimentls daas rezultti liecina, ka augstskolas ajos klasteros
iedaltas pc to tuvbas mra, ko nosaka indikatoru vrtbas. Tpat tika
secints, ka vietu reitinga tabul btiski ietekm indikatora I8
(publikciju skaits) vrtba.
Tda veida datu analze ar klasterizcijas paldzbu var tikt
uzskatta k papildus ldzeklis tradicionlajm datu apstrdes
procedrm, bet ts rezultti ir rpgi janaliz.
Analizjot atsauksmes pres par augstskolu reitingu korektumu,
tika secints, ka galvenie iebildumi pret 2011. gada augstskolu reitingu ir
di:
nav korekti saldzint studjoo rvalstnieku skaitu privts un
valsts augstskols;
nav korekti apgalvot: jo lielka augstskola, jo t ir
kvalitatvka;

gada topu nevar saldzint ar iepriekjo, jo abu gadu topos ir
izmantoti atirgi vrtanas kritriji;
ogad izmantota zintnisko publikciju datu bze SCOPUS. T
pilnb neatspoguojot zintnisks publikcijas, piemram,
humanitrajs zintns;
reiting vairk punktu ieguvuas ts augstskolas, kurs ir liels
studentu skaits uz vienu mcbspku;
atsevii esot jvrt veckas un jaunkas augstskolas,
galvaspilst esos un reionls augstks izgltbas iestdes.
T k eso reitinga aprina metodoloija tiek pamatgi kritizta
no augstskolu prstvju puses, btu lietdergi tomr izstrdt
metodoloiju, kas apmierintu lielko augstskolu dau.
1. AGRAWAL, R. et al. Efficient similarity search in sequence databases. Proc. 4th
Int. Conf. On Foundations of Data Organizations and Algorithms, Chicago.1993.
pp. 6984.
2. EVERITT, B. Cluster analysis. Edward Arnold, London, 1993.
3. GAN, G. et al. Data clustering: Theory, algorithms and applications. ASASIAM
series on Statistics and Applied Probability, SIAM, Philadelphia, ASA,
Alexandria, VA, 2007.
4. GRABUSTS, P. Distance Metrics Selection Validity in Cluster Analysis. RTU
zintniskie raksti. 5. sr., Datorzintne. 49. sj. 2011. 72.77. lpp.
5. HAN, J. et al. Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery. Taylor and
Francis, 2001. 372 pages.
6. KAUFMAN, L., ROUSSEEUW, P. Finding groups in data. An introduction to
cluster analysis. John Wiley & Sons, 2005.
7. LI, M. et al. The similarity metric. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory,
vol.50, No. 12, 2004. pp.32503264.
8. VITANYI, P. Universal similarity. ITW2005, Rotorua, New Zealand, 2005.
9. XU, R., WUNVH, D. Clustering. John Wiley & Sons, 2009. pp. 263278.
10. KUZMINA, I. Augstskolu vrtana uzkurina kaislbas [tiesaiste]. Laikraksta
Latvijas Avze publikcija [atsauce 2012.g. 15.feb.]. Pieejas veids:
http://la.lv/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=314680:augstsk
oluvrtanauzkurinakaislbas&catid=124:aktuli&Itemid=146
11. Rank of Universities of Latvia [tiesaiste]. Ranking Web of World Universities
[atsauce 2012.g. 15.feb.]. Pieejas veids:
http://www.webometrics.info/rank_by_country.asp?country=lv
12. SIR World Report 2011[tiesaiste]. SCImago Institutions Rankings [atsauce
2012.g. 15.feb.]. Pieejas veids: http://www.scimagoir.com/
13. Top 400 World Universities [tiesaiste]. The Times Higher World University
Ranking [atsauce 2012.g. 15.feb.]. Pieejas veids:
http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/worlduniversityrankings/2011
2012/top400.html

14. QS World University Rankings 2011/2012 [tiesaiste]. QS Top Universities
[atsauce 2012.g. 15.feb.]. Pieejas veids:
http://www.topuniversities.com/universityrankings/worlduniversity
rankings/2011
Summary
The goal of cluster analysis as one of the main tasks of intellectual data
analysis is the search of independent groups (clusters) and their characteristics in the
data under consideration (analysis). Solving such task allows to better understand the
data, since clustering can be used in practically all sorts of applications where
analysis of experimental or statistical data is required.
Traditionally kmeans clustering algorithm has been used in the research. The
following could be mentioned as its advantages: popularity, high efficiency and
simplicity of the procedure.
All clustering algorithms have common parameters, the choice of which
characterizes the efficiency of clustering. Some of the most important parameters
describing the clustering are:
metric (the distance between cluster elements and cluster centre);
number of clusters k;
evaluation of clustering validity.
The goal of the research was to perform validity evaluation with respect to the
choice of metrics, to describe changes in the number of clusters with respect to the
experimental data and to evaluate the credibility of clustering results. Rating table of
the Latvian state higher educational institutions for year 2011 has been used as input
data and the goal of the experiment was to show how by applying clustering methods
the mentioned data can be analyzed in an alternative way.
During the research an attempt has been made to group the higher educational
institutions with the help of kmeans clustering algorithm and to verify whether such
division corresponds to the rate of certain higher educational institution in the rating
table calculated mathematically.
Traditionally, Euclidean distance is used in clustering algorithms, however, the
choice of another metrics in certain cases may be justified. It depends on the task
under consideration, the amount of data and level of complexity. It has been
discovered that the results of clustering by using all metrics under consideration are
very similar. Neither of the chosen metrics (Euclidean distance, Manhattan distance,
Pearson correlation coefficient, Cosine distance) dominated so that it could be named
as the best choice.
Much more important was selection of the number of clusters. In the clustering
of rating data and after the performance of the calculation of clustering index, cluster
structure with seven clusters has been chosen as the most optimal structure. In the
given research the criteria for clustering efficiency have been evaluated with the help
of Rand index and Hubert index. It has been concluded that indices characterizing the
quality of clustering are very useful for analyzing the results of clustering algorithms
performance. With their help it is possible to choose an optimal cluster structure in
cases when data division in clusters has not been initially defined.
Such type of data analysis with the help of clustering can be considered as
additional means to traditional data processing procedures and its results shall be
carefully analyzed.

GALVENS TENDENCES LATVIJAS BANKU SEKTORA
KREDTPORTFEA KVALITTES VADB
2004. 2011. G.
THE MAIN TRENDS IN LOAN BRIEFCASE QUALITY
MANAGEMENT OF LATVIAN BANK SECTOR IN 2004 2011
Nikolajs JEFIMOVS
Mg. iur., bac. vad., lektors, Valsts Policijas koleda
Tlrunis: 28280790, epasts: geliogabal@inbox.lv
Daugavpils, Latvija

Abstract. The main aim of bank sector is to stimulate the development of national
economy. During the economic growth period in Latvia the quantity of loans has been
increased substantially because of finance organizations, that gave loans to the
majority of groups of people and organizations without any justification. As a result in
the beginning of year 2008, when economic recession started to widen, state and finance
sector faced huge problems with timely loan repayment. Due to learning from economic
crisis, the participants of market started to take into account and to examine the quality
of loan briefcase, which influences the results of operational activities of every credit
organization. Because of credit policy changes the effect of quality of loan briefcase on
working processes of finance sector has been reduced. As a result the new methods and
concepts have been evolved, providing assistance in effective management and control
of the loan briefcase quality of bank sector.
Keywords: economic crisis, quality management, loan briefcase.

Ievads
Bankas centrlas sastvdaas tirgus struktras sistm. To
darbbas attstba nepiecieams noteikums rela tirgus mehnisma
izveidei. Ekonomisko prkrtojumu process ir scies no banku sistmas
reformanas. Banku sistma dinamiski attsts ar odien.
Ilgu laiku bankas bija valsts institcijas un uzstjs k viena no
ekonomikas administratvs un komandas sistmas vadbas nesom
konstrukcijm. Rezultt banku darbbas organizcija Latvij bija
zaudjusi savas pirmskara tradcijas un pieredzi. Jaunkaj vstur,
veidojot tirgus ekonomiku (t.sk. ar banku sektoru), Latvijai nosacti s
laika posm vajadzja aizgt un sekmgi pielietot pasaules vadoo banku
darbbas funkcionanas principus.
Latvijas prieanu uz tirgus ekonomiku, ts funkcionanas
efektivittes paaugstinjumu, nepiecieams infrastruktras izveidi nav
iespjams nodroint bez turpmkas kredtu attiecbu izmantoanas un
attstbas. Kredts stimul rpniecbas spku attstbu, patrina kapitla
avotu veidoanas procesu raoanas paplainanai uz zintnes un
tehnikas progresa bzes. Bez kredtu atbalsta nav iespjams nodroint

tru un civiliztu saimniecbu un uzmumu veidoanu, jaunu
uzmjdarbbas veidu ievieanu Latvijas valsts ietvaros un rj
ekonomiskaj vid.
Kredtu izsnieganas darbba ir tds darbbas veids, kura d tiek
veidota banka. Neskatoties uz to, ka ar laiku bankas paplaina sniegto
pakalpojumu klstu, tiei iemumi no kredtu opercijm veido lielko
patsvaru kopjos bankas ienkumos.
Bankas kreditanas jautjumu aktualitte msdienas apstkos ir
saistta ar sekojoiem faktoriem:
1) pirmkrt, kredtu operciju veiksmga realizcija noved pie
peas saemanas, kas sekm kredtiestdes drouma un
stabilittes paaugstinjumu;
2) otrkrt, bankas aizdevumam ir raksturgs tas, ka ar t paldzbu
tiek apmierinta aizmju vajadzba pc ldzekiem. Td
veid kreditanas sistmas attstb ir ieinterestas ne tikai
bankas, bet ar aizmji.
Banka k komercila organizcija vienmr ir tendta uz peas
saemanu, kas nodroina ts stabilitti un funkcionanas drobu, k
ar var tikt novirzta darbbas paplainanai. Orientcija uz peu no
opercijm vienmr ir saistta ar dadiem risku veidiem, kuri,
nepastvot to ierobeoanas sistmai, var novest pie zaudjumu raans.
Tiei tpc jebkura banka, nosakot savas darbbas stratiju, veido tdu
paskumu sistmu, kura, no vienas puses, ir vrsta uz maksimlas peas
sasnieganu, bet, no otras puses, maksimli em vr visas zaudjumu
novranas iespjas, veicot bankas opercijas. Optimla kredtu portfea
izveidoanas nolk, bankai ir nepiecieams izstrdt attiecgu
kredtpolitiku pareizi izvlties tirgus segmentus, noteikt darbbas
struktru.
Raksta mris ir uz kredtportfea vadbas teorijas pamata
izanalizt Latvijas komercbanku kredtportfea kvalitti, novrtt
faktorus, kuri ietekm bankas kredtportfea kvalitti, noskaidrot bankas
kredtportfea, bankas likvidittes un bankas kapitla pietiekambas
mijiedarbbu, atklt esoas problmas, kuras saisttas ar kredtportfea
vadbu.
Atbilstoi ptjuma mrim ir izvirzti sekojoi uzdevumi:
- noteikt jdzienu kredtportfelis un kredtportfea kvalitte
btbu;
- novrtt kredtportfea kvalitti Latvijas komercbanks;
- noskaidrot atkarbu starp bankas kredtportfea kvalitti un
kapitla pietiekambu;
- izanalizt kredtportfea kvalittes ietekmi uz bankas likviditti;

Ptjums balsts uz statistiskiem rdtjiem, kas atspoguo finanu
sektora darbbas rezulttus 7 gadu laik. Ptmais periods 2004.
2011.g.
Publikcijas rakstanas proces autors izmantoja teortisko
literatru, kas aptver komercbankas kredtportfea un t kvalittes
vadbas veidoanas principus un metodoloiju, k ar FKTK (Finanu un
kapitla tirgus komisija) publicto statistisko informciju par finanu
sektora darbbas ekonomiskajiem rezulttiem.
Publikcij izmantotas vairkas ptjuma metodes: analzes
metode, koeficientu metode, statistisko datu apstrdes metode.
1. Bankas kredtportfea kvalittes jdziens
K norda vairki ekonomisti, kredtu portfea jdziens satur sev
vairkus vienojous bankas portfeus, kuri veidojas bankm, operjot
finanu tirg. (2.,129.) Kredtu portfelis raksturo bankas kredtu
pieiranas stratiju, kura pc savas btbas satur gan aktvu, gan
pasvu rcbu. (4.,29. 30.)Pc autora domm, jdzienu kredtportfelis ir
iespjams aplkot divs nozms: aur un pla.
aur nozm kredtportfea jdzienu aplko saistb ar t
funkcijm steidzamba, atmaksas raksturs, maksas opercijas, kas
izpauas bankas aktvs un pasvs opercijs (1.). No t var secint, ka
kredtportfelis ietver sev aizdevumus, kuri tika izsniegti aizmjiem, k
ar paas bankas saistbas (parasti aizdevumu veid) un piesaisttus
depoztus. Citiem vrdiem runjot, kredtportfelis aur nozm ir
kredtu rakstura bankas operciju kopums, kas atspoguojas bankas
bilances aktvu da k prasjumi pret citm personm, k ar k bankas
saistbas pret citm personm, kas tiek fikstas bilances pasv (3.).
Jdziens kredtportfelis plaka nozm ir bankas aktvu kopums,
kas izpauas ilgtermia, stermia un kavto aizdevumu form, k ar k
starpbanku aizdevumi, cits banks izvietoti depozti, k ar citi aktvi,
kuriem ir saistbu raksturs un kuri ir sagrupti pc kredtriska,
likvidittes un pelntspjas kritrijiem (1.).
Pc autora domm, emot vr kredtportfea izpratni divos
aspektos, ir iespjams ar kredtportfea btbu apskatt divs nozms.
Pirmaj nozm finanu iestdes kredtportfelis ir bankas un t
kontrahentu attiecbas, kuru pamat ir kredta rakstura prasjumi
(2.,129.). Otraj nozm kredtportfelis tiek apzmts k bankas aktvu
kopums, kur izpauas aizdevumu, uzskaitto vekseu, starpbanku
kredtu, depoztu un citu kredta rakstura prasjumu form, tos
klasificjot pc kvalittes kategorijm, atbilstoi noteiktajiem kritrijiem
(2.,130.).

Kredtu portfelis, bdams bankas portfea sastvdaa, tiek
raksturots, vadoties no pelntspjas, riska un likvidittes viedoka. Tam
piemt visas bankas portfea pabas, bet vienlaikus tam ir sava specifika
(1.tab.) Par kredtportfea pelntspjas pabu uzskata gada procentu
likmi. T kalpo k instruments, kuru saldzina ar citu aktvu pelntspju
un izsniegto aizdevumu procentu likmju realitti. Analzei parasti
izmanto relo pelntspju peu, kas iegta uz vienu aktvu vrtbu, un
kura ir ieguldta kredtos noteiktaj laika period (2.,130.). Kredta
portfea risks ir varbtbas pakpe, ka var iestties noteikti apstki,
kuros banka ness zaudjumus, pateicoties izsniegtajiem aizdevumiem,
kas veido kredtportfeli. Ar likviditti saprot finanu instrumenta spju
transformties naudas ldzekos, bet likvidittes pakpi apzm,
pamatojoties uz laika ilgumu, kura ietvaros ir iespjams stenot
transformciju (2.,131.). Tiei tpc, kredtportfea izvrtanas
gadjum, likviditte rod savu izpausmi laicg aizdevumu atgriean.
Kredtu portfeli, tpat k jebkuru citu portfeli, raksturo t izmrs
un struktra. Pc autora domm, jdzienu kredtportfea lielums ir
nepiecieams izskatt, raugoties no visa aktvu un pasvu operciju
portfea lieluma, saldzinot to ar citu kredtiestu kredtportfeiem.
Kredtportfea struktra ir dadu kredtu operciju kopums viena
portfea ietvaros. Turklt, kredtportfea struktru ir nepiecieams
izskatt k parametru kopumu, kurus vada banka, mainot sastv
ietilpstoo aizdevumu veidus un to izmrus. Banka var un tai jveic
portfea struktras izmaias ar mri saemt labvlgkus mra
pazmju rdtjus pelntspju, risku un likviditti.
1.tabula
Bankas portfea un kredtportfea pamatpazmes (2.,129.)

Pazmes Bankas portfelis Kredtu portfelis
Pelntspja Pea, saemta uz aktvu vienbu Pea, saemta uz aktvu
noteiktaj laika period vienbu, kas ir ieguldta
aizdevumos noteiktaj laika
period
Risks Nelabvlgo notikumu iestans Nelabvlgo notikumu iestans
varbtba, kas var izveidoties varbtba, kas var izveidoties
lmuma par bankas portfea lmuma par kredtu portfea
vadbu pieemanas rezultt vadbu pieemanas rezultt
neprognozjamos apstkos neprognozjamos apstkos
Likviditte Aktvu savlaicga aprite un Aizdevumu savlaicga atgrieana
prveidoana naudas ldzekos vai bankai no aizmju puses
bankas iespju esamba savlaicgi
izpildt savas saistbas klientu
priek


Izejot no iepriekteikt, bankas kredtportfeli var defint k kredtu
kopumu, kuriem ir noteikta struktra, kas atbilst bankas mriem,
likvidittes pakpei, riska, pelntspjas un kreditanas virzienu
prasbm un kuru izskata k specifisku prvaldbas objektu.
Kredtportfea veidoanas mri var atirties atkarb no bankas
attiecbm pret risku, bet pamatmris vienmr ir saistts ar peas
ieganu un kapitla saglabanu.
Atkarb no mra, banka veido noteikta tipa kredtportfeli.
Visprg veid kredtportfea tips ir portfea pazme, kas balsts uz
iemumu un riska attiecbm (3.). Autors secina, ka ekonomiskaj
literatr joprojm nav vienotas kredtportfea tipoloijas. Atbilstoi
autora domm un zintniskaj literatr izteiktajam viedoklim,
nepiecieams izdalt sekojous kredtportfea tipus: peas portfelis, riska
portfelis, sabalanstais portfelis (2. tab.).
Pc autora domm, ldztekus tipiem, var izdalt ar kredtportfea
veidus. Par kredtportfea veidu autors piedv uzskatt attiecga portfea
pazmju raksturojumu, atkarb no t veidojoo kredtu veidiem.
Kredtportfelis var bt pastvgs vai maings. Pastvgais portfelis saglab
savu struktru noteikt laika posm, kuras ilgumu nosaka bankas
kredtpolitika. Maingais portfelis, saska ar savu nosaukumu, satur sev
aizdevumu dinamisku struktru, kura regulri mains ar nolku sasniegt
maksimlo ekonomisko efektu (3.).
Kredtu portfelis var bt specializts un komplekss (1.).
Specializtais portfelis ir orientts tikai uz noteiktu aizdevumu grupu,
kuri apvienojas sava starp nevis pc visprgm mra pazmm, bet
pc atseviiem kritrijiem (nozaru un reionl piederba, kredtu
produkti, utt.). Attiecgi kompleksais portfelis piedv dadu aizdevumu
grupu sajaukumu.
2.tabula
Kredtportfea tipi (2.,130.)

Kredtportfea tips Portfea raksturojums
Peas portfelis Portfelis ir orientts uz aizdevumiem, kas nodroina
stabilu peu, kura saistta ar minimlo risku un
savlaicgu un pastvgu procentu izmaksu
Riska portfelis Portfeli prsvar veido aizdevumi ar augstu riska pakpi
Sabalansts portfelis Portfelis paredz nosvrtu un racionlu dada tipa
aizdevumu esambu, proti, darbs notiek k ar augsta riska
aizdevumiem, t ar ar zema riska aizdevumiem

Kredtportfea kvalittes jdziens izriet no paa vrda kvalitte.
Atbilstoi terminoloiskajai vrdncai, vrds kvalitte ir, pirmkrt,
btisko pazmju un pabu kopums, kas izce objektu vai pardbu no

prjiem un pieir tam unikalitti. K norda autors, minto
skaidrojumu nosacti ir iespjams attiecint uz kvalittes kategorijas
jdzienu. Otrkrt, kvalitte ir paba vai pazme, kas uzsver objekta vai
pardbas priekrocbas. No t ir iespjams nonkt pie secinjuma, ka
pardbas kvalitte vienmr uzsver t atirbu un unikalitti no prjm
ldzgm pardbm.
Vism banku kredtopercijm ir augsta riska pakpe. Tas
neizsldz iespju finanu iestdei darboties un sniegt savus
pakalpojumus arvien lielkam aizmju lokam, atbilstoi
apstiprintajam finanu operciju plnam, kur ir jbt nostiprintai
galvenajai pamatnostdnei: maksimls peas gana, saglabjot augstu
likvidittes lmeni. aj zi izir galvens kredtportfea pazmes:
kredtrisks, pelntspja un likviditte (3.). Bankas kredtportfea
vrtjuma kritriji (ts priekrocbas un trkumi) ir attiecgi kredtriska
lmenis, pelntspjas un likvidittes lmenis.
Summjot visu iepriek teikto, darba autors ar bankas
kredtportfea kvalitti piedv saprast ts struktras pazmes, kurm
piemt spja nodroint maksimlu pelntspjas lmeni, pastvot
pieejamiem kredtriska un likvidittes rdtjiem.
2. Kredtportfea kvalittes ietekmes analze uz bankas
kapitla pietiekambu
Jebkuras bankas darbba balsts uz nosvrtu kredtpolitiku, kurai
par pamatu kalpo aizmja vispusga analze, via problmu, intereu
un finanu darbbas mru apzinana. Tdas politikas rezultts ir
kredtportfea kvalitte, kur 99,9% veido pirms grupas riska pardi.
Banku sektora kredtportfea kopja kvalitte atstj nozmgu
ietekmi uz banku pau kapitla struktru. Atbilstoi FKTK publiskotiem
datiem par finanu iestu darbbu, ir redzams, ka kop 2008.g. ir strauji
palielinjies uzkrjumu nedroiem pardiem patsvars banku pasvu
struktr. T rezultt ir strauji samazinjusies kredtiestu tr pea,
kas 2011.g. beigs sasniedza 178,661 miljonu latu zaudjumus. Kop
2009.g. (3.tab.), dramatiski pieaugot kavto aizdevumu patsvaram,
banku sektors bija spiests veikt uzkrjumus kavtiem un nedroiem
aizdevumiem, gada laik palielinot minto rdtju 3,8 reizes (2009.g.
rdtjs pret 2008.g. rdtju). Rezultt kredtiestu nozares kopj
pea bija samazinjusies ldz negatvajam slieksnim, kas 2011.g.
joprojm saglabja savu dinamiku, neskatoties uz finanu krzes
negatvas ietekmes prvaranu.

3.tabula
Banku sektora uzkrjumu, peas un akciju kapitla saldzinjums Latvij
2004. 2011.gados (tkst. latu) (5.;6.;7.;8.)

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
uzkr
88 335 88 804 92 560 117 978 398 317 1 536 796 1 775 118 1 825 726
jumi
pea 116 010 193 061 265 908 371 297 60 072 773 421 360 699 178 661
akciju
383 801 458 117 588 471 888 889 888 542 1 616 875 1 887 162 1 977 363
kapitls

Uzkrjumu un zaudjumu palielinjums pdjos trs gados (3.tab.)
bija ievrojami apdis banku apmakst pamatkapitla apjomu. Tiei
tpc kredtiestu panieki jeb akcionri, lai saglabtu savas bankas
pau kapitla patsvaru normas robes, bija spiesti paaugstint akciju
kapitlu par gandrz 1,088 miljardu latu pdjo trs gadu laik.
Interesanti atzmt, ka akciju kapitla paaugstinjums ir konstatts ar
pdja gad, neskatoties uz ievrojamu finanu sektora pamatdarbbas
rdtju uzlaboanos.
Jebkuras bankas kredtportfea kvalitti ir iespjams analizt,
izmantojot kapitla pietiekambas rdtju. is rdtjs norda uz bankas
spju norinties par savm saistbm, izmantojot sav rcb esous
naudas resursus. Visprji tiek pieemts, ka kapitla pietiekambas
rdtjam bankas stabilas operacionls darbbas ietvaros jbt ne
mazkam k 8%. Vienkroti dotais rdtjs tiek aprints, bankas pau
kapitlu dalot ar riska svrto aktvu kopsummu.
4.tabula
Banku sektora pau kapitla, riska svrto aktvu un kapitla pietiekambas
koeficienta saldzinjums Latvij 2004. 2011.gados (tkst. latu) (5.;6.;7.;8.)

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
pau
587224 789441 1183716 1660515 1787269 2050442 1925073 1958205
kapitls
riska
svrtie 4 887415 7 558371 1158797515022463151058361408569313149413 11516297
aktvi
kapitla
pietie
kambas 12,0 10,4 10,2 11,0 11,8 14,5 14,6 17,0
koefi
cients

Kapitla pietiekambas rdtjs (4.tab.) banku sektor kopum
prsniedz regulatora normatvu un pat krzes gados ir palicis stabili
augst lmen. Tas auj izvirzt piemumu, ka finanu krze Latvij pc

savas btbas absolto banku vairkumu neapdraudja. Tas ir pardjies
ar praks, finanu iestdm masveid paaugstinot savu pamatkapitlu
un saemot atbalstu no mtes uzmumiem Skandinvijas valsts. T,
atbilstoi 4.tab. datiem ir redzams, ka pau kapitla koeficients 2011.g.
par 9 procentpunktiem prsniedz minimlo robeu, kas dod pamatu
uzskatt, ka banku sektors Latvij jtas stabili un droi.
Banku sektora kredtportfea kopjo kvalitti ir iespjams izptt,
izmantojot attiecbu starp kavto aizdevumu summu un banku
uzkrjumu un akciju kapitla kopsummu. T, ekonomisk uzplaukuma
gados, veicot masveida kreditanu, bankas bija prliecintas par
izsniegto kredtu kvalitti un nedomja par masveida aizdevumu
nemaksanas gadjumiem (5.tab.). Ir jatzst, ka pamats bankm piekopt
agresvu kredtpolitiku patiem pastvja: kavto aizdevumu patsvars
kopj pau kapitla struktr neprsniedza 61% robeu. Mintais
apstklis neveicinja ar pau kapitla strauju pieaugumu, kur nebija
atbilstos arvien lielkiem kreditanas tempiem. No 5.tab. datiem ir
redzams, ka skoties ekonomiskai krzei, kavto aizdevumu patsvars
kopj akciju kapitla un uzkrjumu summ pieaudzis vairakkrt un
2010.g. beigs veidoja 92,8% no banku rcb esou naudas resursu
kopsummas. Nepiecieams atzmt, ka, lai sabalanstu kavto aizdevumu
patsvara rdtju banku uzkrjumu un akciju kapitla kopsumm,
bankas bija spiestas masveid paaugstint pau kapitlu, kur kop
2008.g. bija palielinjies par vairk nek 200%.
5.tabula
Banku sektora kavto aizdevumu, uzkrjumu un akciju kapitla izmaiu
dinamika Latvij 2004. 2011.gados (tkst. latu) (5.;6.;7.;8.)

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
kavtie
267482 340921 422 496 1015 511 2488 874 3939 179 3806 373 3529 850
aizdevumi
uzkrjumi 88335 88804 92 560 117 978 398 317 1536 796 1775 118 1825 726
akciju
383801 458117 588 471 888 889 888 542 1616 875 1887 162 1977 363
kapitls

Neskatoties uz to, autors secina, ka banku kavto aizdevumu
patsvars kredtportfel palaik atrodas neapmierino stvokl
(prsniedzot 80% no akciju kapitla un uzkrjumu kopsummas) un
finanu iestu rcb esoie ldzeki tikai ar nelielu prsvaru auj
kompenst zaudjumus no kavtiem aizdevumiem. Pc autora domm,
nepiecieams ar turpmk pakpeniski palielint banku sektora kopj
akciju kapitla absolto lielumu, tikldz tas sasniegs pirmskrzes vidjo
robeu 60 80% apmr. Otrais ce vartu bt saistts ar kavto

aizdevumu skaita samazinjumu kopj kredtportfel, veicot
restrukturizcijas darbbas.
3. Kredtportfea kvalittes ietekmes analze uz bankas
likviditti
Kredtportfea kvalittes izvrtanu ir iespjams veikt, izmantojot
kopjo aktvu likvidittes rdtju. Aktvu likviditte ir bankas spja
maksimli tr laik un par iespjami augstku cenu realizt bilanc
esoos aktvus. Likvidittes rdtjs norda ar uz bankas spjm
norinties par savm saistbm, izmantojot sav rcb esous
ldzekus. Likvidittes rdtjs tiek aprints k aktvu un tekoo
saistbu starpba, pieskaitot klt naudu kas, prasbas pret centrlajm
bankm un valdbu parda vrtspaprus. Pc autora domm, raksturojot
finanu sektora kredtportfea kvalitti, likvidittes rdtju nepiecieams
apskatt kopsumm ar iemumu nenesoo (kavjums virs 90 dienm)
kredtu patsvaru nebankm izsniegto kredtu kopsumm.

6.tabula
Banku sektora iemumus nenesoo kredtu un likvidittes saldzinjums
Latvij 2004. 2011.gados (%) (5.;6.;7.;8.)

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
iemumus
nenesoie 1,1 0,7 0,4 0,4 3,6 16,3 19,0 17,9
kredti
likviditte 58,1 52,3 51,0 55,5 52,7 62,8 67,8 60,0

Iemumu nenesoo kredtu patsvars kopjos aizdevumos (6.tab.)
ldz 2007.g..neprsniedza 1,1% robeu. Skoties ekonomiskai krzei,
iemumus nenesoo aizdevumu patsvars pret 2007.g. palielinjs 44
reizs, sasniedzot 2011.g. beigs 18% robeu. Interesanti atzmt, ka
finanu sektora likvidittes rdtjs ekonomisk uzplaukuma gados
pieauga mrenk temp, paaugstinoties tikai kop lejupsldes
uzskans ekonomik. Acmredzami likvidittes rdtja pieaugums
krzes apstkos ir saistts ar banku sektora aktvu un tekoo saistbu
samazinanas tendencm, kas mkslgi paaugstinja gala ciparu. 2011.g.,
atskoties aktvai kreditanai un kredtiestdm uzemoties jaunas
saistbas starptautiskaj finanu tirg, likvidittes rdtjs ska
samazinties.
Banku sektora kredtportfea likvidittes analzi, ldztekus
tradicionlam likvidittes rdtjam, ir iespjams izptt, izmantojot citus
kvalitatvus rdtjus. Viens no tdiem izptes kritrijiem ir kopjo banku
sektora aktvu attiecba pret nebankm izsniegtajiem kredtiem.
Raksturojot kvalittes ietekmi uz kopjo likviditti, ir nepiecieams

atzmt, ka nebankm izsniegto aizdevumu patsvars finanu sektora
kopjos aktvos ldz ar finanu krzes uzskanos nemitgi samazinjs.
No 7.tab. datiem ir redzams, ka ekonomisk uzplaukuma gados
nebankm izsniegto aizdevumu patsvars auga ar mreniem tempiem un
pietuvojs 70% robeai. Tas auj izvirzt piemumu, ka banku kopj
likviditte samazinjs saistb ar atbalstu privtm iestdm un
organizcijm, kuru pamatdarbbas nozare nav saistta ar finanu
starpniecbas un banku pakalpojumiem. Tda neloiska rcba no finanu
sektora puses, izvloties mazk drou (no likvidittes viedoka)
aizmju, pc autora domm, ir saistta ar to, ka aizdevumu procentu
likmes bija augstkas mazk droiem aizmjiem. Tas rezultt varja
paaugstint kreditora kopjo peu, jo pea mazk riskantajos projektos
(zemas procentu likmes d) nebtu tik augsta. Skoties ekonomiskajai
krzei, nebankm izsniegto aizdevumu patsvars kopjos aktvos
samazinjs. Interesanti atzmt, ka 2011.g. kopjais nebankm izsniegto
kredtu un kopjo aktvu attiecbu koeficients atska savu pieaugumu.
Pc autora domm, mintais apstklis liecina par to, ka bankas joprojm
tendtas maksimli paaugstint savu peu, atsakot riskanto aizmju
projektu atbalstanu. Pats par sevi 62,7 procentu attiecbu koeficients
pc darba autora domm ir sabalansts rezultts, kas norda uz finanu
sektora specilistu prdomtu kredtpolitiku un likvidittes risku vadbu:
3/5 no kredtportfea veido paaugstinta riska aizdevumi un 2/5 zema
riska kredti, kuros makstnespjas iestans iespjamba ir maz ticama.

7.tabula
Banku sektora nebankm izsniegto kredtu patsvars kopjos aktvos Latvij
2004. 2011.gados (tkst. latu) (5.;6.;7.;8.)

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
neban
km iz
3923471 6191694 9893700 139240831553460014681461 13719796 13008244
sniegtie
kredti7
aktvi 7850123 10942873 15907307219160422324334421678331 21967183 20719251
koefi
49,9 56,6 62,1 63,5 66,8 67,7 62,4 62,7
cients

Jebkuras finanu iestdes likviditti ir iespjams izptt ar,
izmantojot piesaistto un izsniegto naudas resursu starpbu. Likviditte
aj gadjum nozme finanu iestdes spju norinties par savm
saistbm noguldtju priek, izmantojot pareizj bilanc (piem., kas)
7 Kredtu kopsumma, atskaitot kredtus rezidentu finanu iestdm un kredtus nerezidentu
finanu iestdm

esous naudas ldzekus. 8.tab. ir labi redzama finanu sektora darbbas
stratija pirmskrzes gados: masveida kreditana, paturot sav rcb
pc iespjas mazk naudas resursus. T, jau 2005.g. kopj finanu
sektora izsniegto aizdevumu apjoms prsniedza bilanc esoo ldzeku
atlikumu, tdjdi ievieot papildu riskus noguldtju masveida panikas
gadjumam, kad notiek visu noguldjumu steidzga izemana.
Izsniegto aizdevumu apjoms pret piesaistto noguldjumu apjomu
skot ar 2009.g. (krzes gada) ska samazinties (8.tab.). T ir
apsveicama tendence un pareizjais 20% aizdevumu prsniegums pr
noguldjumiem pc savas btbas ir normls rdtjs, kas norda uz
kopj finanu sektora kredtportfea apmierinou likviditti un banku
spjm norinties par savm saistbm noguldtju panikas gadjum.

8.tabula
Banku sektora nebankm izsniegto kredtu attiecba pret nebanku
noguldjumiem Latvij 2004. 2011.gados (tkst. latu) (5.;6.;7.;8.)

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
nebankm
izsniegtie 3923471 6191694 9893700 13924083155346001468146113719796 13008244
kredti
nebanku
noguld 5016443 6070973 7585267 9692755 9028630 8619446 10262752 10577220
jumi8
koeficients 78,2 101,9 130,4 143,6 172,0 170,3 133,6 122,9

Kopja kredtportfea un finanu iestdes darbbas stabilitte ir
atkarga no aizemto resursu ar nenoteiktu atmaksas termiu un kopjo
piesaistto noguldjumu patsvara. Pc visprjiem finanu analzes
kanoniem tiek uzskatts, ka noguldjumu bez fiksta termia prlieku
liela esambas bankas bilanc var negatvi ietekmt bankas kopjas
operacionls darbbas stabilitti, aizmjiem masveid pieprasot savus
ieguldjumus atpaka. Tai paa laik, mintie finanu resursi ir lts un trs
ldzeklis, ar kuru paldzbu ir iespjams paaugstint savu peu. Pc
autora domm, finanu sektora stabilittes saglabanas nolkos btu
labk neprsniegt 50% robeu starp noguldjumu uz pieprasjumu un
kopjo noguldjumu patsvaru.

8 Noguldjumu kopsumma, atskaitot rezidentu finanu iestu noguldjumus un nerezidentu
finanu iestu noguldjumus

9.tabula
Banku sektora noguldjumu uz pieprasjumu patsvars kopjos noguldjumos
Latvij 2004. 2011.gados (tkst. latu) (5.;6.;7.;8.)

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
noguld
jumi uz
3676846 4379632 5296119 6200907 4853003 4299513 5913740 6497511
piepras
jumu
noguld
5094262 6200361 7757409 1017912111241121 9549675 11110601 11241121
jumi kop
koeficients 72,1 70,6 68,2 60,9 43,1 45,1 53,2 57,8

No 9.tab. datiem ir redzams, ka finanu sektor 2008. un 2009.g.
samazinjs piesaistto noguldjumu un tru noguldjumu patsvars.
Turpmkajos divos gados ir redzams mint rdtja patsvara
palielinjums, kas norda uz banku augstu ieinterestbu, izmantot ltus
naudas resursus su laika periodu.
Banku sektora likviditti ir iespjams izptt, izmantojot aktvu
termiu struktru un kavto aizdevumu kopjo rdtju. Rezultt ir
iespjams konstatt, vai likvidittes rdtjs ir sabalansts, vai lielo
kavto aizdevumu patsvara d ienko naudas plsma nav pietiekama,
lai kredtiestde pati norintos par savm termintm saistbm. T,
no 10.tab. datiem ir redzams, ka lielko patsvaru banku sektora kopjos
aktvos ieem ilgtermia aizdevumi, kuru atmaksas termi iestsies
ilgk par 5 gadiem. Interesanti atzmt, ka skoties ekonomiskai krzei,
ilgtermia aizdevumu skaitam bija tendence palielinties, palielinoties
ar pieprasjuma aktvu un kavto aizdevumu kopjam skaitam. Tas
norda uz finanu sektora likvidittes nesabalansto raksturu ienko
naudas plsma izskst, vienlaikus palielinoties kavto aizdevumu
kopjam skaitam, k ar aizdevumu ar tuvu atmaksas termiu patsvaram
(kuriem potencili ar var rasties atmaksas grtbas). 10.tab. dati norda
uz finanu krzes kredtpolitikas izmaim, koncentrjoties uz
pieprasjuma aizdevumu izsnieganu (kopjais palielinjums pdjo
etru gadu laik sasniedz 1,53 miljardi latu), vienlaikus samazinot aktvu
pieiranu uz ilgkiem termiiem.

10.tabula
Banku sektora aktvu termiu struktras un kavto aizdevumu saldzinjums
Latvij 2004. 2011.gados (tkst. latu) (5.;6.;7.;8.)

Aizdevumi 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Piepras
136 039 204 294 304 189 597 183 791 564 1 154 232 2 198 321 2 323 532
juma
stermia
(ldz 1 587 050 859 660 1 069 754 1 304 318 1 483 023 1 087 223 504 956 277 810
gadam)
vidja
termia
1 581 881 2 536 152 3 827 237 4 586 514 4 511 890 3 897 280 2 891 333 2 344 898
(1 ldz 5
gadiem)
ilgtermia
(ilgk par 5 2 072 707 3 358 369 5 670 440 8 427 334 9 801 899 9 290 158 8 739 578 8 224 748
gadiem)
kavtie 267 482 340 921 422 496 1 015 511 2 488 874 3 939 179 3 806 373 3 529 850

Banku sektora kredtportfea kvalitte (10.tab.) spl oti btisku
lomu likvidittes rdtja noteikanas jom. Autors secina, ka finanu
nozares likviditte nav sabalansta un atrodas nestabil stvokl,
pateicoties sliktam kredtportfelim un augstam aktvu uz pieprasjuma
patsvaram pret prjiem aktviem (ar ilgku atmaksas termiu). Tiei
tpc slaicgas finansils grtbas, kas var bt aizmjiem odien, kad
pienk laiks norinties, var ar nebt nkotn, kad aizdevumu
atgrieanas pienkums bs jau iestjies un bankas veiks piedzias
darbbas pret saviem debitoriem, cenoties atgriezt aizdoto naudu.
Kredtiestu nozares kredtportfea kvalitti un t ietekmi uz
banku kopjo likviditti ir iespjams aplkot caur banku saistbu prizmu.
Darba autors piedv izptt likvidittes sabalanstbu, izmantojot
noguldjumu dinamiku, jo noguldjumi aizem vislielko vietu banku
pasvu struktr un tos ir iespjams strukturt, atbilstoi dzanas jeb
atmaksas termiiem. Visi noguldjumi banku sektor tiek iedalti uz
pieprasjuma (atmaksas termi ir 1 mnesis no klienta prasbas
izteikanas), stermia (atmaksa ldz 1 gadam), vidja termia (atmaksa
no 1 ldz 5 gadiem) un ilgtermia (atmaksa ilgka par 5 gadiem). No
11.tab. datiem var konstatt, ka skoties ekonomiskai krzei, banku
sektors kopum ska aktvi piesaistt brvus naudas resursus
noguldjumu form, piedvjot izdevgas procentu likmes. Tai paa laik
ir redzams, ka pieprasjuma noguldjumu patsvaram 2008., 2009.g. bija
tendence samazinties, nordot uz kredtiestu bam par spjm
tltji dzst piesaisttos ldzekus. Mint dinamika mainjs 2010.g.,
netiei nordot uz banku uzticbas atjaunoanos finanu tirgus
stabilittei, mainot savu ldzeku piesaistes stratiju no drgo stermia,

vidja termia un ilgtermia resursu piesaistes uz ltu pieprasjuma
noguldjumu piesaisti. 11.tab. dati norda uz sakarbu starp pieprasjuma
noguldjumu piesaistes dinamiku un kavto aizdevumu apjoma
izmaim. Autors vlas nordt, ka samazinoties kavto aizdevumu
patsvaram (2010., 2011.g.) banku kopj aktvu struktr, uzlabojs ar
ienko naudas plsma, kas rezultt btiski uzlaboja finanu sektora
kopjo likviditti un rdja prliecbu par pieprasjuma ldzeku
piesaistes nepiecieambu, k ar iespjm dzst tltjus prasjumus no
ienkoiem naudas ldzekiem. Kopum tas norda uz likvidittes
sabalanstbas pankanu finanu sistm kopum.
11.tabula
Banku sektora noguldjumu termiu struktras un kavto aizdevumu
saldzinjums Latvij 2004. 2011.gados (tkst. latu) (5.;6.;7.;8.)

Aizdevumi 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
pieprasjuma 3676846 4379632 5296119 6200907 4853003 4299513 5913740 6989159
stermia
(ldz 1 1147378 1501920 2042033 3471248 4309049 4654493 3655731 2796704
gadam)
vidja
termia
245696 293361 391194 481976 574227 579342 1051640 985578
(1 ldz 5
gadiem)
ilgtermia
(ilgk par 5 24342 25449 28064 24990 23772 16326 489490 300008
gadiem)
kavtie 267482 340921 422496 1015511 2488874 3939179 3806373 3529850

Atbilstoi 11.tab. atspoguotajai informcijai, autors vlreiz vlas
nordt uz atkarbu starp aizdevumu kvalittes izmaim un naudas
ldzeku piesaisti uz su laika posmu. Pc savas btbas, banku sektora
likvidittes sabalanstba rodas tikai td gadjum, ja pieprasjuma
noguldjumu dinamika ir tiei saistta ar kavto aizdevumu kopjo
patsvaru banku aktvu struktr. Jo labks kredtportfea kvalittes
rdtjs, jo labka ir ienko naudas plsma un lielka finanu iestu
vlme aizemties ltus stermia naudas resursus.
Kredtrisku vadba ir saistta ar dadiem kvalitatviem rdtjiem,
kurus finanu iestdes izmanto savu zaudjumu minimizcijai.
Kredtrisku samazina, izmantojot lu sistmu, analizjot finanu un
nefinanu informciju par klientiem un kontrahentiem, nosakot
klientiem, kontrahentiem, nozarm, reioniem un valstm limitus,
ievieot un ievrojot politikas un procedras, kas ierobeo kredtrisku, k
ar procedras, kas kontrol limitu, politiku un procedru ievroanu.
Kredtriska vadbas viens no mehnismiem ir saistts ar kreditora
intereu aizsardzbu pret gadjumiem, kad debitors nav spjgs

norinties par savm saistbm. Dot riska mazinanai ir izmantojami
tdi aizdevumu nodroinjuma mehnismi k nekustamais paums,
kustam manta, vrtspapri, galvojums un citi instrumenti, kam ir
noteikta tirgus vrtba un kurus ir iespjams realizt otrreizj tirg, lai
izbeigtu kredtsaistbas. Raksturojot banku sektora kopjo
nodroinjuma struktru ir jsaka, ka absoltais vairkums no
aizdevumiem bija nodroints ar nekustam pauma hipotku un tikai
retos gadjumos bankas izsniedza kredtus bez jebkda nodroinjuma.

12.tabula
Banku sektora bez nodroinjuma un nodrointo ar hipotku aizdevumu
patsvars kopjos aizdevumos Latvij 2004. 2011.gados (tkst. latu)
(5.;6.;7.;8.)

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Aizdevumi
bez
342 948 475 194 651 379 1099230 1010415 1356468 1131974 1032075
nodroin
juma (A)
Aizdevumi,
kas
nodrointi 2344715 4 403 910 7 551 081 107127191212308511525947 10579333 9713325
ar hipotku
(B)
Aizdevumi ar
cita veida
1690014 2079372 2675689 3116429 3466574 2557350 2622881 2425588
nodroin
jumu (E)
aizdevumi
4377677 6958476 1087814914928378166000741543976514334188 13170988
kop (C)
koeficients
7,8 6,8 5,9 7,3 6,1 8,8 7,9 7,8
(A/C)
koeficients
53,5 63,2 69,4 71,7 73,1 74,6 73,8 73,7
(B/C)

Aizdevumu bez nodroinjuma patsvars kopjos aizdevumos
(12.tab.) neprsniedz 10% robeu. Tas ir pats par sevi saprotams, ka
bankas, vadot kredtriskus, pastiprintu uzraudzbu velta aizdevumiem
bez las. Dotie kredti tiek uzskatti par rkrtgi riskantiem produktiem,
kas aizdevuma neatmaksanas gadjum nenodroina kreditoram
nekdu mantisko apmierinjumu. Vairks banks darbojas ierobeojumi
attiecb uz pieiramo aizdevumu bez nodroinjuma, kas retos
gadjumos (un it pai pc ekonomisks krzes) prsniedz 2000 latu
robeu. No 12.tab. datiem ir redzams, ka nodrointo aizdevumu
patsvars kopjos kredtos demonstr pieauguma tendenci. Tas norda
uz finanu sektora kredtriska vadbas pastiprinanas paskumiem, kas,

savukrt, ir saistti ar ekonomisks krzes sekm un masveida
mjsaimniecbu bankrotiem.
Autors ir noncis pie sekojoiem secinjumiem un prieklikumiem:
1. Banku kavto aizdevumu patsvars kopj kredtportfel 2011.g.
beigs ieem btisku dau, prsniedzot 80% robeu kopj
akciju kapitl un uzkrjumu summ. Tas norda un finanu
iestu minimlm spjm, izmantojot sav rcb esous
ldzekus, kompenst zaudjumus no kavtiem aizdevumiem.
Pc autora domm, nepiecieams ar turpmk pakpeniski
palielint banku sektora uzkrjumu un akciju kapitla patsvaru
pret kavtiem aizdevumiem, tikldz tas sasniegs 2005. 2006.g.
lmeni, kad kavtie aizdevumi veidoja 60 80% robeu pret
uzkrjumu un akciju kapitla kopsummu. Atbildot uz iespjamo
kritiku par brvu naudas ldzeku prmrgu paturanu banku
bilanc un neizsnieganu aizmjiem, autors vlas nordt, ka
iespjama ekonomisks krzes atkrtoans. Krze iemcja
prdomti realizt kredtpolitiku un taupt likvdus aktvus.
Otrais ce k var samazint kavto aizdevumu patsvaru kopj
finanu sektora uzkrjumu un akciju kapitl ir saistts ar
kavto aizdevumu restrukturizcijas darbbm. Veicot kredtu
restrukturizciju, notiek to pielgoana aizmja relm
finansilm spjm vai tiek samazints bankas kopjais
kredtrisks, k rezultt aizdevums atjauno savu kvalitti un
kst par standarta aizdevumu.
Prieklikums Latvijas komercbankm nepiecieams palielint
akciju kapitlu ldz tas sasniegs kavto aizdevumu kopsummu attiecb 1
pret 1.
2. Pc aizmju struktras izptes un to patsvara noteikanas
banku sektora kopjos aktvos ir secints, ka ekonomisk
uzplaukuma gados nebankm izsniegto aizdevumu patsvars
mreni auga un 2009.g. beigs pietuvojs 70% robeai. Tas auj
izvirzt piemumu, ka banku kopj likviditte ldz ar krzes
uzskanos samazinjs saistb ar atbalsttiem (sk.
pamattekstu) aizmjiem: privtas iestdes un organizcijas,
kuru pamatdarbbas nozare nav saistta ar finanu
starpniecbas un banku pakalpojumiem. Tda neloiska rcba
no finanu sektora puses, izvloties mazk drou (no
likvidittes viedoka) aizmju, pc autora domm, norda uz
to, ka aizdevumu procentu likmes tdai aizmju kategorijai
bija augstkas. Tas rezultt varja paaugstint kreditora

kopjo peu, jo pea mazk riskantajos projektos (zemkas
procentu likmes d) nebtu tik augsta. 2011.g. kopjais
nebankm izsniegto kredtu un kopjo aktvu attiecbas
koeficients atska pieaugt, kas liecina par banku sektora
tendencm paaugstint savu peu, atsakot riskanto aizmju
projektu atbalstanu. Autors vlas nordt, ka 62,7%
koeficients ir sabalansts un prdomts no likvidittes riska
viedoka: 3/5 no kredtportfea veido paaugstinta riska
aizdevumi un 2/5 zema riska kredti, kuros makstnespjas
iestanas iespjamba ir mazticama.
Prieklikums Latvijas komercbankm ir nepiecieams samazint
nebankm izsniegto kredtu attiecbu pret aktviem ldz 50 55%.
3. Banku sektora aizdevumu bez nodroinjuma patsvars kopjos
izsniegtajos aizdevumos neprsniedz 9% robeu. Pie tam
ekonomikas recesijas apstkos dotajam rdtjam nebija
raksturgas krasas izmaias. Tas norda uz finanu sektora
pastiprintu uzraudzbu un skepsi pret tda veida
aizdevumiem. Autors uzskata, ka daji pie t ir vainga Latvijas
iedzvotju ienkumu samazinans, kas btiski samazina
potencilo aizmju makstspju. Tai paa laik, mintie
kredti tiek uzskatti par rkrtgi riskantiem produktiem, kas
aizdevuma neatmaksanas gadjum nenodroina kreditoram
nekdu mantisko apmierinjumu. Vairks banks darbojas
savi ierobeojumi attiecb uz aizdevumu bez nodroinjuma
maksimli izsniedzamiem apmriem.
Prieklikums Latvijas komercbankm ir nepiecieams samazint
kredtu bez nodroinjuma attiecbu pret kredtiem ldz 5%.
1. .., ,
, 4, 2010, . 5
2. ..,
, , C: , Nr.2,
2005, . 129131.
3. .., , , , 2001,
. 25.
4. .., , ,
5, 1997, . 2930.
5. Banku darbba Latvij 2005.gada 4.ceturksn [tiesaiste]. Finanu un Kapitla
Tirgus komisijas mjas lapa. Pieejas veids:
http://www.fktk.lv/lv/statistika/kreditiestades/ceturksna_parskati/2005123
1_banku_darbiba_latvija/ [10.02.2012.]

1_banku_darbiba_latvija/ [10.02.2012.]
0216_banku_darbiba_latvija_20/ [10.02.2012.]
0216_banku_darbiba_latvija_20/ [10.02.2012.]
Summary
By using scientific publications the author is trying to open, to define and to
research the meaning of loan briefcase, its quality and quality management,
describing also the typology and features of loan briefcase. Loan briefcase of the bank
consists of different useful parts. Because of discrepancies in the loan briefcase and
its evaluation, it is possible to compile different meanings of this institute. Commonly
it is considered to be described, using profitability figures, risk level and liquidity of
the whole briefcase. Every loan briefcase has its own specific features that influence
the bank operational activities. At the same time it is stressed that profitability of the
briefcase could be evaluated by the annual interest rate. This quantity serves as a
mean for comparing the level of profitability with other asset and its features,
concentrating all the actions mostly on other loan interest rates. Analytical studies
usually use so called real profitability income that could be measured on one asset
entity and invested as a loan during the specific time period. Common risks of the
loan briefcase are probable circumstances that refer to the bank losses in the case, if
invested loans wouldnt be repaid. Under liquidity the possibility is specified of any
financial means to be converted into cash, and at the same time the level of liquidity is
emphasized as a speed reflection of how fast each market means could be converted
into cash. Liquidity always is taken into account during evaluation of the loan
briefcase as a reference of how fast the loan could be repaid.
By using public statistics the author is trying to reflect the position of bank
sector during the last 7 years. Using specific figures and meanings, and reflecting
them as charts, the author is stressing the difficult position of bank sector during the
last 34 years after the beginning of economic recession. Using statistics and its
figures the author concludes that it is necessary to evaluate and to monitor the
quality management of every loan briefcase. It is so, because of the harsh probable
consequences that could be potentially experienced by every market participant if the
loan briefcase is in bad condition. Author makes forecasts of growing level and
common role of the loan briefcase management and development of its control
techniques.


MODELS OF ADVERTISEMENT AND CLIENTS
ATTENDANCE OF THE MARKET USING A FOURIER
SERIES APPROXIMATION
TIRGUS REKLMAS UN KLIENTU APMEKLJUMA MODEI,
IZMANTOJOT FURJ RINDU TUVINJUMUS
Zhenya KARAPETYAN
PhD student
Gohar SHAKHPARYAN
Master student
Aram ARAKELYAN
Prof., Dr.
Economics Faculty in Yerevan State University
Email: goharshakhparyan@yahoo.com
Yerevan, Armenia

Abstract. The analysis of advertising impact on the competitiveness and profit of the
companies is given. The model of the companies, which agreed to implement product
supplies with the same fixed price and have constant agreed expenditures, is considered.
As the principle of optimality the companys integral profit is studied. Fraction of the
companys expenditures elasticity profit is given. The paper develops a simple model for
economic time varying series presenting the data concerning number of the market
attendances. The method of modeling uses a Fourier approximation to present series of
the market attendances. The Fourier approximation allows for implementing of the
selection of frequencies to be included in the model. It is shown that approach for the
modeling provides approximation of the economic time varying series with a form of
nonlinearity. Using daily data over the period of 2008:3 2011:3, we have developed a
model showing the nonlinear time varying dependence of the variable presenting
sequence of the number of market attendances.
Keywords: Profit, Advertising, Company, Competitiveness Model, Economic Time Series,
Market Attendances, Fourier Approximation, Nonlinearity.

1. Modeling of the clients attendance of the market using a
Fourier series approximation
1.1 Introduction
Following the approach of Ralf Becker, Walter Enders and Stan
Hurn (2006), the economic time series model based on the Fourier
approximation is studied. To implement this approximation we use
trigonometric functions to approximate the unknown functional form.
The approach based on the use of the Fourier approximation allows the
substantiation as follows. It is known that Fourier approximation

provides capturing the variation in any absolutely integrable function of
time. In addition, time series presenting the number of attendances of the
market is smooth and gradual. Apparently, Fourier approximation is
particularly adept at modeling this type of time variation. The use of the
Fourier approximation is now deeply studied in econometric research of
Gallant (1984), Gallant and Souza (1991) and Ralf Becker, Walter Enders
and Stan Hurn (2006). Current studies used one or two frequency
components of a Fourier approximation to demonstrate the behavior of
studying functional form. We showed that the simple model with one or
two frequency allows to present Fourier approximation of the time
varying intercept presenting the number of attendances of the market.
1.2 Modeling with a Fourier approximation
Let us denote timevarying variable presenting the number of the
market attendances as an absolutely integrable (t) function of time
t approximated with Fourier series
m
t = a0 (ak sin 2 kt / T bk cos2 kt / T )
k1
where m refers to the number of frequencies contained in the process

generating a(t), k represents a particular frequency and T is the number
of usable observations concerning the number of the market attendances.
It is presented on the Fig.1.

1800000
1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000
1
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Figure 1. Curve presenting the number of the market attendances.
(Vertical axis is the number of market attendances, horizontal axis is the day of
the registering of market attendances).

Model 1(Fourier approximation). For the Model we showed that
k=0,15 for sin and k=0,1 for cos. Consequently

20,15/ 1096=0,0008594 and 20,1/ 1096=0,0005729 thus t =
2287491,73sin0,001146t +1523626,405 cos0,001146t 1444188, where
standard errors are as follows: 26164,1857for the coefficient of sin,
108590,3985for the coefficient of cos and 20480,67 for the constant;
tstatistics are as follows: 87,4283554 for the coefficient of sin,
14,03094957 for the coefficient of cos 12,83003 for the constant,
R 2 =0,982132809; F=30040,28896.
The degree of freedom equals 1094. The curve presenting the
Model is given in Fig.2.

a*cos(2pkt/1096)+b*sin(2pkt/1096)+c
1800000
1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
101
201
301
401
501
601
701
801
901
1
1001

Figure 2. The curve presenting the Model 1. (Vertical axis is the number of
market attendances; horizontal axis is the day of the registering of market
attendances).

Model 2 (Quadratic trend). For the Model 2 we showed the
quadratic trend of time series presenting the number of market
attendances. That is t = 0,618657449 t 2 +2125,248521t +64367,76199,
where standard errors are as follows: 0,020330747 for the coefficient of
t 2 , 23,03294854 for the coefficient of t, 5470,8085 for the constant; t
statistics are as follows: 30,42964738 for the coefficient of t 2 ,
92,26992878 for the coefficient of t, 11,76567602 for the constant. R 2 =
0,983246064; F=32072,7012. The degree of the freedom equals 1094.
The curve presenting the Model 6 is given in Fig.4.


a*t+b*t2+c
1800000
1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
101
201
301
401
501
601
701
801
901
1
1001

Figure 3. The curve presenting the Model 2.
(Vertical axis is the number of market attendances; horizontal axis is the day of

Model 3. (Model with quadratic trend and Fourier time series).
For the Model 3 we showed the existence of e time series approximation
with quadratic trend and Fourier time series. It allows the presentation
as follows.
t = 53076090,07 sin0,001146t +607711081,4 cos0,001146t
43994,6013t102,3537 t 2 +607642910, where k=0,15 for sin and k=0,1
for cos. Standard errors are as follows: 4446292,97 for the coefficient of
sin, 42656152,94 for the coefficient of cos, 3910,37946 for the coefficient
of t, 7,339236 for the coefficient t 2 and 42651630 for the constant; t
statistics are as follows: 11,93715539 for the coefficient of sin,
14,24673909 for the coefficient of cos, 11,2507243 for the coefficient of
t, 13,94609 for the coefficient t 2 and 14,246651 for the constant.
R 2 = 0,987782619, F=22052,00239. The degree of freedom equals
1094. The curve presenting the Model 3 is given in Fig.4.

a*cos(2pkt/1096)+b*sin(2pkt/1096)+c*t+d*t2+e
2000000
1800000
1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
101
201
301
401
501
601
701
801
901
1
1001

Figure 4. The curve presenting the Model 3.
(Vertical axis is the number of market attendances; horizontal axis is the day of
2. Advertising and profit
2.1 Introduction
The set of factors affecting the customers decisionmaking on
expenses is variable and particularly advertising is one of the actions
providing strong impact [4] on competitiveness of the company.
Advertising modeling and analyzing show that it is a valuable mechanism
allowing information distribution concerning the state of the market. The
paper [4] is devoted to study of the approach, based on research of the
market competition. This research is based on the study of companies
advertising activity. In [4] the principle of advertising modeling is studied
and it is based on the consideration of the principle of individual
optimality. The present paper studies the advertising modeling problem
based on the global market principle of optimality. The paper
complements the research done in [4] and continues the study of
advertising efficiency problem investigation. The advertising modeling
allowed to study and to calculate expense elasticity of the profit. It is
characterized as advertising property and is given at the end of the paper.
2.2 Main definitions and concepts
Assume [1] that with fixed price P the set of companies
I 1,2, , N sells the product and all these companies have specific
expenses equal to c . A j and q j are expenses for advertising and sales
capacity of the j company correspondingly, j I . j and j are

constants from the segment [0,1]. The higher is j the higher is mutual
substitutability of advertising realized by the company j , j I . The
coefficient j is given for assessment of the market demand as
advertising expenses elasticity of the market demand.
2.3. Main model
If prices are equal and fixed, the demand is given through the
following expression:

N
A j
N
q i K . (1)
i 1 j 1
The profit is given as follows:

N
i P cK A j
N N
Ai . (2)
i 1 j 1 i 1
2.4. Analyzing the advertising management process

If constraints (2) are given then the Lagrangian function could be
presented as follows:

N
L i qi KAj .
N N
(3)
i1 i1 j1

Thus, from (2) and (3) follows that

N N Ai N N
LPcKAj qi KAj . (4)
j1 i1 i1 j1
Consequently, partial derivatives of Lagrangian function (4)
relatively to the expenses of the companies l and m , where l , m I , and
equalizing this derivatives to 0 and as a result we have equation (5) .

1 1

N
1

L
Aj 1 K Al A j
N
P cK Al 1
0 . (5)
Al j 1
j 1

From this it follows, that
1 1

N
N
P c K A j
Al 1 1 K Al 1 A j . (6)
j 1 j 1
Partial derivative of the Lagrangian (4) relatively to Am after
equalizing to 0 gives the following equation:

1

N 1
L
P c K A j
1
1 K A m A j
N
Am 1
. (7)

0

Am j 1

j 1
Consequently,
1 1

N
N
P c K A j Am 1
1 K Am
1
A j
. (8)
j 1 j 1
From (6) and (8) we have (9)
1
N
1 P cK A j Al 1 1
A j 1
l 1
. (9)
Am

P c K A j Am 1 1
N
j 1
Advertising expenses elasticity of the profit of the company l , l I
take the value
1

P cK Aj 1Al
N

N
i

j1
Al .
e N i1
N
(10)
i , Al Al
i 1 i
P cK
N N
Aj Ai
i1
j1 i1
Advertising expenses elasticity of the profit of the company m ,

m I take the value
1

N
N
P cK Aj 1 Am
i j1

Am .
eN i1
N
(11)
i ,Am Am
i 1 i
P c K
N N
Aj Ai
i1
j1 i1
From (10) and (11) we have
1
N
eN
i ,Al
PcKAj Al 1 1
j1 A
i 1
1
l . (12)
eN N Am
i ,Am
i 1

PcKAj Am 1
1
j1
From (9) and (12) we have
N

i , Al A
i 1
l . (13)
eN Am
i , Am
i 1
Thus we showed that the companies advertising expenses

elasticity of profits is proportional to the advertising expenses.

3. Data
As data we used time series presenting the number of market
attendances recorded during two years period for the company in a
competitive environment. Considered statistics consist of the following
data: daily capacity of recorded number of market attendances as output
of advertising of heating equipment. The dynamics is given in Fig. 1.
Trends and Fourier approximations are given in the Model 1Model 3 as
well in Fig. 2Fig.4. Thus, the dynamics of studied factors showed that the
curves are oscillated and stable. We showed that the Model 3 presents
approximation with the type fitted to the source curve presented in
Fig. 1.
4. Conclusions
In our research, we have proposed advertising modeling
mechanism allowing assessment of the expenses elasticity of profits as
well as providing the calculation of advertising expenses, which are
optimal to get the highest level of profit. By introducing the principle of
optimality as global advertising principle of optimality we set up the
problem of optimality.
The study of data of the Company time series presenting the
number of market attendances recorded during two years period for the
company in competitive environment allowed for developing of the
model as approximation using Fourier time series. Thus, one of the goals
of the present study devoted to modeling of the series presenting the
number of market attendances is to show that use of Fourier
approximation allows studying the behavior of time series presenting the
number of market attendances.
Bibliography
1. BECKER R., ENDERS W., HURN S. A general test for time dependence in
parameters, Journal of Applied Econometrics 19, 2004, p. 899906.
2. GALLANT R., SOUZA G. On the asymptotic normality of Fourier flexible form
estimates, Journal of Econometrics 50, 1991, p. 329 353.
3. GRANGER C.W.J., HATANAKA M. Spectral Analysis of Economic Time Series.
Princeton University Press, 1964, p. 312.
4. SCHMALENSEE R. Advertising and market structure in: Stiglitz J.E., Mathewson
F. (eds) New Developments in the Analysis of Market Structure. Camb. Un. Press,
1986, p. 179211.
Kopsavilkums
Tiek ptts ekonomikas laikrindu modelis, kura pamat ir Furj tuvinjumi.
Nezinmas funkcionlas formas funkciju tuvinjuma stenoanas pieejas pamat ir
trigonometrisko funkciju izmantoana. pieeja, kuras pamat ir Furj tuvinjumu
izmantoana, pieauj du pamatojumu. Furj tuvinjumi nodroina jebkuru izmaiu
uztveranu jebkur absolti integrjam laika funkcij. K pardja laikrindas, tad

tirgus apmekljumu skaits ir vienmrgs un pakpenisks. Pc ekonomikas laikrindu
izptes, kas stenota dados ptjumos, ms izmantojm Furj tuvinjumu vienu vai
divus frekvences komponentus, lai pardtu izturanos funkcionls formas izpt.
Ms pardjm, ka vienkrs modelis ar vienu vai diviem frekvencm auj pardt
Furj tuvinjumu laika zi maingai aizturei, kas parda tirgus apmekljumu skaitu.
Klienta lmuma pieemanu par izdevumiem ietekm dadu faktoru kopums,
un jo pai reklma ir viens no paskumiem, kas stipri ietekm uzmuma
konkurtspju. Zinms, ka reklmas modelana un analze ir vrtgs mehnisms, kas
auj izplatt informciju par situciju tirg. ptjuma pamat uzmumu reklmas
darbbas izpte. aj darb tiek ptta reklmas modelanas problma, pamatojoties
uz pasaules tirgus optimalittes principu. is darbs papildina ptjumu, kas veikts, lai
izpttu atseviu optimalitti un turpina ptt reklmas efektivittes problmu
izmeklanu. Reklmas modelana va izptt un aprint peas izdevumus
elastbu.
K dati izmantotas laikrindas, kuras parda tirgus apmekljumu skaitu, kas
reistrts divu gadu laik, kop uzmums darbojas konkurences apstkos. Aplkoto
statistiku veido di dati: tirgus apmekljumu reistrt skaita apjoms dien k
iznkums no siltumiekrtu reklmas. Izptto faktoru dinamika pardja, ka lknes ir
svrstgas un stabila. Ms pardjm, ka izstrdtais modelis parda tuvinjumu ar to
veidu, kas pielgots avota lknei.
Msu ptjum ms ierosinjm reklmas veidoanas mehnismu, kas auj
novrtt peas izdevumu elastbu, k ar nodroint reklmas izdevumu aprinu,
kas ir optimli, lai iegtu vislielko peu. Ievieot optimalittes principu par
vispasaules optimalittes reklmas principu, ms nosakm optimalittes problmu.
Uzmuma laikrindu datu ptjum tiek pardts tirgus apmekljumu skaits
divu gadu laik, kop uzmums darbojas konkurences apstkos, kas va izstrdt
modeli k tuvinjumu, izmantojot Furj laikrindas. Tdjdi viens no ptjuma
mriem, kas veltts o rindu modelanai un parda tirgus apmekljumu skaitu, ir
demonstrt, ka Furj tuvinjumu izmantoana auj izptt laikrindu izturanos,
pardot tirgus apmekljumu skaitu.


OPTIMIZATION OF SUPPLY CHAIN WITH
UNCERTAINTIES
PIEDVJUMA DES OPTIMIZCIJA AR MAINGAJIEM
Hayk KHACHATRYAN
PhD student
Nora MKRTCHYAN
PhD student
Aram ARAKELYAN
Prof., Dr.
Department of Mathematical Modeling in Economics, Yerevan State University
Email: hayk_kh@yahoo.co.uk
Yerevan, Armenia

Abstract. The purpose of this study is to clarify the approach by which companies are
solving the problems of optimization of Supply Chain with uncertainties through
application of operations research and numerical methods. The problem of Supply
Chain maximization is considered on a global scale and the model with uncertainties is
developed. An algorithm for optimization is presented for this model.
Keywords: Supply, Chain, Optimization, Management, Uncertainty, Operation,
Research, Model, Algorithm.

Introduction
In recent years management problems of Supply Chain (SC) have
generated important questions concerning uncertainty and needs to
optimize the process of management in various economic sectors. Thus
the focus of organizations involved in SC is targeted to the maximization
of own profit. Consequently, to reach this goal they try to manage input
and output resources.
For this reason, problems between the seller and the buyer raising
and depending from the number of organizations appearing as SC
members constitute basic blocks of any simple or complex SC.
Nowadays, SC management problems under complete information
are intensively studied in various papers. As one of effective mechanisms
of the coordination of SC, a quantity discount is considered by Munson
and Rosenblatt (1998). An application of fuzzy set theory for supply
chain coordination is considered and a coordination mechanism through
quantity discount policy under asymmetric information environment is
designed by C.Yang and M.Wee (2001).
The literature devoted to SC coordination allows distinguishing the
following three classes. The class concerning to buyers perspective

model considers the problem of buyers requirements optimization with
the assumption that sellers have complete information on the buyers
cost structure.
The next class is concerned to the sellers perspective model when
pricing scheme is profitable to the seller as long as the discount offered
to the buyer(s) is less than the sellers cost saving.
Among SC model the class of joint buyer seller models takes up a
considerable amount of research. This class of models considers quantity
discount strategies maximizing the system profit.
In all these cases the exact parameter value is not known and the
decision maker is facing uncertainty. At absence of perfect information,
the decision maker may not be able to know consequences of a particular
choice he made. Thus, better is the information reducing of uncertainty to
be available and consequently it leads to better decisions providing
increased profit of the system.
Therefore, the study of relationship between uncertainty and
information acquisition allows bridging the gap in the SC literature by
proposing total cost consisting of two types of costs: uncertain cost and
certain cost (Santanu Sinha, S.P. Sarmah (2008)). Several assumptions
are necessary to provide straightforward analytical results. First, the
supplier and the factories as members of SC are completely endowed
with two factors of production: labor and capital. These two actors are
used for the following production activities: first, both factors are used to
produce the homogeneous final good (raw materials from customers).
During last two decades the Supply Chain Management (SCM)
became hot debated topic both in academy and industry. The research
was focused on the global as well local optimization. According to [2,3],
previous models could be divided into the following 4 types: integrated
seller buyer (IVB) models, integrated procurement production (IPP)
system and MAD manufacturing, assembly and distribution integration).
Approach of the supply chain maximization with uncertainty
targeted to coordination is presented in [4].
Integrated Supply Chain with multiple manufacturers, multiple
suppliers, multiple distributors and multiple customers is considered in
[2]. Concerning the products its assumed that demands of the products
are to be fuzzy and shortage cost is considered. Contrary to [2], demands
of the products are assumed to be contingent in the present paper. The
approach for optimization based on the model [2] is considered. The
system of equations (nonlinear) is given and the approach for the
solution based on [1] is presented.

Definitions and notations
General definitions and used notations of the model are the
following. The SC consists of the set of multiple:
a) Suppliers {1,2,..., n,..., N },
b) Raw materials {1,2,..., r ,..., R},
c) Factories {1,2,..., j ,..., J },
d) Distribution centers (DC) {1,2,..., z,..., Z},
e) Set of products {1,2,..., i ,..., I },
f) Customers {1,2,..., m,..., M }.
Let us denote
Let us denote as labor
w1n ( u1n ) cost of capital (labor) of the n th supplier of raw
materials, n 1,2,..., n,..., N .
w2 j ( u 2 j ) cost of capital (labor) of the j th factory, j 1,2,..., j ,..., J .
w3 z ( u 3 z ) cost of capital (labor) of the z th Distribution Center,
z 1,2,..., z ,..., Z .
w4 m ( u 4 m ) cost of capital (labor) of the m th Distribution Center,
m 1,2,..., m,..., M .
K n ( Ln ) capital (labor) of the n th supplier of raw materials,
n 1,2,..., n,..., N .
K j ( L j ) capital (labor) of the j th factory, j 1,2,..., j ,..., J .
K z ( Lz ) capital (labor) of the z th Distribution Center,
z 1,2,..., z ,..., Z .
K m ( Lm ) capital (labor) of the m th Distribution Center,
m 1,2,..., m,..., M .
t r , n unit production cost of n th supplier of raw materials,
supplying raw material r , r 1,2,..., r ,...R, n 1,2,..., n,..., N .
qi , j unit manufacturing cost of i th product produced in the j th
factory i , i 1,2,..., i,...I , j 1,2,..., j ,..., J .
f r ,n unit shipping cost of r th raw materials supplied from n th
supplier.
pi , j unit shipping cost of i th product supplied from j th factory.
ci ,z unit shipping cost of i th product supplied from z th
Distribution Center.
ei ,z unit retail cost of i th product supplied from z th Distribution
Center.
H r ,n quantity (price) of r th raw materials supplied from n th
supplier.

Qi , j quantity (price) of i th product supplied from j th factory.
C i ,z quantity (price) of i th product supplied from z th
Ei ,z quantity (retail price) of i th product supplied from z th
i , j ,r ,n portion of r th raw materials supplied from n th supplier
for the production of i th product in j th factory.
i ,z ,m portion of i th product supplied to z th Distribution Center
for m th customer.
i ,z ,m retail portion of i th product supplied to z th Distribution
Center for m th customer.
r portion of capital of n th raw materials supplier to produce r
th raw materials.
r portion of labor of n th raw materials supplier to produce r th
raw materials.
GR ,n ( K n , Ln ) (1)
production function of n th raw materials supplier.
G ( K , L ) (2)
F,j j j
production function of j th factory.
GZ ,z ( K z , Lz ) (3)
production function of z th Distribution Center.
GM ,m ( K m , Lm ) (4)
production function of for m th customer.
Consequently, if assume that
GR ,n ( r K n , r Ln ) H r ,n than
w K un r Ln
1 1
tr , n n r n (5)
GR , n ( r K n , r Ln )
is unit shipping cost of r th raw materials supplied from n th supplier.
R N
i , j i , j ,r ,n H r ,n (6)
r 1 n 1
is the quantity of r th raw materials supplied from n th supplier for

production of i th product in j th factory.
R N
i , j f r ,n ( i , j ,r ,n H r ,n ) (7)
r 1 n 1
is shipping cost of r th raw materials supplied from n th supplier for

R N
i , j t r ,n ( i , j ,r ,n H r ,n ) (8)
r 1 n 1

is production cost of r th raw materials supplied from n th supplier for
w j 1i K j u j 1i L j i , j
2 2
qi , j
GFj ( 1i K j , 1i L j )
(9)
unit manufacturing cost of production of ith product in the factory j.
J
i , z i , j , z Qi , j
j 1
quantity of i th product producing in jth factory, where i , j , z is the

portion of ith product within total production of the factory j.
J
i , j , z p i , j ( i , j , z Qi , j )
j 1
is shipping cost of i th product supplied to the z th Distribution Center.

wz i K z u z i L j i , z
3 3
vi , z
GDC , j ( i K z , i Lz )
unit purchasing cost of the product ith produced by zth Distribution
Center.
Problem Formulation.
Model 1. Optimization problem presented as a Linear
Programming problem.
As an objective function we consider the maximization of the total
supply chain profit presented as a sum:
R N I J I J Z
Object.Funct. [( f r ,n t r ,n )( i , j ,r ,n H r ,n )] + [( pi , j qi , j ) i , j , z Qi , j ]
r 1 n 1 i 1 j 1 i 1 j 1 z 1
+
I Z M I Z M
[(ci , z vi , z )( i , m, zCi , z )] + [(ei , z vi , z )( i , m, z Ei , z )] max, (10)

i 1 z 1 m 1 i 1 z 1 m 1
where
R N I J
[( f
r 1 n 1
r ,n tr , n )( i , j , r , n H r , n )] is the profit of the suppliers,
i 1 j 1

I J Z
[( pi, j qi, j )i, j , zQi, j ] is the profit of the factories,

i 1 j 1 z 1

I Z M
[(ci , z vi , z )( i , m, zCi , z )] is the shipping profit of the Distribution

i 1 z 1 m 1
Centers providing shipping of the products,

I Z M
[(e
i 1 z 1
i, z vi , z )( i , m , z Ei , z )] is the retail profit of the Distribution
m 1
Centers providing retail of the products.

The maximization assumes the maximization with respect to the
variables {H r ,n }, {Qi , j }, {C i , z }, {Ei , z } , where r=1,2,,R, n=1,2,,N, i=1,2,I,
z=1,2,,Z, m=1,2,,M.
The system of constraints is as follows.
R N
i, j
r 1 n 1
f r , n ( i , j , r , n H r , n ) I iF, j (11)
The inequality (7) requires that shipping cost of raw materials
supplied from raw materials suppliers for the production of i th product
in j th factory is less than the income I iF, j of j th factory distinguished
for the production of ith product.
J
i , z p i , j ( i , j , z Qi , j ) I zDC (12)
j 1
The inequality (8) requires that shipping cost of i th product

supplied to the z th Distribution Center from the j th factory is less than
the income I zDC of the zth Distribution Center distinguished for the
purchasing of the ith product.
I Z I Z
[(ci , z vi , z )( i ,m, z Ci , z )] + [(ei , z vi , z ) i ,m, z Ei , z )] I mM

i 1 z 1 i 1 z 1
(13)
The inequality (9) requires that shipping cost of products supplied
to the mth customer is less than income I mM of the mth customer
distinguished for purchasing of products produced by the factories.
Thus, we received the Linear Programming problem of
maximization (10) subject to the constraints (11)(13), which could be
solved using algorithms of solution of the Linear Programming problems.
From (5)(7) follows that
R N I J R N I J R N I J
[( fr,n tr,n )( i, j,r,n Hr,n )] fr,n ( i, j,r,n Hr,n ) i, j,r,n (w1n r Kn wn2r Ln ) .
r1 n1 i1 j 1 r1 n1 i1 j1 r1 n1 i1 j 1
(14)
Model 2. Optimization problem presented as a NonLinear
Programming problem.
Considering production functions of raw material suppliers,
factories, Distribution Centers and customers the problem (10)(13)
using (14) allows the presentation as follows. Substitution of production
functions into the objective function (10) gives the objective function as
follows.
R N I J R N I J

r 1 n1
f r,n ( i, j,r,nGR,n (r,n Kn , r Ln ) i, j,r,n (w1n r Kn wn2 r Ln ) +
i 1 j 1 r 1 n1 i 1 j 1

R N
I J
w 2j i1 K j u 2j i1 L j f r ,n i , j ,r ,n G R ,n ( r K n , r Ln ) Z
[( pi , j
i 1 j 1
r 1 n 1
G F , j ( i K j , i L j )
) i , j , z Qi , j ] +
z 1
I Z
wz3 i K z u z3 i Lz pij ijz GF , j ( i K j , i L j )
[(c
j 1
)( i ,m, z Ci , z )] +
GDC , z ( i K z , i Lz )
i, z
i 1 z 1
I Z
wz3 i Kz uz3 i Lz pijijzGF, j ( i K j , i Lj )
[(e
j 1
)( i,m,z Ci, z )] max (15)
GDC, z ( i Kz , i Lz )
i, z
i 1 z 1

Further, substation of production functions into the system of
constraints (11)(13) gives the system of constraints as follows.

R N
i , j f r ,n ( i , j , r , n G R , n ( r ,n K n , r ,n L ) G F , j ( i K j , i L j ) (16)
r 1 n 1

J
i , z p i , j ( i , j , z G F ,, j ( i K j , i L j ) G DC , z ( i K z , i L z ) (17)
j 1

I Z
[(c
i 1 z 1
i, z vi , z )( i ,m, z GDC , z ( i K z , i Lz )] +
I Z
[(e
i 1 z 1
i,z vi, z ) i,m, z GDC, z ( i1 K z , i1 Lz )] GM ,m ( i2 K m , i2 Lm ) (18)

Assumption 1. Assume that production functions of suppliers,
factories, Distribution Centers and customers are CobbDuglas
production functions as follows:

G R ,n ( K n , Ln ) An K Ln , G F , j ( K j , L j ) A j K j L j ,
n
n n j j
n 1,2,..., n,..., N , j 1,2,..., j ,..., J (19)

G Z , z ( K z , L z ) Az K z L z ), GM ,m ( K m , L m ) Am K m Lm , z 1,2,..., z ,..., Z ,
z z m m
m 1,2,..., m,..., M .
Assumption 2. Assume that the problem of maximization is
considered with respect to the following variables:
{K n }, {Ln }, {K j }, {L j }, {K z }, {L z }, {K m }, {Lm } n 1,2,..., n,..., N , j 1,2,..., j ,..., J ,
z 1,2,..., z ,..., Z , m 1,2,..., m,..., M .
Thus, we received NonLinear Programming problem of
maximization (15) subject to the constraints (16)(18), which could be
solved using algorithm of solution of the Linear Programming problems.

Solution of the Problem (15) (18)

To solve the problem (15) (18) define the Lagrangian

( {K n }, {Ln }, {K j }, {L j }, {K z }, {L z }, {K m }, {Lm } , 1 , 2 , 3 ) =
R N I J R N I J
f r,n ( i, j,r,nGR,n (r,n Kn , r Ln ) i, j,r,n (w1n r Kn wn2 r Ln ) +
r 1 n1 i 1 j 1 r 1 n1 i 1 j 1

R N
I J
w K j u L j f r ,n i , j ,r ,n G R ,n ( r K n , r Ln )
2
j
1
i
2
j
1
i Z
[( p i, j R
r 1 n 1
N I J
) i , j , z Qi , j ] +
i 1 j 1
G F , j ( i K j , i L j , i , j ,r ,n ( w1n r K n u 1n r Ln ) z 1
r 1 n 1 i 1 j 1
I Z
wz3 i K z u z3 i Lz pij ijz GF , j ( i K j , i L j , i , j ,r ,n (w1n r K n u 1n Ln )
[(c
j 1
)( i ,m, z Ci , z )]
GDC, z ( i K z , i Lz )
i,z
i 1 z 1
+

J
I Z
wz3 i Kz uz3 i Lz pijijzGF, j ( i K j , i Lj )
[(e
j 1
)( i,m, z Ci, z )]+
GDC,z ( i Kz , i Lz )
i, z
i 1 z 1
R N
1 ( fr,n (i, j,r,nGR,n (r,nKn,r,nL ) GF, j (i Kj , i Lj ))
r 1 n1 (20)
J
+ 2 ( p i , j ( i , j , z G F ,, j ( i K j , i L j ) _ G DC , z ( i K z , i L z ))
j 1
I Z
3 { [(ci , z vi , z )( i ,m, z GDC , z ( i K z , i Lz )] +
i 1 z 1
I Z
[(e i, z vi , z ) i,m, z GDC, z ( i1 K z , i1 Lz )] GM ,m ( i2 K m , i2 Lm ) }.

i 1 z 1

Substitute production functions (19) in Lagranjian (20).
Differentiating the Lagranjian (20) and equalizing to zero partial
differentials with respect to the variables
{K n }, {Ln }, {K j }, {L j }, {K z }, {L z }, {K m }, {Lm } n 1,2,..., n,..., N , j 1,2,..., j ,..., J ,
z 1,2,..., z ,..., Z , m 1,2,..., m,..., M and 1 , 2 , 3 allows to receive the system of
nonlinear equations. To solve this system we could use the Newton
method of the solution of nonlinear system of equations [1, pp. 450469].

Model 3. Optimization problem presented as a NonLinear
Problem of Stochastic Programming.
Assumption 3. Assume that demand of the product i is
contingent , i 1,2,.., I .
Thus, denote vimz unit shipping cost of the product i from DC z
for the customer m (in the state , i 1,2,..., I , m 1,2,..., M , 1,2,..., s,
imz unit purchasing cost of the product i by the customer m from
DC z (in the state , i 1,2,..., I , m 1,2,..., M , 1,2,..., s,
E imz shipping quantity of the product i from the DC z to the
customer m with probability
s
h , i 1,2,..., I , m 1,2,..., M , z 1,2,..., Z , 1,2,..., s, h 1.
1
Hence, the expected profit of the DC is

I M Z s
W ({ imz }, {imz }, {E imz }) E imz ( imz imz )h (21)
i 1 m 1 z 1
1
Consequently, the objective function Object . funct .

W ({ imz }, {imz }, {Eimz }) , which is a sum of objective functions (10) and (21)
together with constraints (11) (14) gives the Linear Stochastic
Programming problem. This problem is solved by complete
implementation of the Benders Algorithm given in [6].
Summary
Present research has clarified that problems emerging between the seller and
the buyer have a nature of uncertainty and allow to be modeled with respect to global
optimization of the Supply Chain. In contrary to the Supply Chains under complete
information, the present paper studied the Supply Chain management problems with
assumption that some variables of the system are uncertain. Taking into account that
uncertainty of the Supply Chain allows increasing its applicability we developed the
model as well the algorithm of global optimization.
In addition, the models of certainty of the SC are considered and the approach
for the optimization algorithm is presented.
Bibliography
1. DEMIDOVICH B.P., MARON I.A. Basics of the Numerical Mathematics, Moscow,
Publ. Nauka, 1966, p.664, (in Russian).
2. KHACHATRYAN H., Supply Chain: Uncertainty and Coordination//Proceedings
of Engineering Academy of Armenia. 2010. vol.7, No1, pp.3539
3. MUNSON C., ROSENBLAT M. Theories and realities of quantity discounts: An
exploratory study. Production and Operation Management, 1998, 7(4), pp.
352369.
4. SINHA S.,SARMAH S.P. An application of fuzzy set theory for supply chain
coordination. International Journal of Management Science and Engineering
Management, vol. 3 (2008) No. 1, pp.1932.

5. YANG C., WEE M. An arbores cent inventory model in a supply chain system.
Production Planning and Control, 2001, 12(8): p.728735
6. 4http://www.amsterdamoptimization.com/models/twostage/stochbenders.g
ms
Kopsavilkums
is raksts ir veltts piegdes des (SC) prvaldbas problmu izptei. s
problmas ir radjuas btiskus jautjumus par nenoteiktbu un vajadzbm optimizt
prvaldbas procesu dads saimniecbas nozars. Tdjdi SC iesaistto
organizciju uzmanbas centr ir pau peas maksimla palielinana. prasba
nodroina vajadzbu sasniegt SC organizcijas mri k ieguldto un iegto resursu
prvaldanu.
Pareizjs SC vadbas problmas ar pilngu informciju ir intensvi pttas
dados ptjumos. ajos ptjumos par vienu no efektviem SC koordincijas
mehnismiem tiek uzskatta vairumatlaide. K to SC vadbas problmu izptes
attstba, kas saisttas ar nenoteiktbu, tiek apsvrta neprecz daudzuma teorijas
izmantoana piegdes des koordincijai, un ir izveidots sadarbbas mehnisms,
izmantojot vairumatlaiu politiku atbilstoi asimetriskajai informcijas videi.
SC koordincija auj atirt turpmk mints trs kategorijas. Kategorij, kas
attiecas uz pircja perspektvo modeli, tiek emta vr pircja prasbu optimizcijas
problma, pieemot, ka prdevjiem ir pilnga informcija par pircja izmaksu
struktru.
Nkam kategorija attiecas uz prdevja perspektvo modeli, kad cenu
noteikanas sistma ir izdevga prdevjam, kamr pircjam(iem) piedvts
atlaides ir mazkas par prdevja izmaksu ekonomiju.
Starp SC modeiem ievrojams ptjumu apjoms ir veltts apvienotajai pircja
prdevja modeu kategorijai. aj modeu kategorij tiek emtas vr vairumatlaiu
stratijas, kas maksimli palielina sistmas peu.
Visos ajos gadjumos nav zinma precza parametru vrtba un lmumu
piemjs saskaras ar nenoteiktbu. Ja nav pilngas informcijas, tad lmumu
piemjs var nezint, kdas sekas ir konkrtajai via izdartajai izvlei. Tpc ir
labk, ja pieejama informcija, kas mazina nenoteiktbu, un ldz ar to tiek pieemti
labki lmumi, kas nodroina sistmas peas palielinjumu.
emot vr s iezmes, aj rakst tiek ptta saistba starp nenoteiktbu un
informcijas ieganu. Tas auj mazint iztrkumus SC literatr, ierosinot kopjs
izmaksas, kas sastv no divu veidu izmaksm: nenoteiktm izmaksm un noteiktm
izmaksm. Nepiecieami vairki piemumi, lai nodrointu saprotamus analzes
rezulttus. Pirmkrt, piegdtjs un rpncas k SC objekti ir pilngi nodrointi ar
diviem raoanas faktoriem darbaspku un kapitlu. ie divi faktori tiek izmantoti
dm raoanas darbbm: pirmkrt, abi faktori tiek izmantoti, lai iegtu viendabgu
galaprodukciju (izejvielas no klientiem).
Piegdes des maksimlas palielinanas ar nenoteiktbu pieeja, kuras
mris ir koordinana, tiek pardta k Liners programmanas problma
nenoteiktb.
Tiek apskatta Integrta piegdes de ar vairkiem raotjiem, vairkiem
piegdtjiem, vairkiem izplattjiem un vairkiem klientiem. Turklt tiek ptta
pieeja optimizcijai, pamatojoties uz apsvrumiem par modeli ar nelineru objektvo
funkciju un nelineru ierobeojumu sistmu. s problmas atrisinanai piedvts
algoritms tona pieskaru metodei (nelineras) viendojumu sistmas atrisinanai.

JURIDISKS PERSONAS MAKSTNESPJAS PROCESS:
JAUN LIKUMA PIEMROANAS PIRM GADA
PROBLMAS
INSOLVENCY PROCESS OF LEGAL ENTITIES: THE NEW LAW
FIRST YEARS APPLICATION PROBLEMS
Ivars KRONIS
Dr.iur., Zvrints advokts, sertificts makstnespjas procesa administrators,
Rgas Stradia Universittes Juridisks fakulttes vadoais ptnieks,
Baltijas Starptautisks akadmijas docents
Tlrunis: 67409218, epasts: ivars.kronis@rsu.lv
Rga, Latvija

Abstract. In June 2010 Latvian Parliament (Saeima) adopted the new Insolvency Law.
This article provides analysis of the main problem issues arising of a new law regulating
legal entities insolvency process, and, subsequently, on the basis of the present research
identifies several areas for further improvement of the legal regulation. The above
confirms relevance of the topic of the present article and its importance. The research
has the following tasks: identification and investigation of the main problem issues
arising of a new law regulating legal entities insolvency process; examination and
analysis of the legal entities insolvency process. With the view of the purpose set for this
research, the author has applied empirical and theoretical scientific research methods.
Keywords: bankruptcy, insolvency law, insolvency process administrator, insolvency of
undertakings and companies, insolvency proceedings.

Ievads
2010.g. 1.novembr spk stjs jauns Makstnespjas likums (2.),
kas nomainja 2007.g. Makstnespjas likumu (3.), kur bija spk no
2008.g. 1.janvra. Neskatoties uz to, ka spk ir jauns Makstnespjas
likums, vl arvien Latvij tiek piemrotas 2007.g. Makstnespjas likuma
un 1996.g. likuma Par uzmumu un uzmjsabiedrbu
makstnespju (5.) normas, kas protams neveicina civiltiesisks
apgrozbas stabilitti. 2010.g. Makstnespjas likuma prejas noteikumi
nosaka, ka makstnespjas procesos, kuri uzskti ldz 2007.g.
31.decembrim, tiek piemrotas likuma Par uzmumu un
uzmjsabiedrbu makstnespju normas (2.punkts). Tiesisks
aizsardzbas procesos un makstnespjas procesos, kuri uzskti laika
posm no 2008.g. 1.janvra ldz 2010.g. 31.oktobrim, tiek piemrotas
mintaj laika posm spk eso Makstnespjas likuma normas un uz
t pamata izdotie normatvie akti (5.punkts), jo katru reizi, mainot
tiesisko reguljumu, btiski tiek maints pats makstnespjas process.
Ldz ar to, paralli jpiemro dadas tiesbu normas ar atirgu
reguljumu viendiem gadjumiem.

Jaun Makstnespjas likuma efektivitti nosaka ne tikai tiesbu
normu formuljumu precizitte, bet ar t kvalitte, kas paa likuma
sasteigt pieeman bija zema, proti, Makstnespjas likums vl nebija
stjies spk, kad Saeima izdarja precizjous grozjumus taj (1.).
Turklt, uz doto brdi Tieslietu ministrija jau ir izstrdjusi jaunus
grozjumus. Lai gan 2007.gada Makstnespjas likums nebija novecojis
un bija pilnveidojams, tas tomr veidoja drou un likumgu
makstnespjas procesu norisi.
Raksta mris ir izptt juridisks personas makstnespjas
procesa galvenos problmjautjumus jaun likuma piemroanas
pirmaj gad. Ptjuma uzdevumi ir analizt juridisks personas
makstnespjas procesa reguljuma reformas nepiecieambu un
pamatojumu; atklt juridisko personu makstnespjas procesu skaita
samazinjuma clous; novrtt izmaias darjumu apstrdanas
nosacjumus makstnespjas procesa ietvaros; analizt juridisko personu
makstnespjas procesu dubults uzraudzbas negatvs sekas un
administratoru darbbas atbildbas izmaias.
Ptjuma izstrd izmantotas emprisks un teortisks izzias
metodes.
Raksts neaptver visus iespjamos juridisko personu
makstnespjas procesu problmjautjumus, bet gan uzmanbu pievr
autora ieskat centrlajiem aspektiem.
1. Makstnespjas procesa reformas nepiecieamba
Pc neatkarbas atganas un atjaunojot komercdarbbu pagju
gadsimta devidesmito gadu skum rads nepiecieamba tiesiski
regult komersantu makstnespjas procesus, kad tie nespja izpildt
uzemts saistbas. Pirmais likums bija 1991.g. 3.decembra likums Par
uzmumu un uzmjsabiedrbu makstnespju un bankrotu (6.), kas
stjas spk 1992.g. 1.janvr. Pc gandrz 5 gadu likuma darbbas
likumdevjs prstrdja o makstnespjas reguljumu, pieemot
1996.g. 12.septembr likumu Par uzmumu un uzmjsabiedrbu
makstnespju, kas stjs spk 1996.g. 12.oktobr. Jnorda, ka
likumdevja rcba bija loiska un pamatota, jo makstnespja bija jauna
joma, turklt pc problmjautjumu apzinanas praks likumdevjs
pilnveidoja o reguljumu.
is likums ldz im bija visilgk piemrotais likums Latvij, kas
regulja makstnespjas procesus gandrz 11 gadu garum (skk par o
reguljumu skat: 9.), ldz atkal likumdevjs nolma btiski to prstrdt,
un jau paredzt ne tikai juridisko, bet ar fizisko personu makstnespju
(7.).

Neviennozmgi vrtjams ir jautjums par to, kas bija par pamatu
tikai pc nepilniem trs gadiem Makstnespjas likuma pilngai
prstrdanai. Likumprojekta anotcij (14.) k pamatojums nordts
2009.g. 27.jlija Latvijas Republikas valdbas un Starptautisk Valtas
fonda paraksttais Nodomu protokols (36.punkts) un Pasaules Bankas
programma aizdevuma saemanai. Starptautiskajiem aizdevjiem tika
apsolts prstrdt makstnespjas reguljumu. Bija nepiecieams
nodroint kredtiestu iespjas tri premt komersantu paumus,
kuri ldz ar krzi, kas iesks 2007.g. otraj pus, pc kreditanas
apturanas nonca finansils grtbs. Tomr, du komersantu
makstnespjas procesu ar mantu patsvars ir mazks par pusi no kopj
procesu skaita. Tas nozm, ka likums galvenokrt tika rakstts tiei iem
makstnespjas procesiem, kas veido mazkumu. Jnorda, ka
kredtiestu neapmierintba skaidrojama ar to, ka pastvot viendiem
faktiskajiem apstkiem, kreditori mdza pieem atirgus lmumus,
td veid kredtiestu skatjum novilcinot procesu, k ar ds
reguljums nenodroina makstnespjas procesa efektivitti, ievrojami
pagarina procesa termiu un izmaksas, k ar nenodroina pardnieka
aktvu saglabanu, k rezultt samazins kreditoru atgto ldzeku
apmrs.
Tomr, jatzst, ka tie komersanti, kuri nonca finansilajs
grtbs, par makstnespjgiem tika pasludinti tiei saska 2007.g.
likuma normm. emot vr to, ka makstnespjas process notiek
atbilstoi tm procesa normm, saska ar kurm tas uzskts, tad loiski
btu grozt eso likuma normas, lai ts sttos spk pc iespjas trk.
Ldz ar to, 2007.g. Makstnespjas likumu varja pilnveidot,
samazinot procedru skaitu, likvidjot makstnespjas procesa
ierosinanas stadiju, liedzot balsstiesbas ieinterestajm personm, un,
samazinot iespjas nepamatoti lemt par izlgumu un sanciju, k ar
veicot citus paskumus.
Turpret, pieemtais jaunais likumu regul tikai tos procesus, kas
uzskti jau pc jaun reguljuma, un ldz ar to likuma pieemana
nemainja esoo procesu gaitu, nesasniedzot jaun likuma mri.
1996.g. likums kopum tika grozts 16 reizes. Savukrt, 2007.g.
likums tika grozs tikai 1 reizi, kas neliecina par lielm problmm
likuma piemroan, kuras nebtu iespjams risint ar krtjo grozjumu
paldzbu. Piemram, likums Par nodokiem un nodevm (4.), kas ir
viens no visvairk groztiem normatvajiem aktiem (kopum 52 reizes),
netiek pilnb prstrdts. Nevar ar teikt, ka is likums btu mazk
nozmgs k makstnespjas reguljums. Tdejdi secinms, ka pc krzes
dzik punkta prvaranas sasteigti rakstt jaunu likumu un trt
ievrojamu laiku un naudas resursus nebija pamata.

2. Izmaias juridisko personu makstnespjas procesu skait
Raugoties uz juridisko personu makstnespjas procesu statistiku
(13.) un saldzinot laika periodu no 2008.g. ldz 2010.g. oktobrim ar laika
periodu no 2010.g. novembra ldz 2012.g. janvrim, redzams, ka viena
gada laik vidji par makstnespjgm tika atztas attiecgi 1618
(2008.g.), 2580 (2009.g.), 2546 (2010.g.) juridiskas personas. Savukrt,
jaun likuma darbbas laik par makstnespjgm atztas vien 822
juridiskas personas. Samazinjums ir par vairk nek 1700
komersantiem gad.
Tomr, vai du samazinjumu var skaidrot ar ekonomisks
situcijas stabilizanos? Atbilde ir: n!
Pirmkrt, ds samazinjums izskaidrojams ar jaun
Makstnespjas likuma spk stanos. T piemroana ir veicinjusi
faktiski makstnespjgu komersantu atstanu reistros bez jebkdas
tlks kustbas, tas ir, panieki un kreditori, redzot, ka komersantam ir
pardi, bet nekda manta nav, neizvlas krtot komersanta likvidanas
(makstnespjas) formalittes augsto izmaksu d.
Depozta ievieana, ko paredz jaunais likums, ir viens no iemesliem
makstnespjas procesu skaita samazinjumam, jo, iesniedzot
makstnespjas pieteikumu, jiemaks depozts 400 latu (divu minimlo
mnealgu) apjom, kas pc komersanta makstnespjas atzanas tiek
izmantots makstnespjas procesa izmaksu seganai. Papildus jmaks
250 latus liela valsts nodeva par kreditora pieteikuma iesnieganu.
Depozts un valsts nodeva ir jmaks ar visiem, kuri vras ties
par komersanta pardnieka atzanu par makstnespjgu, tostarp
Valsts iemumu dienestam, citm nodokus administrjom
institcijm, piemram, pavaldbm, k ar makstnespjgu
komersantu administratoriem.
Ja agrk Valsts iemumu dienests iesniedza 50 procentus no
visiem makstnespjas pieteikumiem, tad depozta ievieana ir btiski
ierobeojusi Valsts iemumu dienesta aktivitti aj jom. To pau var
teikt ar par citm institcijm un makstnespjgu komersantu
administratoriem (11.).
Ar kreditoriem un komersanta pardnieka paniekiem, ja
komersants ir bez aktviem, nav finansili izdevgi sniegt ties
makstnespjas pieteikumu, jo tas rada 650 latu lielus izdevumus.
Turklt ir vl viens btisks arguments to nedart. Jaunais likums btiski
ierobeo iespjas vrsties pret iepriekjm amatpersonm. Tpat
btiska jaun Makstnespjas likuma nepilnba ir t dvt bilances testa
izemana (citdi par bilances testu skat. 8.).
Jau likumprojekta izstrdanas laik atbilstoi piedvtajam
iespjamajam reguljumam, tika izteikts viedoklis, ka likums tiks

izmantots patrintai pardu piedziai, apejot garo tiesans procesu
(12.). Tomr tam t nevajadztu bt.
Makstnespjas likums nosaka, ka tiesai, izvrtjot makstnespjas
pieteikumu, jvrt tikai parda samaksas izdaranas fakts attiecb pret
konkrto kreditoru, nevis komersanta makstspja kopum. Turklt
obrd vairs nav makstnespjas ierosinanas stadijas, ldz ar to par
konkrt pardnieka faktisks makstspjas stvokli citi kreditori un
sadarbbas partneri nemaz netiek informti.
No vienas puses, tas ir pozitvi komersantiem ar slaicgm
makstspjas problmm, jo tdjdi netiek apdraudta komersanta
reputcija un tls, tau ilgstou nemakstju atraans biznesa vid
ilgtermi rada negatvas sekas, jo faktiski makstnespjgais pardnieks
bez juridiskm sekm var turpint savu darboanos, apdraudot savus
sadarbbas partnerus, k ar kropojot visu komercdarbbas vidi kopum
(12.).
Atbilstoi jaunajam likumam par makstnespjas iemeslu var bt
laikus neapmaksts rins un tam, vai pardnieks piekrt vai nepiekrt
rin ieraksttajai naudas summai, nav nozmes (10.).
Rezultt, tiek izteikti viedoki, ka makstnespjas process ir kuvis
par pardu piedzias instrumentu (11.). Tomr, tas nav pilnb pamatoti.
Pardu piedzias lietu skaits nav samazinjies un makstnespjas
procesi nav pasludinti vairk.
3. Darjumu apstrdanas aspekti makstnespjas proces
Makstnespjas likumprojekta anotcij par to, ka btu jprskata
darjumu apstrdanas noteikumi, nekas nav mints. Neskatoties uz to,
likumprojekta darba grupa nolma btiski samazint iespjas
administratoram tiesas ce apstrdt darjumus un atzt tos par spk
neesoiem.
Makstnespjas likuma 96.panta pirms daas 2.punkt noteikts, ka
administratoram ir pienkums celt ties prasbu par attiecg darjuma
atzanu par spk neesou, ja tas noslgts triju gadu laik pirms
juridisks personas makstnespjas procesa pasludinanas dienas un
tdjdi pardniekam ir nodarti zaudjumi, turklt persona, ar kuru vai
kurai par labu noslgts darjums, zinja vai tai bija jzina par du
zaudjumu nodaranu. emot vr to, ka jaunais likums nosaka termiu
tikai no makstnespjas, tad slgtajiem darjumiem ar ieinterestajm
personm attiecb pret pardnieku vai o personu lab, ir tikai un
viengi jnogaida mintais termi un tad jiesniedz makstnespjas
pieteikums. emt vr to, ka jaun likum noteiktas ievrojamas naudas
summas, kas jtr makstnespjas procesa uzskanai, kreditori, redzot
ka mantas nav, pieteikumu neiesniegs. Turklt, obrd ar likumdevjs ir

dekriminalizjis Kriminllikum noteikto atbildbu par makstnespjas
pieteikuma neiesnieganu (Kriminllikuma 215.panta pirm daa ir
izslgta ar 2010.g. 21.oktobra likumu).
Saldzinot ar iepriekjo reguljumu, tad likuma 92.panta pirms
daas 2.punkt bija noteikts, ka darjums noslgts piecu gadu laik pirms
makstnespjas procesa iestans dienas un tdjdi pardniekam ir
nodarti zaudjumi, turklt persona, ar kuru vai kurai par labu noslgts
darjums, zinja vai tai bija jzina par du zaudjumu nodaranu.
Pirmkrt, aj norm bija paredzts daudz garks darjumu
apstrdanas termi, turklt, darjumu prskatanai bija jem vr
nevis diena, kad pasludinta makstnespja, bet diena, kad faktisk
makstnespja bija iestjusies.
s normas faktiski bija viengs, kas tajos gadjumos, kad
makstnespjgajai sabiedrbai nav aktvu vai ar tie ir samazinti, radja
iespju vrsties pret personm, kas tdejdi nodarjuas sabiedrbai
zaudjumus.
4. Dubult makstnespjas procesu uzraudzba un
administratoru atbildbas jautjumi
Juridisks personas makstnespjas process tiek pasludints un
izbeigts tikai ties. Tiesa ir t institcija, kas veic kontroli pr likuma
piemroanu. Tomr, jau 10 gadus ir izveidota valsts aentra
Makstnespjas administrcija, kura pastarpinti veic uzraudzbu pr
makstnespjas procesiem. institcija ne tikai izskata sdzbas, bet ar
pati pc ts nospraustiem mriem veic uzraudzbu izlases krtb.
institcija tiek finansta no uzmjdarbbas riska nodevas. No s
nodevas tiek finansti ar pai makstnespjas procesi tajos gadjumos,
kad makstnespjgm sabiedrbm nav aktvu un nav iespjams tos
atgt. das institcijas pastvana pati par sevi ir pretrunga, t k
jebkura iestde ir birokrtijas struktra.
2007.g. janvr valsts aentras darbinieku skaits bija 62, aktvo
administratoru 214. Tdejdi, 2007.g. uz etriem aktviem
administratoriem bija viens uzraudzbas institcijas darbinieks. To, ka
da proporcija ir nesamrga, apliecinja vlks izmaias: 2012.g. uz 10
administratoriem ir viens uzraudzbas institcijas darbinieks (2012.g.
februr Latvij bija 326 aktvie sertifictie makstnespjas procesu
administratori. Savukrt, valsts aentras Makstnespjas
administrcij darbinieku skaits bija 33). Tomr ar proporcija ir liela,
jo vidji viens administrators var vadt vismaz 20 makstnespjas
procesus.

Jnorda, ka du uzraudzbas institcijas darbinieku nav ne tiesu
izpildtjiem, notriem vai tiesneiem, kas rada pamatotu jautjumu par
tdas institcijas pastvanas lietderbu Tieslietu ministrijas sistm.
Lai gan valsts aentras Makstnespjas administrcija uzdevumi ir
nodroint darbinieku garantiju fonda prvaldbu un administratoru
rindas darbbas nodroinanu, pastv ar citas valsts aentras,
piemram, Juridisks paldzbas administrcija, kas nodroina juridisks
paldzbas sniedzju rindas darbbu, k ar Uzturldzeku garantiju fonda
administrcija. du iestu atsevia un patstvga pastvana nav
lietderga un ir izvrtjams jautjums par to apvienoanu. Tas ar
sekmtu o aentru darbinieku koncentranos vien iestd, tdejdi
ne tikai nodroinot efektvku valsts ldzeku izlietoanu, bet ar
specilistu pieejambu un izaugsmi.
Makstnespjas likuma 89.pant noteikta kreditoru sapulces
kompetence (kreditoru sapulce pieem lmumus tikai par:
1) administratora atldzbas noteikanu; 2) administratora atcelanas
ierosinanu; 3) makstnespjas procesa izdevumu apstiprinanu;
4) pardnieka mantas prdoanas termia pagarinanu), kas praktiski
nozm to, ka visus btiskos jautjumus pieemt tikai administrators
vienpersoniski. Tas nozm, ka administrators ir t persona, kas atbild
par visiem zaudjumiem, kas kreditoriem raduies makstnespjas
proces. Saldzinot ar iepriekjo likumu, kreditoru sapulcei bija plaas
iespjas lemt par daudziem jautjumiem. Administrators varja lgt
kreditorus lemt, vai konkrtais lmums atbilst kreditoru interesm.
Tdejdi, administrators atbildbu nenesa par kreditoru pau lmumiem.
Tagad situcija pretja. Ja kreditori uzskats, ka administrators piemis
lmumu pretji kreditoru interesm, tad o jautjumu izlems tiesa,
izskatot kreditoru prasbu ties.
Pc autora domm likumam tomr jparedz iespja aubu
gadjum administratoram lgt kreditorus lemt pat kdu btisku
jautjumu, nevis gaidt vai kds kreditors neizlems vrsties ties pret
administratoru.
Raksta autors ir pardjis ts aktuls pastvos problmas, kas
praks pastv, prasa risinjumu un tiek vrttas neviennozmgi.
Analizto jautjumu spektrs auj izdart sekojous secinjumus:
1. Juridisks personas makstnespjas procesa reformas
nepiecieamba no likumdevja puses bija vji pamatota.
Jaunais Makstnespjas likums dod plaas iespjas fiziskajm
personm izmantot o instittu, vairs neparedzot
makstnespjas procesa piemroanas ierobeojumu par s

personas rupjo neuzmanbu. Tdejdi, jaunais Makstnespjas
likums ir uzlabojis fizisko personu makstnespjas jautjumu
risinanu, bet ne juridisko personu makstnespjas procesu
reguljumu.
2. Jaun likuma pirm gada darbbas laik ievrojami samazinjs
juridisko personu makstnespjas procesu skaits, kam par
iemeslu bija nevis ekonomisks situcijas stabilizcija, bet
augsts izmaksas, kas attur kreditorus un paus pardniekus no
du procesu ierosinanas.
3. Ievrojami samazintas iespjas apstrdt pardnieka prvaldes
institciju slgtos darjumus, kas nkotn atsts iespaidu uz
kreditoru iespjm atgt kdus ldzekus savu prasjumu
apmierinanai.
4. Valsts aentras Makstnespjas administrcija uzturana
prasa ievrojamus ldzekus, kas netiek novirzti
makstnespjas procesu finansanai, tdejdi negatvi ietekm
relo makstnespjas procesu gaitu.
emot vr to, ka ekonomisk attstba un izaugsme nes sev ldzi
arvien straujku tiesisko attiecbu apgrozbu, k rezultt
makstnespjas procesi ieem arvien btiskku lomu tautsaimniecbas
drob un attstb, autors piedv:
1. Noteikt nodoku administrcijai un makstnespjgo
komersantu administratoriem atbrvojumu no valsts nodevu un
depozta maksanas ties par pardnieku atzanu par
makstnespjgiem.
2. Prskatt nosacjumus, paredzot plakas iespjas
makstnespjgo komersantu administratoriem apstrdt
darjumus.
3. Apvienot valsts aentras Makstnespjas administrcija,
valsts aentru Juridisks paldzbas administrcija un
Uzturldzeku garantiju fonda administrcija vien struktr.
1. Grozjumi Makstnespjas likum: LR likums, Latvijas Vstnesis, 27.10.2010.,
Nr. 170 (4362).
2. Makstnespjas likums: LR likums, Latvijas Vstnesis, 06.08.2010., Nr. 124
(4316).
3. Makstnespjas likums: LR likums, Latvijas Vstnesis, 22.11.2007., Nr. 188
(3764), zaudjis spku 01.11.2010.
4. Par nodokiem un nodevm: LR likums, Latvijas Vstnesis, 18.02.1995., Nr. 26
(309).
5. Par uzmumu un uzmjsabiedrbu makstnespju: LR likums, Latvijas
Vstnesis, 02.10.1996., Nr. 165 (650), zaudjis spku 01.01.2008.

6. Par uzmumu un uzmjsabiedrbu makstnespju un bankrotu: LR likums,
Ziotjs, 16.01.1992., Nr.2, zaudjis spku 12.10.1996.
7. BELE E. Makstnespjas jomas attstba pdj desmitgad. Jurista Vrds,
21.02.2012., Nr. 8(707).
8. EIVERTIA S. Vai makstnespjas process ir pardu piedzias instruments.
Jurista Vrds, 31.01.2012., Nr. 5 (704), 26.lpp.
9. JURKNS J. Kreditora intereses makstnespjas proces, Jurista Vrds,
skums 26.09.2000., nobeigums 10.10.2000.
10. LSIS A. Lai strda viet nenonktu ldz bankrotam. Pieejams:
[http://www.delfi.lv/news/comment/comment/aigarslusislaistridavieta
nenonaktulidzbankrotam.d?id=39328151], skatts: 17.02.2012.
11. LSIS A. Nesabalanstba jaun Makstnespjas likuma darbb. Pieejams:
[http://bizness.delfi.lv/versijas/aigarslusisnesabalansetibajauna
maksatnespejaslikumadarbiba.d?id=41457535], skatts: 17.02.2012.
12. SPRDS M. Makstnespjas likums ir kuvis par pardu piedzias likumu.
Pieejams: [http://bizness.delfi.lv/versijas/marissprudsmaksatnespejas
likumsirkluvisparparadupiedzinaslikumu.d?id=36967823], skatts:
17.02.2012.
13. Valsts aentras Makstnespjas administrcija statistikas dati par darbu
skk sk.: [http://www.mna.gov.lv/faili/pub_32.doc], skatts: 17.02.2012.
14. Likumprojekta Makstnespjas likums anotcija. Pieejams:
[http://titania.saeima.lv/LIVS/SaeimaLIVS.nsf/0/3DA20AD7479A7451C225768
2003F4E4F?OpenDocument#b], skatts: 29.02.2012.
Summary
On 1 November 2010, the new Insolvency Law took effect. Effective insolvency
proceedings are very important in the economic life of any legal entity. If company
suffers losses to the extent that it cannot carry on its activity, insolvency proceedings
are initiated. Thus, the article Insolvency Process Of Legal Entities: The New Law
First Years Application Problems explains the main problem issues arising of a new
law regulating insolvency process for legal entities. The financial and economic crisis
has highlighted several problems and drawbacks in the insolvency procedure.
The article is divided into 6 parts, the first being introduction; the second one
elaborating on the necessity of reform of insolvency law. It is noted that the need to
reform the law wasnt grounded and motivated enough by the legislator. In the
authors opinion, the previous law was well functioning law and it was possible to
introduce the several essential changes to law by regular amendments; the third one
deals with the statistics and explains the drop of numbers of insolvency processes.
The author concludes that reason for drop of insolvency process is in high costs for
creditors. The person filing a bankruptcy application must pay a deposit of two
minimum monthly salaries (LVL 400) and a court fee of LVL 250 for creditor, in total
LVL 650. The new regulation does not express any exceptions comparing to previous
regulation, for example, the tax administration was declared free of any court fee; the
fourth chapter examines the change in rights of administrator to cancel any
transaction in a court. It is noted that the new regulation is in favour of debtor and
persons concerned; the fifth part deals with the issues of supervision of insolvency
process. In this part author describes the topical problems of several state agencies,
which are responsible for similar functions and can be easily merged. It is
emphasized that court is the supervising institution. The role and necessity of the

State Agency Insolvency Administration should be revised; and the last part
conclusions. In the concluding part of the article author provides assessment and
draws a conclusions about practice of application and issues arose. Author identifies
the several areas for further improvements of the legal regulation.


VALSTS ATBALSTA INSTRUMENTU PIEMROANAS
PROBLMAS ENERTIK
THE PROBLEMS IN THE APPLICATION OF STATE SUPPORT
INSTRUMENTS IN ENERGY SECTOR
Lga LEITNE
Mg.oec., lektore, Latvijas Universittes Ekonomikas un vadbas fakultte
Tlrunis: +371 29476933, epasts: ligaleitane@inbox.lv vai liga.leitane@lu.lv
Rga, Latvija

Abstract. Energy is one of the most important sectors of economic development. State
support schemes are a prerequisite for successful development of the energy sector. As
state support schemes vary in their use and mechanisms of action, the work analyzes
support schemes used in Latvia according to their main results, as well as gives analysis
of the economic theory approach to the state support schemes and their usefulness. The
paper summarizes support schemes in certain European countries, as well as electricity
tariffs in the European capitals. In her work, the author has made conclusions about the
problems in public support schemes, both theoretical and practical, and developed
proposals for the improvement of state support schemes.
Keywords: renewable energy, support instruments, the role of the state, mandatory
procurement of electricity.

Ievads
Enertika ir viena no svargkajm tautsaimniecbas nozarm. s
nozares produkti liel mr ietekm produkcijas konkurtspju, k ar ir
viens no tautsaimniecbas virzoajiem spkiem. Pasaules globl
ekonomika attsts, daudzu iedzvotju labkljbas lmenis uzlabojas, ldz
ar to ar katru gadu vrojams energoresursu pieprasjuma un
energoresursu patria pieaugums. Pieprasjuma pieaugums izraisa
energoresursu cenu pieaugumu, kas nu jau ir ne tikai teortiski
prognozjams, bet ar pareizj laik redzama pardba.
Pc pdjiem datiem Eiropa import 53,9 % (1.) no sava kopj
enerijas patria. Plnots, ka 2025.g. importa apjoms vartu sasniegt
60,4 % (2.). Eiropas Savienbas kopj nostja ir atjaunojamo
energoresursu intensvka izmantoana, btiski nepalielinot importa
patsvaru kopj enerijas patri.
Pieaugoais pieprasjums pc enerijas, ierobeotie fosil kurinm
krjumi, k ar vides piesrojums un globls klimata prmaias,
pdjos gados pasaul radjis pastiprintu interesi par atjaunojamiem
energoresursiem. Atbalsts atjaunojamo energoresursu izmantoanai ir
kuvis par svargu Eiropas Savienbas politikas sastvdau.

Interese par atjaunojamiem energoresursiem un to izmantoanas
intensittes paaugstinanu palielinjs laik, kad pasaule piedzvoja
naftas krzi 1973.g. un 19791980.g. Eiropas Savienba savu stratisko
mri definja Eiropas Komisijas Baltaj grmat Enerija nkotnei:
atjaunojamie enerijas avoti (1997.g.), kur noteica, ka atjaunojamo
energoresursu daa Eiropas Savienbas primro resursu bilanc
jpalielina no 6 % 1997.g. ldz 12 % 2010.g. (7.,3.). is uzdevums ir virzts
gan uz enerijas apgdes drobas paaugstinanu, gan ilgtspjgas
attstbas atbalstanu.
Nkamais solis s politikas turpinan bija Eiropas Parlamenta un
Padomes 2001. g. 27. septembra Direktva 2001/77/EK par tdas
elektroenerijas pielietojuma veicinanu iekj elektroenerijas tirg,
kas raota, izmantojot neizskstoos enerijas avotus. Direktvas mris
ir palielint no atjaunojamiem energoresursiem saraoto dau ldz 22,1 %
no kopj Eiropas Savienbas elektroenerijas patria 2010.g. (2.).
Atsevis mris tika izvirzts ar attiecb uz biodegvielm Eiropas
Parlamenta un Padomes 2003.g. 8.maija Direktva 2003/30/EK par
biodegvielas un citu atjaunojamo veidu degvielas izmantoanas
veicinanu transport nosaka, ka biodegvielas patsvaram Eiropas
Savienbas dalbvalsts jsasniedz 2 % 2005.g. un 5,75 % 2010.g. Eiropas
Savienba plno, ka atjaunojamo energoresursu patsvars 2030.g. vartu
saniegt 18,4 %, bet transport 9,3 % (2.).
Ptjuma aktualitte pamatojama ar nepiecieamba izmantot
atjaunojamos energoresursus un pasaules tendencm k ar pirmo iegto
pieredzi Latvij atbalsta instrumentu izmantoan.
Ptjums par atbalsta instrumentu izmantoanu aptver teortisko
valsts lomas diskusiju, atbalsta instrumentu klasifikciju, instrumentu
klsta izmantoanu Latvij un Eiropas valsts, atseviu rezulttu
izklstu, k ar secinjumu un prieklikumu izdaranu. Ptjuma mris
ir uz valsts atbalsta lomas teortisk pamata veikt valsts atbalsta
instrumentu izmantoanas analzi Latvij un Eiropas Savienbas
dalbvalsts, izdart secinjumus un izstrdt prieklikumus atbalsta
instrumentu izmantoanas pilnveidoanai. Lai sasniegtu izvirzto mri
noteikti di darba uzdevumi:
1. Apkopot teortiskos viedokus par valsts lomu;
2. Veikt valsts atbalsta instrumentu teortisks klasifikcijas
izvrtjumu;
3. Izanalizt valsts atbalsta instrumentu pielietoanu Eiropas
Savienbas dalbvalsts;
4. Veikt atbalsta instrumentu izpausmju novrtanu Latvij;
5. Izdart secinjumus un izstrdt prieklikumus.

Darba izstrd izmantota ekonomisks analzes metode,
statistisks metodes, grafisk metode, dokumentl analze.
Lai vartu sasniegt Eiropas Savienbas mri palielint
atjaunojamo energoresursu izmantoanu, ir nepiecieama valsts atbalsta
instrumentu pielietoana.
Valsts lomas teortiskais skatjums
Jautjums par valsts lomu valsts ekonomiskaj attstb un nozaru
attstb teortiski ir pastvjis jau sen. Teortii o jautjumu izskata no
dadiem skatu punktiem. K viens no skatu punktiem ir rpniecbas
politika. Terminam rpniecbas politika nav vienotas vispratztas
defincijas. Tomr t tiek definta k paskumu kopums tautsaimniecbas
strukturls transformcijas virzanai un kontrolanai (8.,17.).
Savukrt rpniecbas politika ir paskumu kopums, ko veido valsts
ekonomisko procesu regulana nozaru un korporatv lmen lai
veicintu ekonomikas prstrukturizanu, inovatvo darbbu un
ekonomisko izaugsmi. Rpniecbas politika ir mrtiecga koncentrta un
apzinta valdbas rcba konkrts jomas attstbas veicinanai ar
daudziem politikas instrumentiem (8.,24.). Jatzm, ka termins
rpniecba netiek teortiski uzskatts par apstrdes rpniecbu, bet gan
ar to jsaprot visas jomas, ko mdz saukt par relo sektoru.
Enertika ir viena no rel sektora nozarm, turklt viena no
nozmgkajm. Ldz ar to teortiski izvrtjot iespjas ietekmt, veicint
enertiku, ir jdom gan par konkurtspju, gan nozares stratisko
nozmi.
Enertikas sektoram ir saldzinoi liels patsvars citu
tautsaimniecbas nozaru starppatri. pai tas attiecinms uz
raoanas nozarm. Elektroenerijas, gzes, dens apgdes nozare
(atbilstoi NACE 1. redakcijai) veido visai stabilu patsvaru no kopjs
pievienots vrtbas. Autore, izmantojot statistiskos datus, izveidojusi
apkopojumu (1.tab).
Sav rakst The view from the trenches: development process and
policies as seen by a working professional Harbergers uzsver, ka
attstbas ekonomikas analz ir nepiecieams noteikt ekonomisks
attstbas veicintjus (socilekonomiskos faktorus, pardbas), k ar
s attstbas indikatorus (25.,78.). is citts pilnb raksturo visas
attstbas ekonomika teorijas, jo ts skotnj period vienmr mina
noskaidrot, kas ir ekonomisks attstbas galvenie virztji un pc tam ar
izvirza jautjumu par nepiecieamajm veicamajm aktivittm politikas
veid. Dadu attstbas teoriju raans pc Otr Pasaules kara tiek
skaidrota k klasisko, marksistisko teoriju nespja skaidrot procesus,
kdi veidojs mazattsttajs valsts (18.,1.).

1.tabula
Tautsaimniecbas struktra Latvij (% no kopjs pievienots vrtbas,
NACE 1.redakcij) 19902010.gad. (19)

1990 2000 2007 2010
Primrs nozares (ABC) 20.1 4.7 4.0 4.6
Apstrdes rpniecba (D) 31.0 13.7 11.4 12.2
Elektroenerija, gzes un 1.6 3.6 2.4 4.1
dens apgde ( E)
Bvniecba (F) 8.7 6.2 9.0 5.0
Tirdzniecba (GH) 6.1 17.9 21.6 17.7
Transports un sakari( I) 9.8 14.1 10.2 12.5
Komercpakalpojumi (KJO) 14.5 23.0 26.4 28.3
Sabiedriskie pakalpojumi 8.2 16.8 15.0 15.6
(LMN)
Kop 100 100 100 100

Par rpniecbas politikas jautjumiem diskutjui B.H.Hols
(B.H.Hall), B.Brans (B.Branch), Sterns (Stern). Savukrt Robertsons
(Robertson) un Patels (Patel) uzskata, ka zemo un vidjo tehnoloiju
nozares veido 90% no iekzemes kopprodukta. Td o nozaru
veicinana nodroina ar augsto tehnoloiju turpmko attstbu un
valstij ts ir jfinans no budeta ldzekiem (5.,1001.). Radauers
(Radauer) un Streihers (Streicher) uzskata, ka Eiropas Savienbai ir rpgi
jidentific atbalsta veidi, emot vr vajadzbas (11.). Lai kdi atbalsta
veidi tiktu noteikti, svargi lai is atbalsts btu pietiekami elastgs un
atbilstu samja mriem un vajadzbm, t par atbalstiem saka Aho
(Aho) un Hirs Kreinsens (HirschKreinsen) (4.). Visbiekais diskusiju
jautjums ir, vai rpniecbas politika nekropo konkurences vidi. Tomr
eit ir jatzm, ka atbalstu instrumentu un valsts iejaukanos
ekonomiskajos procesos var izskatt divjdi.
Izir divas kardinli pretjas pieejas uzskatos par valsts lomu
ekonomikas strukturlo prmaiu regulan, valsts konkurtspjas
veicinan un uzskatos par valsts ietekmanas nepiecieambu:
1. Neoliberu pieeja;
2. Struktristu pieeja.
Neoliberu pieeja ieguva savu nozmgumu 20.gadsimta 80tajos
gados. T, galvenokrt, uzmanbu vrsa uz brv tirgus mehnismiem k
viengo veidu k sasniegt ilgstou attstbu. Tdjdi ekonomikas
attstbas veicinanai izvirzja veselu nepiecieamo darbbu kopumu. is
nepiecieamo reformu kopums vstur iegjis ar nosaukumu
Vaingtonas vienoans (18.,12.). Neoliberi uzskata, ka liberalizcija
un integrcija ekonomik ar brv tirgus vadto dado resursu sadali auj
valstm apzint savas priekrocbas, optimizt ts un sasniegt maksimlu

izaugsmi. pieeja uzskata, ka valstij vajag nodroint stabilu
makroekonomisko vidi ar skaidriem sples noteikumiem, bet viengais
veids, k valsts var to ietekmt, ir veicint infrastruktras attstbu un
cilvkresursu attstbu (18.).
Harbergers, kur ir viens no Vaingtonas vienoans
atbalsttjiem, defin nepiecieams reformas dadu ekonomisko
barjeru atcelanu. Ar barjerm vi saprotot dadas kvotas, nodokus,
tarifus (25.,10.). Turklt literatr tiek defints, ka ir nepiecieams cik
vien tas ir iespjams, samazint valsts lomu ekonomik (18.,12.). is ir
pilngi pretjs viedoklis struktristu viedoklim, ka valsts tiea
iejaukans ir viengais veids k pankt stabilu ekonomisko attstbu.
Struktristu pieeja rads pc procesiem, kas norisinjs
Latamerik, jo 19./20.gadsimta mij no klasisks ekonomikas teorijas
viedoka Latamerikas valstm bija izdevgk raot izejmaterilus. Tau
situcija mainjs, kad tirg ska pieaugt industrilo preu cenas un
ska mazinties izejmaterilu cenas, k rezultt attstbas valstis nebija
spjgas makst par importa precm, ko ts ieveda (18., 45.). Tdjdi
struktristi nonca pie divm atzim par tehnoloijas nozmi
ekonomikas attstb un attstbas valstu ietekmes mazinanos
(izejmaterilu cenu un pieprasjuma neprtraukt samazinans
rezultt) pckara period (18.,5.).
Struktristi uzskata, kas viengais veids, k veikt preju no agrras
ekonomikas uz modernu ekonomiku, ir valsts iejaukans dadi
fisklie, monetrie mehnismi (18., 7.), attiecgi mainot struktru.
enerija un Sirkina (Chenery and Syrquin) strukturls
transformcijas model enerijs un Sirkina moderno ekonomisko
attstbu defin k procesus, kuru galvens pazmes viss valsts ir vienas
un ts paas, ko var raksturot k ilgtermia strukturlas izmaias, kas
pavada ekonomisko izaugsmi. Turklt ar strukturlm prmaim tiek
saprastas dadu ekonomisko komponenu varicijas pieprasjuma,
raoanas, tirdzniecbas un nodarbintbas. Tdjdi ekonomisk
attstba tiek raksturota k sistmiskas izmaias ekonomikas un
socilajs struktrs, lai panktu ienkumu palielinanos uz vienu
iedzvotju (22.,3.). enerija ekonomisks attstbas modelis sastv no
divm komponentm: a) visprjiem faktoriem jau mintiem
pieprasjuma, raoanas, tirdzniecbas; un b) no valsts individuls
vstures attstbas (22.,4.).
Kopum var secint, ka struktristi uzskata, ka ekonomikas
transformcijas proces nevar pilnb uzticties brv tirgus spkiem, bet
jpaaujas uz valdbas rkots intervences paskumu efektivitti. Tpc
tiek izmantota valsts iejaukans. Struktristi ar apauba empriskos un

teortiskos argumentus, ka netrauctie tirgus spki var nodroint
rpniecbas nozares konkurtspju (18.).
Autore vairk atbalsta struktristu uzskatus sakar ar to, ka
globalizcijas apstkos resursu apjomu neviendba ir btiska, k ar ir
pietiekami daudz ekonomisku situciju, kad nepiecieams valsts stimuls,
lai dotu skotnjo impulsu procesu uzskanai, jaunu tehnoloiju
attstbai vai jaunu paradigmu veidoanai sabiedrb un ekonomiskajos
procesos.
Atjaunojamo energoresursu izmantoanas veicinana saistma ar
ar inovcijas attstbu. Var rasties jautjums, kpc atjaunojamo
energoresursu izmantoanu vai jaunu tehnoloiju izmantoanu
enertik var saistt ar inovcijm. Inovcija LR Ministru dokumentos ir
raksturota k process, kur jaunas zintnisks, tehnisks, socils,
kultras vai citas jomas idejas, izstrdnes un tehnoloijas tiek stenotas
tirg pieprast un konkurtspjg produkt vai pakalpojum (13.).
Inovciju gala rezultts ir jaunievedums, produkts, procesu kvalittes un
efektivittes uzlabojumi, k ar jaunu piegdtju un patrtju attiecbu
veidoans. Hilmi (Hilmi) uzskata, ka inovativitti var raksturot k
uzmuma spju radt ko jaunu vai ieviest ko jaunu, vai veikt izmaias,
darbojoties t, lai stenotu s spjas (12; 9.). Balstoties uz Hilmi izteikto,
k ar MK dokumentos minto, autore ir nonkusi pie secinjuma, ka
atjaunojamo energoresursu raoan jaunu zintnisko ideju ievieana un
jaunu tehnoloiju ievieana ir inovcija un ldz ar to ir piemrojams viss
atbalsta mehnismu un instrumentu klsts, kas var tikt izmantots
inovcijm. Balstoties uz Verhess (Verhees) uzskatu, ka mazos
uzmumos inovativitte ir panieku gatavba un spja izzint inovcijas
un ts adaptt (13.), valsts var veidot uz mazo uzmumu bzes
pilotprojektus enertikas inovciju attstb, izmantojot investciju
atbalstus un vienlaicgi komercializjot zintnisks izstrdes.
Viss iepriek mintais attiecas uz autores piedvto kombinto
valsts atbalsta pieeju, kas btu k atbalsta mehnisms, kas sastvtu no
inovciju, zintnes un autonoms enertikas atbalsta komponentiem.
Ekonomiskaj literatr Nikolajevs savos darbos uzsver, ka inovatvais
potencils tiek pieldzints tehniskajam potencilam k ar tiek saukts, k
faktoru un apstku sistmu nepiecieamba inovatv procesa norisei
(9.). Savukrt, stenojot kombinto valsts atbalsta pieeju, tiktu
nodrointa faktoru sistma, par ko teortiski run Nikolajevs. Balstoties
uz Nikolajeva teortisko atziu, autore piedv ieviest kombint valsts
atbalsta pieeju, kas sev ietver daudzvirzienu attstbas mehnismus.

Valsts atbalsta instrumenti
Viens no izptes jautjumiem ir apkopot un izvrtt esoo atbalsta
instrumentu klstu, kas var tikt klasificts dadi. Autore, izmantojot
Regvita (Regwitz) ptjumu, izveidoja klasifikciju, izmantojot vairkus
klasifikcijas parametrus (2.tab) tieas vai netieas ietekmes
instrumentus, k ar uz investcijm vrstus vai pieirtus uz katru jaudas
vienbu. Klasifikciju tlk var izvrst atkarb no t, vai atbalsta
instrumenti ir ar reguljou vai brvprtgu instrumenta raksturu. Valsts
atbalsta instrumentu izmantoanas klsts atirsies atkarb no
atjaunojamo energoresursu izmantoanas veida. Elektroenerijas
raoan izmantojamiem atjaunojamiem energoresursiem visplak tiek
lietota feedin tarifu sistma. Eiropas Savienbas dalbvalsts tas ir
populrkais atbalsta instruments, bet savukrt biodegvielas vai citiem
resursiem tiek izmantoti viens vai vairku instrumentu kopums.

2.tabula
Atjaunojamo energoresursu atbalsta instrumentu klasifikcija (27.;23.)

Instrumenta raksturs
Reguljos Brprtgs
Uz investcijm Uz raoanu vrsts Uz investcijm Uz raoanu
vrsts vrsts vrsts

Investciju stimuli Feedin tarifu Ieguldtju Zaie tarifi
sistma programmas
Nodoku stimuli Iepirkuma sistma Kontribciju Prmiju sistma
programmas
Aizdevumi ar Kvotu mehnisms Brvprtgi lgumi Brvprtgi
samazintu lgumi
procentu
Iepirkuma sistmas Zao sertifiktu
shmas
Vides nodoki Vides nodoki

Katra instrumenta darbba ir atirga, to ekonomisk btba
izpauas paa atbalsta instrumenta nosaukum, bet skk skaidroti tiek
specifiskkie instrumenti. Feedin tarifu sistmas ietvaros valsts nosaka,
ka elektroenerijas pakalpojumu sniedzjiem obligti jnodroina
atjaunojamo energoresursu raotjiem fikstu enerijas iepirkuma cenu
noteiktam laika periodam ar regresijas koeficientu, lai atspoguotu
paredzto izmaksu samazinanos laik. Ldz ar to raotjiem tiek
garantta noteiktu izmaksu segana (27.). Pastv ar prmiju sistma, kas
ir hibrda sistma, kura nosaka fikstu piemaksu, prmiju pie iepirkuma
cenas.

Kvotu mehnisms, jeb zao sertifiktu sistma nozm to, ka tiek
noteikta kvota, kda enerijas piegdtjam, raotjam vai patrtjam
noteikti nosedzama ar atjaunojamiem energoresursiem. Raotjam
jiegdjas noteikts daudzums zao sertifiktu no raotjiem atbilstoi
fikstai kvotai no kopj atjaunojamo energoresursu daudzuma (27.,8.).
Iepirkuma sistma tiek izmantota tikai konkursa procedrs.
Atbalsts var bt pieirts, ja ir uzstdta noteikta jauda, k ar tiek
izmantota vairksolana, piedvjot zemku cenu nek konkurenti. aj
atbalsta darbb pastv risks, ka pieteikumi ar zemm piedvtm cenm
var netikt stenoti.
Vislielks diskusijas atbalsta instrumentu lietoan ir par feedin
tarifu sistmu. Eiropas Savienbas ekonomisti uzskata, ka feedin tarifu
sistmas trkums ir zemais konkurences lmenis raotjiem, k ar risks
prk lielai atbalsta pieiranai. P. Vaitheds k trkumu uzskata to, ka
atbalsta instrumenta lietoana neveicina inovcijas (15.,14.). Autore
pilnb piekrt Vaitheda uzskatam, ka netiek veicintas investcijas, jo
izmaksu segana notiek neatkargi no tehnoloisk lmea.
No visiem uzrdtajiem atbalsta instrumentiem netieas iedarbbas
atbalsta instrumenti ir vides nodoki un brvprtgie lgumi, bet prjie ir
ties iedarbbas instrumenti. Virkne Eiropas valstu jau vairk k 10
gadus izmantojuas atbalsta instrumentus, turklt to klsts ir bijis ldzgs,
tomr katra valsts ir likusi savu uzsvaru uz kdu no instrumentiem, k ar
guvusi atirgus rezulttus. Lai vartu analizt Eiropas valstu pieredzi
atbalsta instrumentu pielietoan, autore, izmantojot avotus, apkopoja
vairku valstu pieredzi gadu garum (3.tab.).
3.tabula
Biomasas izmantoanas atbalsta mehnismi ES valsts ldz 2010.g. (20.)

Valsts Atbalsta instrumenti Komentri
Austrija Ties finansils atbalsts Vietj apkur biomasas loma
siltumapgdes sistmm. saglabjas. Elektroenerijas
Dotcijas zemniekiem, kas raoanas apjoms no biomasas
audz biomasas kurinmo pieaug.
(rapsi). Nodoku atvieglojumi
biomasas kurinmajam un
papildus nodoki fosilajam
kurinmajam.
Dnija Ilgtermia enertikas Siltuma raoanas apjoms no
programma, energokultru biomasas nav btiski mainjies,
atbalsta programmas (skot ar elektroenerijas raoanas apjoms
2005.g.). Dotcijas bioenerijas pieaudzis 10 reizes.
projektiem (ldz 50%).

Francija 100% nodoku atbrvojums Pieaug modernu tehnoloiju
biodzelim, 80% bioetanolam. pielietoana siltumapgd. Plai
Dotcijas investcijm un izmanto biogzi. Biomasa
izptei. nodroina 2/3 no atjaunojamiem
energoresursiem (6% no
primrajiem energoresursiem).
Lielbritnija Nodoku atvieglojumi biomasas No sadzves atkritumiem saraot
kurinmajam, maksjumi par enerija ir 50% no bioenerijas.
krklu plantciju ierkoanu. Siltuma raoana no biomasas, taj
Nav tieu dotciju bioenerijas skait atkritumiem, 10 gadu laik
raoanai. dubultojusies, bet elektroenerijas
raoanas apjoms pieaudzis 8
reizes.
Nderlande Nodoku atlaides, garantti Biomasa un atkritumi nodroina ap
tarifi, dotcijas investcijm. 50 PJ gad. Mris 2007.g. 85 PJ
un 2020.g. 150 PJ. Plnots, ka ldz
2040.g. biomasa ks par galveno
kurinm veidu (6001000 PJ).
Atkritumu sadedzinana ogu
elektrostacijs ir dominjoais
biomasas resursu izmantoanas
veids. Izplatta biogzes raoana
metntankos. Ldz 2010.g.
elektroenerijas raoana no
biomasas apjoma pieauga 6 reizes.
Somija Nodoki fosil kurinm Valdbas atbalsts biomasas
izmantoanai. Valsts izmantoanai. Iespjams dubultot
ldzfinansjums inovatvu biomasas izmantoanas apjomu,
tehnoloiju ievieanai kurinm utilizjot esoos resursus.
raoan un izmantoan.
Finansils atbalsts mea
paniekiem kurinm
raoanai. Valdbas atbalsts
sadzves atkritumu prstrdei
enerij.
Vcija Biomasas kurinmajam nav 10 gadu laik elektroenerijas
nodoku. Dotcijas investcijm raoanas apjoms no biomasas
un izptes programmm ldz dubultojies
100% .
Zviedrija Labvlga nodoku politika. Plnots ldz 2020.g. palielint
Galvenie instrumenti nodoki biomasas patsvaru energobilanc
par ogleka emisiju un enerijas ldz 40%.
nodoklis. Dotcijas biomasas
koenercijas stacijm, atbalsts
zemniekiem par energokultru
ierkoanu. Tieu dotciju
biomasas kurinm
izmantoanai nav.

K redzams 2.tabul, diezgan intensvi tiek izmantoti dadi
atbalsta instrumenti, pai jatzm nodoku stimuli un garanttie tarifi.
Tomr elektroenerijas raoanas stimulanai izteiktk tiek izmantota
Feedin tarifu sistma, bet biomasas izmantoanai nodoku stimuli. K
redzams, tad atbalstu izmantoana ir plaa, ar dadiem rezulttiem un
nkotnes plniem. Viena no progresvkajm valstm atbalsta
instrumentu izmantoan ir Dnija, k ar Vcija, kuru pieredzi, to
izvrtjot, iespjams premt Latvij.
Valsts atbalsts Latvij
Latvij tiek izmantoti dadi atbalsta instrumenti. Darba gait
autore vlas pieskarties tikai daiem no tiem. K pirmais atbalsta
instruments ir samazints akczes nodoka likmes benznam,
dzedegvielai un biodzedegvielai. Samazinjuma apmrs ir atkargs no
biodegvielas patsvara. Benznam, kam pievienots etilspirts (biodegviela
5%,) akczes nodoka likme ir 269 Ls, bet ja pievienots etilspirts
(biodegvielaa 85 %), tad likme ir 80,70 Ls par 1000 litriem (1.).
Biodzedegvielai (biodegviela 530%) akczes nodoklis ir 234 Ls, bet ja
bio degviela ir vismaz 30 %, tad likme ir 164 Ls. Vislielko atbalstu saem
biodzedegviela (100 %), akczes nodoklis ir 0 Ls (1.) emot vr
apjomus, autore aprinjusi, ka valsts budet neiegtie iemumi no
samazintajm nodoka likmm bija 12,7 miljoni Ls.par laika periodu no
20052012.gadam. o summu var uzskatt k vistieko atbalstu
biodegvielas patriam, k ar vienlaicgi summa ir samazinjusi
patrtju izmaksas.
Otrs btisks atbalsta veids ir atbalsts biodegvielas raotjiem, kas
laika period no 2006. ldz 2011.g. bija 67,2 miljoni latu (16.). Atbalsta
mris atbilstoi Biodegvielas raoanas un lietoanas Latvij 2003
2010 programmai bija nodroint, ka biodegviela sasniedz 5,75 % no
2010.g. tirg laists degvielas pau patriam. Tomr Ekonomikas
ministrija atzst, ka is lielums nav sasniegts (28.). 2010.g. bija plnots
saraot 75 000 tonnu biodegvielas, tomr pc Ekonomikas ministrijas
datiem faktiski tika saraotas 58 283 tonnas, no kurm 39 451 tonna tika
eksportta, kas skotnji nebija paredzts, jo saraot biodegviela bija
paredzta vietjam patriam (28.).
Pc biodegvielas raotju datiem kopjais samakstais nodoku
apjoms esot 18,2 miljoni latu, investciju apjoms raotns un inovcijs
78 miljoni latu un vidji gad papildus radtas 3 215 darbavietas (16.).
K treo atbalsta veidu jatzm obligts iepirkuma komponentes
izmantoanu. Kopjais sniegtais atbalsta apjoms ir 77 miljoni latu (17.).
Uz 2011.g. lielkaj da Eiropas Savienbas valstu tiek izmantots is
mehnisms, tomr Latvij ir realizti tikai 89% no paredzt ieprkam

atjaunojamo energoresursu apjoma, kaut gan ir nodotas ekspluatcij 24
biogzes un 5 biomasas stacijas (28.) Tik zems realizcijas procents
saistms ar to, ka, izmantojot dadas tehnoloijas, tiek izmantots
atirgs atbalsts. No teortisk viedoka atbalstam bija jstimul
darbba, tomr tas nav noticis. T k nav redzami skaidri iemesli, tad
pirms lmuma pieemanas par atbalsta shmas izmaim japkopo
ietekmjoie faktori un jveic to detalizta analze. No Ekonomikas
ministrijas datiem izriet, ka 2010.g. saraotais atjaunojamo
energoresursu elektroenerijas apjoms bija 3155 GWh, bet plnotais
2020.g. apjoms 4416 GWh (28.). Kopjais izsniegto atauju apjoms 1964
GWH, bet obligt iepirkuma ietvaros prdots elektrbas apjoms 171
GWh (28.). Veicot aprinus, var konstatt, ka uz 2020.g. par 2,6
santmiem pieaugtu elektroenerijas patrtju gala tarifs, ja pc esos
atbalsta shmas tiktu saraota za elektrba, kurai jau izsniegtas ataujas.
Ekonomikas ministrijas dati liecina, ka ES fondu pieejamais finansjums
k atbalsta instruments atjaunojamo energoresursu koenercijai
2012.gad sastda 21,36 miljoni latu, uzmumu efektivittes
paaugstinanai 13 miljoni Ls, atjaunojamo energoresursu centraliztai
siltumapgdei 42,32 miljoni Ls. No Kohzijas fonda ldzekiem atbalsts
sastdjis 76,68 miljonus Ls. No ERAF ldzekiem izmantoti 47,75 miljoni
Ls daudzdzvoku mju siltumnoturbas nodroinanai un 4,85 miljoni
Ls socilo dzvojamo mju siltumnoturbas nodroinanai (28.;17.;
16.;20.).
Autore uzskata, ka pareiz pastvo sistma, kad par
siltumnoturbas nodroinanu saemot atbalstu, tomr liela daa
finansjuma (virs 50 %) jnodroina iedzvotjiem, neveicina
siltumnoturbas projektu stenoanu. Tpc vartu ieviest Lielbritnijas
atbalsta mehnismu, kura pamat btu princips, ka iedzvotji nemaks
par ku siltinanu un energoefektivittes uzlaboanu, bet enertikas
kompnijas sedz siltinanas izmaksas, ldz ar to darbojas princips
maks tik cik ietaupi. K otrs atbalsta mehnisms vartu bt
finansana uz izdevgkiem noteikumiem ar attstbas bankas
starpniecbu.
Neskatoties uz dadu Eiropas valstu btisko valsts atbalstu
atjaunojamo energoresursu izmantoan, elektroenerijas cenas ir visai
atirgas. Autore izmantojot Ofgem un Latvijas gzes statistiskos datus
(1.att.) sastdja elektrbas tarifu saldzinjumu (Latvij emts starta
tarifs mjsaimniecbm15,34 eiro centi/KWh.)


1.attls. Elektrbas tarifs Eiropas galvaspilsts uz 01.01.2012. (26.; 28.)

Latvij, izmantojot atbalsta instrumentus, ir novroti di trkumi:
1. Neizpilds skotnj iecere nodroint iekjo patriu ar
biodegvielu;
2. Krzes apstkos liels neiegto nodoku iemumu apjoms;
3. Obligtaj iepirkum realizti 89 % no paredzt ieprkam
atjaunojamo energoresursu apjoma;
4. Nepietiekams ekonomiskais efekts (pc LR Ekonomikas
ministrijas uzskatiem).
Virkne no mintajiem trkumiem ir nevis atbalsta instrumenta
btbas problmas, bet gan t piemroanas administratvs problmas.
Tas attiecas uz mazk saraoto biodegvielas apjomu un papildus
eksporta esambu nevis vietjo patriu. Autore piedv noteikt
administratvu prasbu vietjam patriam obligti prdot 80 %
biodegvielas apjoma, vienlaicgi nosakot obligtu prasbu degvielas
tirgotjiem nodroint biodegvielas tirdzniecbu visos tirdzniecbas
punktos.
Atjaunojam enerija ir jizmanto ekonomikas sildanai,
iesaistoties piln cikl atjaunojamo energoresursu izmantoan, nevis
tikai enerijas patri. Tdjdi vartu sasniegt lielku ekonomisko
ieguvumu. Inovcijas un jaunu zinanu un uzskatu paradigmas
ievieanas rezulttus nevar iegt vien mirkl. Fosils enerijas
izmantoana k patrtjiem (t tiek importta) ir pagaidu un piespiedu
paskums, bet Eiropas Savienbas prioritu izmantoana valsts stimulu
stenoanai atbilstu struktristu pieejas stenoanai valsts ekonomik
enertik.
Atjaunojamai enerijai ir nepiecieamas augsts tehnoloijas, kas
prasa ar augsti attsttu tehnisko intelienci. Atjaunojamo energoresursu
attstba vartu bt pamats, lai sktu nopietni nodarboties ar Latvijas
dzelzceu un autoceu sistmas uzlaboanu. AER atbalsts vartu nozmt
ekonomikas prstrukturanu, iesaistot darbaspku un attstot

visattlkos valsts reionus. is uzstdjums gan ir nkamo ptjumu
uzdevums.
Enertika ir viena no rel sektora nozarm, turklt viena no
nozmgkm. Lai ietekmtu un veicintu enertiku, ir jdom gan par
konkurtspju, gan nozares stratisko nozmi.
Elektroenerijas, gzes, dens apgdes nozare veido visai stabilu
patsvaru no kopjs pievienots vrtbas (2010.g. 4.1%).
Struktristi uzskata, ka ekonomikas transformcijas proces nevar
pilnb uzticties brv tirgus spkiem, bet jpaaujas uz valdbas rkoto
intervences paskumu efektivitti. Latvijai atbilstoka ir struktristu
pieejas iestrde valsts politik sakar ar to, ka globalizcijas apstkos
resursu apjomu neviendba ir btiska, k ar ir pietiekami daudz
ekonomisku situciju, kad nepiecieams valsts stimuls, lai dotu skotnjo
impulsu procesu uzskanai, jaunu tehnoloiju attstbai vai jaunu
paradigmu veidoanai sabiedrb un ekonomiskajos procesos.
Atjaunojamo energoresursu raoan jaunu zintnisko ideju
ievieanai un jaunu tehnoloiju ievieanai ir jizmanto atbalsta
mehnismus un instrumentus, kas paredzti inovcijm. Balstoties uz
Verhesa (Verhees) teortisko uzskatu, ka mazos uzmumos inovativitte
ir panieku gatavba un spja izzint inovcijas un ts adaptt , valsts var
veidot uz mazo uzmumu bzes pilotprojektus enertikas inovciju
attstbai, izmantot investciju atbalstus, vienlaicgi komercializjot
zintnisks izstrdes. Tdjdi, tiktu stenoti kombintie daudzvirzienu
attstbas mehnismi, kurus vartu saukt par kombinto valsts atbalsta
pieeju.
Eiropas Savienbas dalbvalsts tas ir populrkais atbalsta
instruments, bet savukrt biodegvielas vai citiem resursiem tiek
izmantoti viens vai vairku instrumentu kopums.
Iepirkuma sistma darbojas, ja ir uzstdta noteikta jauda, k ar
tiek izmantota vairksolana, piedvjot zemku cenu nek konkurenti.
atbalsta darbb pastv risks, ka pieteikumi ar zemm piedvtm
cenm var netikt stenoti. Tpc Latvij iepirkuma sistmas izmantoana
nav rekomendjama.
Progresvks valstis atbalsta instrumentu izmantoan ir Dnija
un Vcija, kuru pieredzi, to izvrtjot, var premt Latvij.
Valsts budet neiegtie iemumi no samazintajm nodoka
likmm biodegvielai laika period no 20052012.gadam ir 12,7 miljoni
Ls.
2010.g. bija plnots saraot 75 000 tonnu biodegvielas, faktiski tika
saraotas 58 283 tonnas, no kurm 39 451 tonna tika eksportta, kas

nebija paredzts skotnj idej par atbalsta pieiranu nozarei, jo
saraot biodegviela bija paredzta vietjam patriam. Tas nav
iestrdts administratvajs prasbs.
Atbalsta mris atbilstoi Biodegvielas raoanas un lietoanas
Latvij 20032010 programmai bija novirzt 67,2 milj. Ls, un
biodegvielai bija jsasniedz 5.75 % no 2010.g. tirg laists degvielas pau
patriam, tomr sasniegtais rezultts ir 2.96 %.
Noteikt administratvu prasbu 80 % biodegvielas obligti prdot
vietjam patriam, vienlaicgi nosakot obligtu prasbu degvielas
tirgotjiem nodroint biodegvielas tirdzniecbu visos tirdzniecbas
punktos.
No obligt iepirkuma paredzt apjoma realizti 89%, kaut gan ir
nodotas ekspluatcij 24 biogzes un 5 biomasas stacijas. Zems
realizcijas procents saistms ar to, ka izmantojot dadas tehnoloijas,
tiek izmantots atirgs atbalsts. Pirms lmuma pieemanas par atbalsta
shmas izmaim japkopo ietekmjoie faktori un jveic to detalizta
analze, izmantojot datus no uzmumiem, kas samui atbalstu,
izmantojot aprinu, daudzfaktoru analzi un ekspertu metodi.
Eiropas Savienbas prioritu izmantoana valsts stimulu
stenoanai atbilstu struktristu pieejas stenoanai valsts ekonomik
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21. European Commission (2010) EU Energy trends to 2030 [sk.17.01.2012]Pieejas
veids:http://ec.europa.eu/energy/wcm/fpis/ressourcesese/docs/1
trends_to_2030_update_2009.pdf
22. Escosura (2005) Gerschenkron Revisited. European Patterns of Development in
Historical Perspective, [sk.19.03.2012] Pieejas veids:
http://docubib.uc3m.es/WORKINGPAPERS/WH/wh057910.pdf,
23. Andre P.C. FAAIJ, Bioenergy in Europe: changing technology choices, 2004
[sk.12.02.2012] Pieejas veids:
24. http://igiturarchive.library.uu.nl/chem/20070621201236/NWSE2006
2.pdf
25. HARBERGER A. (1999) The view from the trenches: development process and
policies as seen by a working professional; [sk.19.03.2012.] Pieejas veids:
http://www.econ.ucla.edu/harberger/theviewah.pdf,
26. Ofgem: Pieejas veids: http://www.ofgem.gov.uk/Markets/Pages/Markets.aspx
27. RAGWITZ M.,HELD. A., RESCH G., FABER T., HAAS R.,HUBER C., MORTHORST
P.E., JENSEN S..G., ROGIER C., VOOGT M.,REECE G., KONSTANTINAVICIUTE
I.,HEYDER B., APTRES Report (Final report) (2007) Assessment and
Optimisation of Renewable Energy Support Schemes in the European Electricy
Market. Vienna: University of Technology, Institut, Austria. [sk.12.02.2012]
Pieejas veids:
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/studies/doc/renewables/2007_02_o
ptres.pdf
28. LR Ekonomikas ministrija Atbalsts zaajai enerijai (2012)

Summary
Energy is one of the most important sectors of the economy. Its products have
the major impact on the competitiveness of production in industry, and it is one of the
driving forces behind the economy. The global economy is developing; the wellbeing
level of many people is improving, so the energy demand and energy consumption is
growing every year. The growth of demand causes increases in energy prices, which
are now not only theoretically predicted, but also shows the current time
phenomenon.
Increasing demand for energy, limited reserves of fossil fuels, as well as the
environmental pollution and global climate change in recent years have lead to
increased interest about renewable energy in the world. Support for renewable
energy resources has become the key issue of the European Union policy.
Energy is one of the real and one of the most important sectors of the industry,
so in the theory, evaluating the ability to influence and to encourage the energy is to
think in terms of competitiveness and the strategic importance.
For classification instruments with direct or indirect effects can be used, as
well as investmentoriented, given to each power unit. Classification can be further
viewed regarding if support instruments are mandatory or voluntary in their
character.
The European Union countries are intensively using a variety of support
instruments, especially tax incentives and guaranteed tariffs. However, for electricity
the feedin tariff system of incentives is used, but tax incentives for the use of
biomass.
There are three major directions of support in Latvia. The first direction is
focused on tax cuts as a result of them the state budget has not gained revenues from
the reduced tax rates in the amount of 12.7 million lats. This amount can be
considered as the most direct support for biofuel consumption, and at the same time
in the economic process it has reduced costs for consumers.
Another important type of support is support for biofuel producers, during the
period from 2006 to 2011. It is 67.2 million lats.
As the third type of support instruments the use of mandatory purchase
components should be noted. Within the feedin tariff system the state determines as
mandatory for electricity service providers to give renewable energy producers a
fixed feedin price during a limited period, usually in the regression coefficients to
reflect the expected cost reductions during this period. This mechanism is used in
most European Union countries in 2011, including Latvia.
The Ministry of Economics data show that in 2010 the production of
renewable electricity was 3155 GWh, but the annual volume in 2020 is planned 4,416
GWh.
The electricity, gas and water supply sector accounts for a rather stable share
of total industry added value, in 2010 it was 4.1%.
From the structuralistic perspective, the economic transformation process can
not fully trust the free market forces, but must rely on the government organized
effective interventions. Latvia is more suitable in the structural approach to the
incorporation of public policy, due to the fact that globalization disparities in the
amount of resources is essential, and there are plenty of economic issues, which need
the stimulus to start the process of launching new technologies or new paradigms for
building society and economic processes.

For the introduction of new scientific ideas and the introduction of new
technologies in renewable energy production theoretically the applicable support
mechanisms and instruments have to be used. Based on Verhess theoretical view that
small enterprises and their owners are more ready for innovations and able to
explore innovations and to adapt them, the state can develop small business based
pilot projects for energy innovations using investments in the development,
simultaneously commercializing the scientific research. Thus, by the implementation
of combined multidirected mechanisms for development this could be called a
combined approach of state support.
The author in her work came to the conclusions and gave proposals, for 2010
it was planned to produce 75,000 tons of biofuel, but actually 58,283 tons were
produced, of which 39,451 tons were exported, which was not foreseen in the original
idea in support for industry, in production of biofuels were intended for domestic
consumption, not in the administrative requirements. Objective of the support under
the Biofuel production and use of Latvia 20032010 program was shifted by 67.2
million Ls, and biofuels had reached 5.75% in 2010, marketed the same fuel
consumption, but the achieved result is 2.96%.
To administer requirements for domestic consumption as mandatory to sell
80% of biofuels, simultaneously for fuel marketers to ensure obligatory marketing of
biofuels in all the sales outlets.
In the mandatory use of procurement component from the expected volume
89% are realized, although 24 biogas and 5 biomass plants have been put into
service. Low percentage of sales are due to the fact that for various technologies
different support is used. As no clear reasons are seen, then before deciding about the
changes of support schemes, the influencing factors must be summarized and
detailed analyses made, using data from the companies that have received support,
through the calculation, the multibranch analysis and expert technique.
There is a need to evaluate the expected result of each support instrument in
the short and long term, to assess potential weaknesses in the instrument application
and to introduce new support mechanisms for strategic objectives. The use of
European Union priorities in the implementation of state incentives would comply
with the putting into practise the structuralistic perspective in the national economy
in energy.


TERITORIJAS ATTSTBAS INDIKATORU
SAVSTARPJS SASAISTES PATNBAS
PECULIARITIES OF INTERRELATION OF TERRITORIAL
DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS
Jeena LONSKA
Mg.sc.soc., Daugavpils Universittes doktorante
Rzeknes Augstskolas Kredtu pieiranas komisijas prieksdtja
grmatvedespeciliste
Tlrunis: +371 26428081, epasts: Jelena.Lonska@ru.lv
Rzekne, Latvija

Abstract. A variety of measurement tools is used to evaluate the territorial development
in the world, for instance, indicators, indices, etc. These measurement tools are applied
to measure certain regions of a country and to assess the development of a country as
well as to compare countries with each other or in relation to the previous years. In
Latvia, certain methodology for calculating the level of territorial development has been
in place for about 15 years. Parallel to the official methodology, scientists and
researchers of Latvia offer use of an alternative methodology and indices for measuring
territorial development. Having analysed various theoretical approaches to a relatively
new direction of the economic science within the framework of Economics of
Development, the author of the research offers her own perception of the conceptual
nature of the territorial development: the key indicator of any territorial development is
related to People, their material wellbeing, and health, level of education, spirituality,
and overall satisfaction with life. In other words, a developed territory is the one, where
the number of people increased, and these people are wealthy, healthy, educated,
spiritually developed, and satisfied with their lives, but a relatively more developed
territory is the one, where these indicators are higher. In order to understand
interrelation between the development elements, the author of this article on the basis
of elements of the newly developed methodological model of measurement of territorial
development, analyses their correlation, considering the worlds countries as an object
and building on the available official statistical information and qualitative research
data.
Keywords: developmental economics, territorial development indices, methodological
model, happiness, life satisfaction.

Ievads
Tautas st bagtba cilvki. Ar diem vrdiem 1990.gad
Apvienoto Nciju Attstbas Programmas Ziojums par Tautas attstbu
uzska enerisko kampau jauns pieejas attstbas uztveran
atbalstanai. Domas par to, ka attstbas mris ir labvlgas vides
izveidoana, kura auj cilvkiem dzvot ilgi, veselgi un radoi, odien var
likties acmredzamas. Bet t tas nebija vienmr. Ziojuma galvenais
uzdevums pdjo 20 gadu garum ir uzsvrt to, ka attstba pc savas
btbas paredzta tiei cilvkiem (8.).

Jebkura teritorija ir zeme kop ar ts iedzvotjiem vis dzves
daudzveidb, t ir ar s zemes dabas bagtbas, infrastruktra, kultra,
vsture, attiecbas ar citm teritorijm (iedzvotjiem) un vl daudzi citi
aspekti, kas padara o teritoriju par to, kas t ir veido ts identitti. Visu
o aspektu izmaias laik ar veido to saturu, kas japlko, lai izprastu
attstbu. Tpc ptnieki tiecas izveidot attstbas mranas metodes, kas
vien skaitlisk rdtj apvieno daudzus (vai vismaz daus btiskkos)
attstbas aspektus. dos mrjumos btiskkie jautjumi ir: cik liel
mr ir nodrointa cilvku vienldzba materilo labumu sadal, vai ir
radtas viendas iespjas nodarbintb, izgltb, iztik (prtikas
nodroinjums, pajumte), veselbas aprp, brv laika pieejamb un
izmantoan, drobas jom, k ar politiskaj un kultras dzv.
Izteiktkie materilie faktori aj grup, tdi k materilie labumi,
prtika, pajumte, biei tiek saistti ar jdzienu dzves lmenis, bet mazk
materilie (veselba, brvais laiks, kultras dzve) ar jdzienu dzves
kvalitte.
Ptjuma autore pamatojoties uz teortisko piemumu reiona
attstba cilvku dzvbas uzturana, paciea un brvba ir
izstrdjusi teritorijas attstbas mranas metodoloisko modeli. aj
ptjum autore izanalizs modea elementu indikatoru vrtbu
savstarpjo korelciju pa pasaules valstm, emot vr pieejamo oficilo
statistisko informciju un kvantitatvo ptjumu datus.
Ptjuma mris analizt autores jaunizveidots teritorijas
attstbas mranas metodoloisk modea elementu savstarpjo
korelciju pasaules valsts, emot vr pieejamo oficilo statistisko
informciju un kvantitatvo ptjumu datus.
Ptjuma uzdevumi:
1) Sniegt autores jaunizveidot teritorijas attstbas mranas
metodoloisk modea teortisko pamatojumu;
2) Veikt modea rdtju indikatoru korelcijas analzi 93
pasaules valstu griezum;
3) Izanalizt iegtos rezulttus un noformult secinjumus.
Ptjuma objekts 93 pasaules valstis.
Ptjuma priekmets 93 pasaules valstu teritorijas attstbas
rdtji.
Ptjuma hipotze teritorijas attstbas mranas metodoloisk
modea tdi subjektvie rdtji, k cilvku apmierintba ar dzvi un
cilvku gargums ir atkargi no cilvku materils labkljbas.
Ptjuma metodes: monogrfisk metode, loisks analzes un
sintzes metode, dedukcijas metode, korelcijas metode.

Jaunizveidot teritorijas attstbas mranas metodoloisk
modea teortiskais pamatojums
o ptjumu autore balsta uz attstbas ekonomikas
(developmental economics) teortiskajm izstrdm, kuras skaidro
attstbas ekonomikas jdzienu, ekonomikas zintnes atzarojuma
mrus un uzdevumus.
Attstbas ekonomika ir ekonomikas zintnes nozare, kura apskata
ekonomikas transformcijas procesus no stagncijas uz izaugsmi un no
zemiem ienkumiem uz augstiem, k ar absolts nabadzbas
prvaranas problmas (15.). Attstbas ekonomika mina izprast un
mekl atbildes uz jautjumiem Kpc daas valstis (teritorijas) ir
nabadzgas, bet citas bagtas? un K samazint trkumu nabadzgajs
valsts (teritorijs), lai katram uz s plantas btu nodrointi minimli
nepiecieamie dzves apstki, lai cilvki nejustu badu un btu
prliecinti par nkotni? (14.).
Attstbas ekonomikas nozare ir saldzinoi jauns atsevis
ekonomikas virziens. Cilvku un nciju attstba un labkljba tradicionli
bija ekonomisko ptjumu un izmekljumu centr. ie procesi piesaistja
daudzu ekonomistu klasiu interesi. .Smits (Smith A.), D.Rikardo
(Ricardo D.), T.Maltus (Malthus T.), D.S.Mills (Mill J.S.) un K.Marks
(Marx K.) vii visi meklja closakarbas ekonomikas attstbas
procesos. Msdienu ekonomistu uzvrdu saraksts, kuri pievrsa savus
ragos prtus attstbas ekonomikas nozarei ir sekojos: P.Krugmans
(Krugman P.), D.Stiglits (Stiglitz J.), V.Rostovs (Rostow W.), D.Robinsons
(Robinson J.), H.Donsons (Johnson H.), A.Sens (Sen A.) utt. (7.;9.;11.).
Attstbas ekonomik teritorijas attstba tiek skatta k vesels
process, kuram ir noteikts rezultts: pats darbbas process ir teritorijas
kapitla izaugsme, bet proces sasniegtais rezultts teritorijas
attsttba (1.att.). Teritorijas kapitls ir determinante, ko arvien aktvk
zintnieki un ptnieki pta gan Eirop, gan ar Latvij teritoriju attstbas
teortiski metodoloisks bzes noteikanas nolkos (R.Difingers
(Giffinger R.), R.Kapelo (Capello R.), R.Kamagni (Camagni R.),
V.Valtenbergs). Teritorilais kapitls sastv no septiiem elementiem
finanu kapitla, tehnisks infrastruktras (kas, bves u.tml.), socil
kapitla, cilvkkapitla, dabas kapitla, kultras kapitla un politisk
kapitla (3.;4.;5.;16.;17.;23.).


RAANS
Teritorijas kapitls
ATTSTBA
process

Teritorijas kapitla izaugsme
SASNIEGANA produktivitte

REZULTTS Teritorijas attsttba

1.attls. Attstba k process un k rezultts
(autores izveidots, pamatojoties uz Boroenko V. (2.))

Analizjot 1.attlu, var secint, ka attsttba ir grti iedomjama
bez izaugsmes, bet izaugsme ir iespjama bez attsttbas. Lai gan
attsttba ir praktiski neiespjama bez izaugsmes, tomr t ir iespjama
bez ienkumu palielinans uz vienu iedzvotju. Lai spriestu par
attsttbu, ir jbt uzlabotiem dzves standartiem un labkljbai, kad
ienkumu pieaugums uz vienu iedzvotju ir pietiekams nosacjums
indivdu labkljbas paaugstinanai tas ir nepiecieams apstklis k
sasniegt labkljbu bez radikliem institucionliem jauninjumiem (14.).
Ekonomisti D.Gol (Goulet D.) un A.Sens argument, ka attstbas
ekonomika nozm daudz vairk, nek tikai vidjo ienkumu uz vienu
iedzvotju lmea celans analzi. Attstbas jdziens paredz, ka ar to
tiek saprastas visas ekonomisks un socils vrtbas, pc kurm tiecas
valsts ne tikai vienkra materil attstba un progress, bet pai
cilvku un ncijas paciea un brvba (6.;13.).
Gol plao jdzienu attstba skaidro un pamato ar trim pamata
komponentm, kuras vi defin k dzvbas uzturana (life
sustenance), paciea (selfesteem) un brvba (freedom) (6.).
Dzvbas uzturana (lifesustenance): s jdziens ir saistts ar
pamatvajadzbu nodroinanu. Attstbas atkarbu no pamatvajadzbu
nodroinanas definja Pasaules Banka 1970.g. Valsti nevar uzskatt par
pilngi attsttu, ja t nevar nodroint visiem saviem iedzvotjiem tdas
pamatvajadzbas, k pajumti, aprbu, prtiku un minimli nepiecieamo
izgltbu. Attstbas galvenais mris ir vienlaicgi pacelt cilvkus no
skotnjs nabadzbas un apmierint viu pamatvajadzbas.
Paciea (selfesteem): s jdziens ir saistts ar parespektanu
un neatkarbu. Valsti nevar uzskatt par pilngi attsttu, ja t tiek
ekspluatta un ja t nav spcga un ietekmga attiecbu uzturanai uz

viendiem noteikumiem. Sabiedrba tiecs uz pacieas pamatformm,
kaut gan to var nosaukt par autentiskumu, individualitti, godu, lepnumu
vai atzinbu. Pacieas btba un forma var mainties no sabiedrbas uz
sabiedrbu un no kultras uz kultru.
Brvba (freedom) nozm to, ka cilvki ir vairk rcbspjgi
noteikt pau likteni. Cilvki nevar bt brvi bez izvles iespjas, ja vii ir
ieslodzti dzvoanai uz eksistanas robeas bez izgltbas un
prasmm. Materils attstbas priekrocba ir tda, ka priek indivdiem
un sabiedrbas tiek paplaintas izvles iespjas. aj situcij brvba
tiek saprasta k atbrvoans sajta no sveiem materiliem dzves
apstkiem un no socils verdzbas citiem cilvkiem, no cieanm, no
nomcom institcijm un no dogmatiskm ticbm, pai par to, ka
nabadzba ir iepriek nolemta.
Visi ie trs elementi ir savstarpji saistti. Nepietiekam paciea
un brvbas sajta ir zemo dzves apstku rezultts, un nepietiekam
paciea un ekonomiskais ieslodzjums kst par nebeidzamu
nabadzbas di ar fatlisma un piekrianas noteiktajai krtbai sajtu
t sauktais nabadzbas patvrums (14.).
Gol trs attstbas jdziena pamatkomponenti saists ar ar A.Sena
attstbas procesa vziju, kur definja jdzienus tiesbas un iespjas
plak nozm k dzvbas uzturana (life sustenance) un paciea
(selfesteem); vlk papildinot tos ar brvbas (freedom) jdzienu (13.).
Sens uzskata brvbu par attstbas prieknoteikumu, brvba ir
primrais instruments attstbas sasnieganai. Attstba sastv no
nebrvbu (unfreedoms) novranas procesa, kas paplaina cilvkiem
izvles un izdevbas iespjas. Ar nebrvbu tiek saprasts bads un
nepietiekams uzturs, slikta veselba un pamatvajadzbu trkums,
politisks brvbas un pamata pilsotiesbu trkums, k ar ekonomisk
nedroba (13.).
Sens defin attstbu k cilvka brvbas paplainanu k iespju
paplainanu cilvka parealizanai, k izvles brvbu starp dadiem
dzves veidiem, k cilvka iespju ekspansiju (13.).
Savos ptjumos Sens izmantoja iespju pieeju (capability
approach) un pamatoja atzinumu, ka attstbas process tas ir ne tikai
materils un ekonomisks labkljbas pieaugums, bet ar cilvka iespju
paplainans, kas nozm lielku izvles brvbu, lai katrs vartu
izvlties no vairkiem variantiem to mri un dzves veidu, kuru vi
uzskata par labko (13.).
Attstbas ekonomik teritorijas attstbas analz uzsvars tiek likts
ne tikai uz ekonomiskiem, materiliem un citiem objektviem rdtjiem.
Liela uzmanba tiek pievrsta ar tdu netaustmo, cilvku subjektvo
radtju analzei, k cilvku apmierintba ar dzvi, laimes sajta, cilvku

subjektv labkljba un dzves kvalitte. os rdtjus apkopo un analiz
t saucam Laimes ekonomika (Happiness Economics), prsvar
izmantojot cilvku aptaujas, kurs piedaloties cilvkiem ir jatbild uz
virkni jautjumu par viu subjektvm dzves apmierintbas un laimes
sajtm.
Laimes ekonomik vislielkais strakmens ir jautjums: Vai
cilvku laimes sajta/subjektv labkljba ir atkarga no materiliem
apstkiem?, citiem vrdiem: Vai laime ir naud?. Pirmais, kas izptja
sakarbas starp valstu IKP un cilvku subjektvo labkljbu bija
ameriku ekonomists R.Esterlins (R.Easterlin), kas 1974.g. atklja
Esterlina paradoksu (Easterlin paradox), saska ar kuru cilvku
subjektv labkljba ir oti relatvs jdziens: kamr cilvks ir materili
labk nodroints par citiem sabiedrbas locekiem, vi jtas laimgs,
tikldz apkrtjie cilvki sasniedz via materilo lmei, vi vairs nav tik
laimgs, t.i., cilvki cenas bt nevis vienkri bagti, bet bt bagtki par
citiem. Esterlins apgalvo, ka vairk naudas indivda rcb nozm vairk
individuls laimes, kaut gan visu sabiedrbas iedzvotju ienkumu
pieaugums nepalielina viu laimes sajtu (In all societies, more money for
the individual typically means more individual happiness. However, raising
the incomes of all does not increase the happiness of all) (18.).
Raksta autore, analizjot Esterlina pieeju subjektvs labkljbas
analzei, atzm, ka Esterlins atsevii neapskata, k cilvku
apmierintba ar dzvi un laimes sajta mains atkarb no ienkumiem,
parasti apvienojot tos vien termin subjektv labkljba (subjective
wellbeing).
Raksta autorei tuvka ir cita ameriku zintnieka R.Inglharta
(R.Inglehart) un prjo via ptnieku komandas pieeja augstkminto
likumsakarbu ptan. Inglharts jdzienus cilvku apmierintba ar
dzvi un laimes sajta defin atsevii, apskatot cik liel mr katra
pardba ir sasaistta ar cilvku un valsts labkljbu. Inglharts uzskata, ka
labkljba vairk ietekm cilvku apmierintbu ar dzvi, nevis laimes
sajtu, jo apmierintba ar dzvi ir jtgka, mainoties ekonomiskajam
stvoklim. Laime ir tltji sasniedzama sajta, t ir tiei saistta ar
cilvku grupas solidaritti, reliiozitti un nacionlo lepnumu. Tau
sabiedrb ar augsti attsttu ekonomiku brvs izvles iespjas domin
pr solidaritti (19.).
Britu ekonomists R.Lajards (R.Layard) sav 2005.g. izdotaj
grmat Happiness: Lessons from a New Science uzskata, ka tomr ir
noteikts cilvku bagtbas slieksnis 20000 USD apmr uz cilvku gad,
sasniedzot kuru, cilvka laimes sajta un kopj apmierintba ar dzvi
vairs nav tik atkarga no ienkumu daudzuma. Bet valsts, kurs ienkumi
uz vienu iedzvotju ir mazki par o slieksni, situcija ir pilngi citdka:

cilvku subjektv labkljba ir tiei atkarga no primri nepiecieamo
dzves apstku nodroinanas. Ir jpiebilst, ka R.Lajards uzskata
apmierintbu ar dzvi k vienu no laimes sajtas sastvdam (10.).
Apkopojot augstkminto var secint, ka attstba notiek tad, kad
notiek pamatvajadzbu uzlaboana, kad ekonomiskie pankumi sekm
pacieas sajtas palielinanos cilvkos un valst kopum, un kad
materil stvoka uzlaboans paplaina cilvku tiesbas, iespjas un
brvbu, t.i. kad izaugsme noved pie attsttbas (1.att.).
modea empriskie indikatori
Ptjuma autore teritorijas izaugsmes lmea novrtanu piedv
pamatot uz jaunizveidoto teritorijas attstbas mranas metodoloisko
modeli, kura indikatori ir vrsti tiei uz Cilvka esambas un via
labkljbas lmea noteikanu.
is modelis sastv no 6 pamatrdtjiem (2.att.):
1) Iedzvotju daudzuma;
2) Cilvku materils labkljbas;
Objektvie rdtji
3) Cilvku veselbas;
4) Cilvku izgltbas;
5) Cilvku garguma; Subjektvie rdtji
6) Cilvku apmierintbas ar dzvi.

Cilvku materil

labkljba

Iedzvotju
daudzums Cilvku
veselba
TERITORIJAS ATTSTTBA

CILVKS

Cilvku TERITORIJAS ATTSTTBA Cilvku
apmierintba izgltba
ar dzvi

Cilvku gargums

2.attls. Jaunizveidot teritorijas attstbas mranas
metodoloisk modea pamatrdtji un to mijiedarbba
(autores izveidots)


Par jaunizveidot teritorijas attstbas metodoloisk modea
pamatrdtju empriskajiem indikatoriem ir izvlti sekojoi:
1) Rdtjam Iedzvotju daudzums vidjais iedzvotju skaita
pieaugums % 2010./2015. (Human Development Report
2011).
2) Rdtjam Cilvku materil labkljba IKP uz vienu
iedzvotju, kas aprints pc pirktspjas parittes (USD), ko
biei lieto tirgus kursa viet, lai saldzintu dadu valstu un
valtu ekonomiskos rdtjus, jo tad tiek atspoguots konkrts
preu daudzums vai labkljbas lmenis, neemot vr cenu
atirbas (Human Development Report 2011).
3) Rdtjam Cilvku veselba brnu mirstba (pirmaj dzves
gad miruo brnu skaits uz 1000 dzvi dzimuajiem) un
paredzamais dzves ilgums dzimanas brd (gados) (The
Global Competitiveness Report 2011/2012).
4) Rdtjam Cilvku izgltba skumskol uzemto cilvku
skaits (neto) % no iedzvotju kopskaita un augstks izgltbas
iestds uzemto cilvku skaits (bruto) % no iedzvotju
kopskaita (The Global Competitiveness Report 2011/2012).
5) Rdtjam Cilvku gargums laimes indekss (ASEP/JDS
datu bzes prskats par laika periodu 1999./2009. Pasaules
laimes karte (World Map of Happiness)).
6) Rdtjam Cilvku apmierintba ar dzvi cilvku
apmierintbas ar dzvi koeficients (Human Development
Report 2011).
modea rdtju indikatoru korelcijas analze
Td, ka ne vism pasaules valstm tiek aprinti visi
augstkmintie indikatori, analzei tika pakautas tikai 93 pasaules
valstis, tai skait ar Latvija, kurm autorei izdevies atrast visu indikatoru
vrtbas. s 93 pasaules valstis tika rantas, pieirot katrai valstij
krtas vietas numuru pc katra indikatora. Tlk informcija tika
ievadta statistisks analzes programm SPSS, ar kuras paldzbu,
izmantojot Sprmena rangu korelcijas koeficientu, tika noteikts
korelcijas sakarbas spks, kas nav atkargs no sakarbas matemtisk
tie vai apgriezt virziena, un tiek noteikts pc korelcijas koeficienta
absolts vrtbas. Maksimli iespjama korelcijas koeficienta absolt
vrtba ir r=1,000, miniml r=0,000. Korelcijas cieuma noteikanai
izmanto ertoka skalu ar sem korelcijas cieuma gradcijm: |r|<0,1
korelcijas praktiski nav; 0,1<|r|<0,3 oti vja korelcija; 0,3<|r|<0,5
vja korelcija; 0,5<|r|<0,7 vidja korelcija; 0,7<|r|<0,9 ciea

(spcga) korelcija; 0,9<|r|<1 oti ciea (oti spcga) korelcija (25.).
Sprmena rangu korelcijas koeficients tika izvlts tpc, ka visi
maingie pieder rangu skalai, jo analzei tiek emtas nevis izvlto
indikatoru absolts vrtbas, bet to rangi valsts vieta citu valstu vid
pc katra rdtja. Korelcija var bt statistiski oti nozmga (** ar
varbtbu 99%), statistiski nozmga (* ar varbtbu 95%) un statistiski
nenozmga.
Zemk autore izskats tikai analz iegts spcgs un statistiski
nozmgs korelcijas.
Veicot korelciju, tika iegta sekojoa informcija:
1) Spcga korelcija un statistiski oti nozmga korelcija pastv
starp rdtja Cilvku materil labkljba indikatoru IKP uz
vienu iedzvotju, kas aprints pc pirktspjas parittes un
rdtja Cilvku veselba indikatoru brnu mirstba.
Korelcijas koeficients ir negatvs 0,898**. Tas nozm, ka
palielinoties valsts ienkumiem, samazins brnu mirstba
(1.tab.). 20.gadsimta 70tajos gados ameriku demogrfs un
sociologs S.H.Prestons (Samuel H.Preston), pamatojoties uz
virknes valstu un dadu 20.gadsimta laika periodu
materiliem atklja kopjs likumsakarbas: jo lielki ir
sabiedrbas ekonomiskie pankumi un lielks ir valstu IKP uz
vienu iedzvotju, jo ir labvlgka s sabiedrbas situcija
veselbas jom, zemka mirstba, un, attiecgi, lielks cilvku
dzves ilgums (22.).
1.tabul apkopotie dati skaidri apliecina korelcijas rezulttu, ka
palielinoties valsts ienkumiem, brnu mirstba samazins.

1.tabula
Brnu mirstba pasaul (pirmaj dzves gad miruo
brnu skaits uz 1000 dzvi dzimuajiem)
(autores sastdta, izmantojot Pasaules Bankas statistisko datu bzi (24.))

2000.g. 2005.g. 2009.g.

Augsto ienkumu valstis (NKP 12276 $
6,7 6,0 5,5
uz 1 iedz.)*
Valstis ar ienkumiem virs vidj lmea
27,6 21,6 17,4
(3976 $ < NKP < 12275 $ uz 1 iedz.)
Valstis ar ienkumiem zem vidj lmea
63,2 56,3 51,4
(1006 $ < NKP < 3975 $ uz 1 iedz.)
Zemo ienkumu valstis ( NKP 1005 $ uz
86,5 77,8 71,2
1 iedz.)
*Pasaules Bankas valstu klasifikcija, pamatojoties uz Nacionl kopprodukta apjomu
uz 1 iedzvotju 2010.gad USD valt


Ar starp rdtja Cilvku materil labkljba indikatoru IKP uz
vienu iedzvotju, kas aprints pc pirktspjas parittes un rdtja
Cilvku veselba indikatoru dzves ilgums pastv spcga un statistiski
nozmga korelcija ar koeficientu 0,869**. Tas ar ir izskaidrojams ar to,
ka valsts ar lielkiem ienkumiem ir labk attstta veselbas aprpes
nozare, iedzvotjiem ir pieejams lielks un kvalitatvks medicnisko
pakalpojumu klsts un labka veselbas aprpe, kas, savukrt, ievrojami
uzlabo viu veselbas stvokli un tiei ietekm dzves ilgumu. Cilvku
materil labkljba sekm cilvku uztura daudzveidbu un kvalitti,
dzvoanas apstku uzlaboanu un izgltbas lmeni. K jau tika mints
augstk, s likumsakarbas izptja S.H.Prestons Prestona lkne
parda, ka cilvkiem, kuri ir dzimui prticg valst ir vairk iespju
nodzvot ilgk (2.tab.). Bet vi ar atklja, ka, sasniedzot noteikto
ekonomisks labkljbas slieksni, turpmk ienkumu palielinana
nodroina mazku veselbas pieaugumu, par nozmgiem kstot
relatviem rdtjiem, kas ir saistti ar ienkumu sadaljumu sabiedrb.
Ar papildus ienkumu ietekme uz veselbu ir stiprka sabiedrbs ar
zemiem ienkumiem, saldzinot ar augstu ienkumu sabiedrbm (22.).

2.tabula
Paredzamais jaundzimuo dzves ilgums dzimanas brd (gados)
2000.g. 2005.g. 2009.g.

Augsto ienkumu valstis (NKP 12276 $
77,6 78,7 79,6
uz 1 iedz.)
Valstis ar ienkumiem virs vidj lmea
70,6 71,5 72,6
(3976 $ < NKP < 12275 $ uz 1 iedz.)
Valstis ar ienkumiem zem vidj lmea
62,3 63,8 65
(1006 $ < NKP < 3975 $ uz 1 iedz.)
Zemo ienkumu valstis ( NKP 1005 $ uz
54,7 56,7 58,4
1 iedz.)

2.tabulas dati tiei apliecina iegtos korelcijas rezulttus, ka
cilvku dzves ilgums ir tiei atkargs no valsts ienkumu lmea.
2) Spcga negatva un statistiski nozmga korelcija tiek novrota
ar starp abiem rdtja Cilvku veselba indikatoriem brnu
mirstba un dzves ilgums korelcijas koeficents ir 0,887**.
Tas ir skaidrojams ar to, ka abi ie indikatori ciei korel un ir
atkargi no valsts ienkumiem.
3) Spcga un statistiski nozmga korelcija tiek novrota starp
rdtja Cilvku materil labkljba indikatoru IKP uz vienu
iedzvotju, kas aprints pc pirktspjas parittes un

rdtja Cilvku izgltba indikatoru augstkajs izgltbas
kopskaita (korelcijas koeficients ir 0,730**). Tas nozm, ka,
jo prticgka ir valsts, jo vairk studt gribtjiem ir iespja
iegt augstko izgltbu (3.tab.).

3.tabula
Augstks izgltbas iestds uzemto cilvku skaita
sadaljums (%) pasaul (bruto)
2000.gads 2005.gads 2009.gads

Augsto ienkumu valstis (NKP 12276
55,9 65,8 69,7
$ uz 1 iedz.)
Valstis ar ienkumiem virs vidj
lmea (3976 $ < NKP < 12275 $ uz 1 17,7 27,5 32,9
iedz.)
Valstis ar ienkumiem zem vidj
lmea (1006 $ < NKP < 3975 $ uz 1 11,7 13,6 15,7
iedz.)
Zemo ienkumu valstis ( NKP 1005 $
4,2 5,2 6,7
uz 1 iedz.)

3.tabul atspoguot statistisk informcija skaidri parda, ka
augstks izgltbas iestds uzemto cilvku skaits ir tiei atkargs no
valsts ienkumu lmea. Valsts ar lielkiem ienkumiem ir labk attstta
augstks izgltbas sfra, augstk izgltba ir pieejama lielkam cilvku
skaitam, valsts var apmierint pieprasjumu pc augstks izgltbas,
nodroinot gan nepiecieamo infrastruktru, gan kvalificto akadmisko
personlu. Tas noved pie atgriezenisks mijiedarbbas: cilvks ar
augstku izgltbu ir cilvks ar lielku pievienoto vrtbu, tdejdi
atdeve no cilvka ir lielka un cilvka ieguldjums valsts ekonomik
vairakkrt attaisno valsts izdevumus augstkajai izgltbai.
4) Spcga negatva un statistiski nozmga korelcija tiek novrota
starp rdtja Cilvku veselba indikatoru brnu mirstba un
rdtja Cilvku izgltba indikatoru augstks izgltbas
kopskaita (korelcijas koeficients ir 0,769**). korelcija
tiek saistta ar augstkmintajm 1) un 2) korelcijm, jo gan
cilvku veselbas stvoklis, gan augstks izgltbas nozare ir
tiei atkargi no valsts ienkumu lmea.
5) Spcga statistiski nozmga korelcija pastv starp rdtja
Cilvku materil labkljba indikatoru IKP uz vienu
iedzvotju, kas aprints pc pirktspjas parittes un

rdtja Cilvku apmierintba ar dzvi indikatoru cilvku
apmierintbas ar dzvi koeficients (korelcijas stipruma
koeficients ir 0,703**). Inglharts un via ptnieku komanda,
veicot apsekojumu par cilvku apmierintbas ar dzvi un
laimes sajtm Pasaules valstu griezum par laika periodu no
1981. ldz 2007.g., atklja, ka pastv ciea sakarba starp
labkljbu un apmierintbu ar dzvi. Apmierintba ar dzvi ir
jtgka, mainoties ekonomikas stvoklim; t ir vairk saistta
ar sabiedrbas ekonomisko lmeni, nek laimes sajta. Jo
augstka ir sabiedrbas labkljba, jo lielka ir ts ietekme uz
cilvku kopjo apmierintbu ar dzvi (19.).
Spcgo un statistiski nozmgo korelcijas saistbu vizualizcijai
autore izmanto korelcijas saistbu grafu, kur ir atspoguotas
augstkmints spcgas saistbas starp modea rdtjiem (3.att.).

Cilvku materil
labkljba

IKP uz 1 iedz., kas
0,703 aprints pc 0,869
pirktspjas parittes

Dzves ilgums

Apmierintbas ar dzvi
0,898
0,730
koeficients 0.887
Cilvku
veselba
Cilvku apmierintba ar
dzvi Brnu
mirstba

Augstkajs izgltbas

iestds uzemto 0,769

cilvku skaits

Cilvku izgltba

3.attls. Spcgas korelcijas saistbas starp modea rdtjiem
(autores izveidots)


Prjs korelcijas analz iegts saistbas starp teritorijas
attstbas modea rdtjiem ir vidji spcgas, vji spcgas vai
nenozmgas. Raksta noteikt apjoma d autore s korelcijas
neapskats.
Tomr, emot vr, ka ptjum izvirzt hipotze paredz apskatt
subjektvo modea rdtju atkarbu no valsts ienkumu lmea, autore
apskats rdtja Cilvku gargums indikatora Laimes indekss sasaisti
ar rdtja Cilvku materil labkljba indikatoru IKP uz vienu
iedzvotju, kas aprints pc pirktspjas parittes. Analz ir
konstatts, ka starp iem diviem indikatoriem ir vj statistiski nozmgs
korelcijas koeficients 0,488**. Tas tiek pamatots ar to, ka cilvku laimes
sajta ir vairk atkarga no gargm dzves vrtbm, un k rda ptjumi,
ar nabadzgajs valsts cilvki jtas saldzinoi laimgi, pat ja viiem
piln apmr nav nodrointa piencga izgltba vai veselbas aprpe
(19.).
Apskatot korelcijas cieumu starp abiem modea subjektvajiem
indikatoriem cilvku apmierintbas ar dzvi koeficients un Laimes
indekss, ir novrota vja statistiski nozmga korelcija ar koeficientu
0,497**. K jau tika mints augstk, cilvku apmierintba ar dzvi spcgi
korel ar cilvku materilo labkljbu. Turpret, laimes sajtu vairk
nosaka sabiedrbas solidaritte, reliiozitte un nacionlais lepnums.
Reliiozitte nodroina paredzambas un drobas sajtu, pai valsts ar
nestabilu ekonomiku. Laimes sajta atspoguo ne tikai cilvku objektvo
pieredzi, bet ar to, k cilvki novrt o pieredzi savas dzves vrtbu un
reliiozu ideoloisku prliecbu ietekm. ie divi rdtji sav starp
nenozmgi, bet tomr korel (19.).
Apkopojot ptjuma rezulttus, var secint, ka rakst izvirzt
hipotze ir pierdta daji. Tds jaunizveidot teritorijas attstbas
mranas metodoloisk modea rdtja Cilvku apmierintba ar
dzvi subjektvs indikators cilvku apmierintbas ar dzvi koeficients
ciei korel ar cilvku materilo labkljbu, turpretim, rdtja Cilvku
gargums indikatoram Laimes indekss ir vja sasaiste ar cilvku
materilo stvokli. K liecina pasaul ldz im veiktie zintniskie ptjumi,
cilvku laimes sajta tomr ir atkarga no materilm vrtbm, bet ne tik
liel mr, k cilvku apmierintba ar dzvi. Rezultti ir oti atkargi no
aptauj pielietots metodikas, uzdodot jautjumus tiei par cilvku
laimes sajtas uztveranu, k ar no t, ko ptnieki saprot ar terminu
laime, vai is jdziens ir atdalts no apmierintbas ar dzvi, vai tomr ir
ts aizstjjs.

Laimes sajta ir rdtjs ar plau nozmi, kas aptver tdas cilvka
dzves sfras, k cilvku gargo attstbu, reliiozitti, cilvku ticbu
apkrtjs sabiedrbas locekiem, valstij, nacionlu lepnumu, imenes un
kultras vrtbas utt. Laime ir atkarga no pozitvm emocijm, no prieka
un no baudas, no pacieas, neatkarbas, draugu esambas un interesanta
darba. Pieaugot cilvka paizteiksmes iespjm un izvles brvbai,
pieaug ar cilvku laimes sajta.
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Summary
The author of the research, building on the theoretical assumption that
regional development = peoples lifesustenance, selfesteem and freedom, has
developed a methodological model of measurement of territorial development aimed
at evaluation of territorial development.
Research hypothesis such subjective elements of the methodological model
of territorial development as peoples satisfaction with life and their spirituality to a
great extent depend on material welfare of the people.

The author of this research reposes on the theoretical elaborations of
developmental economics, which clarify the concept of developmental economics,
as well as aims and tasks of the branch of this economic science. According to the
Economics of Development, territorial development is viewed as a whole process
having the particular result: the process itself is territorial capital growth, but the
result achieved within the process is territorial state of development. Territorial
capital consists of seven elements financial capital, technical infrastructure
(buildings, structures, etc.), social capital, human capital, nature capital, cultural, and
political capital.
Economist Goulet expounds and substantiates this broad concept
development through using three core components, defined in the terms of life
sustenance, selfesteem and freedom. Goulets three core components of
development are related to A.Sens vision of development defined in terms of the
expansion of entitlements and capabilities, the former giving lifesustenance and self
esteem; the latter giving freedom. Sen defines development as expansion of persons
freedom the possibility to expand persons selffulfilment, as well as freedom of
choice regarding different ways of living.
In the Economics of Development, analysing territorial development the
emphasis is put not only on economic and material but also on other objective
indices. Much attention is also paid to the analysis of such subjective, intangible
indices as peoples satisfaction with life, happiness, peoples subjective welfare, and
the quality of life.
The author of the research suggests substantiating evaluation of the level of
territorial growth on the newly developed methodological model of measurement of
territorial development, the indicators of which are focused directly on the peoples
existence and determination of the level of their welfare.
This model consists of 6 key elements and their indicators:
objective elements
1) Number of population (average increase in the number of population
%, 2010/2015);
2) Material welfare of people (GDP per capita, calculated at purchasing
power parity (USD);
3) Peoples health (infant mortality (the number of deaths in their first
year of life per 1000 live births) and life expectancy at birth (years);
4) Peoples education (the number of people enrolled in primary school
(net) % from the total number of inhabitants and the number of
people enrolled into tertiary education institutions (gross) % from the
total number of inhabitants);
subjective elements
5) Peoples spirituality (Happiness index);
6) Peoples satisfaction with life (coefficient of peoples satisfaction with
life).
93 countries around the world having all indicator values were ranked
regarding their index values attributing to each country its serial number according
to the indicator.
After that, this information was fed into the SPSS (Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences) statistical analysis software, with the help of which, the correlation
strength was determined, applying the Spearmans rank correlation coefficient.

The following information has been obtained:
1) A strong statistically significant correlation exists between the indicator
GDP per capita, calculated at purchasing power parity of the element
Peoples material welfare and the indicator coefficient of peoples
satisfaction with life of the element Peoples satisfaction with life
strength of the correlation coefficient is 0.703**. Inglehart and his
research team conducting a survey on the peoples satisfaction with life
and happiness regarding the worlds countries and taking the period from
1981 to 2007 found out that there is a strong correlation between well
being and the level of satisfaction with life. Satisfaction with life is more
sensitive to the changing economic situation, it is more connected with
the economic level of society than happiness. The higher the public
welfare, the greater is its impact on the peoples overall satisfaction with
life.
2) When analysing the Happiness index of the element Peoples spiritual
media it was stated that this indicator has a poor correlation with the
indicator GDP per capita, calculated at purchasing power parity of the
element Peoples material welfare correlation coefficient is statistically
significant with the value 0.488**. Peoples happiness more depends on
the spiritual life values, and according to researches, people feel relatively
happy also in poor countries even if they do not fully benefit from
adequate education or health care.
3) Observing the correlation between two subjective indicators the
coefficient of peoples satisfaction with life and the Happiness index a
weak statistically significant correlation with the coefficient 0.497** was
observed. As it was mentioned above, the peoples satisfaction with life
correlates strongly with the peoples material welfare. On the contrary,
happiness is more determined by public solidarity, religiosity, and
national pride. Religiosity contributes to the sense of certainty and
security, especially in countries with unstable economies. Happiness
reflects not only the peoples objective experience but also the way people
evaluate this experience under the influence of life values and religious
ideological beliefs. These two indices are poorly correlated.
When summarising the research findings, it can be concluded that the
hypothesis put forward has been partially proven. Such subjective indicator
coefficient of peoples satisfaction with life of the element Peoples satisfaction
with life of the newly developed methodological model of measurement of territorial
development correlates with peoples material welfare, whereas, the Happiness
index of the element Peoples spiritual media is poorly correlated with the peoples
material state. Scientific researches conducted in the world indicate that the peoples
happiness depends on the material values, but not as much as the peoples
satisfaction with life. The results are heavily dependent on the applied survey
methodology, by asking questions directly about the peoples perception of
happiness, as well as on what researchers understand by the concept happiness,
whether this concept is separate from the satisfaction with life or it is just a
substitute.

Happiness is an indicator with a broad meaning that encompasses such areas
of the peoples lives as the peoples spiritual media, religiosity, peoples trust to
members of society and country, national pride, family and cultural values, etc.
Happiness is dependent on positive emotions, joy, pleasure, selfesteem,
independence, presence of friends and interesting job. Together with increasing
peoples selfexpression possibilities and freedom of choice, the peoples sense of
happiness also increases.


LATVIAN HEALTH CARE COMPANY
COMPETITIVENESS DETERMINING INDICATORS AND
THEIR IMPROVEMENT POSSIBILITIES
LATVIJAS VESELBAS APRPES UZMUMU
KONKURTSPJU NOTEICOIE RDTJI UN TO
PILNVEIDOANAS IESPJAS
Inese MAVUTOVA
Dr.sc.administr., assoc.prof., BA School of Business and Finance
Phone: +371 29524701, email: Inese.Mavlutova@ba.lv
Riga, Latvia
Santa BABAUSKA
Mg.fin., BA School of Business and Finance, MBA, SBS Swiss Business School
Phone: +371 26136605, email: Santa.Babauska@gmail.com
Riga, Latvia

Abstract. Changes within the circumstances of health care industry have an impact on
health care companys processes and they should think about continuous improvements.
The patients appreciation, resource base of medical professionals and technological
equipment level are important indicators of the health care companys competitiveness,
but not all companies are taking it into account. The indicators influencing
competitiveness of private health care companies from the company managers and
patients perspective can be used in order to evaluate and to compare the health care
companies competitiveness, and to analyze competition environment of the industry.
Keywords: Balanced Scorecard, Competitiveness, Health Care Companies, Health Care
Industry, Managers Perspective, Patients` Perspective

Introduction
Health care industry affects all the society groups and industries.
Competition derives from the environment where there is a rivalry for
advantage. Competitiveness is an ability to compete on a certain market
for beneficial conditions, competitiveness assists as a comparing tool.
Latvian existing health care system is inefficient, which lowers
competitiveness of the health care industry. Changes within the
circumstances of health care industry have an impact on the health care
companys operational processes and if the company is not able to
respond timely to these changes then additional risks arise in
maintenance of competitiveness that impact the overall industrys
competitiveness.

Investments in the health care industry are important for
development of the society. The development stage of Latvian health care
system falls behind the average development in the European Union.
Competition on value is crucial for health care companies, because they
have to take into account the immaterial value the patients health.
Price level, quality of health care services and the companys image in
Latvia all these are significant factors that can influence the health care
companys competitiveness both on the local and on the global markets.
So companies should think strategically smarter about continuous
improvements to compete in a longer run.
Results of the survey demonstrate that the private health care
companies do not use the balanced scorecard in their strategic
management because they have no information about it. The patient and
public appreciation, resource base of medical professionals and
technological equipment level are the most important competitiveness
indicators from the perspective of the private health care managers.
From the patients perspective very important is the personnel
competence level and companys attitude to patients. Private health care
companies are not using all the possible competitiveness evaluation
indicators, but the balanced scorecard can assist in increasing the
companys competitiveness.
The objective of research is based on the competitiveness and
balanced scorecard theoretical study and the Latvian health care
industrys analysis, to point out the Latvian health care companys
determining indicators of competitiveness and to indicate possibilities
for improvement, on the basis of the balanced scorecard concept.
Generally accepted quantitative and qualitative methods of
research in management science were used, including induction and
deduction, analysis and synthesis, logically constructive and statistical
methods, description and display methods of numeral information. The
research of health care competition environment in Latvia, the indicators
influencing competitiveness of private health care company managers
and patients perspective can be used in order to evaluate and to
compare the health care industry competition environment with other
countries. The topic will continue to be relevant in the future, since all the
society groups and industries are directly or nondirectly influenced by
the health care industry. Therefore, it will be of importance not only
locally, but also globally.
In order to achieve the purpose, the comparison of theoretical
aspect, Latvian health care industry and opinions of experts are
researched, the applied expert method, two surveys are carried out: of
the Latvian private health care company managers and patients.

The Role of Competitiveness in Development of the Company
and the Relationship between Balanced Scorecard and
Competitiveness
Competitiveness is a concept, which assists as a comparing tool. In
comparing, the competitiveness is popularly used on different levels; it is
used on individual, product or service, company, national and global
levels. As a result, it would be very hard to avoid a competition, so the
solution is through managing the competition aspects, to balance them in
the particular field. Changes within the health care industry conditions
have an effect on the health care companys operational processes and if
the company is not able to respond timely to these changes then
additional risks arise in maintenance of competitiveness. Competition is a
mechanism that transforms the seller and the buyers chaotic
interactions into an arranged process and determines productivity of
commercial activity (4). Within the health care industry, competition at
the micro level can assist in increasing the companys efficiency,
profitability and market value. In accordance with the general economic
theory, the customers desires are unlimited, while resources are limited;
so as soon as the desires prevail over the available resources, the
competition arises to these limited resources. That is why companies
should determine certain objectives to achieve and should choose
between the alternatives.
The competition process promotes a better use of the companys
management knowledge. From the companys perspective the
competitiveness can be a benefit that increases efficiency and this can be
a driving force behind the companys development. Competitiveness is a
strategic management comparison tool that demonstrates existing
performance of the company and further ability to compete in a certain
market. Competition is about how to gain a greater market share. Usually
effective use of resources is based on the companys employees, for
example, on their knowledge. Competition promotes new solutions,
values. Every health care company, more or less, is involved in the
competition environment, but the approaches that the companies use to
strive for better results in the market and to be more competitive are
different. The success here is based in the tailored company strategy and
the balance between available resources. However, for excellent results
the companies ought to evaluate also their competitive advantages that
increase the companys possibility to compete in the particular market
segment.
L. E. Swaynes, W. J. Duncans and P. M. Ginters point of view is that
Creating competitive advantage is often a matter of selecting an
appropriate basis on which to compete. Competitive advantage is the

means by which the organization seeks to develop cost advantage or to
differentiate itself from other organizations (8). S. E. Jackson, M. A. Hitt,
A. S. DeNisi, S. Angelo are of the view that integrated resources and the
difficulty of imitating them are the ultimate source of competitive
advantage. Any organization that seeks a competitive advantage through
human resources thus must both acquire the right resources and take
the steps required to leverage them (1). However the well known
authors C. K. Prahalads and M. S. Krishnans opinion is that core drivers
of the competitive advantage are connectivity, convergence, digitization
and social networks, and talent and IT matters in building new
capabilities and social and technical architecture of the company as well
(7). As consumers and technologies advance, health care companies
should develop such environment where they could cocreate the value
with patients. This aspect should be taken into account when thinking
how to be more competitive in the health care industry.
According to the Global Competitiveness Report 2011 2012, one
of the 12 pillars of competitiveness that drives productivity and
competitiveness is Health and Primary education and healthy workforce
is vital to a countrys competitiveness and productivity (16). Therefore,
health care companies can form a base that can provide the humans with
good health. Health care sector plays a significant role when talking
about the overall development of society, industry, economy, country etc.
The factors influencing the companys competitiveness can be
derived from the companys internal and external environment and
usually are related with the companys strengths, weaknesses and
opportunities and threats. In order to be competitive, a company should
operate in accordance with changes in the environment. According to
Michael E. Porter, the factors that can influence companys
competitiveness are mostly related with technological achievements,
personnel resources, financial factors, customer satisfaction (5).
Health care organizations have employed the strategic
management concepts only for the past 25 to 30 years. Indeed, many of
the management methods adopted by health care organizations, both
public and private, were developed in the business sector (8). Managers
need to create the management system that can compete with other
market players. This management system ought to be tailored so that it
leads to increase in competitiveness. In theory different strategies are
described, for instance, Six Sigma, Six Sigma Balanced Scorecard, Growth
Share Matrix and others that can be used in order to increase the
companys competitiveness.
The health care company performance in the past was more often
measured only from financial and quality improvements point of view,

but the further described balanced scorecard has combined four
perspectives that can be crucial for company to be competitive.
Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton published an article The
Balanced Scorecard Measures that Drive Performance in Harvard
Business Review 1992. This created a new management system where
strategic objectives of companies have been transformed into a balanced
set of indicators. The purpose of this system was to balance the
companys financial and non financial measurements. Balanced
Scorecard (BSC) is a management system that supports the companys
management in leading significant processes and changes in order to be
more competitive on the market. The four balanced scorecard
perspectives are reflected in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Balanced Scorecard Perspectives (2.)

Financial Perspective focuses on the measures of other three
perspectives. By analyzing this perspective, the companys sales growth
can be determined, new product, customer, market, and pricing strategy
impact on sales can be analyzed. Cost reduction, productivity
improvement, as well as investment strategy analysis can be performed.
Customer Relationship Perspective measures should be tailored to
the companys customers who generate the greatest sales growth and are
the most profitable ones, which is the indicator of new customers.
Customer satisfaction, retention, customer database can be analyzed.
Customer loyalty, relationship, product or service attributes, companys
reputation and image are important.
Internal Business perspective is responsible for defining the
processes that are the most relevant in achieving the customer and the
shareholder objectives. There can be analyzed the companys process
value chain as well as the processes that create the value for customers
and result in financial outcomes.
Innovation and Learning Growth Perspective links the companys
objectives and measures the companys learning and growth. Here the

crucial aspects for analyzing are employees contribution to the company,
employees satisfaction, retention, productivity, hiring, experience,
education level, corporate culture, employees learning possibilities,
companys information system capabilities, and motivation.
According to the balanced scorecard, in order to manage the
companys strategy, indicators reflected in Table 1 can be used.

Table 1.
Balanced Scorecard Indicators (2), (3)

Financial Perspective Internal Business Perspective
Net turnover Digitalization level in %
Production costs The average decisionmaking
Direct and indirect expenses duration in days
Amount of interest payable Average Debt Settlement Period in
Equity and borrowed capital weight days
and price for use in % Companys provisions with
The amount of taxes paid inventory in days
Total asset value
Fixed asset profitability in %
Invested capital profitability in %
Customer Relationship Perspective Staff training and development
Market share in % Employee turnover
The division of companys customers The average employee length of
in accordance with ABC method in % service in years
Customer satisfaction index in % Employee satisfaction index in %
Price level change Registered patent, received license
Amount of lost customers amount
Investments in new market
development

By measuring the abovementioned indicators, the company can
detect its advantages and disadvantages for further improvements of
competitiveness. For shareholders it will allow to control and improve
the companys value increasing, for management to optimize the daily
processes and decisionmaking for future activities.
Analysis of Latvian Health Care Industry
Investment in health care is crucial to successful development of
modern societies and to their political, social and economic progress
(17). Through measuring financial, human and technical resources, the
healthcare providers can combine these data with managerial choices, it
is possible to assess and measure the performance of healthcare
providers and the whole system (10). M. E. Porter and E. O. Teisberg have
shown that the value based competition in health care industry has a

significant impact, because it improves the value to customers, the
quality in relation to price level (6). In health care system the trend of
costs is increasing, due to ageing population and development of new
treatments. Governments are trying to cope with this by improving the
procedures in health care, but not the real outcomes (15).
The recent findings show that there is need of change in the
frameworks of health care policy despite the fact that health level is
improving globally; there still are relevant inequalities between the
regions. This is indicative of incompleteness in the health care systems
and inefficient use of the available resources and knowledge. The health
care system ought to be adjusted to the changing environment, the
increasing uncertainty, the social and demographic factors, as well as to
changes in the value system.
Health systems in the European countries are of growing size and
complexity, and spending on health care has never been higher,
consuming an everincreasing share of national income (14). According
to the Global Competitiveness index 20112012, based on its 4th pillar
Health and Primary education directly by infant mortality, deaths / 1,000
live births, Latvia is ranked as 43th among 142 economies, but according
to life expectancy Latvia is ranked as 73th (16). These figures indicate the
necessity of improvements in health care. The Euro Health Consumer
index 2009 divides the assessment measures in 6 subdisciplines:
patients rights and information, eHealth, waiting times for treatments,
treatment outcomes, range and reach of services provided, and
pharmaceuticals. Based on this index, according to special indicators in
each category, Latvia is ranked as the 31st among 33 countries (13).
The development stage of Latvian health care system falls behind
the average development of health care systems in the Baltic States and
the European Union. The growth rate is slow in the industry and health
care service availability is not provided in the highest quality. The gross
value added of Latvian health care in the period from 2007 to 2009 had
the tendency to increase, but in 2010 it decreased by 9 percentage points,
which is reflected in Figure 2.

3,40% 3,31% 3,22%
3,30% 3,19%
3,20%
3,10%
3,00%
2,89%
2,90%
%
2,76%
2,80%
2,70%
2,60%
2,50%
2,40%
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Gross Value Added Years

Figure 2. Gross Value Added of Latvian Health Care Industry from 2006 to
2010, in %, Calculated at Current Prices (11)

By analyzing the health care budget, conclude can be drawn that
since 2009 the health care budget has had a tendency to decrease; for
instance, from 576 million Ls in 2008 it decreased by 12.5% in 2009. The
main reason has been the budget consolidation. The total allocated
budget for health care can be viewed in Figure 3.
700
575,622
600
514,809 503,730 496,053 495,790 457,492
500
413,777
400
mln Ls
300
200
100
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Year

Figure 3. Latvian State Health Care Budget from the Year 20062012, in million
Ls (12)

The basic indicators of health care in Latvia are reflected in Table 2.

Table 2.
Basic Indicators of Latvian Health Care at the End of 2006 2010 (9)

Indicator 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Physicians of all specialities 8 341 8 014 8 437 7 964 7 951
Residents and apprentices 420 478 637 489 463
Specialists with higher medical
379 391 462 483 519
professional education
Nurses with higher education 593 700 692 831 1 090
Medical personnel with
14,751 14,546 15,197 13,492 13,217
secondary medical education
Hospitals 106 94 88 69 67
Beds in Hospitals 17,599 17,497 17,001 14,434 11,920
Health care institutions
providing outpatient services 3 183 3 285 4 078 4 583 4 756
total

As it can be observed in the Table 2, the number of health care
institutions providing outpatient services has constantly increased
during the period from 2006 to 2010. The rapid increase was in 2008 and
2009, when hospital restructuring took place and the hospital amount
decreased, for instance, in 2009 by 19 hospitals. This intensified the
competition in private health care sector.
In order to evaluate the factors that influence the Latvian health
care industry, the authors divided the forces according to Michael E.
Porter 5 force model and determined the strength / significance on the
industrys activities. The value scale was created, where 1 very low, 5
very strong power. The Latvian health care industrys assessment
according to expert method is given in Table 3. Bargaining power of
patients has the most significant impact on the health care industry in
Latvia due to patient solvency, wider choice, and because of patients
better education and knowledge of health care services.

Table 3.
Assessment of Latvian Health Care Industry based on Michael E. Porter 5 Force
Model (18)

Strength /
Force (5) Comments
Significance
Economic situation effects
Competition
3 Competitor amount increase
Intensity
High influence on price politics
Bargaining Power Requirements of advance payments
of Suppliers 2 Offer of certain companys
medicaments

Table 3 continued
Patient solvency
Bargaining Power Wider choice
of Patients 5 More educated, well informed in
health care due to available
information in social networks
Threat of
Cheaper medical services on lower
Substitutes 2
class technologies

Threat of New
New medical centres entering in the
Entrants 4
market

According to opinions of the health care industry experts, the price
level, the quality of health care services and the health care companys
image in Latvia are significant factors that can influence the health care
companys competitiveness both on the local and global markets. The
health care industry competition environment has been driven by
activities of the private health care companies.
Results of Latvian Private Health Care Company Managers and
Patients Surveys
In order to find out Latvian health care company competitiveness
determining indicators, two surveys of the Latvian private health care
company managers and patients are carried out at the end of 2011.
One hundred fifty private health care companies from Riga were
selected and the questionnaire link was sent to private health care
company managers. 36 responses from the private health care company
managers were received.
The survey results demonstrate that sustainable business strategy
and good management skills are selected as the most important success
factors because these are mentioned in 47% or 23 replies. Only 2% or 1
of the received answers stated that other factor such as price level is
more important. 18% of answers mentioned uniqueness of the
companys service, 22% of answers ability to tailor to industrys trends
and 10% of answers large investments in business development. 81%
or 29 respondents evaluated the companys competitiveness, 17% or 6
respondents did not evaluate, and one respondent had no idea about
evaluation in the company.
The replies to the question Do You have information about what is
Balanced Scorecard and is it used in Your companys strategic
management? demonstrate that the majority 67% or 24 respondents,
do not know what the Balanced Scorecard is, but they would like to

know. Only 3% say that they know what it is; however, they do not use it
in their companys strategic management. 30% of respondents do not
know and that is why they are not using it.
The patients questionnaire was sent through national social
network Draugiem.lv and Facebook.com. 184 responses from private
health care company patients were received. Altogether 34% or 63 males
and 66% or 121 females took part in the survey, the average age was 27
years, but the range of the age was between 21 and 55.
In evaluating the indicators that influence competitiveness, the
survey results show that patient and public appreciation, resource base
of medical professionals and technological equipment level are the most
important competitiveness indicators from perspective of the private
health care managers. Detailed results are reflected in Table 4.

Table 4.
Importance of Indicators Influencing Private Health Care Companys
Competitiveness (18)

Indicator Rank Points Indicator Rank Points

Satisfaction of
Patient and public appreciation 1 112 5 159
patient needs
Resource base of medical professionals 2 120 Health care
service
6 172
Technological equipment level 3 127 differentiation
level
Financial factors 4 143 Cost savings 7 175

From the patients perspective it can be concluded that the most
significant balanced scorecard perspective is the personnel competence
level and the companys attitude to patients, as can be seen in the Table 5.

Table 5.
The Balanced Scorecard Four Perspective Significance from the Private Health
Care Company Patient Point of View (18)

Indicator Rank Points

Health care companys personnel competence level 1 108
Health care companys attitude to patient 2 148
Health care companys internal business organization 3 268
Health care companys financial indicators 4 276

The final question was stated as follows: In evaluation of
healthcare companies, would you prefer a company that analyzes and
strives to improve the four perspective indicator results, acknowledged by
you as the most important ones, to your current healthcare provider? 35

or 19% of respondents replied that it is hard to say, 55 or 30% they
would not choose that company, but the majority or 94 respondents
answered that they would prefer that company. The results show that
indicators offered by the authors are important for patients in choosing
private health care company. The balanced scorecard concept indicators
are reflected in Table 6 that are ranged in the priority of private health
care company managers and patients perspective.
The combined survey results show that on the basis of patient
relationship the three main indicators are accurate problem
identification, service availability and quality. According to the internal
organization perspective, the three main indicators are interest in
providing qualitative service, the technical level of medical equipment,
and the recognition a company has received on the employee and the
partner collaboration level. From the employee learning and growth
perspective, the most significant are staff education and qualification,
average length of employment with the company and the level of staff
experience in the field. The survey results of the most significant financial
indicators in private health care companies show that significant
indicators are profitability ratios, net turnover and gearing ratios, while
the least significant financial indicator is the balance sheet value. The
survey results show that private health care companies are not using all
the possible indicators for evaluation of competitiveness, as the main
indicators companies use different profit and profitability ratios.
Table 6.
Balanced Scorecard Concept Indicators for the Health Care Company (18)

Patient Relationship Perspective Internal Organization Perspective
1. Accurate patient problem 1. Interest in providing qualitative
identification service
2. Service availability 2. Technical level of medical equipment
3. Service quality 3. Companys received recognition
4. Waiting time to get to the doctor 4. Exchange of information between
5. Service culture medical staff and other institutions
6. Price level change 5. Employee awareness of the processes
7. Time for patient spent on problem going on in the company
solving 6. Compliance with ISO quality
8. Reputation level standards
9. Compliance with market trends 7. Various health care services in one
10. Patient satisfaction index place
11. Number of patients lost 8. Collaboration with suppliers, partners
12. Yearly patient flow changes 9. Average current accounts payable
13. Patient categorization by stage of period
the service operating costs 10. Length of time in order to make
important management decisions

Table 6 continued
Employee Learning and Growth
Financial Perspective
Perspective
1. Staff education and qualification 1. Profitability ratios
2. Staff average length of employment 2. Net turnover
with the company 3. Gearing ratios
3. Staff experience level in the field 4. Future cash flows
4. Training course, seminar, 5. Economic Value Added*
conference attendance 6. Liquidity ratios
5. Staff turnover ratio 7. Shareholders equity
6. Investment in staff training and 8. Market share
development 9. Activity ratios
7. Average age of the staff 10. Total balance sheet value
8. Publications by medical staff
* Stern Stewart & Co. measure

In conclusion, the Balanced Scorecard can allow better organization
of the health care companys work. The offered concept of
competitiveness improvement possibilities can be viewed in Figure 4.

Figure 4. The Concept for Health Care Company Competitiveness Improvement
Possibilities (18)

Conclusions and Proposals
The main conclusions and recommendations are as follows:
1. A global trend indicates that there is a change needed in the health
care systems by refocusing emphasis on the value for patients,

because more and more role takes the approach of the patient
centric health care. The recent findings show that there is a need of
change in the frameworks of health care policy despite the fact that
health level is improving globally; there are still relevant
inequalities between the regions. This indicates the incompleteness
in health care systems and inefficient use of the available resources
and knowledge.
2. Not only the market forces, but also the government regulations
are very important aspects in analyzing the competition in the
private health care industry. Price level, quality of health care
services and the companys image in Latvia all these are
significant factors that can influence the health care companys
competitiveness both on the local and on the global markets.
3. Analysis of what indicators are the most significant in evaluating
the perspective of collaboration between the health care company
and the patient, the private health care company managers have
chosen availability of the health care company service and the
patient satisfaction index as the most significant indicator.
4. Majority of those private health care company managers, whose
companies have strategy and who consider strategy and
management skills as the most important success factor for
maintaining the competitive position, also evaluate their companys
competitiveness.
5. The private health care companies should think about a value
based competition where companies can compete in delivering
better value to customer. One of the ways to deliver better value to
customer is through the management of factors that are important
for patients. Factors that usually create a benefit for patients are
related with intangible aspects.
6. Balanced Scorecard can allow for better organization of the health
care companys work due to showing those business areas, which
require better strategic management. This may allow for the
companies to focus on things that are the most important and to
measure their success.
7. Implementation of assessment criterias such as technological,
personnel qualification and patient satisfaction level of evaluating
the performance of Latvian health care companies would allow
differentiating the companies in categories or levels so that the
patients have the opportunity to choose the best health care
provider.
8. Development of the concept for health care company
competitiveness improvement possibilities can be used in Latvian

health care industry in order to evaluate the health care company
competitiveness level. Previously mentioned concept could be used
in order to increase the competitiveness of Latvian health care
companies, because it can add value to overall Latvian health care
industry.
9. After implementation of the Balanced Scorecard concept and
regular analysis of the changes of offered concept indicators and
their impact on the health care company, can lead to higher
competitiveness of the health care company.
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Nov. 2011]. Available: http://hbr.org/2011/09/howtosolvethecost
crisisinhealthcare/ar/1
16. World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 20112012
[Online]. Geneva, Switzerland: World Economic Forum within the Framework
of the Centre for Global Competitiveness and Performance [accessed 1 Nov.
2011]. Available: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GCR_Report_2011
12.pdf
17. World Health Organization Regional Committee. The New European Policy for
Health Health 2020 [Online]. Baku: The World Health Organization Regional
Committee [accessed 30 Oct. 2011].
Available:
http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/147724/wd09E_Healt
h2020_111332.pdf
18. The research results of Latvian health care industry and health care company
managers` and patients` surveys of the year 2011 carried out by the authors of
the paper.
Kopsavilkums
Darba tma ir Latvijas veselbas aprpes uzmumu konkurtspju noteicoie
rdtji un to pilnveidoanas iespjas.
Veselbas aprpe ir nozare, kura ietekm visas prjs nozares un sabiedrbas
grupas. Latvij pastvo veselbas aprpes sistma darbojas neefektvi, kas
pazemina veselbas aprpes nozares konkurtspju. Tas liek privtajiem veselbas
aprpes uzmumiem uzlabot efektivitti un kvalitti, lai vartu bt
konkurtspjgki.
Aktuli ir izptt, k ldzsvarots rdtju kartes koncepcija var nordt uz
veselbas aprpes uzmuma konkurtspju pilnveidoanas iespjm.
Darba mris ir, balstoties uz konkurtspjas un ldzsvarots rdtju kartes
teortisko izpti, veikt Latvijas veselbas aprpes nozares analzi, pardt Latvijas
veselbas aprpes uzmumu konkurtspju noteicoos rdtjus un nordt uz to
pilnveidoanas iespjm, emot par pamatu ldzsvarots rdtju kartes koncepciju.
Izmaias veselbas aprpes nozar ietekm veselbas aprpes uzmuma
procesus un tiem ir jdom par pastvgiem uzlabojumiem. Pacienta novrtana,
veselbas aprpes nozares specilistu resursi un tehnoloiju aprkojuma lmenis ir
nozmgi rdtji veselbas aprpes uzmuma konkurtspjas novrtan, bet ne
visi uzmumi to em vr. Darb ptta veselbas aprpes nozare Latvij, nozares
ekspertu viedoki, veiktas Latvijas privto veselbas aprpes uzmumu vadtju un

pacientu aptaujas, lai noskaidrotu konkurtspju noteicoos rdtjus un to
pilnveidoanas iespjas.
Darb ir secints, ka konkurtspja ir koncepcija, kura var darboties k
saldzinanas instruments, kur paldz veikt saldzinjumus un pieemt lmumus k
uzmuma konkurtspja var tikt uzlabota. Globls tendences norda, ka ir
nepiecieamas izmaias veselbas aprpes sistms, prstrukturizjot uzsvaru uz
pievienots vrtbas veidoanu pacientam, jo aizvien lielku un lielku lomu gst uz
pacientu virzta veselbas aprpe.
Latvijas privto veselbas aprpes uzmumu aptaujas rezultti parda, ka
uzmumi neizmanto ldzsvaroto rdtju karti uzmumu stratiskaj vadan, jo
galvenokrt trkst informcijas par to. Tau btu jem vr, ka ldzsvarot rdtju
karte var labk organizt veselbas aprpes uzmuma darbbu, jo parda ts jomas,
kur nepiecieama labka stratisk vadba. Latvijas veselbas aprpes uzmumi ar
neizmanto daudzus pieejamos konkurtspju noteicoos rdtjus.
Darb tiek izteikti vairki prieklikumi, piemram, ieviest veselbas aprpes
uzmumu darbbas novrtanas kritrijus nozar, izvrtjot uzmumu pc
tehnoloiju, personla kvalifikcijas un klientu apmierintbas lmea, kas autu
diferenct uzmumus kategorijs, lai pacientam btu iespjams izvlties sev
pieemamko veselbas aprpes pakalpojuma sniedzju. Ieteikums ir ar attstt
ldzsvarots rdtju kartes koncepcijas izmantoanu Latvijas veselbas aprpes
nozar, lai novrttu veselbas aprpes uzmumu konkurtspju, k ar, lai
mintu paaugstint to. Izmantojot ldzsvarots rdtju kartes koncepciju,
ieteicams analizt izmaias veselbas aprpes uzmumu rdtjos un to ietekmi uz
uzmuma attstbu.
Atslgas vrdi: konkurtspja, ldzsvarot rdtju karte, pacientu perspektva,
vadtju perspektva, veselbas aprpes nozare, veselbas aprpes uzmumi.


DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM IN LATVIA: ISSUES AND
POTENTIALITIES
TRISMA ATTSTBA LATVIJ: PROBLMAS UN IESPJAS
Ligita MELECE
Dr.oec., Head of Department of Quality and Environment Protection of
Latvian State Institute of Agrarian Economics
Phone: 29196063, email: ligita.melece@lvaei.lv
Riga, Latvia
Mrti RUCI
Dr.sc.ing., Assoc. Professor of Faculty of Food Technology of
Latvia University of Agriculture
Phone: 63005647, email: marty@delfi.lv
Jelgava, Latvia

Abstract. Tourism is recognized as one of the most important economic sectors or
industries in the world and many countries see tourism as the main instrument for
economic and regional development. The paper provides a short theoretical framework
for tourism and its role or impact, discussing the definition of tourism and some aspects
of the tourism sector. The paper presents results of studies devoted to some issues of
tourism development in Latvia. Comparison of some indicators of tourism sectors
development between the Baltic States is presented. The results show that longterm
development of Latvias tourism sector is less successful than in other Baltic States,
particularly in Estonia. The trends of Latvias tourism sector development are indicative
of recovery from crisis (20082009). Besides, opinions and impressions of foreign
tourists have been analyzed with an aim to recognize the most important issues
hampering the foreign tourists flow to Latvia.
Keywords: Baltic States, development foreign tourists, Latvia, tourism.

Introduction
Tourism is the leading industry in the service sector at the global
level as well as a major provider of jobs and a significant generator of
foreign exchange at the national level. Moreover, tourism has become one
of the largest and the fastest growing industries in the global economy
(29). Travel and tourism is the number one or two industries in most
countries and will soon be the leading industry worldwide. Moreover,
tourism is one of the most important economic activities in the world.
The revenue generated by tourism has become a very important resource
and a key factor in the balance of payment for many countries and
regions and has been a major contributor to their economic growth (1).
Hall (15, 4) argues that tourism needs greater recognition for its capacity
to general economic, environmental and social benefits. For many
countries tourism is seen as a main instrument for regional development,

as it stimulates new economic activities. Tourism may have a positive
economic impact on the balance of payments, on employment, on gross
income and production, but it may also have negative effects, particularly
on the environment (5) in other words has a multiplier effect (13, 29). At
present global economical situation the only sector that really
demonstrates a continuous upward trend has been tourism (25).
European Commission (EC) (10) indicates that tourism is a major
economic activity with a broadly positive impact on the economic growth
and employment in Europe. Moreover, it is declared that tourism is also
an important instrument for reinforcing Europes image in the world,
projecting the values and promoting the attractions of the European
model, which is the result of centuries of cultural exchanges, linguistic
diversity and creativity (10). Tourism sector affects many industries of
the national economy, therefore it is hard to determine the economic
input of tourism into the national accounts.
The aim of research is to evaluate some development issues of
tourism in Latvia and to estimate their further perspectives, which are
covered due to following tasks: to study the role or impact of tourism; to
compare some indicators of development of tourism between the Baltic
States; and to evaluate some indicators and aspects of development of
Latvias tourism.
The principal materials used for the research are as follows:
different sources of scientific publications, research papers, the EU and
Latvias legislation, and the reports of international and the EU
institutions; data from databases of Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia
(hereafter in this text CSB) and Eurostat. The suitable qualitative and
quantitative research methods have been used for various solutions in
the process of study: analysis and synthesis; logical and abstractive
constructional; data grouping and comparing; correlation and regression
analysis, expert and etc.
Tourism and its role
The World Tourism Organization (6) defines tourists as people
who are travelling to and staying in places outside their usual
environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business
and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated
from within the place visited. Uherek (33) adds that tourism is the act of
travel and visiting places, independent from the purpose, which includes
private travel for holiday and recreation purposes but also business
travel. Egziabher (9) propose that tourism could be simply defined as a
travel and stay of a nonresident. Tourism can also be defined as a
service industry with three main foci: 1) transport; 2) accommodation;

3) services for tourists (33). Some scholars (4, 9) develop concept of
three basic components of tourism, which are also known as 3 As:
accessibility, and accommodation and attraction (locale). In his turn,
Huybers (18, 161) considers that tourism as a system has three basic
components: tourists, geographical elements and the tourism industry.
Mitchell and Ashley (22) pointed out that using broader definitions of
the tourism sector, a host of providers of recreational, leisure and
shopping services, such as local guides and craft sellers may also be
included.
Tourism just now is one of the worlds largest industries and one of
its fastest growing sectors of economy (5). Besides, tourism is
characterized as a dynamic and competitive industry that requires the
ability to constantly adapt to customers changing needs and desires,
such as the customers satisfaction (35). Tourism as a global
phenomenon causes consequences for populations that extend beyond
the ranks of those that operate and practice it (19, 6). It is already evident
that tourism is a complex (14, 5; 17), multidimensional phenomenon that
is difficult (35), if not impossible, to define (28, 11). Moreover, Sharpley
(28, 11) defines tourism as a social phenomenon manifested in the
increasing mobility of people locally, nationally and internationally for a
variety of purposes that are frequently, but not always leisuredriven.
The tourism as a system influences, and is influenced by, a variety of
external factors; political, economic, technological, sociocultural,
legislative and environmental (27, 4.).
There has been increasing dependence upon tourism as an agent of
economic development (25). Within the developed world, peripheral or
economically disadvantaged regions are increasingly focusing on tourism
as a means of stimulating economic and social regeneration whilst, for
many less developed countries, tourism has become to represent a vital
ingredient of their development policies (27, 6). Tourism is widely
considered as an effective contributor to socioeconomic development,
particularly in less developed countries (31, i). The contribution of
tourism to socioeconomic development has been most closely related to
receipts and spending in the national economy (29).
Tourism is one of the worlds largest and fastest growing industries
(8, 1), which creating jobs, bridging disparities, contributing to economic
growth and bringing prosperity (14, 286). As one of the worlds largest
industries (25; 26), tourism carries with it significant social,
environmental, economic and political impacts (15; 16, i). Although
tourism can provide significant economic benefits for some destinations,
the image of tourism as a benign and environmentally friendly industry
has often been challenged (16, 57.).

It is already known that innovativeness and sustainability of
tourism sector is highly related with the economic progress and growth
of localities and regions and affects social, cultural and economic life.
Tourism is one of the economics sectors that contribute for a large part
of employment, balance payments, GDP growth, and capital investment
(in direct and indirect sectors) (8, 11; 23, 123). Tourism has become an
extremely dynamic system. Economic globalization, fast changing
customer behaviour, development of transportation and information
technologies, modifications in the forms of organisations and labour, all
strongly influence the industry. In this scenario the intensified marketing
efforts of all tourism organisations have led to a more effective approach:
the destination management approach (1; 26). Tourism destinations
behave as dynamic evolving complex systems (15; 16, 69; 17; 21, 387),
encompassing numerous factors and activities that are interdependent
and whose relationships might be highly nonlinear (1). Traditional
research in this field has looked for a linear approach: variables and
relationships are monitored in order to forecast future outcomes with
simplified models and to derive implications for management
organizations (1; 2). The depiction of a tourism destination as complex is
quite common. Therefore, the economic and financial benefits of tourism
sector on local, regional and state further development and wellbeing
are broadly analyzed (e.g. 13; 22; 30). Stynes (30, 11) when evaluates the
economic impact of tourism argues that tourism has a variety of
economic impacts. Tourists expenditures give rise to direct and
secondary (indirect and induced) effect (8, 14). Some researchers (e.g.
20; 32; 34, 3) induced effect named as multiplier effect of tourism and
argue that significant number of studies are devoted for this topic, which
employ inputoutput models to explore total economic effects (17, 2).
An economic impact analysis of tourism activity normally focuses
on changes in sales, income, and employment in a region resulting from
tourism activity. On a local level, even smallscale tourist ventures under
the banner of ecotourism or community based tourism, for instance,
may draw previously selfsufficient communities into the global
economic system (26, 59).
The tourism spending like other activities has direct and secondary
effects on the economy, and presents complex interaction with other
activities deserving a special treatment for measuring its contribution to
the global result of production and consumption (13, 29). Tourists
contribute to sales, profits, jobs, tax revenues, and income in an area. The
most direct effects occur within the primary tourism sectors
accommodation, restaurants, transportation, entertainment, and retail
trade etc.; and through secondary effects, tourism affects most sectors of

the economy (30, 4); and causes social and environmental changes (30).
For example, Mitchell and Ashley (22) provide an understanding how
tourism can affect the poor by describing three pathways. First, direct
effects imply labour income and other livelihood impacts through direct
participation as employees or entrepreneurs in the tourism sector.
Second, the secondary effects entail impacts that occur through the
tourism value chain in the nontourism economy such as food and
beverage, transport and other sectors and when workers in tourism
spend their earnings locally. Third, dynamic effects are wider longterm
impacts on the economy and society that reinforce impacts of tourism
beyond the periphery of the tourism destination such as changes in
pattern of growth in other economic sectors (24), exchange rate, natural
resource base and decisions based on increased government tax (22,
2010: 2125). The most significant economic and social impact of
tourism is the creation of workplaces. The tourism industry has been
considered as a sector with good employment creation abilities but most
of the work places are only seasonal, requiring a low education level and
meaning a possibility mainly for women (16, 109).
Economists (8, 14) distinguish direct, indirect and induced
economic effects. The total economic impact of tourism is the sum of
direct, indirect and induced effects within a region. Indirect and induced
effects are sometimes collectively called secondary effects. Tourism is a
service sector with a particularly complex product (8, 775; 32). In
general, tourism from the supply side perspective can be seen as a whole
range of individuals, businesses, organizations and places combined in
some way to deliver a travel experience (23, 124). Distinctive features
shape the demand and the supply side (Table 1).
Table 1
Features shaping tourism demand and supply
(adapted from Ndou (23, 124))

Supply features Demand features

Modularity Volatility, Ambiguity, Uncertainty
Heterogeneity Experiential
Information intensive Global
Fragmentation
Local

Taking into account that at present the shortages exist and, in some
cases, lack of statistical data and information, which is necessary for
evaluation and assessment of the tourism sector and its impact, the
European Parliament (11) urges the Commission to examine the need to
collect statistical information and quality data in order to allow for an

assessment of the impact of tourism on the economy, the environment
and the quality of life of the inhabitants of tourist destinations.
Some development issues of tourism in the Baltic States
The economic and financial crisis, which has affected all the
economies (6; 10) worldwide, inter alia economy of Baltic States and
particularly, Latvia since 2008, has had a considerable effect on demand
for tourist services. Demunter and Dimitrakopoulou (7) argue that
following two years of decline in 2008 and 2009, the European tourist
accommodation sector continued in 2011 a recovery that started in 2010.
The total number of nights spent at hotels and similar establishments
during 2011 was well above the level of 2007, the year before the crisis
began to affect the tourism sector (7, 1). Despite Latvia being the EU
member state, the comparison of different development issues between
the Baltic States, done by scholars, is quite common.
Analyzing the latest years (20052010) development trends of
tourism in the Baltic States, the trends of number of tourists are
estimated (Fig. 1). The results of estimation, presented below (Fig. 1),
demonstrate that significant growth of number of tourists is observed
only in Estonia r = 92, 9 < 0.01. The trend for increasing of the number
of tourists is present in Lithuania, although it is not significant (r = 0.62,
> 0.05). In Latvia an opposite trend is observed the number of tourists
has decreased, but not significantly. The coefficient of correlation and
significance level respectively is r = 0.56, > 0.05.

1200 y = 67.543x + 159.93 y = 38.543x + 700.6 y = -5.5429x + 384.07

2 2 2
R Estonia= 0.8464 R Lithuania = 0.3883 R Latvia = 0.3131
Number of tourists, 1000
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Estonia Latvia Lithuania
Trendline Lithuania Trendline Estonia Trendline Latvia

Figure 1. The trend of number (1000) of tourists in
the Baltic States, 20052010
(authors calculations based on data from (12))
9 significance level or critical probability value

Similar results are observed upon evaluation of longterm (1999
2010) trends of nights (1000) spent in hotels and similar establishments
in the Baltic States (Fig. 2). The influence of economic and financial crisis
is noticed in all the Baltic States, although the longterm trends of growth
are different. In Estonia and Lithuania the growth was significant, where
coefficient of correlation and significance level correspondingly is: for
Estonia r = 0.91, < 0.01, for Lithuania r = 0.86, < 0.05. On the other
hand, in Latvia some growth is observed, but it is considerably lower
than in both Baltic States, and, of course, not significant r = 0.45,
> 0.05.

y = 16.304x + 626.94 y = 70.65x + 298.27
1300 2 2
R Latvia = 0.203 R Estonia = 0.8232
1100 y = 73.559x + 147.53
Nights, 1000
2
900 R Lithuania = 0.7317
700
500
300
100
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Estonia Latvia Lithuania
Trendline Latvia Trendline Estonia Trendline Lithuan

Figure 2. The trends of nights (1000) spent in hotels and similar
establishments in the Baltic States, 19992010

Comparing changes in the number of holiday trips between 2010
and 2011 in all the Baltic States (Tab. 2), we can conclude that in 2011,
two Baltic States (Latvia and Lithuania), apart from Estonia, show
positive trend of all holiday trips (domestic and outbound) conversely
the EU average trend.

Table 2
Estimated percentage change in the number of all holiday trips made by
residents of EU (average) and the Baltic States, 2011 compared to 2010
(based on (7))

All holiday trips

Total Domestic Outbound
EU 03% 0.5% 0.1%
Estonia (EE) 17.1% 10.5% 24.5%
Latvia (LV) 8.3% 7.4% 11.9%
Lithuania (LT) 4.5% 0.4% 12.5%

Moreover, Latvia is the only Baltic State, which compared to the EU
average, shows positive trend or percentage change in the number of
long holidays and short holidays both domestic and outbound (Tab. 3).
As shown on Table 3, Latvia and Lithuania have positive trends,
comparing with the EU average and Estonia, of residents short term
holidays in 2011, compared to 2010. However, the results or trend of
increase for Latvia is higher or better than for Lithuania.

Table 3
Estimated percentage change in the number of long and short holidays made
by residents of the EU (average) and the Baltic States, 2011 compared to 2010
(based on (7))

Long holidays (4 or more nights) Short holidays (1 to 3 nights)

Total Domestic Outbound Total Domestic Outbound
EU 0.9% 0.5% 1.7% 1.4% 1.0% 5.0%
EE 2.3% 7.4% 0.0% 22.7% 23.0% 21.4%
LV 11.7% 18.6% 8.0% 7.4% 6.2% 19.8%
LT 12.8% 7.3% 15.7% 0.3% 1.1% 6.7%

Development issues and perspectives of tourism in Latvia
Assessment of development of tourism development and its impact
on Latvias economy has been made, using available data from databases
of statistical agencies on the Latvian (CSB) and the EU (Eurostat) level.
Unfortunately, the data obtainable in these databases are inaccurate and
outdated, in other words, data are old. It is important to evaluate the
impact of tourism on Latvias economy, the share of tourism
expenditures in import and export of goods and services and its trend.
Estimating the dynamics or trend of share of inbound tourists

expenditures in export of goods and services and trend of share of
outbound tourists expenditures in import of goods and services, the
results show that both share of outbound or import and share inbound or
export has decreased significantly (Fig. 3). Nevertheless, the growth of
inbound share or export of expenditures is greater r = 0.91, < 0.01,
comparing with outbound share or import expenditure r = 0.87,
< 0.05.

16 12
y = 1.0171x + 6.6067 y = 0.6371x + 5.3867
14
Share of outbound expenditures

2 2
R inbound= 0.8217 R outbound = 0.7648 10
Share of inbound expenditures
12
8
10
8 6
6
4
4
2
2
0 0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Figure 3. The trend of share (per cent) of inbound tourists expenditures in the
export of goods and services and of share (per cent) of outbound tourists
expenditures in the import of goods and services in Latvia, 20042009

Accessing the trends of important indicators: average daily
expenditure per traveller (lats) and average length of trip (visitor nights)
during the period from 2004 to 2010 in Latvia, the results show two
opposite trends (Fig. 4). The trend of average length of trip of foreign
tourists in Latvia is negative. The period of tourists staying decrease
substantially r = 0.96, < 0.01. On the other hand, average daily
expenditure in lats of foreign tourists has increased significantly
r = 0.97, < 0.01.

y = -0.0714x + 1.7143 y = 4.9643x + 24
1.8 2
R lenght of trip = 0.9259
2
R daily expend.= 0.9365 70
1.6 60
Average daily expenditure

1.4
50
Average lenght of trip
1.2
1 40
0.8 30
0.6
20
0.4
0.2 10
0 0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Average length of trip, visitor nights
Average daily expenditure per traveller, lats
Trendline of daily expenditure
Trendline of lenght of trip

Figure 4. The trends of average daily expenditure per traveller (lats) and
average length of trip in Latvia, 20042010

The results of estimation of dynamics or trend of total number of
foreign or overseas travellers or tourists and total expenditure in Latvia
(20042010) show that both indicators have increased (Fig. 5). The
number of tourists has increased, although not significantly, r = 0.78,
> 0.05. The total amount of expenditures of travellers has increased
significantly r = 0.84, < 0.05.
y = 313.71x + 3309.9 y = 36.471x + 142.3
2 2
6000 R number = 0.6057 R expend.= 0.7101 450
400
Number of travelers
5000
350
Expenditure
4000 300
250
3000
200
2000 150
100
1000
50
0 0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Number of travelers, 1000 Total expenditure, mln lats
Trendline of expenditure Trendline of number

Figure 5. The trend of total number of foreign travellers (1000) and
expenditure (million lats) of foreign tourists in Latvia, 20042010

Looking on the tourist arrivals (most recent) in Latvia by country,
we can see that tourists arrive mainly from the following countries:
Russian Federation, Lithuania, Sweden, Estonia, Germany and Finland
(Fig. 6). In our opinion, establishing new initiatives on governmental,
municipal and enterprise level, these data should be taken into
consideration, for example, when discussing the languages used for
tourist information and waypoints, information and meals in catering
service etc.

Sweden Estonia
18% 15%
Germany
12% Russian
Federation
Finland 22%
Lithuania
12%
21%
Figure 6. Main countries, from which tourists arrive in Latvia, 2010
(authors calculations based on data from (3)).

The estimation of some indicators of tourism and travelling and its
trends is important to clarify successes, shortages and challenges. The
observed trends should be taken into consideration for further
development of tourism as a sector, particularly for developing the sector
strategies, programmes and legislative acts and documents on both the
state and the local levels.
First of all, the purpose or aim of travelling of foreigners has
fundamentally changed in the latest decades. The visiting friends and
relatives as purpose of the foreigners arrival to Latvia has decreased
significantly from total number of visitors during the period of last fifteen
years: r = 0.95, < 0.001 (Fig. 7). Arrival for the business purposes has
also decreased significantly r = 0.89, < 0.001. At the same time the
percentage of person wishing to spend holidays in Latvia has increased
substantially r = 0.87, < 0.001. Evaluating these results, we could
conclude that the trend of increasing the percentage of people spending
holidays in Latvia from total number of visitors has a positive influence
on development of the tourism sector. This positive influence is
characterized by using hotels and other places of collective
accommodation instead of using the private apartments of friends and
relatives, where money for accommodation purposes is not spent.

y = 1.7343x + 5.0924 y = -0.7954x + 23.33 y = -0.7932x + 23.819
35 2 2 2
R Holiday = 0.7908 R Visiting = 0.9007 R Business = 0.7653
30
25
20
Per cent
15
10
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Holiday Visiting friends, relatives Business

Trendline, holiday Trendline, visiting Trendline, business

Figure 7. The trend of foreigners (per cent) crossing the border by the purpose
(holidays, visiting friends, relatives, business), Latvia, 19962010
(authors calculations based on data (3)).

Foreign tourists choose mainly hotels, resort hotels and motels for
accommodation 81% (Fig. 8). This fact characterizes the legitimacy of
travellers expenses for accommodation purposes and increases revenue.
Similar
establishments
8%
Other
Hotels, resort
accommodation
hotels and motels
establishments
81%
11%

Figure 8. The type of accommodation of foreign tourists in Latvia, 2010

It is important to note that accommodation of tourists (travellers)
in the public or collective places of overnight staying has a positive effect
on the national and local economy because of the received payments and
conjoint taxes. However, this positive trend or development adversely

affects the trend of average length of trip of foreign tourists in Latvia,
which has significantly decreased during the period from 2004 to 2010.
The significance of tourist demand is well known, for example,
Dwyer et al. (5) argue that the tourism demand and supply may be
influenced both by price and many nonprice factors (9). According to
this, some, inter alia qualitative aspects, directly and indirectly connected
with the tourism service, are recognized and evaluated by CSB (3). This
evaluation is done in percentage by foreigners who visited Latvia. The
aspects or indicators evaluated are the following: quality of services,
commodity price/quality ratio, and responsiveness of people, cleanliness
of towns, and entertainment possibilities and language skills of the locals.
The trends of some of these aspects are presented in Figure below
(Fig. 9). Only one aspect or indicator of qualitative surroundings
language skills of the local people or residents has improved during the
last years. Some qualitative aspects, such as quality of services and
commodity price/quality adequacy, after decreasing during economic
and financial crisis, start showing signs of recovery in the recent years
(Fig. 9).

90
80
70
Per cent
60
50
40
30
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Quality of services Commodity price/quality adequacy
Responsiveness of people Cleanliness of towns
Language skills of the locals

Figure 9. Results of evaluation by foreign travellers of some aspects (per cent)
of a trip to Latvia, 19992010
(authors calculations based on data from (3)).

However, some important indicators as cleanliness of towns and
responsiveness of people, assessed by tourists, still are showing no
positive changes or improvements. Moreover, responsiveness of people
has decreased by 13.7 per cent points, comparing data between 2001 and
2010. Similar results are observed, when comparing cleanliness of towns
rating by tourists between 2001 and 2010, where decreasing achieves

10.4 percent points. It means that further development of tourism or
foreign tourists visiting should be dependant not only on activities of
enterprises involved in the tourism sector, but it also should depend on
activities realized by related branches, municipalities and broader
society for creating of favourable environment for foreign travellers and
tourists.
Tourism is recognized as one of the most important economic
sectors or industries in the world and many countries views tourism as
the main instrument for economic and regional development.
Like other activities of service sectors, the tourism spending or
expenditure, has direct and secondary (indirect and induced) impact or
effect on the economy, and presents complex interaction. The most direct
effects occur within the primary tourism sectors accommodation,
restaurants, transportation, entertainment, and retail trade etc.; and
through secondary effects, tourism affects most sectors of the economy;
and causes social and environmental changes.
The results of comparison of some indicators of tourism
development between the Baltic States are as follows: growth of the
number of tourists is significant only in Estonia, but in Latvia an opposite
trend is observed the number of tourists has decreased; evaluating
longterm (19992010) trends of nights (1000) spent in hotels and
similar establishments in the Baltic States, the growth was significant in
Estonia and Lithuania, but not in Latvia; in 2011, the Baltic States, apart
from Estonia, show positive trend of all holiday trips (domestic and
outbound) unlike the EU average trend, moreover, Latvia is the only
Baltic State which, compared to the EU average, shows positive trend or
percentage change in the number of long holidays and short holidays
both domestic and outbound.
The purpose or aim of travelling of foreigners has fundamentally
changed during the latest decades. Visiting friends and relatives as
purpose of the foreigners arrival to Latvia has decreased significantly
from total number of visitors in the period of last fifteen years. Coupled
with the fact that majority (81%) of tourists or travellers arriving in
Latvia has chosen public or collective places of overnight staying, this
trend has a positive influence on national and local economy due to
received payments and conjoint taxes. However, this positive trend or
development adversely affects the trend of average length of trip of
foreign tourists in Latvia, which has significantly decreased during the
period from 2004 to 2010.

Analyzing some qualitative aspects or indicators, directly and
indirectly connected to the tourism service, and ranked by foreign
tourists, we get the following results: only one aspect or indicator of
qualitative surroundings language skills of the local people or
residents has increased during the recent years; some important
indicators as cleanliness of towns and responsiveness of people still show
no positive changes or improvements; moreover, responsiveness of
Latvias people has decreased by 13.7 per cent points and cleanliness of
towns by 10.4 percent points, comparing the data between 2001 and
2010.
Taking into account that Latvia shows great potential for further
development of tourism, the importance of tourism as countries
economic sector is great in Latvia. Further development of tourisms
export or foreign tourists visiting should be dependant not only on
activities of enterprises involved in the tourism sector, but should also
depend on activities realized by related branches, municipalities and
broader society for creating of favourable environment for foreign
travellers and tourists.
In our opinion the role and potentialities of tourism sector in the
economy of Latvia is not sufficiently and properly assessed and should be
reevaluated by politicians and officials.
More studies are required to help evaluating the shortages of
Latvias tourism development, compared to other countries, particularly
the Baltic States.
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Kopsavilkums
Lai gan trisms tiek defints dadi un dai autori atzm, ka to vispr nav
iespjams defint, Pasaules Trisma organizcija trismu defin di: trisms
personu darbbas, kas saisttas ar ceoanu un uzturanos rpus savas pastvgs
dzvesvietas brv laika pavadanas, lietio darjumu krtoanas vai cit nolk ne
ilgk par vienu gadu. Lai gan plai izplatts un populrs ir visprpieemtais viedoklis,
ka trisma nozare ir viena no svargkajm nozarm gan pasaules, gan atseviu
valstu ekonomiskaj attstb, tomr nav vienotas defincijas trisma nozarei. Daudzi
zintnieki uzskata, ka ldztekus trisma defincijas trkumam, eksist nepilnbas, kas
saisttas ar vienotas izpratnes un vienotas metodikas trkumu, kas apgrtina trisma
nozares attstbas un ietekmes novrtanas iespjas. Statistikas datu bzes diem
uzdevumiem nav piemrotas un ts var izmantot atseviu indikatoru novrtanai
un saldzinanai.
Trisma nozare ir atzta par vienu no straujk attstoajm un svargkajm
nozarm vis pasaul, tai skait Eirop (Eiropas Savienb). Trisma pozitvo ietekmi,
it pai period pc krzes, atzst daudzi ptnieki, politii, starptautisks un reionls
institcijas. K btiski svargk trisma ietekme tiek uzsvrta darba vietu radana
un vietjo ekonomiku stimulana. Trisma ietekmes novrtjumam piemro
dadas pieejas, no kurm populrks ir saisttas ar dadu ietekmes veidu

izdalanu: tie (direct), netie (indirect) un izraist (induced) ietekme. Tieo
trisma ietekmi uz ekonomisko attstbu (valsts, reionlo vai loklo) dakrt dv
ar par primro ietekmi, bet netieo un izraisto ietekmi par sekundro vai multiplo.
Ties un sekundrs jeb neties un izraists ietekmes kopums veido kopjo
ietekmi jeb efektu uz ekonomiku.
Eiropas Savienbas (ES) vidjie rdtji norda, ka ES dalbvalstis atgstas no
finansils un ekonomisks krzes negatvs ietekmes un 2010. un 2011. g.
novrojams trisma nozares pakalpojumu pieprasjuma pieaugums. Saldzinot
trisma attstbu Baltijas valstu starp, konstatts, ka btiska un ticama tristu
pieauguma tendence no 2005. ldz 2010. g. ir novrojama viengi Igaunij, kur
korelcijas koeficients ir r = 92, un btiskuma jeb ticambas lmenis < 0.01.
Lietuv is pieaugums ir neliels, bet Latvij novrojama tristu skaita samazinans.
Ldzga tendence vrojama, saldzinot tristu pavadt laika (naku skaita) ilgtermia
(1999. 2010. g.) izmaias. Igaunij un Lietuv novrojams to btisks pieaugums, bet
Latvij tas ir daudz zemks un nebtisks > 0.05. Latvijas trisma sektora pdjo
gadu (2010. un 2011. g.) izaugsmes sasniegumi ir prliecinoi uz prjo ES
dalbvalstu un Baltijas valstu fona, jo visos stermia (13 naktis) un ilgtermia (4 vai
vairk naktis) ceojumos vrojams pieaugums.
Novrtjot daus Latvijas trisma attstbas indikatorus, secints, ka, lai gan
rvalstu tristu vidji pavadtais laiks Latvij no 2004. ldz 2010. g. ir btiski
samazinjies, tomr to vidjie ikdienas trii ir btiski pieaugui (r = 0.97, < 0.01).
Kopjais rvalstu tristu skaits aj pa laik ir pieaudzis, bet ne btiski ticami
(r = 0.78, > 0.05), savukrt btiski ir pieaugui rvalstu tristu izdevumi Latvij.
rvalstu tristi visbiek (81% gadjumos) apmetas viesncs un moteos, kas ir
legls apmeans veids un labvlgi ietekm valsts budetu. Visvairk tristu Latvij
ierodas no Krievijas Federcijas, Lietuvas, Zviedrijas, Igaunijas, Vcijas un Somijas.
informcija btu jem vr, plnojot dadas aktivittes valsts, pavaldbu un
uzmumu lmen. Pozitva tendence novrojama, vrtjot mru, ar kuriem Latvij
ierodas rvalstnieki, izmaias. Btiski palielinjies to tristu skaits, kuri iebrauc
brvdiens atpsties, bet btiski samazinjies to iebraucju skaits, kas apciemo radus
un draugus. Tas nozm, ka vairk tiek izmantotas apmakstas kolektvs apmeans
vietas. rvalstnieku novrtjums, vrtjot tristu vides kvalitatvos aspektus, liecina,
ka laik no 1999. ldz 2010. g. uzlabojies vietjo iedzvotju svevalodu zinanu
lmenis. Pc strauj krituma krzes laik adekvtka kuvusi pakalpojumu kvalittes
un cenas attiecba, bet iedzvotju laipnba un pilstu trba arvien samazins.
Saldzinot 2001. g., kad tika novroti visaugstkie rdtji, ar 2010. g., konstatts, ka
iedzvotju laipnba un atsaucba pazeminjusies par 13.7 procentpunktiem, bet
pilstu trba par10.4 procentpunktiem.
Turpmk Latvijas trisma attstba daudzjd zi bs atkarga ne tikai no
trisma nozar darbojoos uzmumu darbbas, bet saistto nozaru, pavaldbu un
plakas sabiedrbas iesaistans tristiem labvlgas vides radan.

DARBA SAMAKSAS IZMAIU TENDENCES LATVIJ
EKONOMISKS KRZES PERIOD
WAGE TRENDS IN LATVIA DURING THE DOWNTURN IN
ECONOMY
Iveta MIETULE
Dr.oec., Rzeknes Augstskolas Ekonomikas fakulttes asoc.profesore
Tlrunis: 64624518, epasts: mietule@inbox.lv
Rzekne, Latvija
Rita LIEPIA
Dr.oec., Rzeknes Augstskolas Ekonomikas fakulttes profesore
Tlrunis: 64628004, epasts: sidari@inbox.lv
Rzekne, Latvija

Abstract. Wage is one of the most important socioeconomic factors that determine the
rate of employment, quality of labour force, standard of living, as well as purchasing
power in the country as a whole. The article provides 1) summary on the wage
influencing factors regarding views of various economic schools, as well as 2) analysis of
statistical indices that reveal dynamics of wages in the pre and postcrisis periods in
Latvia.
Keywords: wage, influenced factors, region, public sector, private sector.

Ievads
Darba samaksa ir komersantu personla izmaksu
pamatkomponents, kas liel mr raksturo iedzvotju dzves lmeni,
pirktspju un visprjs ekonomisks tendences noteikt teritorij vai
sektor. Dominjoie Latvijas CSP statistikas rdtji, kas raksturo ar
darbaspku saisttos procesus, ir darba samaksas rdtji. Ptjum
galvenokrt tiks analizta darba samaksa. Darba samaksas lmea
izmaiu tendences var tikt analiztas, izmantojot dadus kritrijus, kas
raksturo darba mju piederbu noteiktam reionam, sektoram,
nozarei, grupai u.tml. Autores vads no Latvij aktualiztm problmm
par darba samaksas lmea dinamiku valsts un privtaj sektor,
atseviu nozaru attstbas tendencm un priorittm un to ietekmi uz
valsts attstbu kopum. Td darba samaksas izmaiu tendences
izvrttas valsts un privtaj sektor, nozaru griezum, k ar reionlaj
aspekt, emot vr Latvij ilgstos reionls attstbas problmas un
iezmes. Ptjuma periods (2000. 2011.g.) ir izvlts, lai pardtu
dinamikas visprjs tendences un izpttu tiei krzes period (2008.
2011.g.) notikuo procesu ietekmi uz darba samaksas izmaim.

Ptjuma mris ir sniegt darba samaksu ietekmjoo faktoru
apkopojumu, analizt un izvrtt darba samaksas izmaiu tendences pa
sektoriem un reioniem Latvij. Ptjuma uzdevumi: 1) raksturot darba
samaksa k ekonomikas sistmas elementu; 2) veikt statistikas rdtju
analzi.
Ptjum izmantotas visprpieemts ekonomisks un statistisks
analzes metodes, loiski konstruktva metode, kvalitatvs ptanas
metodes: monogrfisk metode, Latvijas un rvalstu specils literatras,
zintnisko publikciju kontentanalze un specilo gadjumu ptjuma
metode; kvantitatvs ptanas metodes: ekonomisks statistikas
metodes, t.sk., dinamikas rindu analze, datu grafisks attloanas un
analzes metodes, izmantojot Microsoft Excel programmu.
1.Darba samaksa k visprjs ekonomikas sistmas elements
Darba attiecbu ietvaros tiek realizts maksjums par sniegtajiem
pakalpojumiem, ko ekonomikas teorij un makroekonomik defin k
darbaspka cenu. Neiedziinoties terminoloijas nianss, darbaspka
pircjam/darba devjam ts ir personla izmaksas, cilvkresursu vadbas
teorij ts ir cilvkresursu izmaksas, savukrt, no darba
mja/darbinieka aspekta t ir darba samaksa. 18.19.gadsimta
ekonomikas teortiu atzis, interpretjot maksjumus darba attiecbu
ietvaros, galvenokrt, tiek lietots termins darba samaksa.
Saska ar .Smita (A.Smith) atzinumiem, darbs ir bagtbu avots
un visu materilo vrtbu veidotjs; darbs bija pirmais maksjums, ar
kuru tika samaksts par mantiskajm vrtbm; ne ar zeltu un ne ar
sudrabu, bet tiei ar darbu skotnji tika pirkti visi labumi.
Institucionls socioloijas skola, kuru prstv tdi ekonomisti k
T.Veblens, D.Danlops, D.Gelbreits, balsts uz piemumu par to, ka
visas ar darbaspku un nodarbintbu saistts problmas var tikt
risintas ar institucionlu reformu paldzbu. virziena prstvji mazk
mr koncentrjas uz makroekonomisko analzi un visa veida radus
problmas darbaspka tirg skaidro ar socilm, profesionlm, nozares,
vecuma, etniskm u.c. atirbm darbaspka struktr un tm atbilstou
darba samaksas lmeni.
Elastga tirgus koncepcija, ko prstv R.Buae (R.Buae), G.Stendings
(G.Stending), guva atzinumu un pielietojumu iepriekj gadsimta
septidesmitajos gados, kad Eiropas attsttajs valsts notika
strukturlas izmaias ekonomik. s koncepcijas pamat ir piemums
par darba tirgus dereglamentciju jeb liberalizciju, preju uz
elastgkm, funkcionli individualiztm un nestandarta nodarbintbas
formm (nepilna darba diena vai neda, stermia lgumi, vienreizjie
darbi, darbs mjs u.tml.). da pieeja auj samazint raoanas

strukturlo izmaiu izmaksas (t.sk., ar kopjs personla izmaksas
autoru piez.), kas tiek realiztas ar sekojoiem instrumentiem:
elastgas un daudzveidgas darb pieemanas (atlaianas)
formas un nodarbintbas veidi;
elastga darba laika noteikana, darba rema veidoana,
pielietojot nenormtu darba dienu;
darba algas noteikana balstoties uz dadm pieejm;
darbinieku socilo garantiju formu un metou daudzveidba;
darbaspka cenas, kvalittes, struktras un apjoma adaptcija
darbaspka tirgus pieprasjuma un piedvjuma svrstbm.
Kopum elastg tirgus koncepcija piedv veidot darba mju
un darba devju daudzveidgas savstarpjo attiecbu formas, un ir virzta
uz kopjo izdevumu racionalizciju, ienesguma paaugstinanu un darba
tirgus dinamisku attstbu. Pc autores domm, s koncepcijas ietvaros
iezmjas darba tiesbu liberalizcijas pakpes ietekme uz personla
izmaksu struktru un apmru, kas zinm mr ir saistta ar
cilvkresursu vadbu un izmaksu optimizciju.
Pc R.G.renberga un S. R. Smita domm darba samaksas lmeni
nosaka pieprasjums un piedvjums darbaspka tirg, darba
produktivitte, indivda pabas (izgltba, vecums un citi faktori),
uzmuma vadbas stratija un politiskie un institucionlie apstki
(valsts likumdoana un arodbiedrbas).
Apkopojot 20.gadsimta darba samaksas teoriju attstbu, var
secint, ka darba tirgus nav institts, kura sekmgu funkcionanu var
nodroint brv tirgus principi. aj tirg neprprotami btiska loma ir
valstij, t izpauas gan apstkl, ka valsts ir viens no kopjo pieprasjumu
veidojoajiem spkiem, un otrs btisks apstklis ir valsts spja ar tai
pieejamiem instrumentiem nodroint tirgus funkcionanu atbilstoi
sabiedrbas interesm (iedzvotju labkljba, uzmjdarbbas
veicinana, ekonomisk izaugsme. Pc autoru domm, odien, emot
vr pastvgs izmaias tirgus konjunktr (preu tirgus, noieta tirgus,
darbaspka migrcija, informcijas apmaias trums u.c. faktori), elastg
tirgus koncepcija ir algu teorija, kas veicina uzmjdarbbas attstbu,
un, vienlaikus, nodroina izmaksu optimizciju.
Izvrtjot ekonomisks domas attstbu un atseviu ekonomikas
klasiu atzias par darba samaksu k ekonomisko kategoriju, autores
piedv sekojou indivda darba samaksas lmeni ietekmjou faktoru
apkopojumu, pamatojoties uz ekonomisks kategorijas darba samaksa
interpretciju ekonomikas klasiu atzis un algu teorijs (1.att.).


1.attls. Indivda darba samaksu ietekmjoie faktori
(autoru sastdts)

2. Darba samaksas statistikas rdtju analze

Saska ar Latvijas CSP izmantoto metodoloiju mnea vidjo
bruto darba samaksu nosaka, dalot bruto jeb aprinto darba samaksas
fondu ar vidjo darbinieku skaitu pilna darba laika vienbs. Bruto
aprint darba samaksas fonda sastv ir iekauta pamatalga
(mnealga, amata alga), samaksa par nostrdto laiku vai veikto darba
apjomu, regulras un neregulras piemaksas un prmijas, samaksa par

ikgadjo un papildatvainjumu, piemaksas pie atvainjuma,
atvainjuma pabalsts, kompenscija par neizmantoto atvainjumu,
darba nespjas lapu A samaksa, samaksa par citm dienm, kurs
nestrd, valsts socilo apdroinanas obligto iemaksu, ko maks
strdjoie, un iedzvotju ienkuma nodoka summas, k ar darba
samaksas subsdijas. Neto darba samaksa tiek aprinta no bruto darba
samaksas atemot valsts socils apdroinanas iemaksas, ko maks
strdjoie, un iedzvotju ienkuma nodokli.
Analizjot darba samaksas (2.att.) dinamikas visprjs tendences,
var secint, ka bruto un neto darba samaksas pieauguma lzuma punkts
bija 2008. 2009.g., kad notika btiskas izmaias budeta politik un
valsts izdevumu struktr. Turklt tikai 2011.g. ir novrojams darba
samaksas pieaugums attiecb pret iepriekjo gadu. 2010.g. saldzinot ar
2008.g. neto darba samaksa samazinjs straujk nek bruto darba
samaksa (bruto algas samazinjums bija 7.1 procentpunkti, savukrt neto
algas samazinjums bija 9.7 procentpunkti). Tas liel mr saistts ar
nodoku izmaim, kas tika ieviestas k valsts kopbudeta konsolidcijas
paskumi (izmaias valsts socils apdroinanas iemaksu un
iedzvotju ienkuma nodoka likms).

2.attls. Darba samaksas (bruto un neto) dinamika Latvij 2000. 2010.g.,
latos. (autoru sastdts, (20.))

Kopum darba samaksa 12 gadu period (2000.2011.g.) pieauga ~
3 reizes.


3.attls. Bruto darba samaksas izmaias
Latvij 2001.2010.g., procentos pret iepriekjo gadu.
(autoru sastdts, (20.))

Analizjot bruto darba samaksas izmaiu tendences pret
iepriekjo gadu (3.att.) var secint, ka ldz 2008.g. is pieaugums bija
pastvgs. Turklt kop 2005.g., kad bruto algas saldzinot ar 2004.g.
pieauga par 17 %, tiek novrots strauj pieaugums, kas 2007.g., t.i.
pirmskrzes period, sasniedza pat 32 %, jeb bruto darba alga pieauga
gandrz par tredau. Turklt ar 2008.g. joprojm bija vrojams
pieaugums, kas sastdja 20 %. Jatzm, ka krzes period bija vrojams
vidjs algas samazinjums, tomr samazinjuma tempi (34 % katru
gadu) bija lnki nek palielinjums iepriekjos gados.
Sabiedrba ir sarets mehnisms, ko veido iedzvotji, kurus
savukrt var grupt pc noteiktm pazmm. Viena no dm pazmm ir
iedzvotju nodarboans sektors un ienkumu lmenis. Sabiedrbas
saraoto kopproduktu var aprint, summjot kopprodukta veidoan
iesaistto subjektu iemums, kas tiek iegti kopprodukta prdales
proces. Iemumi no darbaspju realizcijas kopprodukta veidoan
sastda relatvi lielu iemumu dau gan darba mju iemumos, gan
kopprodukta struktr. Atirbas starp privtaj un valsts sektor
nodarbintajiem ir to tie vai netie piedalans kopprodukta
raoan. Valsts sektor nodarbintie iemumus gst netiei, t.i.,
kopprodukts tiek prdalts ar valst realizts nodoku sistmas
starpniecbu.
Latvij statistika par iedzvotju iemumiem tiek veidota,
klasificjot nodarbintos sabiedriskaj sektor un privtaj sektor. Pc
LR CSP darba samaksas rdtju aprinanas metodoloijas,
sabiedriskais sektors ir valsts un pavaldbu iestdes un to
komercsabiedrbas, k ar komercsabiedrbas ar valsts vai pavaldbu

kapitla dau 50 % un vairk, k ar nodibinjumi, biedrbas, fondi un to
komercsabiedrbas. Privtaj sektor ietilpst komercsabiedrbas ar valsts
kapitla dau ldz 50 %, visu veidu komercsabiedrbas bez valsts kapitla
daas, individulie komersanti, zemnieku un zvejnieku saimniecbas ar
nodarbinto skaitu 50 un vairk.

4.attls. Bruto darba samaksas dinamika
sabiedriskaj un privtaj sektor 2000.2010.g. Latvij, latos.

Latvij ilgstoi ir novrojama btiska atirba starp darba
samaksas lmeni sabiedriskaj un privtaj sektor (4.att.). Turklt, kop
2002.g, atirba ar katru gadu pieauga, sasniedzot maksimumu
2007.g., kad privt sektora vidj darba samaksa sastdja tikai 76 % no
sabiedrisk sektora darba samaksas. Skot ar 2009.g. s atirbas
samazins un 2010.g. privt sektora vidj darba samaksa sastdja 91
% no sabiedrisk sektora darba samaksas.
Reions, t attstbas lmenis, ekonomiskais potencils, vsturisks,
etnisks un eogrfisks patnbas rada ietekmi uz aj reion
nodarbinto darba samaksas lmeni. Darba samaksas izmaiu tendences
pa reioniem (5.att.) seu gadu period uzskatmi parda, ka reionos
kopum reducjas visprj ietekme, piemram, 2008.g. visos reionos,
tpat k valst kopum, bija augstk darba samaksa.

5.attls. Bruto darba samaksas dinamika par reioniem
2005.2010.g. Latvij, latos.

Tomr jatzm, ka reionu sadaljums pc attstbas, ko raksturo
vidjais darba samaksas lmenis teritorij, ir palicis nemaings ar
pckrzes period. Joprojm Latgales reion ir raksturga zemk bruto
darba samaksa, kas 2010.g. sastdja 69.4 % no vidjs bruto darba
samaksas valst. Turklt ar 2008.g. bruto darba samaksa Latgales
reion sastdja tikai 71.1 % no valsts vidj lmea.
1. Ekonomikas teortiu atziu izpte norda uz ekonomisks
kategorijas darba samaksa btisku lomu ekonomikas zintn
kopum, uz viedoku atirbu par darba samaksu ietekmjoiem
faktoriem, k ar uz viedoku dadbu par valsts lomu darbaspka
tirgus un darba samaksas reglamentcij. Valsts loma aktualizjs
20.gadsimt, un ts ietekmes mehnismi ir raksturoti un
interpretti ekonomiskajos ptjumos un aktualitti saglab ar
odien.
2. Izvrtjot ekonomisks domas attstbu un atseviu ekonomikas
klasiu atzias par darba samaksu k ekonomisko kategoriju,
indivda darba samaksas lmeni ietekm sekojoi faktori:
pieprasjums un piedvjums darbaspka tirg;
valsts izdevumi preu tirg, investcijm, sabiedrisk sektora
darba samaksai, socilajm garantijm;
darbaspka produktivitte (kopj un indivda);
valsts darba likumdoanas un nodoku politika;
uzmuma iekj vide, iemumu sadale starp raoanas
faktoriem;

indivda patnbas (izgltba, vecums, dzimums u.tml.);
indivda spja veikt inovatvas darbbas;
indivda spja un vlme patrt, kas ir saistta ar socilo un
kultras vidi;
preu un pakalpojumu cenu lmenis, kas ietekm indivda relo
darba samaksas lmeni.
3. emot vr pareizjo maingo tautsaimniecbas attstbu, ir
svargi, lai darba tirgus dalbnieki sptu savlaicgi reat uz esoo
situciju un iespjamm prmaim. Brvs darbaspka migrcijas
apstkos ir btiska darba tirgus tiesisko normu liberalizcija, kas
auj izmantot elastgas, funkcionli individualiztas un nestandarta
nodarbintbas formas (elastg tirgus koncepcijas teorija).
4. Latvij pareizj situcij ir jmekl mehnisms, kas veicintu
darbinieku ar zemu atalgojumu labkljbas lmea celanos un
neveicintu darbaspka izmaksu pieaugumu uzmumos, kas,
savukrt, nerada paizmaksas pieaugumu, preu cenu celanos, ldz
ar to ar inflciju, un sekmtu Latvijas uzmumu konkurtspju.
5. Latvij joprojm nav vienota politisk dokumenta
(pamatnostdnes, koncepcijas), kas noteiktu darba samaksas
izmaiu turpmks tendences valsts sektor; darba samaksas
paaugstinana atseviu profesiju prstvjiem nereti ir politisks
lmums, kuru atsevios gadjumos ietekm attiecgo nozaru
arodbiedrbu (izgltba, medicna) aktivittes. Arodbiedrbu loma
un aktivitte darba samaksas jautjumu risinan valsts sektor
Latvij ir apliecinjums teorijai par arodbiedrbu k svargu
partneri darba samaksas jautjumu virzan. Darba samaksas
palielinanas stratijai valsts sektor ir jbt saisttai ar valsts
budeta stratisko plnoanu un visprjs tautsaimniecbas
attstbas prognozm.
6. Pdjo divpadsmit gadu period (2000.2011.g.) vidj darba
samaksa ir pieaugusi ~ 3 reizes, strauj darba samaksas lmea
pieaugums bija vrojams ldz 2009.g.; attiecba starp bruto un neto
darba samaksu nav btiski mainjusies, ldz ar to iedzvotju
iemumi no algot darba ir palielinjuies vienlaicgi ar raoanas
faktora (darbaspka) cenas pieaugumu.
7. Vidj darba samaksa sabiedriskaj sektor ir ievrojami augstka
nek privtaj sektor; 2007.g. vidj darba samaksa privtaj
sektor sastdja tikai 76 % no sabiedrisk sektora darba
samaksas. Skot ar 2009.g. ir novrojama s atirbas
samazinans un 2010.g. privt sektora vidj darba samaksa
sastdja 91 % no sabiedrisk sektora darba samaksas.

8. Kopum vrtjot darba samaksas dinamikas attstbas tendences
reionos, var secint, ka reionos kopum reducjas visprj
ietekme, piemram, 2008.g. visos reionos tpat k valst kopum
bija augstk darba samaksa. Latgales reion gan pirmskrzes, gan
pc krzes period ir raksturga zemk bruto darba samaksa, kas
2010.g. sastdja 69.4 % no vidjs bruto darba samaksas valst.
1. BECKER G., Human Capital, University of Chicago Press, 3 ed., 1994, 412 p.
2. DUNLOP J.T., The Theory of Wage Determination: Proceeding of a Conference,
London: Macmillan, 1964, 442 p.
3. EHRENBERG R.G., SMITH S.R., Modern Labor Economics, London, 1998.
4. EHRENBERG R.G., SMITH S.R. Modern Labor Economics. Theory and Public
Policy, Pearson Education, London, 2003
5. HAMERMESH D.S., REES A., The Economics of work and pay, HARPEK&ROW,
New York, 1988,452 p.
6. KEYNES J.M., The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money,
Prometheus Books, 1997, 403 p.
7. MALTHUS T., An Essay on the Principle of Population, Harmondsworth Penguin,
85 ed., 1985, 292 p.
8. MANNING A., Monopsony in motion: Imperfect Compettion in Labor Markets,
Princeton University Press, 2003, 397 p.
9. MARSHALL A., Principles of Economics, Prometheus Books, 1974, 352 p.
10. MEDOFF J.L., ABRAHAM K.G., Experience, Performance and Earnings,The
Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 95, No. 4, 1980, 703736 p.
11. MIETULE I. Historical development of the staff costs as economic category and
accounting element. Proceedings of the Conference BUSINESS ANALYSIS,
ACCOUNTING, TAXES AND AUDITING. Tallinn. Tallinn University of
Technology. 2008. 108.113.lpp. (ISBN 9789949430222)
12. MIETULE I. Personla izmaksu uzskaites pilnveidoanas iespjas Latvij. Rga.
2009. 76.lpp.
13. MILLS Daniel Quinn Labormanagement relation, McGRAWHILL BOOK
COMPANY,1989, 614 p.
14. MILL J.S., Principles of Political Economy, Prometheus Books, 2004, 900 p.
15. PEARCE D.W., The MIT dictionary of modern economics, The MIT Press,
ambridge, Massachusetts, 1995, 474 p.
16. RICARDO D., The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Dover
Publications, 2004, 320 p.
17. ROSS A.M., Trade Union Wage Policy, University of California Press,1848,133 p.
18. SCHUMPETER J.A., History of eonomic analysis, Oxford University Press, 1994,
322 p.
19. SMITH A., The Wealth of Nations, Modern Library, New Edition, 2000, 1184 p.
20. LR CentrlS statistikas prvaldes datu bzes Elektronisk versija internet,
www.csb.lv


Summary
The research aims to provide summary on wage influencing factors and to
analyse and to evaluate the wage trends by sectors and regions of Latvia.
The study period (2000 2011) has been selected to reflect general dynamics
trends and to explore the processes underlying the effects on changes of wages
during the crisis period (2008 2011).
When evaluating the development of economic ideas and cognitions of
separate classics on wage as an economic category, the following factors affect the
level of individuals wage: demand and supply of individuals wage; state expenses in
the commodity market, for investments, wages of the public sector, social warranties;
total and individuals labour force productiveness; state labour legislation and tax
policy; companys internal environment, income division for production factors;
individuals characteristics (education, age, sex, etc.); individuals abilities for
innovative actions; individuals consumption ability and wish related to the social and
cultural environment; level of goods and service prices influencing the individuals
real wage level. Taking into account the present variable economy development, it is
essential that factors of the labour market would be able to react to the present
situation and possible changes in good times. In conditions of free migration of labour
force, it is important to liberalise legislative rules concerning the labour market: it
would allow using flexible, functionally individualised, and nonstandard
employment forms. In Latvia in the present situation, it is necessary to search for a
mechanism how to raise the level of welfare of lowpaid employees, which would not
stimulate labour forces expenses in companies entailing the product cost, price rise,
and inflation, but would favour competitiveness of Latvian business. In Latvia there is
no single political document (statement, conception), which would determine further
tendencies of changes in wages of public sector; rise of wage for some certain
occupations often is a political decision, which in some cases is influenced by
corresponding tradeunion (education, medicine) activities. Tradeunions role and
activity in solving wage issues of the public sector in Latvia is confirmation of the
theory about tradeunion as an important partner in lobbying wage issues. The
strategy of wage growth in the public sector must be related to the strategic budget
planning and prognosis of overall economy development.
Over the last twelve years (20002011) the average wage has increased ~ 3
times, rapid wage growth rate was observed until 2009; the ratio between gross and
net wage has not changed significantly, wherewith inhabitants income from the paid
employment has increased together with increase in the price of production factor
(labour). The average wage in the public sector is significantly higher than in the
private sector; in 2007, the average wage in the private sector comprised only 76 %
of the one in the public sector. Beginning with the year 2009 a decrease in the
difference was observed and in 2010 the average wage in the private sector
comprised 91 % of the one in the public sector. From overall evaluation of
development trends in the wage dynamics in regions, it can be concluded that in
regions at large, the general influence reduces, for instance, during 2008 in all the
regions of the country as well as in the country in general there was the highest wage.
Latgale region in both pre and postcrisis periods can be characterised by the lowest
gross wage, which in 2010 made 69.4 % of the average gross wage in the country.


:

TIESAS PAVLE PAR SODU: PRIEKNOTEIKUMI UN
PIELIETOANAS PROBLMAS LIETUV
CRIMINAL COURT ORDER: ASSUMPTIONS AND PROBLEMS
OF APPLICATION IN LITHUANIA

,
.: 8 671 87880, nerija.mikal@gmail.com
Kay,

,
.: 8 671 87880, perkum@gmail.com
Kay,

P ,
.: 8 671 87880, viktorija.laukaityte@fc.kauko.lt
Kay,

Abstract. The article analyzes theoretical aspects related to the facilitation of criminal
procedural form a process of criminal order making. It shows the concept of place in
criminal proceedings. Explicitly dealt with in criminal court order making regulations in
Lithuania, discussed rules governing criminal court order making the legal framework
and conditions for the application identifies problems that arise in the practical
application of this simplified procedural form, discussed ways of solving them, indicate
the optimal development of regulatory information, according to a criminal court order
making foreign regulation of the criminal procedure Act.
Keywords: criminal process in a simplified form, the court order, decision, assumptions.

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1. Lietuvos Respublikos Konstitucija: LR piliei priimta 1992 m. Spalio 25 d.
Referendume.Vilnius: Teisins informacijos centras prie Teisingumo
ministerijos, 1996.
2. Lietuvos Respublikos baudiamasis kodeksas.
3. Lietuvos Respublikos baudiamojo proceso kodeksas.
4. 20040708 baudiamojo proceso kodekso 65, 94, 103, 109, 139, 151, 154,
158, 168, 181, 218, 220, 225, 232, 237, 239, 240, 306, 313, 346, 360, 364, 370,
377, 403, 409, 418, 421, 422, 425, 426, 429, 446, 456, 457, 458 straipsni ir
XXXV skyriaus pavadinimo pakeitimo ir papildymo statymas Nr. IX2336. //
http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_id=238191&p_query=
&p_tr2
5. 20070628 Lietuvos Respublikos baudiamojo proceso kodekso 37, 40, 44,
46, 48, 53, 55, 56, 62, 63, 64, 65, 70, 73, 80, 82, 90, 93, 108, 110, 111, 130, 131,
132, 139, 140, 141, 142, 151, 154, 160, 161, 166, 167, 168, 171, 178, 186, 199,
212, 214, 217, 225, 232, 233, 234, 254, 256, 276, 287, 296, 300, 302, 303, 308,
310, 312, 313, 314, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 324, 326, 327, 329, 333, 342, 358,
367, 368, 370, 372, 373, 374, 375, 377, 380, 381, 382, 384, 385, 409, 413, 414,
439, 447, 448, 454, 460 straipsni pakeitimo ir papildymo, 306 straipsnio
pripainimo netekusiu galios, kodekso papildymo 41(1), 77(2), 80(1) , 374(1),
374(2), 412(1) straipsniais ir kodekso priedo papildymo statymas Nr. X1236
//
&p_tr2
6. 20110621 baudiamojo proceso kodekso 3, 9, 40, 63, 64, 145, 147, 152, 154,
158, 160, 161, 162, 163, 170, 172, 178, 179, 181, 183, 212, 214, 217, 218, 220,
237, 254, 276, 372, 373, 3741, 3742, 418, 419, 421, 422, 426, 429 straipsni
pakeitimo ir papildymo ir kodekso papildymo 32, 1601 straipsniais statymas
Nr. XI1478. //
&p_tr2
7. Lietuvos Respublikos Baudiamojo proceso kodekso komentaras. I IV dalys
/Goda G., Kazlauskas M., Kuconis P. Ir kt. V.: V Teisins informacijos centras,
2003.
8. Lietuvos Respublikos Baudiamojo proceso kodekso komentaras. VXI dalys
/Goda G., Kazlauskas M., Kuconis P. Ir kt. V.: V Teisins informacijos centras,
2003.
9. Lietuvos Respublikos generalinio prokuroro 2003 m. Balandio 11 d. sakymu
Nr. I47 patvirtintos Rekomendacijos dl proceso baigimo baudiamuoju
sakymu//Valstybs inios, 2003 Nr. 391805.
10. Lietuvos Aukiausiojo teismo teisj senato nutarimas Dl teism praktikos
taikant baudiamojo proceso kodekso normas, reglamentuojanias byl
supaprastint proces. 20040917, Nr.48. 1 p.
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baudiamosiose bylose (2001/220/TVR) // Europos Sjungos teiss aktai.

Teisinis bendradarbiavimas baudiamosiose bylose. Sudarytojas G.vedas.
Vilnius. 2004.
12. Europos mogaus teisi ir pagrindini laisvi apsaugos konvencija//
Valstybs inios, 1995 Nr. 40987.
13. Tarptautinis pilietini ir politini teisi paktas // Valstybs inios. 2002.
Nr.773288.
14. Council of Europe. The simplification of criminal Justise. Recommendation No.
R(87)18 adopted by the Committee of Ministres of the Council of Europe on 17
September 1987 and Explanatory memorandum. Strasbourg, 1988. P.7.
15. Recommendation No. R (85) 11 of the Commitee of Ministers to Members
States on the Position of the victim in the Framework of Criminal Law and
Procedure (Adopted by the Commitee of Ministres on 28 June 1985 at the
387Th meeting of the Ministers Deputies) //
http://cm.coe.int/ta/rec/1985/85r11.htm
16. Polish Code of Criminal procedure // http://www.era.int/domains/corpus
juris/public_pdf/polish_ccp.pdf.
17. German Criminal procedure Code (Strafprozeordnung) //
http://www.iuscomp.org/gla/statutes/StPO.htm#407
18. AUBALYT R. Diskrecinis baudiamasis persekiojimas: teoriniai pagrindai,
taikymo problemos ir perspektyvos Lietuvoje: daktaro disertacija, socialiniai
mokslai, teis. Vilnius, 2000 P.10 (cituota pagal Argaillage P. La simple
justice. P. 1980. P.251.).
19. GODA G., KAZLAUSKAS M., KUCONIS P. Baudiamojo proceso teis. Teisins
informacijos centras. Vilnius. 2005.
20. GODA G., KUCONIS P. Nauja ikiteisminio tyrimo koncepcija // Justitia, 1997 m.,
Nr.4 P.11.
21. JURGAITIS R. Supaprastinta baudiamoji procesin forma: daktaro disertacija,
socialiniai mokslai, teis. Vilnius, 2004.
Kopsavilkums
Rakst tiek analizti teortiskie aspekti, kas saistti ar kriminlprocesa
vienkroanas formu rkojuma par sodu izdoanu kriminlproces. Taj pardta
s koncepcijas vieta kriminlproces. Ski izskattas kriminltiesas rkojuma
izdoanas noteikumi Lietuv, apspriesti noteikumi, kas reglament kriminltiesas
rkojuma pieemanas tiesisko reguljumu un piemroanas nosacjumi, identifictas
problmas, kas radus, piemrojot o vienkrot procesa formu, apspriesti ts
risinanas cei, nordta optimla reglamentjos informcijas izstrdana,
saska ar kriminltiesas rkojuma izdoanu kriminlprocesa likuma reguljum
rvalsts.
Lietuvas Republik, tpat k lielkaj da Eiropas Savienbas valstu, arvien
lielka uzmanba tiek pievrsta noziedzbas problmm un ts kontrolei. Galu gal ai
pardbai ir oti negatva ietekme uz valsts socilo, ekonomisko un politisko dzvi.
Daudzs kriminli sodms darbbas un to spgas sekas mudina stiprint un uzlabot
cu pret noziedzbu. Galvenais instruments cai ar noziedzbu valst ir apsdzbas
izvirzanas. To pastvga uzlaboana ir valsts galvenais uzdevums aj dzves jom.
Tomr lielais noziedzgu darbbu skaits un pla izplatba prasa, lai valsts izveidotu
jaunas kriminlprocesa formas, kas aus vienkrot un racionalizt
kriminlprocesam. Kriminlprocesa vienkroana nav tikai Lietuvai, Eiropai, bet ar
visai pasaulei unikls uzdevums.

Lai stenotu visatbilstoko kriminlprocesa principu procesa trumu
Lietuvas kriminlproces paredztas divas vienkrotas kriminlprocesa formas
tiesas rkojums process un soda noteikana sasint proces. truma principa
iekauanu Kriminlprocesa kodeks un t stenoan pieprasa konsekvence Lietuvas
Republikas apstiprintajos starptautiskajos lgumos: Starptautiskaj pakt par
pilsou un politiskajm tiesbm, kura 14. panta 3. punkts nosaka tiesbas personai,
kura apsdzta noziegum, uz tiesas procesu bez prmrgas kavans (V, 2002.
773288.); Cilvktiesbu un pamatbrvbu aizsardzbas konvencij, kuras 6. panta 1.
daa paredz personas, kurai izvirzta kriminlapsdzba, tiesbas uz tiesas procesu
saprtg termi (V, 1995 40987 .)
Tiesas rkojuma par sodu procesu skaits Lietuv pieaug, bet vl nav sasniedzis
optimlo lmeni. Statistika rda, ka praks darbinieki aizvien biek piemro da
veida vienkrot procesa formu. Td nepiecieams pastvgi uzlabot tiesas
rkojuma par sodu pieemanas tiesisko reguljumu, risinot problmas, kas rodas
praks.
Likuma konstrukcija, kad prokuroram nav aizliegts ar lmumu par procesa
pabeiganu izdot priekrakstu par sodu apstkos, kas nav pilnb skaidri, ir
nepilnga. Skaidrbu par kriminllietu k obligtu prieknoteikumu, lai to pabeigtu,
pieemot rkojumu par sodu, btu jiestrd Lietuvas Republikas Kriminlprocesa
kodeks.
Izmaias prstrdt Kriminlprocesa kodeks, kad priekraksta par sodu
izpild var izmantot ne tikai naudas sodu, bet ar cita veida sodus, ir viena no
svargkajm izmaim, kas vartu paldzt stenot vienu no kriminlprocesa
pamatprincipiem procesa trumu.
Summary
The article analyzes theoretical aspects related to the facilitation of criminal
procedural form a process of criminal order making. It shows the concept of place in
criminal proceedings. Explicitly dealt with in criminal court order making regulations
in Lithuania, discussed rules governing criminal court order making the legal
framework and conditions for the application identifies problems that arise in the
practical application of this simplified procedural form, discussed ways of solving
them, indicate the optimal development of regulatory information, according to a
criminal court order making foreign regulation of the criminal procedure Act.
In the Republic of Lithuania, as in most European Union countries, the
problems of crime and its control has received increased attention. After all, this
phenomenon has the greatest negative impact on social, economic and political life of
the state. The large number of criminal acts and their painful consequences is
determined to strengthen and improve the fight against crime. The main tool to
combat crime in the state is prosecuting. His constant improvement is the main task
of the state in this sphere of life. However, the large number and prevalence of
criminal activity requires the state to create new forms of criminal proceedings,
which will help to simplify and streamline the criminal process. The task of
simplifying criminal procedure is not unique to Lithuania, Europe, but also for the
world.
In order to implement the most appropriate one of the principles of the
criminal process the speed of the process the Lithuanian criminal proceedings
provided for two simplified forms of the criminal process the process of the court
order and the punishment of an accelerated process. Include the principle of velocity

in the Criminal Procedure Code and its implementation requires a consistent ratified
by the Republic of Lithuania, international treaties: the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights, in paragraph 3 of article 14 of which stipulates the right of a
person accused of a crime to be tried without undue delay (V, 2002. 773288.);
Convention on the protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Part 1 of
Article 6 which stipulates the right of a person charged with a criminal charge to be
tried within a reasonable time limit (V, 1995 40987.)
Using the process of a court order for the punishment in Lithuania is growing,
but has not yet reached its optimum point. Statistics show that in practice, employees
are increasingly applying a simplified form of this type of process. It is therefore
necessary to continually improve the legal regulation of the adoption of a court order
penalty in solving problems arising in practice.
The construction of the law when the prosecutor is not prohibited by a
decision of the completion of the process by taking a writ of punishment in
circumstances which are not entirely clear is imperfect. The clarity of the criminal
case as a mandatory prerequisite for the completion of the adoption of an order of
punishment should be incorporated into the Code of Criminal Procedure Lithuanian
Republic.
Revisions to the Code of Criminal Procedure changes, when the completion of
the order of punishment can be applied not only fine, but other forms of punishment,
is one of the most important changes that are likely to help implement one of the
basic principles of criminal procedure the speed of proceedings.


LAUKU SAIMNIECBU PAMATLDZEKU
ATRAOANAS ANALZE LATGAL
REPRODUCTION OF FARMS LONGTERM ASSETS IN
LATGALE
Artrs PRAULI
Dr. oec., Latvijas Valsts agrrs ekonomikas institts
Agro biznesa informcijas un analzes nodaa, ptnieks
Tlrunis: +371 67552786, epasts: arturs@lvaei.lv
Rga, Latvija
Ligita MELECE
Dr. oec., Latvijas Valsts agrrs ekonomikas institts
Kvalittes un vides aizsardzbas nodaas
vadtja, vado ptniece
Tlrunis: +371 67553546, epasts: ligita.melece@lvaei.lv
Rga, Latvija

Abstract. Agriculture is an important integral part of Latvias economy. Recently it has
suffered a significant decline due to a price disparity, outofdate technology, and stiff
competition with cheap imported agricultural products, inflation and longlasting
unsuccessful structural reforms. At present most farms work with losses or low
profitability and therefore can not provide the reproduction of fixed assets which is a
vital prerequisite of efficient agricultural production. The comparative analysis of
reproduction of farms fixed assets in Latgale and in Latvia is performed in the paper. In
contrast to the previously done research, the focus is on analysis of various derived
indicators such as net investments per European size unit, total utilised agricultural
area and livestock unit. Special attention has been paid to the subsidies on investment
as a gratis external source of finance and their proportion in gross investments.
Keywords: Comparative analysis, farms, fixed assets, Latgale, reproduction.

Ievads
Agrrais sektors, bdams viens no Latvijas tautsaimniecbas
svargkajm nozarm, prasa noteiktu investciju10 apjomu raoanas
faktoru efektvai un prdomtai izmantoanai, kas ir viens no
lauksaimniecisks raoanas apjomu kpuma prieknoteikumiem.
Investcijas un to mrtiecga veikana agrraj sektor nosaka t
darbbas pamatvirzienus, palielina raoanas tehnisko un tehnoloisko
potencilu, veicina raoanas apjomu pieaugumu, k ar nodroina
10 Ekonomikas teorij investcijas iedala kapitla (tdu kapitlpreu iegde k kas un

tehnika produkcijas raoanai) un finanu (vrtspapru iegde ienkumu ganas nolk)
investcijs. (7.,7.) aj rakst vrds investcijas tiek lietots pirmaj nozm.

inovatvo attstbu. Tas ir svargs valsts iedzvotju apgdes ar vietjiem
prtikas produktiem prieknoteikums. Taj pa laik agrr sektora
dinmisk attstba ne tikai dod iespju uzlabot valsts panodroinjumu
ar prtiku, vienlaikus samazinot raoanas izmaksas, bet ar ir visas
tautsaimniecbas dzinjspks. (37.,75).
Lauksaimniecbas produkciju raksturo zema zintnes ietilpba un
augsta darbietilpba (32.,101) un tpc mehanizcija un darba resursu
nodroinjums ar pamatldzekiem ir efektvas lauksaimniecisks
raoanas prieknosacjums. Nevar nepiekrist uzskatam (38.,91.) ka
pamatldzeki ir uzmuma raoanas potencila un ar valsts nacionls
bagtbas svargs elements, jo rada iespju paaugstint raoanas
apjomus mikroekonomikas lmen, tdjdi ietekmjot raoanas
efektivitti ar makroekonomikas lmen. Pamatldzeku vienkra vai
paplainta atraoana ir produkcijas paizmaksas optimizcijas,
raoanas apjomu pieauguma un patrjamo izejvielu minimizcijas
garants. Pamatldzeku modernizciju var uzskatt par vienu no
pakpenisks produkta un procesa inovcijas svargiem
prieknoteikumiem. Dieml viena no Latvijas agrr sektora, t. sk.
Latgales reion, aktulm problmm joprojm ir lauku saimniecbu
relatvi zems nodroinjums ar modernu lauksaimniecbas tehniku un
esoo pamatldzeku rkrtgi liels nolietojums, kas neprprotami liecina
par ieguldjumu apjoma pieauguma nepiecieambu.
Investciju apjomam ir jbt pietiekamam pamatldzeku
paplaintai atraoanai, lai nolietotie pamatldzeki tiktu atjaunoti
lielk apjom, nek bzes period, bet neprsniedzot tdu
pamatldzeku daudzumu, kas ir atzstams par optimlu efektva
raoanas procesa organizcijai lauku saimniecbs. Palaik investciju
loma arvien pieaug, jo ts paldz prvart ekonomisks lejupsldes
negatvas sekas un saglbt agrr sektora konkurtspju. (33., 9.10.)
Ldzsvarota un stabila tautsaimniecbas izaugsme ir viena no
galvenajm msdienu ekonomikas priorittm. Tomr socil un
ekonomisk nevienldzba pastv ne tikai starp atsevim ES
dalbvalstm, bet ar vienas valsts ietvaros. Latvijas reioni joprojm
atrodas socilekonomisks attstbas dads stadijs, ko apliecina
daudzi makroekonomiskie rdtji. Reionu nevienldzga attstba un
reionls disproporcijas viss ar uzmjdarbbu saisttajs joms ir
atztas par oti nopietnu nacionls ekonomikas izaugsmes rsli.
(29.,289.) Daudzi ptjumi (5.,79.; 12.,116.; 20.,176.; 29.,292.) ierindo
Latgales reionu pc teritoriju attstbas indeksa pdj viet Latvij.
Parasti to izskaidro ar teritorijas attlumu no galvaspilstas, zemu
uzmjdarbbas aktivitti, augstu bezdarbu, iedzvotju zemu ienkumu

lmeni reion. (5.,84.) Savukrt augstka un progresjoka ekonomisk
aktivitte jau tradicionli norisins Rg un ts reion.
Ptjuma mris ir analizt pamatldzeku atraoanas tendences,
saldzinot ar Latvijas agrr sektora vidjiem rdtjiem, Latgales reiona
dada ekonomisk lieluma lauku saimniecbs.
Lai sasniegtu ptjuma mri, bija formulti di ptjuma
uzdevumi:
1) noskaidrot ieguldjumu subsdiju nozmi un izmantoanas
intensitti pamatldzeku atraoanas proces;
2) analizt pamatldzeku atraoanu raksturojoo rdtju
izmaias;
3) izstrdt prieklikumus pamatldzeku atraoanas procesa
aktivizanai.
Ptjums aptver laika periodu no 2004. ldz 2010. gadam. Ptjuma
objekts ir lauku saimniecbas Latvij un Latgal, ptjuma priekmets
pamatldzeku atraoana lauku saimniecbs. Ptjum ir izmantota
monogrfisk, saldzinos un koeficientu analzes, grupanas, datu
statistisks apstrdes, dedukcijas un indukcijas metode. Ptjuma
novitte ir pamatldzeku atraoanu raksturojoo atvasintu rdtju
neto ieguldjumi uz vienu Eiropas lieluma vienbu (ELV), lauksaimniecb
izmantojamas zemes (LIZ) hektru un liellopa vienbu analz. Visus
aprinus veica ptjuma autori, izmantojot datus no SUDAT
(Saimniecbu uzskaites datu tkla). (23.) Ptjuma ierobeot apjoma d
netika analizta pamatldzeku atraoana reionlaj griezum,
saldzinot Latgali un citus Latvijas reionus, k ar dadas specializcijas
lauku saimniecbs.
Pamatldzeku atraoanas analzes metodika un to
finansjuma avoti
Lauku saimniecbas gan iegdjas pamatldzekus (tehnika,
iekrtas), gan ar rao tos pau spkiem (bves, ilggadgie stdjumi,
produktvie lopi u.c.). Ldz ar to k pamatldzeku radanas avotus var
mint lauku saimniecbu pau resursus, rjo finanu kapitlu un
finansjumu, kas saemts no nacionl vai Eiropas budeta dotciju un
subsdiju form. (36.,8.) Tirgus ekonomikas apstkos pau finansjums
tiek izmantots tiei pamatldzeku, nevis apgrozmo ldzeku, ieganai.
To var izskaidrot ar lielku risku, piesaistot ilgtermia rjo finansjumu.
(21.,109.) Ldz ar to uzmuma pau resursiem (nolietojumam un peai)
ir svarga nozme pamatldzeku atraoan.

Tas skaidri izriet ar no nolietojuma politikas defincijas11. Tomr
daudzas lauku saimniecbas nespj nodroint pamatldzeku atraoanu
uz pau resursu rina, jo ir nerentablas.
Ptjumos (21.,111.; 33.,18.19.) k viens no investanas agrraj
sektor galvenajiem riem un pamatldzeku nepilnas atraoanas
iemesliem ir minta lauksaimniecbas un rpniecbas produkcijas cenu
disparitte, kas noved pie lauku saimniecbu darbbas ar zaudjumiem,
ieguldjumu atmaksanos ilgsto laika period, nozares augstas riska
pakpes un finansanas nepievilcbas. Ievrojot, ka rpniecbas
produkcijas (gan pamatldzeku, gan ar apgrozmo ldzeku, piemram,
mslojuma, augu aizsardzbas ldzeku, sklu, elektrbas un degvielas)
cenu kpums prsniedz lauksaimniecbas produkcijas iepirkuma cenu
pieaugumu, plaisa starp iem lmeiem nesark. Nepietiekams
apgrozmo ldzeku apjoms izjauc normlu raoanas procesu un vl
vairk mazina pamatldzeku atraoanas izredzes. Kaut ar ekonomisks
krzes apstkos bija vrojams neliels dau rpniecbas produktu
(piemram, lauksaimniecbas tehnikas) cenu kritums, tomr tas nebija tik
ievrojams, lai pilnb kompenstu starpbu, kas bija izveidojusies
iepriekjos gados. No teikt izriet, ka ekonomikas konjunktras
izmaias tomr nespj pilngi novrst pamatldzeku atraoanas procesa
bremzjoo faktoru nelabvlgu ietekmi.
Vienlaikus situciju vl vairk sare konkurences saasinjums,
iekjo tirgu prpludinot ar ltu rvalstu lauksaimniecbas produkciju.
Daudziem importa produkcijas raotjiem ir izteiktas priekrocbas
saldzinjum ar Latvijas lauku saimniecbm gan zemko izmaksu, gan
ar lauksaimnieciskajai raoanai labvlgko klimata apstku zi. K
citi pamatldzeku atraoanu bremzjoie faktori ir minta ieilgus
ekonomisk lejupslde, inflcija, prtikas prstrdjoo un tirdzniecbas
uzmumu diktts iepirkuma cenu jom, tautsaimniecbas strukturls
disproporcijas un ilgstos ne vienmr veiksmgas institucionls
reformas (45.,51.; 49.,119.).
Ievrojot, ka investcijas lauku saimniecbu raoanas fondos
veicina agrr sektora konkurtspju un raoanas efektivittes
pieaugumu, valsts atbalsts investciju subsdiju form kst par vienu no
iedarbgiem mehnismiem lauksaimniecisks raoanas attstbas
veicinanai. T nozmi palielina grtbas piesaistt aizemto kapitlu
lauksaimnieciskajai raoanai piemtoa augsta riska d. Ldz ar to
11 Nolietojuma politika ir pamatldzeku atraoanas procesa vadba, kas ir orientta uz
raoanas tehnisk lmea paaugstinanu, pamatldzeku prmrga nolietojuma novranu,
to tehnoloisks un vecuma struktras pilnveidoanu, pau kapitla un produkcijas izlaides
apjomu palielinanu, darba raguma pieaugumu un produkcijas paizmaksas
samazinjumu, peas maksimizciju un uzmuma ieguldjumu darbbas stimulanu.
(38.,95.96.)

neprtraukti pieaug cita finansanas avota nacionlo un ES subsdiju
nozme (47.,29.31.). Liela loma aj proces ir atvlta ES Kopjai
lauksaimniecbas politikai, kas ir orientta uz investciju lauku
saimniecbs stimulanu, netie veid kompensjot pdjos gados
notikuo pakpenisku tieo maksjumu samazinjumu (1.,21.; 40.,34.,36.;
41.,14.15.). Vienlaikus ir nordts, ka ar vienotie platbu maksjumi
netiei stimul investcijas agrraj sektor, jo palielina lauku
saimniecbu ienkumus, kurus prdalot, daa var tikt ieguldta
pamatldzeku atraoan. (26.,66.)
Jaunu ES dalbvalstu lauku saimniecbu raoanas fondu
modernizcija bija iespjama jau sagatavoans laik dalbai ES,
izmantojot SAPARD fonda ldzekus (19.,130.) Tomr atsevis
dalbvalsts, piemram, Polij, pastv uzskats (15.,78.), ka, neskatoties uz
atbalstu agrrajam sektoram PHARE un SAPARD programmu ietvaros,
tiei valsts pilntiesga dalba ES bija lauku saimniecbu dinamiskas
attstbas prieknoteikums. Pievienoans ES izraisja investciju bumu
agrraj sektor, patrintu lauku saimniecbu modernizciju,
pieprasjuma pc lauksaimniecbas tehnikas pieaugumu un raoanas
koncentrciju modernajs lopkopbas ferms, jo agrk tikai oti maza
saimniecbu daa spja saraot ES kvalittes prasbm atbilstou
lauksaimniecbas produkciju. No 2004. ldz 2007. gadam investcijas
Polijas agrraj sektor, t. sk. celtniecb, pieauga par 70 %. (16.,48.49.;
26.,71.72.) Tik pat pozitvi dalbas ES ietekmi uz agrr sektora attstbu
un inovciju plau ievieanu vrt Lietuvas zintnieki. (2.,105.)
Ekonomikas teortiskajos ptjumos pastv vairkas uzmuma
pamatldzeku atraoanas koncepcijas (klasisk, marksistisk,
neoklasisk un uzmjdarbbas), k ar tiek izdalta (48.,49.50.;
50.,78.79.) vienkr (dadu remontu veikana) un paplaint
(tehnisk rekonstrukcija un modernizcija) pamatldzeku atraoanas
forma. Ja vienkras atraoanas uzdevums galvenokrt ir novrst
pamatldzeku fizisko nolietojumu, tad paplaintas atraoanas fizisku
un morlu nolietojumu. Vienlaikus pc analoijas ar iespjamiem
saimniekoanas veidiem agrraj sektor, tiek izteikti prieklikumi (31.)
pamatldzeku atraoanas procesu klasifict k intensvu (paplaint
atraoana nodroina ilgstou stabilu raoanas apjoma un peas
pieaugumu, samazinoties darba, materilo, finanu un citu resursu
patriam) vai ekstensvu. Tpat ir akcentts (35.,8.9.; 42.), ka
lauksaimnieciskaj raoan tehnoloiju attstba un valdos stagncijas
prvarana ir iespjama tikai tad, ja atraoanas procesos domin
spcgs inovatvais elements.
Zintniskaj literatr (39.; 44.) var atrast detaliztas
rekomendcijas pamatldzeku atraoanas procesa dinamikas un

struktras, k ar pamatldzeku nolietojuma un aprites truma analzei.
Ekonomikas un lauksaimniecbas statistik, k ar lauku saimniecbu
darbbas ekonomiskaj analz (30.,125.; 36.,17.; 43.,118.119.; 46.,159.
161.) visplak izmantotie rdtji, ar kuru paldzbu raksturo
pamatldzeku atraoanas procesu, ir:
1) atjaunoanas koeficients prskata perioda laik ekspluatcij
nodoto pamatldzeku vrtbas un visu pamatldzeku
skotnjs (vai atjaunoanas) vrtbas prskata perioda beigs
attiecba;
2) izstans koeficients prskata perioda laik izstjuos
pamatldzeku vrtbas un visu pamatldzeku vrtbas perioda
skum attiecba;
3) pieauguma koeficients prskata perioda laik ekspluatcij
nodoto pamatldzeku vrtbas prsniegums par izstjuos
pamatldzeku vrtbu (vai pamatldzeku pieauguma vrtbas
un pamatldzeku vrtbas perioda skum attiecba);
4) nolietojuma koeficients pamatldzeku uzkrt nolietojuma
summas un to skotnjs (vai atjaunoanas) vrtbas attiecba.
Atirb no rezultatviem rdtjiem (piemram, fondu atdeves,
fondietilpbas, raoanas vai produkcijas rentabilittes), mintie
koeficienti ldzgi fondapgdtbai ir pamatldzeku izmantoanu
lauksaimnieciskaj raoan raksturojoie faktora rdtji. (34.,10.)
Tomr FADN (Farm Accountancy Data Network) metodik (6.),
kura tiek izmantota aj ptjum, pamatldzeku atraoana tiek
raksturota ar bruto (gross investment) un neto ieguldjumu (net
investment) paldzbu. Bruto ieguldjumi (kuri pc btbas ir pieauguma
koeficienta analogs) ir viendi ar vaislas lopu vrtbas izmaiu un
starpbas starp prskata gad iegdtajiem un prdotajiem
pamatldzekiem summu. Neto ieguldjumi ir viendi ar bruto
ieguldjumiem, no kuriem ir atemts prskata gad aprintais
nolietojums. Ldz ar to pozitvie neto ieguldjumi liecina par lauku
saimniecbas spju ne tikai uzturt pamatldzeku apjomu esoaj lmen,
bet ar paplaint raoanas bzi.
Ieguldjumu subsdiju loma pamatldzeku atraoan
Lauku saimniecbas, plnojot un stenojot investciju projektus,
saskaras ar dada veida riskiem, bet parasti vislielkos draudus rada
finanu risks. (8.,81.) Finanu trkums tradicionli tiek mints k viens
no galvenajiem uzmjdarbbas uzskanu kavjoajiem faktoriem
Latvijas lauku teritorijs. (28.,147.; 29.,293.) Latgal lauku saimniecbas
raksturo neliels aizemt kapitla daudzums, kas mazina risku. Tomr ir

negatvi vrtjams fakts (8.,83.), ka lauku saimniecbas praktiski
neizmanto rjo finansjumu pamatldzeku modernizcijai.
Ap 60 % no aptaujtajiem Latgales komersantiem norda uz
bankas kredta nepieejambu, iespjams, nodroinjuma neesambas d.
Prsvar kredti tiek emti darbbm ar nekustamo paumu, tas ir,
iegdei, remontam, celtniecbai un rekonstrukcijai. oti biei ES
struktrfondu un citu veidu atbalsts sedz tikai dau no projekta
izmaksm, bet prjm ir nepiecieams kredts. Savukrt bankas ir
gatavas pieirt kredtu tikai tad, ja im projektam ir ES struktrfondu
atbalsts. (13., 124.126.) Likumsakargi, ka aptaujtie Latvijas eksperti
novrt ES ldzeku pieejambu k btiskko prieknoteikumu
uzmjdarbbas attstbai, jo tiem, atirb no aizemt kapitla, ir
bezatldzbas raksturs. (12.,121.) Ldzgs doms ir ar Latvijas
akadmisko aprindu prstvji, kas norda, ka ES maksjumi ir btiski
svargi Latgales zemnieku atbalstam. (4.,36.) Ar rzemju autori norda,
ka msdiens subsdijm ir iziroi svarga loma, jo ts samazina lauku
saimniecbu ienkumu svrstgumu. (24.,179.) Taj pa laik subsdiju
ietekme uz raoanas attstbu ir liel mr atkarga no o subsdiju
pieejambas lauku saimniecbm un to pieiranas mehnisma. (3.,343.)
Vienlaikus ir jpiekrt ar uzskatam (9.), ka ES finansjuma ietekmi uz
reionu attstbu reli var novrtt ne trk k 23 gadus pc t faktiska
ieguldjuma. Tas it pai ir attiecinms uz ieguldjumu subsdijm, kurm
piemt ilgtermia iedarbbas efekts.
Ieguldjumu subsdiju uzdevums ir veicint investcijas agrraj
sektor, tdjdi paaugstinot lauku saimniecbu darbbas efektivitti un
konkurtspju. ds atbalsts Latvijas zemniekiem ir pieejams kop
1997. gada. (27.,16.) Tomr Latvijas agrro ekonomistu veiktie ptjumi
neprprotami liecina, ka subsdijas koncentrjas galvenkrt ekonomiski
aktvajos Latvijas reionos. (27.,14.) Piemram, pielietojot
ekonometrisks metodes, tika konstatts (27.,19.), ka 1. klaster
(Daugavpils, Madona un Rzekne) un 2. klaster ietilpstos teritorijas
(Csis, Jkabpils, Krslava, Ludza un Preii), kurs dominjo ir piena
lopkopba, raksturo viszemk aktivitte ieguldjumu atbalsta piesaist,
rinot uz 1 lauksaimniecb izmantojams zemes ha. Tas apstiprina
zintnieku izteiktas baas (11.,216.), ka, neskatoties uz ES struktrfondu
mri novrst reionlo un socilo nevienldzbu starp ES dalbvalstm
un to reioniem, k ar uzlabot ekonomisko un socilo kohziju vis
Eirop, is finansjums vienlaikus rada neadekvtas izmantoanas risku,
kas var veicint vl lielku reionlo nevienldzbu, socilo izstumtbu,
vides degradciju un korupciju.
rzemju autori (10.,55.) atklja cieu korelciju starp ieguldjumu
subsdijm un lauku saimniecbu aktviem, izskaidrojot to ar saimniecbu

motivciju vl vairk uzlabot esoo raoanas tehnoloisko bzi. Tpat
ciea korelcija konstatta ar saraots produkcijas vrtbu, veiktajm
investcijm un pau kapitlu. Savukrt sakarba starp ieguldjumu
subsdijm un lauku saimniecbas darbbas efektivittes rdtjiem
(pea pirms nodokiem, pau kapitla rentabilitte u.c.) nebija
konstatta.
Ptjumos par ieguldjumu subsdiju izmantoanas intensitti
agrraj sektor tiek izmantoti vairki rdtji, t.sk. darbaspka
ieguldjums stunds uz ieguldjumu subsdiju vienu latu, ieguldjumu
subsdijas uz darbaspka vienu stundu vai lauksaimniecb izmantots
zemes 1 ha. Pdjais rdtjs tiek atzts par pai labu lauku saimniecbu
darbbas analz. (25.,15.16.)
Autoru veiktaj ptjum tiek analizts relatvais rdtjs, proti,
ieguldjumu subsdiju patsvars bruto ieguldjumos, kas raksturo, cik
aktvi saimniecbas izmanto nacionlo un ES piedvto atbalstu,
nomainot un atjaunojot savu pamatldzeku fondu. Aprini liecina
(1. tab.), ka Latgales lauku saimniecbas daudz aktvk izmantoja
ieguldjumu subsdijas pamatldzeku atraoanai, saldzinot ar vidjo
radtju Latvijas agrraj sektor (k izmumu var viengi mint
atsevias saimniecbu grupas 2004., 2006. un 2010. gad). Analizjam
laika posm vislielkais subsdiju patsvars bija vrojams Latgales
saimniecbs no 2 ldz 8 ELV un no 16 ldz 40 ELV. Atirb no agrr
sektora vidjiem rdtjiem, Latgal bija mazk izteikta tendence
samazinties ieguldjumu subsdiju patsvaram, pieaugot lauku
saimniecbu ekonomiskajam lielumam.
1. tabula
Lauku saimniecbu ieguldjumu subsdiju patsvars bruto ieguldjumos
2004. 2010. gad vidji Latvij un Latgal

Gads Reions Vidji
2 < 4 4 < 8 8 < 16 16 < 40 40 < 100 100 < 250 >= 250
Latgale 0,09 0,00 0,00 0,02 0,02 0,36
2004
Latvija 0,10 0,00 0,01 0,07 0,09 0,26 0,20 0,04
Latgale 0,56 1,09 0,74 0,21 0,94 0,47 0,32
2005
Latvija 0,27 0,34 0,53 0,29 0,48 0,30 0,22 0,10
Latgale 0,27 0,32 0,43 0,17 0,25 0,12 0,22 0,11
2006
Latvija 0,19 0,37 0,40 0,35 0,17 0,15 0,15 0,07
Latgale 0,28 0,58 0,51 0,26 0,24 0,15 0,06 0,13
2007
Latvija 0,14 0,26 0,30 0,26 0,19 0,10 0,10 0,04
Latgale 0,28 0,41 0,37 0,38 0,35 0,27 0,10 0,04
2008
Latvija 0,15 0,28 0,20 0,24 0,21 0,19 0,10 0,04
Latgale 0,36 0,00 0,24 0,14 0,41 0,38 0,54 0,89
2009
Latvija 0,25 0,14 0,24 3,46 0,37 0,23 0,30 0,14

1. tabulas turpinjums

Latgale 0,22 0,13 0,17 0,22 0,30 0,23 0,31 0,12
2010
Latvija 0,19 0,18 0,22 0,15 0,19 0,24 0,22 0,16
Latgale 0,30 0,36 0,35 0,20 0,36 0,28 0,26 0,26
Vidji
Latvija 0,19 0,23 0,27 0,30 0,24 0,21 0,18 0,08
Latgale 49% 107% 68% 55% 79% 45% 67% 138%
V12
Latvija 33% 57% 60% 467% 54% 32% 41% 59%

Tomr, saldzinot sav starp reionus, situcija var bt atirga
no iepriek aprakstts, jo tad liela nozme ir lauku saimniecbu lielumam
un specializcijai. (14.,209.) Piemram, ir uzsvrts (22.,18.), ka Zemgales
reion zemnieki cenas palielint raoanas procesa efektivitti,
samazinot fiziska darba intensitti un aizvietojot to ar modernm
tehnoloijm un jauniem pamatldzekiem. Savukrt Latgal, kur domin
mazas lauku saimniecbas, fizisk darba ieguldjums tradicionli ir daudz
lielks.
Pamatldzeku atraoanu raksturojoie atvasintie rdtji
T k neto ieguldjumu absoltos skaitos saldzinana dada
ekonomisk lieluma lauku saimniecb nav ekonomiski pamatota,
ptjum ir izmantoti atvasintie rdtji: neto ieguldjumi uz vienu
Eiropas lieluma vienbu, lauksaimniecb izmantojams zemes vienu
hektru un vienu liellopu vienbu. Pdjais rdtjs ir ieviests, ievrojot,
ka piena lopkopba ir atzta (4.,40.) par galveno lopkopbas nozari
Latgal, kuras ieguldjums lauksaimniecbas produkcijas kopjos
apjomos ir oti nozmgs.
2. tabula
Lauku saimniecbu neto ieguldjumi uz Eiropas lieluma vienbu
2004. 2010. gad vidji Latvij un Latgal, Ls

Gads Reions Vidji
2 < 4 4 < 8 8 < 16 16 < 40 40 < 100 100 < 250 >= 250
Latgale 426 100 441 931 7 1424
2004
Latvija 352 69 287 400 249 479 375 628
Latgale 434 23 448 532 610 228 1676
2005
Latvija 820 282 582 558 742 540 834 1595
Latgale 467 114 733 503 542 188 372 683
2006
Latvija 493 200 372 336 453 302 493 1043
Latgale 288 44 226 388 584 536 790 299
2007
Latvija 531 221 369 451 463 590 571 806
12 V varicijas koeficients.

2. tabulas turpinjums

Latgale 547 476 229 349 577 580 924 875
2008
Latvija 501 152 273 306 502 487 753 851
Latgale 100 112 118 186 247 214 47 20
2009
Latvija 20 259 127 449 175 50 86 476
Latgale 26 152 63 144 125 41 296 84
2010
Latvija 16 207 126 94 17 13 219 150
Latgale 298 58 323 380 276 386 669 384
Vidji
Latvija 385 46 233 215 322 337 476 793
Latgale 82% 363% 72% 91% 139% 140% 91% 100%
V
Latvija 78% 484% 114% 166% 98% 77% 57% 58%

2004. 2010. gad vidji Latvijas agrraj sektor vislielkos neto
ieguldjumus, rinot uz 1 ELV, veica lauku saimniecbas ar ekonomisko
lielumu virs 100 ELV (2. tab.). Latgales reion situcija bija atirga
lderes bija lauku saimniecbas no 100 ldz 250 ELV, kurm sekoja
iepriekja un nko pc ekonomisk lieluma saimniecbu grupas, k ar
saimniecbas no 8 ldz 16 ELV. Analizjam perioda pirmajos gados
atirbas starp neto ieguldjumiem vislielko un vismazko saimniecbu
grups sasniedza 56 reizes, liecinot par sektora rkrtgi lielu
polarizciju. Autori uzskata, ka nkotn, ldzgi Polijai (26.,69.), tas var
novest pie vl lielkas sektora raoanas sadrumstalotbas un mazo
saimniecbu konkurtspjas pilnga zuduma. Jatzm, ka iepriek
mints atirbas starp Latvijas vislielkajm un vismazkajm
saimniecbu grupm saglabjs ar analizjam perioda pdjos gados.
Kaut gan neto ieguldjumu apjoms lielajs saimniecbas btiski
samazinjs, mazajs tas kuva negatvs, liecinot, ka neto ieguldjumi
nespj nosegt esoo pamatldzeku gada laik aprintus nolietojuma
atskaitjumus.
Iepriek veiktajos ptjumos (18.,162.) bija atklts, ka lielajs
Latvijas lauku saimniecbs lielu investciju pamatldzeku atraoanas
rezultt strauji pieaug nolietojuma atskaitjumi, un tpc pea un
rentabilitte kst zemkas nek vidji agrraj sektor. Pc autoru
uzskatiem, ar o faktu var izskaidrot ar negatvo neto ieguldjumu
esambu agrraj sektor kopum.
Neto ieguldjumi gan uz LIZ 1 hektru (3. tab.), gan uz
liellopu vienbu (4. tab.) liecina, ka daos periodos pamatldzeku
atraoana Latgales reion norisinjs mazk intensvi nek vidji
Latvijas lauksaimniecb. Proti, 2009. un 2010. gad tas bija vrojams
lauku saimniecbs, kuru ekonomiskais lielums prsniedza 16 ELV,
2005. gad visu mazo un vidji lielo saimniecbu grups, bet
2007. gad mazu un vislielko saimniecbu grups.

3. tabula
Lauku saimniecbu neto ieguldjumi uz lauksaimniecb izmantojams zemes
hektru 2004. 2010. gad vidji Latvij un Latgal, Ls

Gads Reions Vidji
2 < 4 4 < 8 8 < 16 16 < 40 40 < 100 100 < 250 >= 250
Latgale 53 11 48 128 1 160
2004
Latvija 59 7 35 60 38 79 71 331
Latgale 53 3 53 59 68 29 189
2005
Latvija 141 31 75 79 119 90 155 862
Latgale 69 13 90 71 81 27 58 523
2006
Latvija 87 21 50 56 76 57 106 464
Latgale 47 6 35 64 105 97 138 131
2007
Latvija 111 30 56 80 93 129 132 366
Latgale 92 59 33 55 109 116 176 342
2008
Latvija 98 19 41 54 100 106 171 326
Latgale 17 13 16 31 47 42 10 8
2009
Latvija 4 28 18 76 34 11 21 187
Latgale 5 20 8 25 24 8 79 23
2010
Latvija 3 26 17 16 3 3 51 49
Latgale 43 7 40 53 41 54 105 202
Vidji
Latvija 71 6 32 34 56 65 101 369
Latgale 86% 385% 67% 91% 155% 134% 73% 112%
V
Latvija 77% 441% 114% 172% 100% 81% 55% 69%

Ja Latvijas agrraj sektor vidjiem neto ieguldjumiem uz LIZ
hektru bija raksturga tendence pieaugt, palielinoties saimniecbu
ekonomiskajam lielumam, tad neto ieguldjumi uz liellopu vienbu
sasniedza savu maksimumu lauku saimniecbs no 100 ldz 250 ELV
(4. tab.). Savukrt Latgales reion neto ieguldjumu pakpenisks
pieaugums, pieaugot saimniecbu ekonomiskajam lielumam, bija lauku
saimniecbs ldz 16 ELV un virs 40 ELV. Ir jatzm, ka cits ES
dalbvalsts, piemram, Polij, da likumsakarba nebija novrota. Tiei
otrdi, palielinoties pou lauku saimniecbu lielumam, ieguldjumu
subsdijas uz 1 ha tajs samazinjs. (17., 124.)

4. tabula
Lauku saimniecbu neto ieguldjumi uz liellopu vienbu 2004. 2010. gad
vidji Latvij un Latgal, Ls

Gads Reions Vidji
2 < 4 4 < 8 8 < 16 16 < 40 40 < 100 100 < 250 >= 250
Latgale 200 43 192 601 5 1088
2004
Latvija 187 28 120 229 192 531 281 247
Latgale 202 9 167 407 737 142 2211
2005
Latvija 449 99 281 401 494 595 708 678
Latgale 193 50 298 239 357 161 386 149
2006
Latvija 271 79 178 168 300 359 337 454
Latgale 146 19 115 206 406 552 1103 86
2007
Latvija 331 104 203 268 336 598 668 376
Latgale 327 253 113 222 403 537 1182 295
2008
Latvija 322 74 142 179 381 480 821 432
Latgale 60 65 57 105 168 223 68 7
2009
Latvija 13 124 65 256 127 50 96 248
Latgale 16 92 26 84 84 43 168 51
2010
Latvija 10 96 60 55 12 13 242 89
Latgale 146 26 138 236 235 316 830 115
Vidji
Latvija 223 15 114 134 227 361 450 361
Latgale 88% 443% 66% 95% 140% 140% 101% 100%
V
Latvija 77% 627% 115% 164% 96% 75% 62% 52%

Pc autoru uzskatiem, liels varicijas koeficients un neto
ieguldjumu btiskas svrstbas gadu griezum un dads Eiropas
lieluma vienbu grups netiei var liecint par ilgtermia koncepcijas
neesambu, k nodroint vienmrgu pamatldzeku atraoanu visos
Latvijas agrr sektora segmentos. Palaik im procesam piemt zinm
mr stohastisks raksturs, kas sare maksimli iespjamu raoanas
efektivittes celanu Latvijas lauksaimniecb kopum.
Socil un ekonomisk nevienldzba pastv ne tikai starp
atsevim ES dalbvalstm, bet ar starp Latvijas reioniem, kuri
joprojm atrodas socilekonomisks attstbas dads stadijs, ko
apliecina daudzi makroekonomiskie rdtji. Latgales reions pc
teritoriju attstbas indeksa tiek ierindots pdj viet Latvij. Pau
finansjuma trkums un grtbas piesaistt rjo finansjumu tiek atzti
par svargiem uzmjdarbbas uzskanu kavjoajiem faktoriem
Latvijas lauku teritorijs. Tpc nacionlais un ES atbalsts investciju
subsdiju form kst par vienu no iedarbgiem mehnismiem lauku

saimniecbu pamatldzeku atraoanas veicinanai, kuras primrais
uzdevums ir celt raoanas efektivitti Latvijas agrraj sektor.
Latgales lauku saimniecbas (izemot atsevias grupas 2004.,
2006. un 2010. gad) daudz aktvk izmantoja ieguldjumu subsdijas
pamatldzeku atraoanai, saldzinot ar vidjo radtju Latvij.
Vislielkais subsdiju patsvars bruto ieguldjumos bija Latgales
saimniecbs no 2 ldz 8 ELV un no 16 ldz 40 ELV. Atirb no
rdtjiem vidji Latvij, Latgal bija mazk izteikta tendence sarukt
ieguldjumu subsdiju patsvaram, pieaugot lauku saimniecbu
ekonomiskajam lielumam. Ja Latvijas agrraj sektor vislielkie neto
ieguldjumi uz 1 ELV bija lauku saimniecbs ar ekonomisko lielumu virs
100 ELV, tad Latgal tas norisa lauku saimniecbs no 100 ldz 250 ELV,
kurm sekoja iepriekj un nko pc ekonomisk lieluma grupas, k
ar saimniecbs no 8 ldz 16 ELV. Lielas atirbas starp neto
ieguldjumiem vislielko un vismazko saimniecbu grups gan Latvij,
gan Latgal liecina par sektora rkrtgi lielu polarizciju. Ja Latvijas
agrraj sektor vidji neto ieguldjumi uz 1 LIZ ha palielinjs ldz ar
saimniecbu ekonomisk lieluma pieaugumu, tad neto ieguldjumi uz
liellopu vienbu sasniedza savu maksimumu lauku saimniecbs no 100
ldz 250 ELV. Latgales reion neto ieguldjumu uz 1 LIZ ha un liellopu
vienbu pakpenisks pieaugums, palielinoties saimniecbu
ekonomiskajam lielumam, bija lauku saimniecbs ldz 16 ELV un virs
40 ELV.
Pc autoru uzskatiem, pamatldzeku vienkro un paplainto
atraoanu lauku saimniecbs var veicint:
a) mazu lauku saimniecbu apvienoans kooperatvajs
sabiedrbs nolk paaugstint konkurtspju un raoanas
apjomus, dau no peas novirzot pamatldzeku atraoanas
rezervju veidoanai;
b) parittes attiecbu veidoana starp agrro sektoru un citiem
tautsaimniecbas sektoriem;
c) vislielks labvlbas nodoku rema piemroana tm lauku
saimniecbm, kuras darbojas lauksaimniecbas prioritrajos
raoanas virzienos, vadoties no ilgtspjgas attstbas
principiem;
d) lauksaimniecbas tehnikas lzinga sistmas attstba un
veicinana, k ar agrr sektora ieguldjumu pievilcbas
palielinana ar valsts garantiju mehnisma paldzbu.
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Summary
The main feature of agricultural products is its low scientific capacity and high
labour intensity. Therefore both the technology and workforce endowment with fixed
assets are primary prerequisites of effective agricultural production. Simple or
extended reproduction of fixed assets provides an opportunity to minimize
production costs, increase production volume and reduce the consumption of raw
materials. Modernization of fixed assets could be considered as one of crucially
important elements of product or process innovation. Despite the balanced and
persistent progress being the most important priority of modern economics, social
and economic inequality is still widespread not only among the Member states of the
EU, but also among different regions of Latvia. A list of macroeconomic indicators
testifies that the social development stage of those regions differs significantly. One of
them Latgale region consequently ranks the last in Latvia according to the index of
territorial development.
Disparity of prices for agricultural and manufacturing products, stiffer
competition with cheap imported agricultural products, longlasting economic
recession, inflation, dictate of food processing enterprises regarding the level of food
purchase prices, structural disproportions of national economy and lingering, partly
successful institutional reforms should be mentioned as the main obstacles of
investments in agricultural sector and partial reproduction of fixed assets. The lack of
internal finance and difficulty in attracting external finance are reported to be the
main obstacles to set up small business in Latvias rural territories. Therefore the
national and the EU subsidies are playing an increasingly important role and acting as
the most effective impulses and support mechanism for further sustainable
development of agricultural production. Although according to findings of recent
research carried out in the regions of Latvia, subsidies concentrate in the prosperous
territorial units. Therefore, despite the aim of the EU structural funds to diminish the
differences between countries and regions and to improve the economic and social
cohesion, the EU support measures can result in growing gap, inequality, social
isolation and environmental degradation.
Farms in Latgale (except some farm groups in 2004, 2006 and 2010) used
subsidies on investments for the reproduction of fixed assets much more actively
compared to the average level in Latvia. The highest proportion of subsidies in gross
investments was in Latgale farms of economic size 2 to 8 ESU and 16 to 40 ESU.
Unlike the average farms in Latvia, the farms in Latgale did not clearly demonstrate
the trend of decreasing proportion of subsidies in the farm gross investments for
large farms in comparison with the small farms. If in Latvias agricultural sector the
largest net investments per 1 ESU were in the farms of economic size above 100 ESU,
then in Latgale they were observed in the farms of economic size 100250 ESU, and
neighbouring farm groups as well as in the farms 816 ESU. A significant difference of
net investments in the largest and the smallest farms both in the whole Latvia and in
Latgale demonstrated the notable polarization of Latvias agricultural production. In
Latvia agricultural holdings average net investments per 1 UAA increased along with
the economic size of farms but net investments per 1 LU reached a peak in farms of
economic size 100250 ESU. In Latgale the economic situation was dissimilar to the
previous one as net investments per 1 UAA and 1 LU grew gradually in farms of
economic size below 16 ESU and above 40 ESU. It means economical use of net
investments was not homogeneous.

Simple and extended reproduction of fixed assets can be encouraged by:
1) a merger of small farms in cooperatives to increase their competitiveness
and production volumes as well as to allocate part of retained profit to
reserves for reproduction of fixed assets;
2) parity of prices for agricultural and manufacturing products;
3) favourable tax regime for farms doing business in the prioritized sectors of
Latvias agriculture according to the concept of sustainable development;
4) development and governmental support to the technologyleasing
schemes;
5) increase in the investment attractiveness of agricultural sector using state
guarantee schemes.


PARTICULARITIES OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
DEVELOPMENT IN GEORGIA
INTELEKTUL PAUMA ATTSTBAS PASKUMI GRUZIJ
Maka SALKHINASHVILI
Academic Doctor of Laws,
Full Professor, Gori Teaching University
Email: makasal@rambler.ru
Giuli GIGUASHVILI
Academic Doctor of Economics
Associate Professor, Gori Teaching University
Email: giuligi1@rambler.ru
Gori, Georgia

Abstract. The article examines the nature and significance of intellectual property in
Georgia. The issue is highly interesting both from theoretical and practical viewpoints.
The Law on patents was adopted in Georgia in 1999 and has undergone many changes
since then. The Law was significantly improved as a result of 2010 amendments. In
general terms, the intellectual property is a field of law, which governs and defines the
property rights and personal nonproperty rights in the field of creative activity. To
explore these issues, the article makes reference to a number of earlier assumptions,
historical context and past approaches. Some authors use the term patent pyramid,
comparing it to a casino, where three persons are engaged in a state or sometimes
interstate innovative game. The article looks at the issue in the context of Georgia.
Georgia declared independence in 1991, which also marked the beginning of new era in
the field of inventions. Georgias National Centre of Intellectual Property Georgian
Patent was established in 1992. Georgia is a member of The World Trade
Organization (WTO) established in 1993. Hence the UNapproved requirements of the
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) related to the intellectual property
are binding upon Georgia, as are the requirements pertaining to the industrial property.
We conclude that Georgias Patent Law needs further improvements, as the improved
law is likely to contribute to the intellectual property in Georgia and lead to significant
reduction in a number of disputes in the given field.
Keywords: intellectual property.

Georgias Patent Law is in effect since 1999 and it has undergone
number of changes since its adoption. The Law was significantly
improved as a result of 2010 amendments. The opening article of the Law
states that the Law regulates all relations pertaining to the development,
use and legal defence of inventions and utility models.
In the glossary of intellectual property (3.), the intellectual
property is defined as a field of law that determines and protects the
property and personal nonproperty rights in the field of creative
activity. To explore the issue in question, we deem it interesting to refer

to a number of earlier assumptions, historical context and past
approaches. Some authors use the term patent pyramid, comparing it to
a casino, where three persons are engaged in a state or sometimes inter
state innovative game: The first person is an author of invention or a
patent holder who joins the game with double stake: a patentable idea
and a patent fee. There is a clearcut link between the money and
creativity. Freedom of creation by all means is a good thing, although it is
often accompanied by moneyless freedom, while an author of invention
who holds special right to make use of his/her innovation, pays fees to
the State which acts as the defender of that right. The state uses the sum
of fee to promote expedited and largescale realization of the invention
by a patent holder.
- The second person is an enterprise who materializes an idea
into a competitive commodity, taking risk at its own cost.
- The third person is a State power as the body executing the
authority and a banker, who establishes rules of the game,
through its patent authority, and strives to hit the jackpot.
Incidentally, these so called rules of the game are well observed in
Georgias Patent Law: the budget of Georgian Patent is approved by the
chairperson of the Georgian Patent, subject to agreement with the
countrys primeminister.
Some authors look at the historical context of the issue in question
in the context of Georgia as part of the Russian empire since 1801:
- In 1812 a manifesto on inventions was published, which
governed the rights and privileges of inventors and promoted
development and strengthening of industrial property;
- In 1826 a new statute of invention privileges was created;
- In 1870 a new patent law was adopted;
- In 1879 the issues emerged again relating to reforming the law
on inventions or privileges of patent holders, while in 1896 the
Government passed positive decision on the matter;
- In 1919 Vladimir Lenin signed a decree which abolished the
patent laws of the Tsardom of Russia and established the
socialist form of protection of inventions authors certificate.
The State became sole proprietor of an invention, revoked a
stamp duty and a fee for lodging an application and for issuing a
certificate.
The period between 1917 and 1921, which saw overthrowing of a
tsar, abolishment of the Russian empire and new annexation of Georgia
by the Soviet Russia, was not marked by much of inventive activity.
The years that followed were known for the socalled new
economic policy. In 1924 a decision was passed concerning the patented

inventions. The patent holders were granted the right to make use of
inventions at their disposal. The author of invention would enter into an
agreement with an enterprise and would receive as a bonus of 1530% of
economic surplus (income) raised through the sales of the product
manufactured by using the invention. The total profit raised by using the
invention was split into three equal portions among the stakeholders in
the patent game the state, the enterprise and the inventor, while tax
was collected after the industrial use of an invention. Some authors
believe that no other country in the world had such a system of bonuses
and tax benefits to promote the intellectual property (creativity). As for
the USSR, according to the laws on inventions of that time, lodging of
application for invention was free of charge, the term for initial review
and for receipt of a response from Moscow was 6 months, and in the
event of positive decision and issuance of relevant certificate, it would be
accompanied by a bonus pay of 200 roubles.
Georgia declared independence in 1991, which also marked the
beginning of a new era in the field of inventions. Georgias National
Centre of Intellectual Property Georgian Patent was established in
1992. The first guideline documents were adopted enacting the approval
and introduction of statute on inventions and industrial models,
including 1992 resolutions No. 302 and 303 of the Cabinet of Ministers of
the Republic of Georgia. As noted earlier, in 1999 the Patent Law of
Georgia was adopted and remains in effect to date (the Law underwent
significant changes as a result of 2010 amendments).
Number of applications peaked during 19921994, then gradually
decreased and has remained at a certain low level for a while. This can be
partially explained by the influence, still experienced mentally by the
inventors, associated with the environment that was favourable to the
inventors, where intellectual products at least had some value. The
situation is similar with the patents. The statistical data on the patents
which have been adopted and implemented in practice would have been
informative in this respect; however no such information is available yet,
at least we do not have access to any.
Today Georgia is a member of the World Trade Organization
(WTO) established in 1993. Hence the UNapproved requirements of the
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) related to the
intellectual property are binding upon Georgia, as are the requirements
pertaining to the industrial property (1.), as adopted at the Paris
conference as early as 1883 (the Paris Convention for the Protection of
Industrial Property). One important attachment to the WTO founding
charter is the Agreement on TradeRelated Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS), which upholds, among others, the principle that

intellectual property protection should contribute to technical innovation
and the transfer of technology.
Let us now have a look at the Georgian way of protection of
intellectual property. The 1999 Patent Law has hardly introduced any
changes to the area of inventions, either in terms of their use or legal
protection. The Law, namely its article 6, contains general statement that
the scope of legal protection of an invention will be determined by the
invention claim.
It therefore appears that starting from 1800 to 1999, or for two
centuries, there has existed some mechanism for encouragement or
promotion of inventions. Then what seems to be a problem today?
Should we consider resurrecting the Lenins decree? Current Patent Law
greatly differs from the ideas and considerations issued back in 1991. (4.)
We often use the terms intellectual property and industrial
property. Industrial property (3.) is one of the areas of intellectual
property, the subject of which are the fruits of human intellectual work. It
is the fruit of intellectual work that is being ignored today in the country,
where the author of an invention works and delivers intellectual product
and ultimately pays cash for his/her own work, because otherwise the
invention will not be patented. Thereafter unless the authors of invention
continue to pay fees annually to secure their rights in respect of their
inventions, the patent, i.e. the fruits of their labour will be revoked.
Technically, a patent is a property of an inventor, although in
reality the invention belongs to the Georgian Patent, i.e. the State rather
than to the patent holder, which means that the intellectual property is
taxable in Georgia. Under the circumstances, knowhow could also be
taxable, because it is also a property! We believe that in order to achieve
progress in this matter, in the first place, the law needs to be revised in a
manner as to encourage wide range of people to engage in creative work.
The law must also provide for incentives for the initial form of
intellectual product invention idea or proposal, all the way through its
practical application, as practiced by the Japanese some time ago and as it
is still practiced in many countries. The invention idea is a mental
integration of verities that is ready for practical realization (7.). Once an
invention idea takes the form of a patent, then the law must regulate the
profit gained from the implementation of the invention and its
distribution. Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
states explicitly that everyone has the right to protection of the moral and
material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic
production of which he is the author.

As far as Georgias Patent Law is concerned, it must be focused on
the advancement of national economy, instead of market economy, as
advised by the father of the Japanese industrial revival the American
scientist W. Edwards Deming.
To conclude, we believe that Georgias Patent Law needs further
improvements, as the improved law is likely to contribute to the
intellectual property in Georgia and leads to significant reduction in a
number of disputes in the given field.
Bibliography
1. DZAMUKASHVILI D., Industrial Property, Commercial Signs, Elimination of
Unfair Competition, Tbilisi, 1998.
2. DZAMULASHVILI D. Law of Intellectual Property, Tbilisi, 2006.
3. JORBENADZE S., Glossary of Intellectual Property, Tbilisi, 1998.
4. Newspaper Sakartvelos Respublika, 6 November, 1991.
5. NIKOLASIHVILI I., Journal Sakartvelos Ekonomika, Issue 4, 2008.
6. Patent Law of Georgia, 1999.
7. Law of Intellectual Property, Lecture Course Tbilisi 2006
8. http://www.ambebi.ge/sazogadoeba/19981rogordavicvathinteleqtualuri
sakuthreba.html#ixzz1XB6ugry8.
Kopsavilkums
Rakst apskatta intelektul pauma pamatpabas un nozme Gruzij.
Jautjums ir oti interesants gan no teortisk, gan praktisk viedoka. Patentu likums
Gruzij tika pieemts 1999. gad un kop t pieemanas taj ir veiktas daudzas
izmaias. 2010. gada grozjumu rezultt Likums tika btiski uzlabots. Vispr
intelektulais paums ir tiesbu joma, kas reglament un nosaka pauma tiesbas un
personisks nematerils tiesbas rados darbbas jom. Lai izpttu os jautjumus,
raksts atsaucas uz vairkiem iepriekjiem piemumiem, vsturisko kontekstu un
iepriekjo pieeju. Dai autori izmanto terminu patentu piramda, saldzinot to ar
kazino, kur trs personas ir iesaisttas valsts vai dareiz pat starpvalstu novatoriskaj
proces. Rakst is jautjums apskatts saistb ar Gruziju. Gruzija pasludinja savu
neatkarbu 1991. gad, kas iezmja ar jaunas ras skumu izgudrojumu jom.
Gruzijas Valsts intelektul pauma centrs Gruzijas patents tika izveidots 1992.
gad. Gruzija ir dalbniece Pasaules tirdzniecbas organizcij (PTO), kas izveidota
1993. gad. Td ANO apstiprints Pasaules intelektul pauma organizcijas
(WIPO) prasbas, kas saisttas ar intelektulo paumu, ir Gruzijai saistoas, un aj
gadjum ietver prasbas, kas attiecas uz rpniecisko paumu.
Vrdncas glosrij par intelektulo paumu, intelektulais paums tiek
defints k tiesbu joma, kas nosaka un aizsarg paumu un personisks
nematerilajm tiesbas rados darbbas jom. Lai izpttu apskatmo jautjumu,
mums iet interesanti atsaukties uz vairkiem iepriekjiem piemumiem,
vsturisko kontekstu un iepriekjo pieeju. Dai autori izmanto terminu patentu
piramda, saldzinot to ar kazino, kur trs personas ir iesaisttas valsts vai dareiz pat
starpvalstu novatoriskaj proces.

Pirm persona ir izgudrojuma autors vai patenta panieks, kur iesaists
spl ar divkru likmi: patentjam ideja un patentmaksa. Ir skaidri redzama saikne
starp naudu un radoumu. Rado brvba katr zi ir laba lieta, tau tai biei nk
ldzi brvba bez naudas, lai gan izgudrojuma autors, kam ir paas tiesbas izmantot
savus jaunievedumu maks nodevu valstij, kas darbojas k o tiesbu aizsargtja.
Valsts izmanto o naudas summu, lai veicintu patrintu un plau patenta panieka
izgudrojuma realizciju.
Otr persona ir uzmums, kas ideju prvr par konkurtspjgu preci,
uzemot risku uz sava rina.
Tre persona ir valsts vara k valsts prvaldes iestde un baieris, kas
nosaka sples noteikumus, izmantojot patentu iestdi, un cenas iegt lielo
laimestu.
Starp citu, ie t sauktie sples noteikumi tiek labi ievroti Gruzijas Patentu
likum: Gruzijas Patenta budetu apstiprina Gruzijas Patenta prieksdtjs,
saskaojot ar valsts premjerministru.
Dai autori raugs uz apskatm jautjuma vsturisko kontekstu saistb ar
Gruziju k dau no Krievijas imprijas kop 1801.gada:
- 1812. gad tika publicts manifests par izgudrojumiem, kur tika
reglamenttas izgudrotju tiesbas un privilijas, un veicinta
rpniecisk pauma attstbu un nostiprinana;
- 1826. gad tika izstrdts jauns likums par izgudrojuma privilijm;
- 1870. gad tika pieemts jaunais Patentu likums;
- 1879. gad atkal pardjs problmas, kas saisttas ar izmaim tiesbu
norms par izgudrojumiem vai patentu panieku privilijs, bet 1896.
gad valdba piema pozitvu lmumu par o jautjumu;
- 1919. gad Vladimirs eins parakstja dekrtu, kas atcla Krievijas
caristes patentu tiesbu aktus un izveidoja socilistisko izgudrojumu
aizsardzbas formu autorapliecbu. Valsts kuva par viengo izgudrojuma
panieci, atcla valsts nodevu un maksu par pieteikuma iesnieganu un
apliecbas izsnieganu.
Laik no 1917. ldz 1921. gadam, kad tika gzts cars, likvidta Krievijas
imprija un notika jauna Gruzijas aneksija no Padomju Krievijas puses, netika
atzmtas daudzas aktivittes izgudrojumu jom.
Un noslgum raksta autori uzskata, ka Gruzijas Patentu likumu ir
nepiecieams vl pilnveidot, jo uzlaboti tiesbu akti var veicint intelektulo paumu
Gruzij un btiski samazint strdu skaitu aj jom.

LINGVOKULTUROLOISKIE ELEMENTI
K PILSTU PIEVILCBAS FAKTORI
LINGUOCULTURAL ASPECTS AS AN ATTRACTIVENESS
FACTORS OF CITIES
Irna SILINEVIA
Dr.sc.ing., profesore,Rzeknes Augstskola
Epasts: Irena.Silinevica@ru.lv
Rzekne, Latvija

Abstract. Regional development problems are topical problems in all the countries
around the world. The polycentric development of cities and their surroundings is the
main way for solution of this problem. Attractiveness of cities has a direct correlation to
their competitiveness. Taking into account that tourism is one of the development
directions related to all the towns in Latgale region, the object of this article is research
of the attractiveness of towns from the tourists point of view. The main question of this
research: Are the regional linguocultural aspects capable to develop a unique tourism
product and increase attractiveness of a city? Tourists from Latvias regions have been
surveyed in the Rezekne. Results of this survey and conclusions related to the role of
unique local culture in attractiveness of polycentric development cities are described in
this article.
Keywords: attractiveness, linguocultural aspects, polycentric development cities.

Ievads
Policentrisk attstba, izmantojot pilstu stipro puu potencilu k
reiona attstbas virztjspku un stiprinot saites starp pilstm, veido
nosacjumus sabalanstai nacionlai attstbai. Pilstas var kt par
nozmgu virztjspku katr reion un valst kopum. To potencilu,
attstbas virzienus un lomu reionl, nacionl un starptautisk lmen
nosaka plnoanas dokumenti, kuros paredzta sadarbba ar
nozmgkiem partneriem, institcijm. Lai nodrointu veiksmgu
dinamisku pilstu attstbu, tm jaug kop ar to apkrtjo vidi un jkst
par pievilcgu biznesa vietu.
K viens no policentrisks attstbas instrumentiem ir 2007.g.
2013.g. plnoanas perioda Eiropas reionl attstbas fonda pilstu
attstbas prioritte Policentrisk attstba. T ietver aktivittes, kuru
mris ir stiprint pilstu k reionu attstbas virztjspku potencilu,
k ar attstt funkcionls saites ar to apkrtjm teritorijm, izmantojot
integrtu pieeju.
Tradicionlais ekonomistu uzskats par pilstu pievilcbu ir tds, ka
cilvkiem pilstas ir pievilcgas, ja tajs ir ekonomisks attstbas iespjas
un iespjas strdt. Daudzi pdjo gadu ptjumi liecina, ka pilsta ir
pievilcga cilvkiem, ja t piedv plau, cilvkam vajadzgo, rtbu

spektru. Glaeser (6.,49) savos ptjumos atklj, ka starp o rtbu spektru
un pilstas izaugsmi pastv oti ciea korelcija: labi attstta biznesa vide
paver plaas iespjas radoumam. Ameriku ekonomists R. Florida
uzsver, ka reiona konkurtspjas atslga slpjas spj piesaistt augsti
kvalifictu darbaspku, kas veido labu augsni radoa klimata attstbai,
cilvkkapitla attststbai (5.).
Pilst dzvo iedzvotji, taj darbojas dadi uzmumi, pilstu
apmekl viesi. Vism m grupm ir atirgi pilstas pievilcbas kritriji,
jo katrai no tm ir savas specifiskas intereses attiecb uz pilstu
pievilcbu.
Visu Latgales pilstu attstbas stratijas k vienu no attstbas
virzieniem paredz trisma attstbu, izmantojot gan fizisko vidi, gan
kultrvsturisko piedvjumu, gan tautisks tradcijas, gan dadus
paskumus. Katra pilsta cenas piedvt uniklu trisma produktu.
Ptjuma hipotze: pilstu lingvokulturlie aspekti vartu bt
pievilcgi unikla trisma produkta radanai, td veid vairojot pilstu
pievilcbu tristu uztver.
Ptjuma mris: izptt pilstu pievilcbas lingvokulturlos
aspektus tristu un apmekltju skatjum, izmantojot Rzeknes pilstas
piemru.
Lai sasniegtu o mri, jveic di uzdevumi:
jpta pilstu pievilcbu vadoo ekonomistu skatjum;
jraksturo Rzekni k policentrisku pilstu Latgales reion;
jveic Rzeknes pilstas tristu un apmekltju aptauja ar
mri noskaidrot lingvokulturoloisko elementu ietekmi uz
pilstas pievilcbu un japstrd s aptaujas rezultti;
jizstrd secinjumus un ieteikumus Rzeknes pilstas
pievilcbas palielinanai lingvokultroloisk aspekt.
Ptjuma objekts pilstu pievilcba.
Ptjuma priekmets Latgales reiona lingvokulturoloisko
elementu ietekme uz Rzeknes pilstas pievilcbu.
Ptjuma bze Rzeknes pilstas viesi: apmekltji un tristi.
Izmantojams ptniecbas metodes: kontentanalze, analze,
sintze, loisks un abstraktvi konstruktvs metodes, anketana, SPSS
programma aptaujas rezulttu apstrdei.
1. Pilstu pievilcbas aspekti vadoo ekonomistu skatjum
emot vr globalizcijas iespjas, pilstu pievilcba k viens no
galveniem konkurtspjas avotiem kst par aktulko problmu reionu
attstb. Pilstu pievilcba bzjas uz esom priekrocbm, vrtbu
orientciju, socilm un kultras tradcijm. Pilstu pievilcbas aspekti,
ko ptja ameriku ekonomists R. Florida, ietver tdas kategorijas k

radoumu (radous centrus, radous cilvkus, radoas pilstas), talantu
indeksu, atvrtbas indeksu, tolerances indeksu, inovciju kritriju.
R. Florida (5., 11.) uzsver, ka radoums var kt par nozmgu dzinjspku
pilstu, reionu un valstu attstb. Ar radoumu R. Florida saprot spju
attstt jaunas zinanas un sekmgi izmantot esos. Angu ekonomists
Landry (9.,37.) sniedz du radoas pilstas definciju: radoa pilsta
atiras ar spju adaptties jaunos apstkos lai risintu visu veidu
problmas. Tas nosaka vajadzgo vidi, kur ir iespjams ieviest
jauninjumus un kur ir iespjas indivdiem attstt savus talantus. ai
videi jbt pietiekami atvrtai un prmaias veicinoai. Kunzmann (8.,7.)
savos ptjumos uzsver, ka pilstas radoums bzjas uz multidimensilo
domanu. Tas prasa fantziju un iztli. Kreativitte ir vlans
eksperimentt un riskt, lai izpttu veidus, k rast problmu risinjumus
un stties pret jauniem izaicinjumiem.
Pilstu pievilcbas kritriji ir atirgi dadm patrtju grupm.
Kotler,P. (7.), Braun,E. (3.) ir noteikui trs patrtju grupas: pilstu
iedzvotji, tristi, uzmji. Katrai no m grupm ir savas specifiskas
intereses attiecb uz pilstu pievilcbu.
Pilstu iedzvotji uztver pilstu k pievilcgu dzvoanai, ja vii
jtas taj komfortabli, t.i., ja pilst tiek nodrointi atbilstoi ekoloiski
apstki, fizisk droba, izgltbas iespjas, veselbas aizsardzbas
paskumi, socil paldzba, brv laika pavadanas iespjas, labi attstta
infrastruktra. Berg (2.) norda, ka pilstu pievilcbu pilstnieku
skatjum nosaka tra, pietiekami droa vide, darba vietu pieejamba,
augstas kvalittes izgltbas iespjas un veselbas aizsardzbas
pakalpojumi, k ar augstas kvalittes kultra, attieksme pret socilo
drobu, reliiju.
Uzmju skatjum pilstas pievilcba izpauas ts lab fizisk
sasniedzamb, teicam infrastruktr, vietj kvalificta darbaspka
pieejamb, sakrtot nodoku sistm, adekvtm zemes cenm, energo
resursu pieejamb un to pieemamm cenm, izgltbas iespjm, tirgus
lielumu, pilstas statusu, dzvoanai labvlgu vidi, dzveslmeni,
sabiedrisko pakalpojumu kvalitti. Braun (3.) atzm, ka uzmji mekl
das pilstas pievilcbas: izdevgu vietu, cilvku izveidotu sakrtotu vidi,
kvalifictu darbaspku, patrtjus, potencilos klientus, piegdtjus,
finansils priekrocbas, partnerus.
Tristu un apmekltju uztver pilsta ir pievilcga, ja taj ir
nodrointa tra ekoloiska vide, droums, izklaides iespjas, labi attstta
infrastruktra. Pilstas pievilcba tristu skatjum daudz mazk mr
tiek vrtta pc darba, izgltbas un veselbas aizsardzbas iespjm.
Tristi un pilstas viesi pilst uzturas samr su laiku, tpc, k atzm
Braun (3.), vius vairk interes apmeans iespjas un cenas viesncs

vai viesu namos, dinanas iespjas, izklaides iespjas, ievrojamks
apskates vietas, pieejamais kultras mantojums, arhitektra,
sabiedriskais transports, auto stvvietas u.c.
Andries, L. (1.) ptjum izskan doma, ka tristu iespaids par
pilstas pievilcbu zinm mr ir atkargs no viu iespjm iekauties
dads trisma aktivitts un no kultras trisma aktivitu lmea
pilst. aj sakar vi saskata das trs iespjas:
1) samr zemas iespjas tristiem piedalties trisma aktivitts
un augsta kultras trisma pievilcba;
2) tristu aktva piedalans trisma aktivitts un augsta
kultras trisma pievilcba;
3) samr zemas iespjas tristiem piedalties trisma aktivitts
un zema kultras trisma pievilcba.
2. Rzekne k policentriska pilsta Latgales reion
Rzekne ir Latvijas septt lielk valsts nozmes pilsta un otr
lielk pilsta Latgales reion. Iepriekj ptjum (11.) par Rzeknes
pievilcbu, tika aprints pilstas talanta indekss (talent index), kas,
atbilstoi R. Florida defincijai, tiek mrts, dalot iedzvotju skaitu pilst
ar augstskolu beiguo skaitu taj. Vairk nek 10% no visiem pilstas
iedzvotjiem ir Rzeknes Augstskolas studenti. Talanta indeksa
mranai izmantoti dati no 2004.gada ldz 2010. gadam. Tika pierdta
Rzeknes Augstskolas nozme talanta indeksa paaugstinan Latgales
reion vidji par 0,2% katru gadu. Tpat ptjum tika izanalizts ar
Rzeknes pilstas atvrtbas kritrijs (openness criteria, angl.), ko nosaka
di faktori: sasniedzamba, izmaias proporcij starp vietjiem
iedzvotjiem un iebraucjiem, izmaias rzemju studentu skaita
attiecb pret kopjo studentu skaitu, nodarbinto sievieu proporcija
kopj nodarbintb, iedzvotju blvuma izmaias, inovciju iespjas,
kultras paskumu piedvjums.
Ptjums (11.) va nodefint das Rzeknes pilstas
priekrocbas:
tai ir liels radoas pilstas potencils;
tai ir iespjas attstt jaunu tehnoloiju un inovciju potencilu;
ar katru gadu pilst palielins iespjas attstt pievilcgas brv
laika pavadanas iespjas, kas autu piesaistt pilstai
talantgus cilvkus, pateicoties reionlajai Rzeknes
Augstskolai;
augstks izgltbas iespjas veicina radoas pilstas attstbu;
pilsta ir atvrta dadu tautbu iedzvotjiem, ar dadm
kultras atirbm;

Rzeknes specil ekonomisk zona veido pau pievilcbu
biznesa videi.
Rzeknes pilstas attstbas dokumentos liela vrba tiek pievrsta
trisma attstbai. ajos dokumentos tiek analizta pareizj situcija
trisma jom, novrtts piedvjums. Rzeknes pilst tiek piedvtas
das brv laika pavadanas iespjas: veikalu, kafejncu, muzeju, izstu
zu apmeklana, sporta nodarbbu iespjas, peldbaseinu, boulinga
kluba, fitnesa centru apmekljumi, brvdabas paskumi, iespjas apgt
svevalodas, iespjas nodarboties ar tlotjmkslu. Tuvj pilstas
apkrtn tiek piedvtas dadas aktivittes, saisttas ar peldanos,
airanu, slidoanu, slpoanu, makeranu, pastaigm. Izstdes,
koncerti u.c. kultras paskumi pilst notiek cauru gadu.
Tiek izstrdta pilstas kultras trisma mrketinga attstbas
stratija. aj ptjum tiek veikta pilstas pievilcbas izpte trisma
jom, izmantojot lingvokulturlos aspektus.
3. Latgales lingvokulturoloisko elementu k pilstas
pievilcbas faktoru izpte
K rda ESF projekta Nr.2009/0227/1DP/1.1.1.2.0/09/APIA/VIAA/071
Teritorils identittes lingvokultoroloiskie un socilekonomiskie
aspekti Latgales reiona attstb (14.) ptjumu rezultti, latgalieu
identittes pozcijas strauji nostiprins un iegst arvien lielku
popularitti ne tikai Latgales reiona robes, bet ar rpus t. Tiek
izdotas jaunas grmatas. Latgales raidstacija (Latgales radeja), kas
ieguvusi lielu popularitti reion, vsta tikai latgalieu valod. Palielins
to skolnu un studentu skaits, kas interesjas par latgalieu vsturi,
literatru. Rzeknes Augstskol tiek organizti paskumi latgalieu
valod, latgalieu dzejnieki ir biei viesi gan skols, gan augstskol.
Politisk lmen tiek virzts jautjums par latgalieu valodu k reionlo
valodu.
Autore izvirzja hipotzi, ka Latgales pilstu tristiem un
apmekltjiem vartu bt interesanta latgalieu kultra, valoda,
tradcijas. Lai prbaudtu o hipotzi, 2011.g. beigs un 2012.g. skum
Rzeknes pilst tika veikts ptjums ar mri uzzint Rzeknes viesu
apmekltju un tristu attieksmi pret Rzeknes pilstas pievilcbu.
Par kritrijiem tika izvlti latgalieu identittes elementi: valoda,
tradcijas, viesmlba atkarb no respondentu vecuma un no
apmekljuma mra. Respondenti tika izvlti no dadiem Latvijas
plnoanas reioniem. Vienojoais faktors vii visi bija Rzeknes
pilstas viesi apmekltji vai tristi. Respondentu skaits 78. Kopas
izvles lielums atbilst pilotptjumam. Nkotn augstk mint projekta

ietvaros paredzts veikt plaku ptjumu, aptverot plaku respondentu
kopu, ietverot ar starptautiskos tristus.

1.attls. Latgalieu valodas lietoanas (latgvalliet) pievilcba tristu un viesu
skatjum atkarb no viu vecuma (count skaits).
Avots: autores veikts aptaujas dati (14.).

Latgalieu valodas lietojums pilst (1. att.) nav btisks gados
jaunkiem tristiem, toties vidj grup vecum no 2545 gadiem
ieguva augstu vrtjumu. Gados veckie pilstas apmekltji latgalieu
valodas lietoanu nevrt k pau pievilcbu Latgales pilst.

2.attls. Latgalieu tradciju (latgtradic) pievilcba tristu un viesu skatjum
atkarb no tristu vecuma (count skaits).

Latgalieu tradciju pievilcbu (2. att.) k vidju un augstu vrt
43 % no gados jaunkiem tristiem. Vecuma grup pc 25 gadiem ts
ieguva visaugstko vrtjumu. Ttad latgalieu tradcijas pilstas trisma
industrij vartu izmantot k pau pievilcbu.

3.attls. Latgalieu viesmlbas pievilcba tristu un viesu skatjum atkarb no
tristu vecuma (count skaits).

Latgalieu viesmlba pilst (3. att.) viss vecuma grups novrtta
visaugstk. Ttad t ir btiska pilstas pievilcba.

4.attls. Latgalieu viesmlbas pievilcba tristu un pilstas viesu skatjum
atkarb no tristu mtnes reiona (count skaits).


Latgalieu viesmlbu Rzeknes pilst (4. att.) visu Latvijas reionu
tristi novrtja ar augstko atzmi. Ttad t ir btiska pilstas pievilcba.

5.attls. Latgalieu tradcijas (latgtradic)pievilcba tristu un viesu skatjum
Avots: autores veikts aptaujas dati (14.) .

Visu Latvijas reionu tristi, kuri iepazins ar latgalieu tradcijm
ceojuma laik (5. att.), ts augstu novrtja. Tikai pa Latgal tm bija
vidjs vrtjums.

6.attls. Latgalieu valodas (latgvalliet) pievilcba tristu un viesu skatjum


Aptaujas dati liecina, ka latgalieu valodas lietoana pilst (6. att.)
nav btiska pilstas pievilcba.

7.attls. Latgalieu valodas (latgvalliet) pievilcba tristu un pilstas viesu
skatjum atkarb no apmekljuma mra veikt kultrvsturisko objektu
apskati (count skaits).
Avots: autores veikts aptaujas dati (14.)

Aptaujas anket k viens no apmekljuma mriem tika uzrdta
kultrvsturisko objektu apskate. Tristi, kas ieraduies Rzekn
apskatt kultrvsturiskos objektus, latgalieu valodu prsvar
neizmantoja. Latgalieu valodas pievilcbu augstu vrtja tikai 21 %
respondentu, tikpat daudz 21 % to novrtja k nebtisku. 27% tristu,
kas bija ieraduies pilst ar citu mri, latgalieu tradcijas novrtja
augsti vai nebtiski, vidji augstu pievilcbu saskatja 22% (7. att.).
56% tristu, kas ieraduies Rzekn apskatt kultrvsturiskos
objektus, latgalieu viesmlbu novrtja augstu, 28% vidji. Tristi, kas
ieraduies pilst ar citu mri, latgalieu viesmlbu novrtja k augstu
vai vidji augstu pievilcbu (8. att.).


8.attls. Latgalieu viesmlbas pievilcba tristu un pilstas viesu skatjum
atkarb no apmekljuma mra veikt kultrvsturisko objektu apskati
(count skaits).

9.attls. Latgalieu tradciju (latgtradic) pievilcba tristu un pilstas viesu
skatjum atkarb no apmekljuma mra veikt kultrvsturisko objektu
apskati (count skaits).

31% tristu, kas ieraduies Rzekn apskatt kultrvsturiskos
objektus, latgalieu tradcijas novrtja augstu, 25% ts neizmantoja.

Tristi, kas ieraduies pilst ar citu mri, latgalieu tradcijas novrtja
k augstu vai vidji augstu pievilcbu (9. att.).
1. Pilstu pievilcbu var pavairot, izmantojot lingvokultras
elementus.
2. Attstot Rzeknes pilstas kultras trisma mrketinga attstbas
stratiju, jliek akcents uz latgalieu viesmlbu un latgalieu
tautas tradciju izmantoanu, kas ir btiska pilstas pievilcba.
3. Latgalieu valodas izmantoana k lingvokulturlais aspekts vartu
bt pievilcgs tristiem, izmantojot to latgalisko tradciju
popularizanas paskumos, izklaides paskumos. Seviu ievrbu
vajadztu pievrst dziesmu izpildjumam latgalieu valod dados
trisma paskumos, k ar viets, ko apmekl tristi.
1. Andries,L.,A., Richards,G. (2006). Attractiveness of cultural activities in
European cities: A latent class approach. Barcelona: Tourism Research and
Marketing
2. Berg,L., Meer,J., Otgar,A.,H.(1999). The Attractive city. Rotterdam: European
Institute for Comparative Urban research (EURICUR), Erasmus University
Rotterdam.
3. Braun,E. (2008). City marketing: Towards to an integrated Approach. Erasmus
School of Economics, Erasmus University Rotterdam
4. Florida, R.L. (1995). Toward the learning region/Futures.The journal of
Forecasting and Planning, p.2736.
5. Florida, R. L. (2005). Cities and the creative class. New York: Routledge.
6. Glaeser,E. (2001) Consumer City. Washington D.C.: Journal ofEconomic
Geography, No.1. p.2750.
7. Kotler,P. (1993). Marketing Places: Attracting Investment, Industry and Tourism
to Cities, States and nations. Free Press
8. Kunzman,K.,R. (2005) Creativity in Planning: a Fuzzy Concept? disP 162
3/2005. p.9.13.
9. Landry,Ch. (2003). The Creative City: A Toolkit for Urban Innovators. ondon:
Earthscan.
10. Porter,M. (1998) Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior
Performance. Free Press.
11. Silinevia,I. (2010) The attractiveness of cities in the frame of regional
development. Journal of Social Sciences: Human resources Klaipeda University.
Social Science faculty the main factor of regional development..No.3, 7480.
ISSN 20295103
12. Baltic Sea Region (BSR) Programme. Priority 4. Promoting attractive and
competitive cities and regions
13. The most attractive cities of the world for living.
http://www.tripspirit.com/310: The most attractive cities of the
world for living 4/19/2010.

14. ESF projekta Nr.2009/0227/1DP/1.1.1.2.0/09/APIA/VIAA/071 Teritorils
identittes lingvokultoroloiskie un socilekonomiskie aspekti Latgales
reiona attstb datu bze.
15. www.rezekne.lv
Summary
Regional development problems are topical problems in all the countries
around the world. The polycentric development of cities and their surroundings is the
main way for solution of this problem. Attractiveness of cities has a direct correlation
to their competitiveness. Attractiveness of cities depends on needs of cities
consumers: city dwellers, tourists, and business people. Taking into account that
tourism is one of the development directions related to all the towns in Latgale
region, the object of this article is research of the attractiveness of towns from the
tourists point of view.
The main question of this research is Are the regionals linguocultural
aspects capable to develop a unique tourism product and increase attractiveness of a
city?
Hypothesis of this research: the linguocultural aspects are capable to develop a
unique tourism product and increase attractiveness of a city from the tourists point
of view.
The research is aimed at exploration of the regional linguocultural aspects in
attractiveness of a city from the tourists point of view by using the city of Rezekne as
an illustration.
The following tasks are accomplished:
to explore the theoretical aspects of attractiveness of cities from the point
of view of toplevel economists;
to describe Rezekne as polycentric city in the Latgale region.;
to perform the survey of Rezeknes tourists with aim to determine an
impact of linguocultural aspects on attractiveness of the city;
to work up the conclusions and proposals for development of Rezeknes
attractiveness in linguocultural aspects.
Tourists from Zemgale, Kurzeme, Vidzeme and Latgale regions have been
surveyed in Rezekne. The aim of this survey was to analyse, how regional
linguocultural aspects have an impact on tourists perception related to attractiveness
of Rezekne. Number of respondents 78. Research period 2011 to 2012.
Place of research Rezekne city, Latgale region.
The main conclusions and proposals:
For promotion of attractiveness of Rezekne city from the tourists point of
view it is necessary to develop cultures tourism development programme
in Rezekne taking into account the interests of tourists in local
linguocultural aspects.
For promotion of Rezekne as the tourist destination centre to ensure
research with the aim to discover attractiveness in unique local culture.
The research was supported by the European Social Fund project Social and
Economic and Linguocultural Aspects of Territorial Identity in the development of the
Latgale region (Nr.2009/0227/1DP/1.1.1.2.0/ 09/APIA/VIAA/071)

TEKSTILNOZARES ATTSTBAS INOVATVI
RISINJUMI
INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS IN TEXTILE DEVELOPMENT
Ingrda AHTA
Mg. sc. ing., ptniece, Rgas Tehnisk universitte
Tlrunis: +371 67089822, epasts: ingrida.sahta@rtu.lv
Rga, Latvija
Ilze BALTIA
Dr.sc.ing., asoc.prof., Rgas Tehnisk universitte
Tlrunis: +371 67089822, epasts: ilze.baltina@rtu.lv
Rga, Latvija
Madara PCE
Mg. sc. ing., aprbu dizainere uzmum Eis
Epasts: mdr7@inbox.lv
Rga, Latvija

Abstract. Currently textiles are mainly produced in Asian countries. In Europe during
the last years the textile production is sharply reduced. For the most part there are
working those companies that have found a specific niche or flocked to the production of
technical textile. Consequently, in Latvia the companies in this sector should also think
about their products that could be able to compete on the open market. Textile with
integrated electrical systems is a research area that combines innovations both in
textile sector and electronics, as well as electrical engineering etc. The integration of
Light emitting diodes in the textile products allows assigning of additional functions,
such as the visibility on the street, or may serve as a fashion design. The paper provides
analysis for applications of the opportunities of smart textile, the costs of production
and materials, and the potential problems in the production process, as well as the
possible ecological problems by manufacture, wear and recycling are also discussed.
Some practical textile solutions with integrated electrical systems and LEDs are also
offered.
Keywords: Smart textiles, smart clothes, textile industry, ecology.

Ievads
Tradicionlajai tekstiliju, aprbu un apavu raoanai prceoties
uz kontinenta zijas dau, kur tekstillielvalsts na ir ar lielk aprbu
eksporttja pasaul (14.), rodas nepiecieamba pc jauniem
risinjumiem un jaunas raoanas stratijas izveides Eirop un jo pai
Latvij. To savos ziojumos uzsver ar Eiropas Ekonomikas un socilo
lietu komiteja, pai nordot uz netradicionl sektora attstbas
nozmbu (augstu tehnoloiju tehniski tekstilizstrdjumi) (14.).

Eirop efektvi strd tie uzmumi, kas atradui kdu specifisku
niu vai prorientjuies uz tehnisko tekstiliju raoanu un inovcijm.
Tekstilizstrdjumi ar integrtm elektrovadom sistmm ir
ptniecbas joma, kas apvieno inovcijas gan tekstilnozar, gan ar
elektronik un elektrotehnik, un paver plau ptniecbas un raoanas
iespju lauku tekstilnozar. T k joma ir jauna un mazapgta, ir
nepiecieams analizt gan viedtekstiliju potencils tirgus un
pielietojuma iespjas, raoanas un materilu izmaksas, un iespjams
problmas raoanas proces, tpat ar jparedz dabas un apkrtjs
vides piesrojums ekspluatcijas proces un pc t, un iespjamie
draudi cilvka un citu dzvo btu veselbai.
Rakst ietvert ptjuma mris izptt tekstilnozares iespjas
Latvij pievrsties jaunu jomu apganai. Ptjuma uzdevumi:
Analizt inovciju aktualitti tekstilnozar Eiropas valsts;
Izvrtt iespjamos raoanas problmlaukus;
Apskatt jaunas idejas un risinjumus tekstiliju inovcijs;
Analizt ekoloiskos tekstilinovciju aspektus.
Rakst veikts teortisks (analtiskais) ptjums, ilustrts ar
praktiskiem piemriem.
Tekstilnozares attstbas stratija Eiropas kontekst
Pc Eiropas klasteru novroanas centra datiem (5.) un 2008.g.
Eiropas Ekonomikas un socilo lietu komitejas ziojuma par Tekstiliju,
aprbu un apavu nozaru nkotni Eirop (17.,14.18.) Latvijai kopum
pieirta maznozmga vieta nozares specializcij: Tekstila, aprba un
apavu rpniecba koncentrta piecs visapdzvotkajs Eiropas
Savienbas valsts, un to uzmumi atbild par vairk k trs ceturtdam
no visas Eiropas produkcijas aj nozar. Ar pievienot vrtba
koncentrta ajs valsts, no kurm Itlija ir vissvargk, tai seko
Apvienot Karaliste, Francija, Vcija un mazk apjom ar Spnija. No
mazajm valstm Portugle, Beija un Grieija ir pai nozmgas
pievienots vrtbas zi. Beija ir oti aktva tehnisko un gudro
tekstilizstrdjumu jom. Jaunajs dalbvalsts nozare pai svarga ir
Polij, Igaunij un Lietuv, bet kandidtvalsts Turcij, Rumnij un
Bulgrij. (14.; 17.).
Eiropa ir spjusi prvrst kapitl ts aktvus, pateicoties nelieliem
raoanas apjomiem, radoiem modes namiem, tra pieprasjuma
apmierinanai, trai raoanai un piegdes laikiem. K galvenie Eiropas
tekstilnozares izaugsmes un tirgus stabilittes faktori tiek minti
jauninjumi raoanas procesos un materilos, inovatvas tehnoloijas
(k nanotehnoloijas un jauna veida iedras), kas savukrt nosaka
augstu konkurtspju un papildu tirdzniecbas iespjas. Tpat ar tiek

nordts uz nepiecieambu pau uzmanbu pievrst mazajiem un
mikrouzmumiem (14.).
Kopum Eiropas stratiju tekstilrpniecbas stabilittes
nodroinanai un attstbai var iedalt sekojoos virzienos:
inovatvu raoanas tehnoloiju attstba,
jauna veida tekstilpreu jeb viedtekstiliju izgatavoana,
tehnisko tekstiliju attstba un jauna veida pielietojuma
ptjumi,
atbalsts mikro, mazajiem un vidjiem uzmumiem,
saskaota sadarbba starp ES dalbvalstm un Eiropas Komisiju,
atbalsts jaunajiem zintniekiem un progresvu ptjumu
virzieniem (14.; 17.).
Pretji Eiropas attstbas koncepcijai, kas balstta uz inovcijm un
netradicionlo tekstiljomu attstbu, Latvijas tekstilrpniecbas stratija
ietver dabgo tekstiliedru raoanas un apstrdes priorittes: smalks
kokvilnas, vilnas un pusvilnas, tpat ar tradicionlo liniedru un
atbilstoi drnu raoanu, ievieot jaunks raoanas un apstrdes
tehnoloijas un palielinot raoanas apjomus; rpniecisk dizaina iespju
uzlaboanu un jaunko das pirmapstrdes tehnoloiju ievieanu (15.).
Tiek veikti ptjumi ar Latvijai netradicionlu iedru apganai, k
piemram, kaepju audzana un to iedru raoana Latvij, kas, d
kaepju universlajm pabm un pla pielietojuma iespjm, vartu
bt viens no perspektvkajiem risinjumiem tekstilnozares attstbai,
tpat ar ntru kultivanas, to pabu novrtanas un pielietojuma
iespjas. Tomr, inovciju zi, vrtjot uzmjdarbbu kopum, Latvija
ir pdj viet Eiropas valstu starp. Pc 2008.g. Eiropas Komisijas
inovciju statistikas inovatvu uzmumu patsvars Latvij sastda ~
24,3 %, kas ir zemkais no dalbvalstm, kur pretim Vcij tas sastda
79,9 %, rij, Austrij, Igaunij ~ 60% un pat Lietuv ~ 30% (11.).
Tekstiliju inovciju un attstbas tendences
Tehnisks un rpniecisks tekstilijas ir attiecinmas k uz
tekstilprecm, t ar to pielietojuma veidu un pilda paas funkcijas.
Tehnisks tekstilijas prstv oti plau produktu klstu, k piemram,
augstas stiprbas pavedieni vai prkljumi drnm nanodaiu lmen,
kas paredztas elektromagntisk lauka ekrananai vai aizsardzbai
pret UV stariem, u.tml.
Tehnisk tekstila nozare ir piedzvojusi iespaidgu attstbas
kpumu pdjo gadu laik. Preu patri strauji pieauga vis pasaul jau
laika posm no 2000. ldz 2005.g. par apmram 20 % (16.), un turpina
pieaugt. Svargkie patrtji ir manu un transporta nozare, mbeu
raotji, medicnas joma, aprbu raotji un bvniecbas nozare. emot

vr to, ka jaunu materilu, procesu un produktu inovcijas ir paa
nepiecieamba aj apaknozar, izdevumi par ptniecbu un attstbu ir
augstki nek tradicionlo tekstiliju jom (sasniedzot 810 % no
apgrozjuma, saldzinjumam vidji rpniecb 35 %) (16.).
Veiktspjas prasbas un tehnisk specifikcija nosaka preces pankumus
tirg. Parasti tehnisko tekstiliju izgatavoan tiek izveidota ciea saikne
starp raotju un patrtju, lai nodrointu lietotja vajadzbm
pielgotus, risinjumus.
Viedtekstilijas ir tehnisko tekstiliju apaknozarei pakrtota,
aurkas nozmes joma. Smart textile viedtekstilijas vai smart
clothing viedaprbs ir jdzieni, kas plai tiek lietoti angu un vcu
valod, un raksturo tekstilizstrdjumus, kas spj uztvert rja faktora
iedarbbu, veidot atbildes reakciju uz kdu rju kairinjumu vai tam
pielgoties, integrjot tekstilmaterila struktr jaunas funkcijas (10.; 3.).
Angu valodas vrdam smart latvieu valod nav viena konkrta,
atbilstoa jdziena, tas raksturo gan gargs un intelektuls pabas
gudrs, vieds, atjautgs, viltgs gan ar vizulu novrtjumu elegants,
smalks, izskatgs. o pabu kopums tad ar attiecinms uz jaun veida
tekstilizstrdjumiem, kuru uzdevums ir gan uzrdt nosactas
intelientas spjas, gan ar tekstilizstrdjumam atbilstou dizaina
eleganci. Viedtekstiliju inteliences pakpes, respektvi, to spju reat
uz rju kairinjumu var iedalt:
pasv (piemram, drn integrtas optisks iedras un
elektrovadoi pavedieni, kas bez papildus iedarbbas,
piemram, strvas plsmas, nekdas noteiktas funkcijas
neveic),
aktv (piemram, agregtstvokli mainoas vielas, integrtas
tekstildrn; drnas ar integrtiem sensoriem u.tml., kas rea
uz klimata izmaim vai kdiem fizikliem faktoriem, mainot
savas pabas vai parametrus),
pai jeb ultra aktv (piemram, spj saglabt augsta aprba
komforta lmeni, ekstrmi mainoties apkrtjs vides
apstkiem, vai drnas struktr ietver elektroniskas vienbas,
kas darbojas ldzgi k mkslgais intelekts, aj gadjum
tekstilija btb spj nosacti izvrtt situciju un atbilstoi
maint kdus savus parametrus vai pabas) (12.).
Viedaprbu raoana un izstrdjumu attstba ir pakauta ne tikai
aprbu un tekstiltehnoloiju inovcijm, bet ar ciei saistta ar citm
zintu, tehnoloiju un raoanas jomm, attiecgi ar ar to attstbu.
Lielkoties izstrdjumu pamatkomponentes vl ir attstbas un ptjumu
stadij. Kopum viedtekstilijas, atbilstoi to funkcijm, pc attstbas
pakpes var sakrtot saska ar 1. attlu (4.; 1.).

Viedtekstilijas

Viedtekstilijas Pilnveidotas tekstilijas Viedtekstilijas
gatavas raoanai gatavas raoanai attstbas stadij

Izstrdjumi ar Smaru izplatana un Izstrdjumi no
optimiztm smaku ierobeoana jauna veida
pabm: dens un izejvielm
vju atgrdoi; gaisu
un tvaiku caurlaidgi Uzlabots valkanas
Izstrdjumi ar
komforts un
mikroklimats elektroniskm
papildus funkcijm
Izstrdjumi ar
uzlabotu izturbu:
Atstarojoas drnas
krsnoturba;
planas, karstum un
aukstumizturgi
Aizsardzba pret UV
starojumu

Aizsardzba pret

elektromagntisko
starojumu

Individuli reguljams

mikroklimats

Termoregulatvas

drnas ar
agregatstvokli mainou

vielu

1. attls. Viedtekstiliju iedaljums pc to attstbas stadijas (4.)

Visplako zintnisko ptjumu klstu un inovatvu raojumu
iespjas nkotn paver izstrdjumi no jauna veida izejvielm: iet, du
produktu izstrdana ir bezgalg attstb esos process, kas saistts
gan ar jaunkajiem mijas sasniegumiem, gan ar ar sen zinmu, dab
esou izejvielu jauna veida pielietojumu atklsmi. Ar informcijas

tehnoloijm un arvien straujk pieaugoiem, jauniem atkljumiem
elektronik ciei saisttie tekstilizstrdjumi ar integrtm elektroniskm
papildus funkcijm ar ir nozmgs potencils tekstilnozares attstb. Lai
gan tiek aktvi veikti ptjumi minto viedtekstiliju izgatavoan, tomr
komercili pieejami ir tikai nedaudzi, vairk uz aprbu valktja
rtbm (piemram, jaka ar drn integrtu iPod taustiu paneli (2.att.)
a), komfortu (2.att. b apakvea ar sildou drn integrtu joslu) un
aizsardzbu orientti produkti (3.att. c ugunsdzsju specaprbs ar
integrtiem termistoriem un gaismas diodm, kas brdina par
paaugstintu, dzvbai bstamu karstumu).

a (9.) b (7.) c (13.)

2. attls. Komercili pieejamie viedaprbi ar integrtu elektroniku

Tekstiliju ar elektroniskm papildus funkcijm pielietojuma

iespjas
Tekstilijas ar integrtm elektriskm un elektroniskm sistmm
obrd prstv vienas no aktulkajm tehnoloiju attstbas tendencm
nozar. s starpnozares mris prveidot un pielgot elektroniskas un
elektrotehniskas iekrtas valkanai aprb, lietoanai mjas tekstil,
tehniskaj vai medicnas tekstil. Vislielks prmaias elektroniku/
elektrotehnikas adaptvajos risinjumos prasa viedaprba izgatavoana,
jo aprbam tiek izvirztas prasbas, kas nosaka valktja rtbu dads
dzves situcijs, kur elektrotehniskie elementi, paralli savam mrim
kalpot cilvkam: papildint vai regult kdas aprba funkcijas
nedrksttu ierobeot aprbu drnu tradicionls funkcijas ar savm, no
tekstilmaterila tik atirgajm pabm: izmru; stvumu; svaru; gaisa,
tvaika un antropotoksnu necaurlaidbas d (3.).
Viedtekstiliju ar elektroniskm papildus funkcijm preu
pielietojums ir oti plas un daudzpusgs. Vcij veikts ptjums par
viedaprbu pielietojuma iespjm (1.) ir vis izdalt piecus pielietojuma

laukus un 4 pielietojuma nozares, kas savstarpji kombinjas matric
(1. tab.).
1. tabula
Viedaprbu pielietojuma lauki un nozares (1)

Lauks Profesija/ Sports un Brni un Veselbas Mj
Nozare darbs brvais laiks jauniei aizsardzba saimniecba
Veselba x x x x
Komunikcija x x x x x
Droba x x x
Izklaide x x

Pielietojuma lauki veido izvles pamatu atbilstom pielietojuma
nozarm, kuras nosaka viedaprbu preu mri. Piemram, veselbas
nozare nodarbojas ar tehnoloijm un/vai tekstildrnm, kuras veicina
vai uzrauga cilvka veselbu. Turpretim komunikciju nozare, paralli
informcijas prraidanai, komunikcijai un informcijas apstrdei, var
aprakstt ar vietas atraanos. Drobas nozare saistta ar materiliem,
kas kalpo valktja aizsardzbai, savukrt izklaides joma, likumsakargi,
kalpo valktja izklaidei. ds iedaljums gan var izraist neizpratni: kd
ptnieki ir uzskatjui, ka mjsaimniecb nepiecieama tikai
komunikcija vai informcijas prraide, un darba vid nav nepiecieama
droba, emot vr, specifiskus, pat dzvbai bstamus darba apstkus,
piemram, ugunsdzsjiem?
Funkcionlo btbu aptveroks un prliecinoks iet cits,
literatr atrodams, viedaprbu preu iedaljums sekojos joms (4.):
Veselba/komforts aprbs, kas rpjas par cilvka labsajtu
un aizsarg pret slimbm vai dziedina;
Aizsardzba/droba aprbs, kas paaugstina indivda drobu
un aizsardzbu;
Informcija/komunikcija aprbs, kas ir spjgs komunict
vai paldz sniegt kdu informciju;
Mode/sports aprbs, kas vizuli padara interesantku modes
dizainu vai veic izklaides funkcijas ikdien, brvaj laik vai
sport;
Profesija, sadarbba/kontrole aprbs, kas paldz darba vid
vai apkalpojo sfr, padarot to rtku un paverot plakas
darba iespjas.
Ilustrcijai dai Rgas Tehniskaj universitt izgatavoti
tekstilizstrdjumu prototipi ar iestrdtm elektroniskm vai
elektrovadom sistmm, kur komunikcijai ar izstrdjuma panieku
vai apkrtni kalpo diodes.

Drobu un velobraucja pamanmbu uz ielas nodroina 3.att.
redzam josta, kur ir iestrdta elektrovadoa sistma ar sensoru, kas
rea uz truma izmaim strauju bremzanu mainot diou
mirgoanas ritmu. Tpat ar 4.att. vrojams piemrs cilvka rpm par
savu etrkjaino draugu drobu diennakts tumaj laik sua mteltis
ar diodm, kas kop ar kabats ievietoto enerijas avotu ir pievienojamas
un noemamas.

3. attls. Viedtekstilija velobraucja josta
(autors: Marianna Grecka, 2011)

4. attls. Sua mteltis ar diodm
(autors: Kristne Brzia, 2011)

Mode un dizains veids, kas var paldzt padart cilvku
interesantku un likt apkrtjiem sev pievrst uzmanbu. du
izstrdjumu pamatuzdevums gan nav veikt saretas interaktvas
funkcijas, bet pievrst vizulu uzmanbu un radt esttisku baudjumu.
5.att. redzama kleita ar trpa priekda integrtm 20 diodm; sistma
iesldzama, izmantojot kabat integrtu furnitras spiedpogu. Savukrt
6.att. pardts trpa aksesurs ar acs form izvietotm diodm, kas kalpo
gan vizula efekta radanai, gan drobai uz ielas diennakts tumaj
laik; elektrisk de iesldzas, somu aizdarot ar furnitru magntu.


5. attls. Kleita ar dekoratvu gaismas efektu
(autors: Sanita Leitne, 2011)

6. attls. Dekoratva soma ar diodm
(autors: Jevgnija Burilova, 2010)

Komunikciju un informciju prstv rbs ar trp integrtu,
elektrovadoo sistmu un diou displeju, kas attlo 9 latvju rakstu zmes
(displejs novietots apkakl (7.att.)). Trpa funkcija izpauas spj
informt apkrtjos par piederbu pie kdas grupas: etnisks, intereu
u.tml. vai ar var kalpot k dizaina elements. ds izstrdjums pau
veidu k apvienot tautas kultras vrtbas ar inovatviem zintnes
sasniegumiem. Displejs ir programmjams, ldz ar to var veikt ar cita
veida informjou funkciju, piemram, reklamt prezmes, rdt raksttu
informciju vai ar, sistmai pievienojot temperatras sensoru, displejs
var informt par gaisa temperatru. Tomr trpa unikalitte slpjas
paas sistmas iestrd: lai pievienotu drnai elektrovadoo sistmu, ir
izmantotas tikai tekstiltehnoloijas: ana (sistma savienota ar
elektrovadoiem pavedieniem) un furnitras iestrde; nav izmantoti
elektrbas vadi un nav veikta detau savienoana ar lodanas paldzbu.
Rakstu veidu prslganai kalpo pilnb no tekstilmaterila izgatavots

sldzis, kas integrts kabatas atver un darbinms, saspieot kabatas
malu. da viedtekstilijas izgatavoana rpnieciski samazintu operciju
dadbu (nav nepiecieama lodanas un vadu ievietoanas opercija),
ldz ar to ar raoanas izmaksas.

7. attls. Trps ar integrtu elektrovadou sistmu un diou displeju
(autors: Madara Pce, 2012)

Izgatavoana un materilu izmaksas
obrd pasaul ir maz uzmumu, kas rao komercili pieejamas
viedtekstilijas ar integrtu elektroniku. Lielk daa du izstrdjumu
ieceres vl ir ptjumu stadij, jo elektronikas un drnas savienoana un
piemroana patrtja rtbm un lietoanas kvalittes prasbm ir
problemtiska, bet raoana vartu notikt vienas nozares ietvaros
(visticamk tekstilnozares).

Tirg vairk sastopamas ir tekstilpreces, kas veic specifiskas
funkcijas, piemram, silda, dzes ar elektriskiem elementiem vai
komunic ar mobil telefona vai globls pozicionanas sistmas
paldzbu, bet elektronikas vai elektrisks sistmas drn nav integrtas
un nav pielgotas drnas pabm. aj gadjum tekstilizstrdjuma un
elektrisks sistmas izgatavoanas process veicams atsevii, katras
nozares raotns un, saldzinjum ar raoanu vienas nozares ietvaros,
vartu sadrdzint raoanas izmaksas.
Galvenie ekonomiskie rdtji, kas attiecinmi uz viedtekstiliju ar
integrtu elektroniku raoanu, ir sekojoi: darba izmaksas (papildu
specifiskas opercijas, iespjams ar jaunas iekrtas) un materilu
patri. Materilu patriu viedaprbu izgatavoan palielina
elektronisks sistmas elementu izmaksas. emot vr, ka obrd
elektronika noveco arvien straujk, t kst arvien ltka.
Materilu izmaksas, protams, ir atkargas no materila veida un
sastva. Piemram, elektrovadou pavedienu sastv tiek izmantoti
metli ar augstu elektrisko vadtspju, kas lielkoties ir drgmetli. 8.att.
redzama elektrovadou pavedienu mazumtirdzniecbas cenu saistba ar
pavedienu elektrovadtspju. Ptjum izmantoti 2 veidu nersjo
trauda multifilamentrie pavedieni, un divu dadu firmu (8.att.
apzmts ar A un B) izgatavoti 3 veidu poliamda multifilamentrie
pavedieni ar sudraba prkljumu. Pavedieni atiras pc to sastva,
liner blvuma (110 un 235 dtex (g/10000 m) ar sudrabu prklti
poliamda pavedieni un 2400 un 5000 dtex trauda filamentrim
pavedieni) un eterjuma krtm. K redzams, trauda
multifilamentrais pavediens ar linero blvumu 5000 dtex ir gan ar
viszemko elektrisko pretestbu, gan ar visltkais, tomr, novrtjot t
iestrdanas iespjas drn anas vai adanas proces, novrojami
trkumi: pavediens ir prk neelastgs un negatvi ietekm drnas
pabas. Izteikta atirba novrojama ar divu dadu uzmumu raoto
poliamda multifilamentro pavedienu ar sudraba prkljumu cenu
atirbs: ar viendu linero blvumu 235 dtex (8. att. A 235dtex/f34
PA+Ag un B 235 dtex/f34x4 PA+Ag; 34 filamenti katr pavedien;
atirba: B pavediens ir etrkrtgi eterts) viena uzmuma
izstrdjums atiras no otra ne tikai ar divas reizes lielku elektrisko
pretestbu, bet ar ar turpat 5 reizes zemku cenu. Ldzga saistba
novrojama ar pc parametriem absolti viendiem A un B 110/f34x2
pavedieniem un A un B 110/f34.

8. attls. Elektrovadou pavedienu mazumtirdzniecbas cenas
(raotju firmu piedvjums, 2011. gads (18.; 19.; 10.)) un pavedienu
elektrisk pretestba (RTU veikti mrjumi, 2011. gads (3.))

T k tekstilij integrtu elektronisko sistmu izgatavoan ir
svarga pc iespjas labka elektrovadtspja, tad tomr materila ltums
nav piemrojams k iziroais izvles faktors. Piemram, pavediens A
110/f34x2 ir viengais no elektrovadoo pavedienu veidiem, kas ir
piemrots anai k ujmanas adatas diegs, ldz ar to pielietojams gan
izan, gan an, prjie pavedieni lietojami tikai k kua diegi. Lai
gan kopum poliamda multifilamentrie pavedieni ar sudraba
prkljumu ir drgki, tomr tie lieliski pilda tekstildrnas funkcijas un
d elastguma/lokanbas ir piemroti dadm tekstiltehnoloijm.
di drn integrjami elementi, protams, paaugstina ar gala
produkta cenu (kaut gan, elektriskaj d aprbos attlumi ir nelieli,
ldz ar to ar materilu patri neliels). Tomr jatzm, ka
viedtekstilijas preces cenai nevajadztu prsniegt tekstiliztrdjuma un
elektronikas cenu (4.). Vcij veikt aprbu industrijas ptjum 2001.g.
(1.) lielk daa aptaujto atbalstjusi 1030% uzcenojumu aprbam ar
papildus funkcijm, tikai neliela daa pievusi 50% uzcenojumu.
Jatzm, ka aptauja attiecinta uz viedtekstilijm, to plak nozm.
Viedtekstilijas ekoloiskaj aspekt
Elektronisko izstrdjumu raoanas ekoloijas pozitvais aspekts
iezmjas pc iespjas mazk aprbu funkcionalittes ierobeoan. Jo
kompaktkas un vieglkas ir elektronikas sastvdaas, jo ts rtk
ievietot tekstilizstrdjum. Ldz ar to samazins ar materila
izlietojums uz produkta vienbu.
Elektroniku tuvums pie ermea viedtekstilij vartu kalpot par
pamatu jautjumam par kaitgo vielu ierobeoanu elektrotehnikas
raoan. Lai gan obrd valkjams elektronikas tiek t izgatavotas, lai
elektronisks sastvdaas tiktu iekapsulotas noslgtas pret mitrumu

ts padarot bioloiski nesniedzamas, tomr iespjam kapsulas dilana
un aizsargfunkcijas kvalittes zuana valkanas proces vartu ietekmt
nekaitgu elektroieru izgatavoanas problmas risinanu ne tikai
viedtekstiliju raoan, bet jau elektroieru izgatavoanas skumposm
(8.).
Viedtekstiliju pielietoanas fz izdalmas trs problmdimensijas:
1) resursu izlietojums,
2) cilvka ekoloija,
3) hidroekoloija (8.).
Atkarb no t, vai valkjams elektronikas ir tikuas izmantotas k
papildinjums vai aizvietotjs tradicionlajam tekstilam, tiek ietekmts
ar izmantot materila daudzums integrto elektrisko/elektronisko
detau izgatavoanai, to palielinot vai samazinot. Detau kvantitatva
samazinana vartu tikt veikta, ja patrtjs tik intensvi ekspluat
valkjamo elektroniku, ka papildus risinjumi btu lieki. Neskatoties uz
tieksmi samazint materila daudzuma izlietojumu uz produkta vienbu,
tomr kopum valkjams elektronikas attstba paralli virzs uz
elektrisko sistmu, it pai komunikciju elektronikas masveida patria
pieaugumu.
Ir veikti daudzi ptjumi par elektromagntisk lauka ietekmi uz
cilvku veselbu, un, lai gan rezultti ir pretrungi, dai eksperti ir
prliecinti, ka draudi ir reli. Piemram, ASV Vides aizsardzbas
aentra ir nordjusi uz elektromagntisk lauka bstambu dzvm
btnm (6.). Ldz ar to netiek izslgts elektrosmoga izraistu veselbas
problmu risks, un drobas princips liek bt uzmangiem ar
elektrosmoga radanu ermenim tuvos rajonos. Attiecgi, plnojot
izstrdjumu, btu jparedz taj ievietot elektromagntiskos vius
ekranjou drnu, kas taj pat laik neierobeotu sistmas raidanas
uztveranas funkciju. Bez tam ir jparedz ar elektrosmoga ietekme uz
aprba valktja apkrtni.
Ja viedtekstila elektroniku sastvdaas satur den stoas
kaitgs vielas un kapsulas nenodroina nepiecieamo aizsardzbu,
izstrdjuma tranas laik tas var izraist papildus dens piesroanu
ar kaitgajm vielm. Pie kam, jem vr, ka mazganas proces
iespjama elektrisks sistmas detau izjukana un nonkana
kanalizcij, td veid ilglaicgi uzkavjoties kontakt ar dens
cirkulcijas plsmu. Lai no das problmas izvairtos, viedtekstiliju
raotjiem btu vlams katram izstrdjumam pievienot pamcbas
instrukciju (8.).
Citu svargu problmdimensiju viedtekstilijas paredz
pcekspluatcijas fz, radot problmas ar atkritumu savkanu un
prstrdi. Atirb no parastiem aprbiem, kurus var nodot labdarbai,

viedtekstilijas ar integrtm elektronikm nedrksttu nodot labdarbai
un humnajai paldzbai, jo integrts elektronikas detaas tiktu
uzskattas par bstamiem atkritumiem, kurus ir aizliegts eksportt (2.).
Profesors Andreass Klers sav ptjum par nolietotu
viedtekstiliju prstrdi ir izvirzjis vairkus ieteikumus, kas paldztu
samazint viedtekstiliju atkritumu problmu, tajos iekaujot gan raotju,
gan patrtju izgltoanu, gan ar prstrdes plsmas prraudzanu un
plnoanu, piemram:
vides aizsardzbas/atkritumu apsaimniekoanas politikas un
inovciju politikas sadarbbas uzlaboanu,
atkritumu prstrdes politikas iekauanu inovciju proces,
informcijas snieganu viedtekstiliju izgudrotjiem par
esoajm elektronisko atkritumu prstrdes iespjm,
viedtekstiliju atkritumu pieauguma uzraudzanu, piemrotu
savkanas, prstrdes un uzglabanas shmu izstrdanu,
inovciju veicinanu atkritumu prstrdes sektor,
patrtju izgltoanu un motivanu pareizi atbrvoties no
nolietotm viedtekstilijm (2.).
Secinjumi
Eirop tiek veidota vienota stratija, kas balstta uz
jauninjumiem raoanas procesos un materilos, inovatvm
tehnoloijm, par perspektviem uzskatot mikro, mazos un vidjos
uzmumus, tpat ar atbalstot jaunos zintniekus un progresvu
ptjumu virzienus. Dieml, Latvija tekstilpreu inovciju zi ir
nenozmga Eiropas valstu starp. nia Latvij ir brva un, paralli
tekstilrpniecbas stratijai valst, balsttai lielkoties uz dabgo iedru
attstbu, paver iespjas ar radoajam potencilam un jauniem
izgudrojumiem saska ar Eiropas izvirzto tekstilnozares attstbas
stratiju inovciju virzien.
Viedtekstiliju joma ir saistta ne tikai ar tradicionlo
tekstilrpniecbu, bet ar ar citu zintu attstbu: jaunkajiem mijas
sasniegumiem, ar informcijas tehnoloijm un elektroniku u.tt. un
netiei ar ar patrtju veselbas aprpes jomas attstbu, sportistu
izaugsmes iespjm vai darba kvalittes uzlabojumiem darba viets.
Viedtekstiliju pielietojuma lauks un nozares ir oti plaas, skot ar
vizuliem efektiem izklaidei un ldz pat saretu funkciju veiktspjai
veselbas aprp un drobai ekstremlos apstkos. Noteiktu funkciju
veikanai iespjams izgatavot tekstilizstrdjumus, tajos integrjot
vienkras elektrovadoas sistmas ar diodm, kas var kalpot gan
drobai uz ielas, gan komunicanai vai informanai. Materilu
izmaksas galvenokrt ir saisttas ar elektrovadoajiem elementiem

izmantoto materilu pielietoanu. Piemram, ar sudrabu prklti
poliamda pavedieni maks daudzkrt vairk k tdas paas
elektrovadtspjas nersjo trauda multifilamentrie pavedieni. Tpat
ar izmaksas ir atkargas no materila kvalittes un piemrotbas
iestrdanai drn.
Visproblemtiskkais un vl arvien pilnb neizpttais lauks
viedtekstiliju izgatavoan ir ekoloisks problmas gan valkanas
proces, k piemram, elektromagntisk lauka starojuma izraist
negatv ietekme uz dzvm btnm vai notekdeu piesroana, gan
ar izstrdjumu prstrde pc ekspluatcijas perioda: elektroniku
kaitgums apkrtjai videi, atkritumu palielinans u.tml.
Apliecinjums
is darbs izstrdts ar Eiropas Socil fonda atbalstu projekt Atbalsts RTU
doktora studiju stenoanai.
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http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/textiles/research
innovation/technicaltextiles/index_en.htm
17. The future of the textile, clothing and footwear sectors in Europe. [tiesaiste].
European Economic and Social Committee. Catalogue Number QE8008
280ENC, published 2008, Visits and Publications, Bruxelles, Belgiqu
[atsauce 2012. g. 7. feb.]. Pieejas veids:
http://www.eesc.europa.eu/resources/docs/eesc200808en.pdf
18. Imbut GmbH. Offer. Conductive yarns, 3. Mar. 2011
19. Statex GmbH . Offer. Conductive yarns, 3. Mar. 2011
20. Tibtech innovations. Offer. Conductive yarns, 28. Feb. 2011
Summary
Currently the traditional textiles are mainly produced in Asian countries.
Therefore during the last ten years in Europe the traditional textile industry has
changed its strategy to support the innovation and the creation of new products and
their functionalities. Smart textiles provide ample opportunities that may be realized
in the textile industry, in the fashion and clothing sector, as well as in the technical
textiles sector. These developments are a result of active collaboration between the
varieties of disciplines: engineering, different areas of science, for example, chemistry
or IT, design, business or marketing.
The aim of this research is to explore the potentialities of textile industry in
Latvia to focus on new manufacturing sectors and untraditional inventions. With
practical examples illustrated problem areas are theoretically analyzed considering
into account the existing scientific studies of textile innovations and the experience in
Europe.
Consequently, in Latvia the companies in sector of textile should also think
about their products that could be able to compete in the free market. Contrary to the
European concept based on the development of innovations and nontraditional
textile, Latvian textile industry priorities include production of natural fibre and their
processing, but innovations are neglected.

The application area of smart clothing is very various, for example:
Health/comfort clothing that cares about the wellbeing of people and
protects their health;
Protection/security clothing that enhances the person safety and
protection;
Information/communication clothing, which is able to communicate or
helps to inform;
Fashion/sports clothing that visually makes more interesting the fashion
design or everyday entertainment;
Business, collaboration clothing that makes the working environment
more comfortable.
The integration of Light emitting diodes in the textile products allows assign
additional functions, such as the visibility on the street, or may serve as a fashion
design. There are also offered some practical textile solutions with integrated
electrical systems and LEDs. The main economic indicators referable to the smart
textile with integrated electronics production include: work costs (additional specific
operations) and material consumption, where the additional costs create the
electronic components. Material costs are mainly related to the material of
conductive elements, for example, silver coated polyamide yarns cost many times
more than the stainless steel multifilament yarns of the same electrical conductivity,
as well as costs vary, depending on the quality and suitability for integration in the
textile.
The most problematic and still completely unexplored field of smart textiles is
ecological problem area both in the process of wear, such as the negative impact of
electromagnetic field radiation or waste water pollution, and recycling of products
after the wear.
Overall, the results of the research allow conclude that production of technical
and smart textiles could enlarge the range of consumers and widen the possible
textile application areas. However, additional costs of new kind of textile machinery,
specific technologies, special materials and components, as well as potential
ecological problems should be also taken into account. Smart textiles are still at the
process of research; their production and commercialization is not widely
represented. It enables also the textile manufacturers in Latvia to offer innovative
solutions with added value on the market.


RESTRUCTURE OF THE ENTERPRISE TO MICRO
ENTERPRISE TO USE TAX ADVANTAGES IN ORDER
TO INCREASE PROFITABILITY, CASE STUDY
UZMUMA PRSTRUKTURANA MIKROUZMUM
NODOKU PRIEKROCBU IZMANTOANAI UN
RENTABILITTES PALIELINANAI, PIEMRA ANALZE
Inga NA
Dr.oec, Assoc. professor, University College of Economics and Culture
national coordinator, Latvian Employers Confederation
Phone: +371 29224148, email: inga.shina@gmail.com
Riga, Latvia
Raitis NS
Student, Stockholm School of Economics in Riga
Phone: +371 29139888, email: raitis.shins@gmail.com
Riga, Latvia

Abstract. At 01/09/2010, Microenterprise Tax Law came into force in Latvia. The Law
permits paying of single microenterprise tax at the rate of 9% from turnover.
Innovations of the article there have been insufficient studies on impact of this law.
The aim of the paper is to discover whether legislation amendments permit the
enterprise to reduce costs via network of branches by restructuring thereof into micro
enterprises. The study is based on a case study. Used methodology: study of financial
documents, PEST analysis, interview, questionnaire. During the study, cost/revenue
analysis has been conducted, two cash flows have been created. Results of the study are
summed up in conclusions and demonstrate that restructuring of branches into micro
enterprises permits the companies to increase profitability and to decrease the costs
(question of the study has been answered affirmatively), competitiveness of company is
growing, and the restructuring must emphasize surveyor's motivation as well.
Keywords: competitiveness, microenterprise, tax advantages.

Introduction
At 01/09/2010, Microenterprise Tax Law came into force in
Latvia. The Law permits paying of single microenterprise tax at the rate
of 9% of turnover. Innovations of the article there have been
insufficient studies on impact of this law. The aim of the paper is to
discover whether amendments of the legislation permit the enterprise to
reduce costs via network of branches by restructuring thereof into
microenterprises. The study is based on a case study.
The enterprise X is a land surveying and territorial planning
company based in Riga, Latvia. It started active work in 2005 and is
currently employing 160 workers. The enterprise X has 29 territorial

branches and the 2010 turnover was 5 million EUR. The regional office
network was created in the time of property boom during the demand for
surveying service. The surveying service market in total was 15 to 20
million EUR. However, at this period of recession, it has shrunk 3 to 5
times. The main issue is that the competitors mostly are very small
companies consisting of one to two surveyors that are also the owners
that work at home. Therefore, they have minimal fixed costs, moreover,
they show turnover so little officially, that they pay very little in taxes.
As the market diminishes, due to the crisis, the enterprise X must
optimize their costs and find a way not to lose their main clients
Latvenergo, Latvijas Mezi and Lattelecom, the large, government
owned companies with more than 100 million EUR turnovers. The
individual clients are lost, as the competitors can provide the service at a
much lower price. One of the suggestions is to reposition all the
surveyors from regional towns as microenterpreneurs and sell them the
enterprise X franchises. This would remove all fixed costs and decrease
the tax payment to just the value added tax at 22%.
Firstly, the strategic environment will be analyzed using PEST and
the situation will be modeled using a fishbone diagram. Secondly, the
employee motivation and its possible changes will be explored. Lastly,
the financial background of this possible decision will be analyzed. Data
will be taken from primary sources an interview with the enterprise X
CFO and a survey that will question 50 surveyors employed in the
enterprise X.
Time limitation: the years 2010 to 2011. Other limitations: not all
of the enterprise X financial data could be accessed, therefore some of the
calculations needed to be done with estimates and the surveying results
did not give answers to many motivational questions, thus more precise
primary data collection should have been done.
1. Main findings
According to the Maslows theory, a number of changes can take
place when an employee becomes a microentrepreneur. The Maslows
pyramid shows, which needs prove to be endangered with the changes
according to the survey. Most importantly, 50% or the surveyors fear the
changes, therefore, will lose their current safety needs.
1.1. Financial analysis
1.1.1. Costs and revenues per surveyor
The enterprise X can divide the revenues and cost of the surveying
department per surveyor. In this way, the importance of cost cutting can
be stressed.

Table 1.
Total calculations of revenues and costs of the surveying department per
surveyor in the enterprise X, 2010 (11.)

Option 1 per surveyor total
EUR EUR
Revenues
2,400 312,000
Costs
Fixed costs (735) (95,550)
Variable costs (141) (18,330)
Salary (569) (73,970)
Corporate tax (424) (55,120)
Balance 531 69,030

Option 2 per surveyor total
EUR EUR
Revenues
Franchise 200 26,000
Equipment rent 200 26,000
Costs

Table 2.
The current financial situation in the enterprise X, 2010 (11.)

Option 1 EUR
Revenues
2,400
Costs
Fixed costs (735)
Variable costs (141)
Salary (569)
Corporate tax (424)
Balance 531

The current situation (Table 2), at which the costs per surveyor are
very high. However, due to the market situation reasons, the revenues
exceed the costs.

Table 3.
The financial situation after the reorganization in the enterprise X, 2010 (11.)

Option 2 EUR
Revenues
Franchise 200
Equipment rent 200
Costs
Management salaries (43)
Fixed costs (3)
Variable costs (1)
Corporate tax (60)
293

Table 3 illustrates the situation after reorganization. The revenues
have decreased a lot, but the costs are now diminished to the minimum.
This option is guaranteeing additional flexibility and ability to better
adapt to the market changes. Hence, as the costs are lower, even periods
with low revenues will not bring losses.
1.1.2. Finances from the surveyors point of view
The possible changes can also be viewed from the surveyors point
of view, and the calculations of the monthly salary give a strong reason
why they must consider them.
Option 1:

The current situation, when surveyors are employees is shown in
Option 1.
Option 2:

The calculations prove that Option 2 is favorable, since the salary is
substantially higher. This is the most important argument why surveyors
must reorganize to be microentrepreneurs as soon as possible.

1.1.3. Yearly Cash flow analysis

Figure 1. Costs in both options per annum in the enterprise X (10.)

The current cash flow is positive, but it is mainly due to two
aspects, very low wages and great deals with corporate clients. However,
the main issue is the high costs. Figure 1 shows how Option 2 decreases
the costs and enables the surveying department to work more effectively,
thus the balance will increase.
2. Analysis
2.1. Motivation
It is important to motivate the surveyors in both financial and non
financial ways. Approximately 70% of the surveyors that would agree to
this change will have a much greater opportunity, but the change will
also mean that they will be independent now, able to make their own
decisions. Thus, the number of clients and their salary would be
dependent on how they work, in fact their salary could easily double as
shown in the financial analysis. Moreover, they will still be able work
with corporate deals, which would not be possible if they would work
individually. 30% of them consider changes needed, as the wages are too
low. This is the main reason why at least these 30% will be motivated
enough to work. Moreover, a less important change is that the
reorganization gives to the surveyors an opportunity to build their own
team to satisfy their social needs, which is now an issue. However, the
main opportunity that comes with the reorganization is for them to fulfill
their esteem and even selfactualization needs, which many of them hope
for. On the other hand, some of the employees will not be able to cope
with the changes, even their physiological needs could be endangered.
Moreover, those who were enjoying the benefits of being an employee

will now have to take the risks themselves, which might mean loosing
some of the safety needs. 50% of the questioned surveyors fear the
changes. Another issue is that the surveyors will not any more be able to
fulfill their social needs, since there will be almost no office work.
The survey shows that 50% of the surveyors fear the changes,
which proves that the enterprise X must arrange meeting with the
surveyors to explain how exactly the changes will happen. However,
almost all the more experienced surveyors felt proud of their job and
wanted to reach the two last levels of needs, and the changes would give
this opportunity. Even though the wages are low (by EUR 200 lower than
in Lithuania) and 30% of the surveys consider them low, the results
demonstrate that only 40% of the surveyors want to put more effort into
their job in order to earn more. Therefore, the enterprise X must
emphasize nonfinancial gains to motivate the surveyors. From the
surveyors point of view, the reorganizing is highly beneficial.
2.2. Strategic analysis
2.2.1. PEST
Political Economical
The recession that started in 2008 Real estate market number of
increased the number of those transactions has decreased by 70%
companies which do not pay all the (9)
taxes, gray economy accounts for 30 to The surveying market has decreased
50%(7) from 1520 million to 35 million
Social insurance tax paid by the EUR (9)
employer 24.09% Unemployment rate 14,5% (7)
Sole traded tax is 9% of the turnover The average salary fell 25% in 2009,
Value added tax is 22% and has decreased by another 3.5% in
Corporate tax is 15% (6) 2010(8)
Land reform till 2014, a lot of
municipalities and private persons will
use surveying services
Social Technological
People are not motivated and even not ISO 9001 standard for all services (9)
financially possible to choose A lot of equipment (computers,
companies that pay taxes. software, tachymeters, vehicles)
The consumer confidence has stayed purchased that should be rented to
low ever since the recession, being the the surveyors not to suffer losses (9)
4th worse in the world in 2010 (5) An electronic system as a service that
The austerity measures cause the can store the survey data (9)
society to disbelieve the government,
thus avoiding paying taxes. 6% of the
citizens do not pay taxes at all (7).

Legal
Even though gray economy accounts
for 3050 (7) per cent, the legal forces

are not able to control it
The State Revenue Service does not
cooperate with entrepreneurs to find a
way to solve the gray economy issues

Figure 2. PEST analyses of the enterprise X, 2011

The PEST analysis shows that restructuring is favorable, probably
even vital to survive. Political aspects and increasing real estate tax rates
(approximately 1%) as well as value added tax (+4%) (6) rates have an
impact on the enterprise X in two direct ways increasing production
costs and decreasing consumer purchasing power. Firstly, the taxes
increase the production cost, which is crucial if many of the competitors
choose to show so small revenue that taxes rates are not important.
Secondly, the increasing tax rates do not motivate and possibly do not
even give the opportunity for consumers to choose the enterprise X,
which offers the service at a 30% higher price, but consumers choose
purely the cheapest offer. The market is diminishing, which means that
reorganizing is needed and fixed costs, which are now EUR 735 for one
surveyor, must be decreased, to regain individual customers.
2.2.2. Fishbone diagram
The inability to compete for an individual client (the enterprise X
has a market share of 10% of the individual clients) is caused by several
aspects (9). The methods employed are too costly because of the offices
and other fixed and variable costs (that account for more than 1200 EUR
monthly per one surveyor). There is too much machinery (20 unused
vehicles, 15 surveying equipment kits, at least 20 computers with
expensive software) that should be maintained in good condition and
depreciated.
Approximately 25% of the equipment is not used, 50% of its initial
value is depreciated. Eight people are currently employed for
management; the costs are increased also by the fact that surveyors are
employees not microentrepreneurs. This restructuring could solve all
these issues. Most importantly, offices should no more be rented, the
machinery required by the surveyors could be rented to them, the rest
could be sold. Another strong argument is that reducing the number of
managers could decrease the management costs. No more than four will
be employed after the reorganization. Another important reason to

restructure the enterprise X is that a lot less would be paid in taxes and
profitability would be increased.

Machinery

100 vehicles had been bought,
Methods
but no more than 70 are used Offices, that increase the tcosts
by 30%, but are not required.
150 units of surveying
equipment kits had been
High quality equipment(50%
purchased, but no more than more expensive than regular) in
100 is used order to provide topclass
serrvice, but individual clients
do not demand highest quality Metrum Ltd is
not able to
compete for
Management unable to
increase the motivation 10 of 160 employed in
The salary system does Effect individual
clients, because
managing, competitors not grant salaries high
of surveyors.
have almost no enough to motivate
of the
inadequate
management expenses employees. costs.
Competitors, that are
sole traders save at
least 30% in taxes.
Management
Manpower

Figure 3. Fishbone diagram

2.3 Financial analysis
2.3.1. Costs and revenues per surveyor
The current situation in Option 1 does not show losses, since the
revenues exceed the costs. However, this is mainly due to the large
corporate client deals with Lattelecom, Latvenergo and Latvijas
Valsts Mezi, which account for more than 80% (9), more than 10 million
EUR are scheduled for surveying services in the budget. Another positive
aspect is the ongoing land reform (large territories should be surveyed in
order to divide them into the new regions), which has increased the
surveying market to approximately EUR 15 million annually till 2014,
when it will end and the market will be worth EUR 3 million and the
corporate deal values will decrease. This way of organization cannot
create sustainable profitability, due to the loss of individual client market.
In the short run it is working well, but the long run will show that costs
are too high as the market will decrease five times. Until the end of land
reform in 2014 and the end of large contracts, the enterprise X must

reclaim individual clients, to maintain its market share, which is 25% (9).
To do this, the enterprise X plans to introduce a franchise system, hence
remove almost all costs. This would guarantee that revenues exceed
costs, no matter the decision in the market. However, one term would be
that the surveyors will be obliged to work with individual clients in order
to receive jobs in the corporate deals. Franchise cost would be 10% of the
monthly revenue, but not less than EUR 200, which will cover the
administration costs and yield profits. While the equipment costs for
surveyors would be EUR 200 monthly that would be enough to cover the
depreciation costs. Surveyors would rent highclass Bentley surveying
equipment and the modern electronic data storage system. This will
allow them not to purchase their own equipment, but use the already
purchased highclass tools. Option 2 shows the revenues from one
surveyor after reorganization. The enterprise X would sell all unused
equipment, stop renting offices that will be unnecessary (the surveyors
will be able to access the database from any computer with an internet
connection) saving EUR 50,000 monthly (10). This together would
decrease the monthly surveying department costs from EUR 300,000 to
EUR 14,200. The generated revenue per one surveyor after costs has
decreased by 45%; however, the enterprise X has now guaranteed that
no matter the situation in the market, the surveying department will be
profitable. The only costs are 4 management employees and their office,
while the franchise revenues could increase if the surveyors are
motivated enough.
2.3.2. Finances from surveyors point of view
To motivate the surveyors to become employers, the salary must be
at least 50% greater as the survey shows as the level of risk increases.
This will happen, because their revenue generated is on average EUR
2400 monthly, EUR 1300 of which is paid in taxes (EUR 424) and fixed
(EUR 735) and variable costs (EUR 141). Now, their costs would be EUR
200 for the rented equipment, EUR 200 for fixed and EUR 100 variable
costs, 9% micro entrepreneur tax and 10% for the franchise. The salary
would increase at least two times as the calculations show. This salary
increase should increase the number of surveyors till around 150. The
surveyor average salary in Latvia is EUR 650 (9), therefore the surveyors
should be motivated by significantly better salary.
2.3.3. Cash flow analysis
After reorganization, two improvements would take place.
Calculations have been made taking into account that after the
restructuring the enterprise X would apply a 30% price decrease for all
surveying services. Thus, decreasing the revenue by 30%, while having

an ability to compete for individual clients. Nevertheless, it is more
important that the costs would decrease staggeringly by EUR 280,000
monthly, thus, the yearly balance almost doubles in Option 2.
The financial analysis and especially the cash flows demonstrate
that this change is needed, since it is beneficial from the financial point of
view. The current system could be preserved if the market would be
predicted to flourish in the future, while if the forecasts are doubtful,
fewer costs are definitely better.
When analyzing primary and secondary data and taking into
consideration the market characteristics, several conclusions can be
made:
the enterprise X should be restructured to increase profitability,
as restructuring would significantly decrease the costs.
Therefore, even if the market situation worsens, profitability
will be stable. The restructuring must be done with a franchise
system, as it would decrease the costs significantly and make
the enterprise X more flexible. Surveyors as contract micro
entrepreneurs would give the enterprise X the opportunity to
adapt to market changes.
The restructuring must emphasize surveyor motivation.
Surveyors must be encouraged to take the risk and be a micro
entrepreneur. Firstly, their planned salary must be at least by
50% larger. Secondly, conferences must be organized to
convince the surveyors about the nonfinancial gains.
The enterprise X must reorganize the company and restructure
surveyors from employees to contract microentrepreneur.
Management skill trainings must be organized.
The enterprise X must ensure that promotion and other
services will stay at the same level in order to assure the
surveyors with enough work. Surveyors must work with both
individual and corporate client.
Bibliography
1. BRUCE R. Jewell, An Integrated Approach to Business Studies 4th Edition,
Pearson Education Limited (Longman), 2000, 588 p.
2. CLARK, P., GOLDEN, P. etc, Business and Management Course Companion,
Oxford University press, 2009, 416 p.
3. GILLESPIE, A., AS & A Level Business Through Diagrams, Oxford University
Press, 2001, 160 p.
4. HALL, D., JONES, R., RAFFO, C. Business Studies, Second Edition, Causeway
Press Limited, 2002, 770 p.

5. Latvijas patrtji 4. pesimistiskkie pasaul; lielkie optimisti indiei,
indonziei un norvi (online) Retrieved:
http://www.diena.lv/lat/business/expert/businessresearch/latvijas
pateretaji4pesimistiskakiepasaulelielakieoptimistiindiesiindoneziesi
unnorvegi Access: 10.11.11.
6. On State Revenue Service (online) Retrieved:
http://www.vid.gov.lv/default.aspx?tabid=8&id=2982&hl=1. Access: 12.12.11.
7. Pelks ekonomikas ziedu laiki (online) Retrieved: http://www.db.lv/blogi
viedokli/blogi/ineseolafsone/pelekasekonomikasziedulaiki224495.
Access: 12.12.11.
8. Prn vidj alga sarukusi par 35 procentiem (online). Retrieved:
http://www.db.lv/finanses/makroekonomika/pernvidejaalgasarukusi
par35proc236063. Access: 12.12.11.
9. Interview with the enterprise X CFO, 2011.
10. The enterprise X cash flow, 2010.
11. The enterprise X cost/revenue analysis, 2010.
Kopsavilkums
Ar 2010.g. 1. septembri Latvij stjs spk Mikrouzmumu nodoka
likums, kas auj makst vienoto mikrouzmuma nodokli 9 % apmr no
apgrozjuma. Ptjuma novitte likuma ietekme nav pietiekoi izptta. Ptjuma
laika periods ir 2010.2011.g. Ptjuma mris ir atklt vai izmaias likumdoan auj
uzmumam ar filiu tklu samazint izmaksas, prveidojot fililes par
mikrouzmumiem. Ptjums ir veikts uz konkrta Latvijas uzmuma piemra,
prveidojot SIA ar filiu tklu par atseviiem mikrouzmumiem. Uzmums ir SIA,
kas darbojas mrniecbas jom kop 2005.g. un obrd tam ir izveidotas 29 reionls
fililes. Uzmum strd 160 darbinieki. Uzmuma apgrozjums 2010.g. sasniedza
apm. 5 milj. EUR. Kopjais mrniecbas pakalpojumu tirgus Latvij ir 1520 milj. EUR,
tdjdi ptmais uzmums ir viens no lderiem sav jom. Reionls fililes ir
izveidotas nekustm pauma pirkanas un prdoanas plaukuma gados (2005.
2007.g.), kad pieprasjums pc mrniecbas strauji pieauga. Recesijas laik (2007.
2010.g.), tirgus samazinjs 35 reizes. ai laik k uzmuma konkurenti pardjs
mazie uzmumi, kas lielkoties sastv no 12 mrniekiem, k ar individul darba
veicji. Tie oficili uzrda minimlos fikstos izdevumus, minimlu apgrozjumu un
td veid maks mazus nodokus. Krzes d tirgus saruka, individulie klienti
praktiski pazuda, un uzmumam, lai nezaudtu Latvijas lielo uzmumu
Latvenergo, Latvijas Mei, Latvijas Dzelzce u.c. pastjumus, ir jmekl veidi k
samazint savas izmaksas. Viens no veidiem prveidot fililes par
mikrouzmumiem. Lietots ptjuma metodes: finanu dokumentu analze, PEST
analze, intervija ar uzmuma izpilddirektoru un darbinieku intervija. Ir veikts
uzmuma iemumu un zaudjumu aprins un sastdtas divas atirgas naudas
plsmas gadjum, ja uzmums strd ar filiu tklu un gadjum, ja tas tiek
restrukturizts par mikrouzmumiem. Darbinieku motivcija un finansilie aspekti
ir izptti slgta tipa intervij. Intervija ir veikta elektroniski, lai taj vartu piedalties
mrnieki no vism uzmuma fililm. Aptaujto skaits 70, saemto atbilu skaits
50, ldz ar to aptaujas rezultti tiek uzskatti par ticamiem. Ptjuma kopjie rezultti
ir apkopoti secinjumos un prieklikumos. Tie parda, ka filiu prveide par
mikrouzmumiem auj palielint iemumus un samazint izmaksas, t.i. atbilde
uzptjuma jautjumu ir pozitva. Aprini rda, ka filiu prveides par

mikrouzmumiem rezultt kopj uzmuma konkurtspja pieaug, k ar
restrukturizcijas rezultt palielins mrnieku motivcija un ieinterestba
rezultt.


VRTSPAPRU TIRGUS LATVIJ ATTSTBAS
IESPJAS UN PROBLMAS
SECURITIES MARKET IN LATVIA DEVELOPMENT
OPPORTUNITIES AND PROBLEMS
Vineta EPSTE
Mg.oec., lektore, Latvijas Universitte
Tlrunis: +3712128433, epasts: Vineta.snepste@lu.lv
Rga, Latvija

Abstract. Securities market development is an indicator of economic development in
general. An active securities market almost always means a vibrant economics. Latvian
security market for many years has developed in a qualitative more than quantitative
way, giving market participants a variety of convenient technology solutions, without
any significant changes in the offer of securities on the market. This situation is not
conducive to interest potential investors in the domestic securities market, stating that
it lacks a qualitative offer as well as liquidity. In her work, the author gathers
information on the current market situation, identifies the most important problems
and defines the main directions of development.
Keywords: Market capitalization, market statistics, primary market, securities market,
secondary market.

Ievads
Vrtspapru tirgus un t sekmga attstba ir svarga katras valsts
ekonomik, jo vrtspapru tirgus pilda ne tikai klasiskas tirgus funkcijas,
bet ar tdu specifisku funkciju k ldzeku prdali. Tpat vrtspapru
tirgus kalpo k indikators ekonomikas attstbas tendenu novrtanai,
jo ir viens no ekonomisko ciklu raksturojoiem apsteidzoajiem
rdtjiem.
Latvij vrtspapru tirgus attstba sks 20.gadsimta 90.gadu vid,
kad tika izveidota tirgus darbbai nepiecieam infrastruktra un
pieemti svargkie normatvie akti. Lai ar vl pagju gadsimta beigs
pat rvalstu specilisti izteica pozitvas prognozes par tirgus attstbas
iespjm Latvij, tomr rel situcija ir citda, jo vairums tirgus darbbu
raksturojou rdtju neuzrda pozitvas tendences. emot vr iepriek
minto k ptjuma tma ir izvlta Vrtspapru tirgus Latvij
attstbas iespjas un problmas.
Ptjuma mris ir, veicot svargko vrtspapru tirgus statistikas
rdtju analzi, noskaidrot tirgus attstbas tendences un problmas, k
ar piedvt to risinjumus.
Mra sasnieganai tiek izvirzti sekojoi uzdevumi:
1. Veikt skotnjo tirgu raksturojoo rdtju analzi un
novrtanu;

2. Veikt otrreizjo tirgu raksturojoo rdtju analzi un
novrtanu;
3. Uz veikts analzes pamata izdart secinjumus par tirgus
attstbas problmm un tendencm, k ar izstrdt
prieklikumus tirgus attstbai nkotn.
Ptjuma periods ir no 2000.2011.g., jo par o periodu ir pieejami
ptjumam nepiecieamie tirgus statistikas rdtji.
Ptjum tiek izmantotas visprpieemts ekonomikas zintnes
ptjumu kvantitatvs un kvalitatvs metodes, tai skait saldzinos
analzes un sintzes metode, statistisks un grafisks analzes metodes.
Ptjuma veikanai skotnj tirgus lmen tiek izmantoti Latvijas
Centrl Depozitrija statistikas dati, bet otrreizj tirgus lmen analze
tiek veikta, pamatojoties galvenokrt uz fondu biras tirdzniecbas
statistiku, jo biras tirgus nodroina vrtspapru publisku apgrozbu,
tpat ar nepietiekams informcijas d rpusbiras tirgus darbbas
analze nebtu pilnvrtga. Tomr atsevii rpusbiras tirgu
raksturojoi rdtji ptjum tiek izmantoti.
Pamatteksts
Lai izprastu kdas tendences un problmas ir vrtspapru tirg
kopum, ir svargi ts identifict k skotnj tirg, t ar otrreizj tirg.
Skotnjais tirgus nodroina iespju emitentiem izvietot
vrtspaprus tirg un ieguldtjiem os vrtspaprus iegdties. Skotnj
tirgus aktivittes raksturoanai var izmantot dadus statistikas
rdtjus, kas dod priekstatu par jaunm vrtspapru emisijm, to skaitu,
apjomu un nosacjumiem. Lai raksturotu, cik aktvi jauni vrtspapri
ienk tirg, var izmantot reistrto emisiju statistiku.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
akcijas korporatvie parda vrtspapri

1.attls. Latvijas Centrlaj Depozitrij reistrts akciju un korporatvo
parda vrtspapru emisijas no 2000. ldz 2011.g. (7.)


1.att. ir pardtas Latvijas Centrlaj Depozitrija reistrts akciju
un korporatvo parda vrtspapru emisijas laika posm no 2000.ldz
2011.g. K redzams, tad kopum emisiju skaits ir neliels
korporatvajiem parda vrtspapriem tas neprsniedz 24 emisijas gada
laik, bet akcijm 21 emisiju gada laik. Reistrto akciju emisiju skaits ir
svrstgs un nav atkargs no ekonomisks situcijas valst, savukrt
korporatvo parda vrtspapru skaits pdjos gados ir mainjies ldzgi
ekonomiskajai situcijai valst, jo gados, kad tika sasniegti augsti
makroekonomiskie rdtji, tas pieauga, bet skot no 2008.g.
samazinjs.
Latvijas Centrlaj Depozitrij reistrtais valsts parda
vrtspapru skaits ir lielks nek akciju vai korporatvo parda
vrtspapru emisiju skaits, sasniedzot pat vairk nek 90 emisijas gada
laik. (7.) Tomr liels valsts vrtspapru emisiju skaits nav vrtjams
viennozmgi, jo no vienas puses vrtspapru tirg t ir iespja
ieguldtjiem, bet no otras puses tas liecina par nesabalanstu valsts
budetu.
Jatzm, ka ne visas reistrts emisijas ir publiskas. T piemram,
ptmaj period no vism akciju emisijm publiskas bija tikai tre daa
emisiju, bet korporatvajiem parda vrtspapriem tie bija 57% no kopj
emisiju skaita (7.). Tas liecina, ka plakiem ieguldtju sliem daudzas
emisijas vispr nebija pieejamas.
1.att. nordtas tikai konkrtaj gad reistrts emisijas. Tomr
daudzas no tm obrd vairs nav aktvas. Piemram, 2010.g. beigs
aktvas bija tikai 60 parasto akciju emisijas, 28 korporatvo parda
vrtspapru emisijas un 43 valsts parda vrtspapru emisijas, no kurm
savukrt publisk apgrozb bija visi valsts parda vrtspapri, puse no
korporatvajiem parda vrtspapriem un 57% no aktvajm akciju
emisijm (9.). Tas norda, ka ieguldtjiem pat teortiski nav pieejama
liela vrtspapru daudzveidba. K liecina Latvijas Centrl Depozitrija
informcija par reistrtajiem vrtspapriem, tad 2012.g. skum aktvo
emisiju skaits ir vl mazks nek tas bija 2010.g. beigs, kas norda, ka
tirg nav vrojama situcijas uzlaboans.
Skotnj tirgus tendences raksturo ar citi rdtji, kas saistti ar
vrtspapru emisijm, k piemram, reistrto vrtspapru apjomi,
izsakot tos naudas izteiksm. Tirg var bt situcijas, kad emisiju skaits
nav liels, tomr to apjoms ir pietiekami nozmgs finanu tirgus
kontekst.


2.attls. Latvijas Centrlaj Depozitrij reistrto vrtspapru apjoms no
2000. ldz 2011.g., milj. LVL (7.)

2.att. ir redzams Latvijas Centrlaj Depozitrij (LCD) reistrto
vrtspapru apjoms miljonos latu, kas, neskatoties uz emisijas valtu,
prrints latos, prrinu veicot pc vidj Latvijas Bankas kursa
attiecgaj gad. K redzams, tad ar apjomu statistika uzrda ldzgas
tendences k emisiju skaita statistika. Akciju gadjum emisiju apjoms
caurmr neprsniedz 25 miljonus latu gad, izemot 2002.g., kad tas
sasniedza 203 miljonus latu. (7.) Savukrt parda vrtspapru reistrtie
emisiju apjomi ir lielki un sasniedz pat 1401 miljonu latu 2009.g. Tomr
eit jatzm, ka lielko dau no reistrt emisiju apjoma veido valsts
parda vrtspapru emisijas, jo ptmaj laika period ts sastda 88%
no kopj reistrto parda vrtspapru emisiju apjoma. Valsts parda
vrtspapru patsvars atsevios gados ir vl lielks, pietuvojoties pat
100%. (7.) Jem vr, ka emitto korporatvo parda vrtspapru
apjoms ptmaj period nekad nav bijis lielks k 93,5 miljoni latu gad,
ds apjoms tika reistrts 2010.g, lai ar emisiju skaits in gad nebija
lielkais ptmaj laika period. (7.) Lai saprastu vai ds apjoms ir
nozmgs finanu tirg, to var saldzint ar Latvijas kredtiestu no jauna
izsniegto kredtu apjomiem. 2011.g. 9 mneos nefinanu uzmumiem
(rezidentiem) tika izsniegti kredti par kopjo summu 411 miljoni latu
(16.). No t var secint, ka apjomi joprojm ir nelieli pat uz Latvijas
finanu tirgus fona, jo emisijas apjomi gad ir pieldzinmi izsniegto
kredtu apjomam nepilna mnea laik.
Tomr, neskatoties uz joprojm nelielajiem emisiju apjomiem,
pdjos gados tirg ir novrojamas ar pozitvas prmaias, jo ptmaj
laika period ir pieaugusi korporatvo parda vrtspapru daudzveidba.
Ja skotnji tie bija vienveidgi nosacjumu zi, tad pdjos gados ir
pardjuies daudzveidgi termii, emisijas valtas, tpat ar emitenti ir
gan rezidenti, gan nerezidenti, vairk ir emitentu, kas nav saitti ar

finanu jomu, k tas bija raksturgs tirgus attstbas skotnj period.
Akciju tirg situcija joprojm ir sareta, ko nosaka akciju sabiedrbu
k komercdarbbas formas nepopularitte Latvij, jo jaunas akciju
emisijas, kas btu pieejamas plaam ieguldtju lokam, pdjos gados ir
retums.
Vrtspapri no skotnj tirgus parasti nonk otrreizja tirg, kur
notiek to aktva tirdzniecba. Otrreizj tirgus attstbas tendences
raksturo tdi rdtji k biras indeksi, kapitalizcija, apgrozjums,
darjumu skaits, tirgoto vrtspapru skaits. Ptjum tiks analizti rdtji,
kas vispreczk var raksturot tirgus attstbas lmeni un kvalitti. Biras
indeksi, lai ar ir svargi tirgus tendences raksturojoi rdtji, netiks
apskatti, jo vairk ir saistti tiei ar cenu dinamiku nevis tirgus attstbas
lmeni un kvalitti.
Otrreizjais tirgus var tikt organizts birs vai ar rpus tm,
tomr ptjum uzmanba tiks pievrsta tiei biras tirgum atbilstoi
ievad noteiktam ptjuma ierobeojumam.
Viens no rdtjiem, kas raksturo otrreizjo tirgu, ir tirg pieejamo
vrtspapru skaits un daudzveidba. Liels pieejamo vrtspapru skaits
ieguldtjam rada iespjas izveidot diversifictu investciju portfeli pat
nacionla tirgus ietvaros.

3.attls. Bir NASDAQ OMX biras sarakstos iekauto vrtspapru skaits
no 2000. ldz 2011.g. (11.)

K redzams (3.att.), biras sarakstos iekauto akciju skaits ptmaj
period ir samazinjies uz pusi no 63 ldz 32 akcijm, savukrt parda
vrtspapru skaits ir nestabils un svrsts no 16 ldz 75 vrtspapru
robes ptmaj laika period. Biras sarakstos ir iekautas ar
ieguldjumu apliecbas, bet ts nav ptjuma objekts, tpc tlk netiks
analiztas.
Vrtspapru skaits nav liels, ja to saldzina ar pasaules vadoajm
birm, kur tas mrms tkstoos, tomr, ja visi ie vrtspapri btu

pietiekami kvalitatvi un ieguldtjiem pieejami lielos apjomos, tad
ieguldtjiem tie vartu nodroint iespju veidot pietiekami
diversifictus portfeus. Eirop ir vairkas biras, kur kotto akciju skaits,
ldzgi k Latvij, neprsniedz 100 akcijas, k piemram, Budapetas,
ubanas vai rijas birs. Ar parda vrtspapru tirg situcija Eirop ir
ldzga, jo blakus birm, kurs ir vairki tkstoi parda vrtspapru
(Luksemburga, Londona), darbojas ar tdas, kur parda vrtspapri nav
vairk k dai desmiti (19.).
Lai ar kotto vrtspapru skaits ir svargs tirgu raksturojos
rdtjs, tomr pai nozmgi ir rdtji, kas raksturo tirdzniecbas
aktivitti bir, jo pat neliels vrtspapru skaits var nodroint saldzinoi
augstus tirdzniecbas rdtjus, ja vrtspapri ir lielos apjomos un
kvalitatvi.

4.attls. Noslgto darjumu skaits bir NASDAQ OMX Rga
2000. ldz 2011.g. (15.)

K viens no tirdzniecbu raksturojoiem rdtjiem ir noslgto
darjumu skaits bir. Visvairk darjumu ar akcijm tika reistrti
2005.g., kad to skaits sasniedza 38 tkstous, savukrt vismazk noslgto
darjumu bija 2001.un 2002.g., kad darjumu skaits tikai nedaudz
prsniedza 10 tkstous. Pdjo gadu laik darjumu skaits bija samr
stabils, svrstoties 20 tkstou robes. Savukrt parda vrtspapru
tirg darjumu skaits nekad nav bijis liels, jo maksimlais darjumu skaits
tika sasniegts 2003.g., kad tie bija 1560 darjumi. Vairkos gados
darjumu skaits pat neprsniedz 100 darjumus gad. Darjumi ar akcijm
un parda vrtspapriem tiek reistrti ar rpusbiras tirg, tomr
pdjos gados to skaits nav liels neprsniedz daus tkstous darjumu
gad. Ir jsecina, ka ar cits neliels birs Eirop situcija ir analoga, jo
darjumu skaits akciju un parda vrtspapru tirgos ir ldzgs k Latvij.

K nkamais otrreizjo tirgu raksturojos rdtjs tiek apskatts
tirdzniecbas apgrozjums, kas ietver gan tirgoto vrtspapru skaitu, gan
ar to cenu. Tas jem vr novrtjot apgrozjuma dinamiku.

5. attls. Apgrozjums akciju un parda vrtspapru tirg bir NASDAQ OMX
Rga no 2000.2011.g., milj. LVL (15.)

Laik no 2000.ldz 2011.g. akciju tirgus apgrozjums samazinjs
no 137 miljoniem ldz 26 miljoniem latu jeb par 81%. Ptm perioda
skum liels apgrozjums bija atseviu emitentu akcijm, k, piemram
Latvijas gze, Latvijas kuniecba, Ventspils nafta, sasniedzot pat
vairku desmitu miljonu latu apgrozjumu gada laik. Savukrt pdjos
gados akciju tirgus kopjais apgrozjums nav prsniedzis 26 miljonus latu
gad. Tomr jem vr ar fakts, ka to lielk mra ir ietekmjis cenu
samazinjums, nevis tirgoto vrtspapru skaits, jo k zinms, tad 2008.un
2009.g. vrtspapru tirgos vis pasaul cenas ievrojami samazinjs.
Lai ar kaimivalstu tirgos attstbas vsture ir ldzga, tomr
apgrozjuma samazinjums nav tik dramatisks, jo Igaunijas tirg analog
laika period tirdzniecbas apgrozjums bir samazinjs tikai par 32%,
no 195 ldz 132 miljoniem latu, bet Lietuvas vrtspapru tirg, kur
apgrozjums 2011.g. sastdja 124 miljonus latu, tas ir pat lielks nek
2000.g. (15.).
Parda vrtspapru tirgus apgrozjums bir ir samazinjies no 387
miljoniem latu 2000.g. ldz nepilnam miljonam 2011.g., pie kam 2001.g.
tas bija pat 424 miljoni latu. Ldzga situcija ir Igaunijas tirg, kur
2011.g. vispr nav fiksts parda vrtspapru apgrozjums bir, bet
nedaudz labka situcija ir Lietuv, kur 2000.g. apgrozjums bija 144
miljoni latu, bet 2011.g. 59 miljoni latu, jeb 59% no 2000.g. lmea (15.).
Kopjais tirdzniecbas apgrozjums bir akcijm un parda
vrtspapriem 2011.g. sasniedza tikai 27 miljonus latu, kas pasaules
vrtspapru tirgus rdtju kontekst ir oti vj rdtjs, pat saldzinot ar

citm nelielm birm Eirop, kurs ir ldzgs vrtspapru skaits un ar
tiem noslgto darjumu skaits, bet apgrozjums ir daudz lielks.
Jatzm, ka tirdzniecbas apgrozjums tiek fiksts ar rpusbiras
tirg. T 2010.g. akciju apgrozjums DVP (Delivery Versus Payment
finanu instrumentu piegde pret samaksu) darjumos sasniedza 11,4
milj. latu, bet parda vrtspapriem pat 265 milj. latu. Tomr jem vr,
ka tiei parda vrtspapru gadjum rpusbiras tirgus popularitte ir
pai raksturga ar citur pasaul. Saldzinoi daudz darjumu rpusbiras
tirg tika veikti k vienkrie beznaudas prvedumi, bet par tiem nav
nekdas informcijas attiecb uz apgrozjumu. T 2010.g. tdi bija vairk
nek 40 tkstoi darjumu (8.;9.).
Rdtjs, kas labi raksturo tirdzniecbas aktivitti, ir ar tirgoto
vrtspapru skaits, jo t lielumu tie veid neietekm vrtspapru cenas,
lai ar netiea ietekme cenu izmaim ir iespjama, jo zemas cenas var
mazint interesi par tirgu, savukrt augstas cenas to var palielint.

6.attls. Tirgoto vrtspapru skaits NASDAQ OMX Rga bir no
2000. ldz 2011.g., milj. (15.)

Tirgoto vrtspapru skaits akciju tirg ptmaj period svrsts
no 13 ldz 178 miljoniem vrtspapru gad, tomr laik no 2005.g. ldz
2011.g. tas nav bijis lielks par 37 miljoniem akciju gad. Lielk daa
tirgoto akciju attiecas uz 5 emitentiem, jo tikai o emitentu akcijm
tirgoto vrtspapru skaits prsniedz 1 miljonu gada laik, pie kam
Latvijas kuniecbas akcijas sastda vairk nek pusi no vism
tirgotajm akcijm 2011.g. Ldzga situcija ir ar citos ptm perioda
gados, kad tikai dau emitentu akcijas tiek tirgotas vairk nek 1 miljons
akciju gad. Jem vr, ka ar 1 miljons tirgoto akciju nav daudz, jo
pasaules lielkos tirgos tds tirgoto vrtspapru skaits nav retums pat 1
dienas laik.

Tirgotais parda vrtspapru skaits tikai ptm perioda pirmajos
gados sasniedza daus miljonus vrtspapru gad, 2001.g. prsniedzot 4
miljonus. Tomr turpmkajos gados tas ir mazks par miljonu gad,
2011.g. sasniedzot tikai 13117 vrtspaprus, tomr jatzm, ka lielk
daa darjumu ar parda vrtspapriem notiek rpusbiras tirgos, tpc
ar vairum gadjumu parda vrtspapri nenodroina augstus biras
tirdzniecbas statistikas rdtjus.
Rdtjs, kas ar raksturo tirgus attstbu un ir viens no
populrkajiem, bet nepieder pie tirdzniecbas statistikas, ir
kapitalizcija, kas parda tirgus kopjo vrtbu. Klasisk gadjum is
radtjs vairk attiecas uz akcijm, tomr ldzgs rdtjs tiek aprints
ar parda vrtspapru gadjum.

7.attls. Tirgus kapitalizcija NASDAQ OMX Rga no
2000. ldz 2011.g., milj. LVL (13.)

Akciju tirgus kapitalizcijas rdtjs augstko lmeni sasniedza laika
period no 2005.g. ldz 2007.g., kad strauji pieauga akciju cenas. Tomr
krzes ietekm kapitalizcijas rdtjs samazinjs un 2011.g. sastdja
40% no t maksimls vrtbas. Kapitalizcijas rdtja dinamika atbilst
tendencm pasaul, tomr kapitalizcijas rdtjs absolt izteiksm ir
neliels, jo pasaules praks par mazas kapitalizcijas uzmumu atzst
tdu, kam kapitalizcija ir zem 2 miljardiem ASV dolru. Jatzm, ka
Eiropas biras, kuras iepriek tika mintas k ldzgas darjumu skaita vai
vrtspapru skaita zi, uzrda daudz augstkus kapitalizcijas rdtjus.
Piemram, ubanas bir 2010.g. kapitalizcija sasniedza 4896 milj. latu,
bet rijas bir pat 31499 milj. latu (19.).
Veicot vrtspapru tirgus analzi Latvij, k skotnj, t otrreizj
tirg, tika secints, ka laik no 2000.g. vrtspapru tirg kopum nav
novrojamas pozitvas attstbas tendences. Vairku rdtju dinamika ir
ldzga ar kaimivalstu tirgos. Tomr ir ar statistikas rdtji, kas nav

sliktki k cits Eiropas mazajs birs. Bet satraucos ir fakts, ka virkne
svargu tirgus rdtju uzrda negatvas tendences jau ilgstoi un nekas
neliecina, ka tie vartu uzlaboties. Veicot ptjumus par Latvijas tirgus
attstbu jau vairkus gadus, jsecina, ka ilgstoi tirgus attstbas
problmas tika pamatotas ar nepietiekamu sabiedrbas izpratni par
vrtspapru tirgus darbbu kopum un iespjm, ko tas vartu piedvt
k ieguldtjiem, t ar emitentiem. Tpat akcentts tika vsturiskas
pieredzes trkums vai ar negatva vsturiska pieredze. Autore uzskata,
ka pdjos gados jau ir paveikts nopietns darbs, izgltojot sabiedrbu. aj
darb ir aktvi iesaistjuies pai tirgus dalbnieki, organizjot dadus
izgltojous paskumus, k ar nodroinot ieinterests personas ar
kvalitatviem izgltojoiem materiliem, tdjdi o problmu liel mra
atrisinot.
Parasti tirgus sekmgai attstbai ir nepiecieams, lai tirg aktvi
darbotos visi t dalbnieki. Tomr vissvargk loma ir tiei emitentiem
un ieguldtjiem. Novrtjot situciju ar ieguldtjiem var secint, ka tirg
ir pietiekami daudz potencilo ieguldtju, pai institucionlo ieguldtju
vid, kur aktvi darbojas gan kredtiestdes, gan ieguldjumu un pensiju
fondi. Var mint faktu, ka valsts fondto pensiju shmu un ieguldjumu
fondu aktvi 2011.g. 3.ceturka beigs sastda vairk k miljardu latu,
kas liecina par potencilu jaunu vrtspapru izvietoanai, tpat pdj
laik ir novrojams, ka eogrfiskaj fondu ldzeku struktr Latvijas
patsvars strauji sark (18.). Ldzinjs emisijas parasti sekmgi ir
tikuas realiztas skotnj tirg, daudzos gadjumos pc vrtspapriem
ticis fiksts tds pieprasjums, kas btiski prsniedz piedvjumu. K tika
secints skotnj tirgus analz, tad btiska problma ir tiei jaunu
emisiju trkums, jo ne emisiju skaits, ne ar piedvto vrtspapru skaits
un apjoms nav td lmen, lai uzskattu, ka vrtspapru tirgus ar savu
devumu ir pietiekami nozmgs kaut vai Latvijas finanu tirgus kontekst.
Situcijas uzlaboanai autore rekomend darboties divos
virzienos strdt ar esoajiem emitentiem, jo tiem ir zinma pieredze
ldzeku piesaistan, un strdt pie jaunu emitentu meklanas,
vislielko uzmanbu pievrot tiei valsts uzmumu vrtspapru
kotanai bir. K liecina Komercreistr pieejam informcija, tad
Latvij ir tikai dai simti akciju sabiedrbu un k komercdarbbas forma,
ts Latvij nav populras, saldzinot ar SIA (sabiedrba ar ierobeotu
atbildbu), kuru skaits ir tuvu 100 tkstoiem. Tdjdi cert uz daudz
jauniem emitentiem akciju tirg btu nereli. Savukrt esoie valsts
uzmumi bir vartu kott kdu dau no akcijm, piemram, 25%,
tpat ar emitt parda vrtspaprus investciju projektu finansanai.
dam solim ir virkne priekrocbu, jo valsts uzmumi ne vien
piesaisttu kapitlu dadu projektu realizcijai, bet ar ktu daudz

caurspdgki sabiedrbai, tpat tie vartu celt ar biras un visa Latvijas
vrtspapru tirgus prestiu, ievrojami uzlabojot kapitalizcijas un
tirdzniecbas apgrozjuma rdtjus. Jebkur interesents regulri ar
biras starpniecbu iegtu pieeju jaunkajai finanu informcijai. Tpat
emitentiem btu jnodroina regulra informcijas atklana ar citos
aspektos. Jautjums par valsts uzmumu akciju kotana bir laiku pa
laikam pards mdijos, tam tiek izteikts atbalsts no tirgus dalbnieku
puses, ar atseviu politiu puses, tomr tlk jautjums netiek risints.
Valsts uzmumu akciju kotana birs nav nekas jauns, jo t ir
populra Skandinvijas valsts, kur bir kotjas, piemram, Statoil
akcijas, kur Norvijas valstij joprojm pieder 2/3 akciju. Gada prskat
Par Latvijas valstij piederoiem aktviem 2009.gad ir redzams, ka
kopum valsts uzmumi uzrda pietiekami augstus finanu rdtjus,
izmaks ievrojamas dividendes, nodroina vairk nek 50 000 darba
vietu, tpc daudzi no tiem atbilstu biras prasbm un vartu
vrtspaprus kott bir. K relks akciju sabiedrbas, kuru akcijas
vartu tikt kottas bir, var mint AS Latvenergo, kam ir pietiekoi labi
un stabili finanu rdtji, AS Latvijas Valsts Mei, kas ir uzmums ar
augstiem rentabilittes rdtjiem, AS Latvijas dzelzce, kas ir
uzmums ar lielu apgrozjumu. Tpat vartu tikt apspriesti ar citi
kandidti, k, piemram, AS Air Baltic Corporation, AS Latvijas pasts,
tomr o uzmumu finanu rdtji ir problemtiski. Galven
priekrocba du uzmumu akciju kotanai vartu bt tiei to
darbbas caurspdguma palielinana.
Veicot ptjumu Latvijas vrtspapru tirgus attstbas iespjas un
problmas tika secints:
1. Skotnjais vrtspapru tirgus ir neaktvs un nepiedv plaas
ieguldjumu iespjas, ko apliecina:
a) reistrto emisiju skaita statistika, jo gad notiek ne vairk
k dai desmiti akciju un korporatvo parda vrtspapru
emisiju. Pdjos gados to skaits svrsts starp 1015
emisijm gad. Lielks emisiju skaits ir tikai valsts parda
vrtspapriem.
b) reistrto emisiju kopjais apjoms ptmaj laika period
(11 gadu laik) sasniedz tikai nepilnu 1 miljardu latu.
Tomr strukturli piedvjums ir pietiekami daudzveidgs
jo parda vrtspapriem ir gan dadi termii, gan valtas,
gan citi nosacjumi.
c) lielk daa korporatvo parda vrtspapru emisijas ir
slgtas, bet akciju gadjum tda ir aptuveni 1/3 no kopja

emisiju skaita, tdjdi samazinot jau t nelielo vrtspapru
pieejambu plakm ieguldtju masm.
2. Otrreizjo tirgu raksturojoiem rdtjiem ir negatvas
tendences, ko apliecina:
a) kotto akciju skaita samazinjums ptmaj laika period
uz pusi.
b) akciju un parda vrtspapru tirdzniecbas apgrozjuma
samazinans ptmaj laika period par 95%. Ir
vrojams ar darjumu skaita un tirgoto vrtspapru skaita
samazinjums. Ldzgas tendences ir ar kaimivalstu
birs, tomr tur samazinjums ir saldzinoi daudz
mazks.
c) akciju tirdzniecb nozmgu vietu ieem vidji 5 akciju
sabiedrbas, kurm tirgoto akciju skaits gad prsniedz 1
miljonu akciju.
3. Vjo tirgus rdtju galvenais clonis ir jaunu emitentu trkums
tirg, nevis citu tirgus dalbnieku trkums vai nespja pildt
savas funkcijas.
Pamatojoties uz ptjum gait izdartajiem secinjumiem, ir
izstrdti sekojoi prieklikumi:
1. Ieinterestajiem tirgus dalbniekiem turpint sabiedrbas
izgltoanu vrtspapru tirgus jautjumos, galveno uzmanbu
pievrot tiei potencilajiem emitentiem, jo tiei emitenti ir
atzstami par tirgus attstbas vjo posmu;
2. Tuvko gadu laik uzskt valsts uzmumu kotanu bir,
tdjdi uzlabojot gan vrtspapru tirgus rdtjus, gan padarot
o uzmumu darbbu caurspdgku ikvienam sabiedrbas
loceklim.
1. Finanu instrumentu tirgus likums. LR Saeimas 2003.g. 20.nov. likums. Latvijas
Vstnesis. 2003. 11.dec. Nr. 175.
2. Ieguldtju aizsardzbas likums. LR Saeimas 2001.g. 8.nov. likums. Latvijas
Vstnesis. 2001. 23.nov. Nr. 170.
3. KLAUSS, A. Zinbas vadtjam. Rga: Preses nams, 2002. 560 lpp.
4. Akciju tirgus korelcija ar ekonomikas datiem [tiesaiste]. Jnis Pravis
http://www.nasdaqomxbaltic.com/lv/birzasinformacija/par
mums/publikacijas/petijumi/
5. Gada prskats Latvijas valstij piederoi aktvi [tiesaiste]. LR Ministru
kabineta publikcija [atsauce 2012.g. 10.febr.]. Pieejas veids:
http://www.mk.gov.lv/files/2009_Latvija_Gada_Paarskats_20100916.pdf
6. Guide to NASDAQ OMX Baltic Securities Market 2011 [atsauce 2012.g. 10.febr.].
Pieejas veids:
http://www.nasdaqomxbaltic.com/files/baltic/NASDAQ_OMX_Baltic_10.pdf

7. Latvijas Centrlais Depozitrijs LCD reistrtie vrtspapri [atsauce 2012.g.
10.febr.]. Pieejas veids:
http://www.nasdaqomxbaltic.com/lv/csds/registretievertspapiri/
8. Latvijas Centrlais Depozitrijs OTC statistika [atsauce 2012.g. 10.febr.]. Pieejas
veids: http://www.nasdaqomxbaltic.com/lv/csds/statistika2/otcstatistika/
9. Latvijas Centrlais Depozitrijs Tirgus statistika [atsauce 2012.g. 10.febr.].
Pieejas veids: http://www.nasdaqomxbaltic.com/lv/csds/statistika2/tirgus
statistika2009/
10. NASDAQ OMX RIGA Baltijas akciju saraksti [atsauce 2012.g. 10.febr.]. Pieejas
veids: http://www.nasdaqomxbaltic.com/market/?pg=mainlist&lang=lv
11. NASDAQ OMX RIGA Dati par Latvijas vrtspapru tirgu 19952011 [atsauce
2012.g. 10.febr.]. Pieejas veids: http://www.nasdaqomxbaltic.com/lv/birzas
informacija/parmums/nasdaqomxriga/
12. NASDAQ OMX RIGA Indeksi [atsauce 2012.g. 10.febr.]. Pieejas veids:
http://www.nasdaqomxbaltic.com/market/?pg=charts&lang=lv
13. NASDAQ OMX RIGA Kapitalizcijas statistika [atsauce 2012.g. 10.febr.]. Pieejas
veids: http://www.nasdaqomxbaltic.com/market/?pg=capital&lang=lv
14. NASDAQ OMX RIGA Parda vrtspapru saraksts un emitenti [atsauce 2012.g.
10.febr.]. Pieejas veids:
http://www.nasdaqomxbaltic.com/market/?pg=bonds&lang=lv
15. NASDAQ OMX RIGA Tirdzniecbas statistika [atsauce 2012.g. 10.febr.]. Pieejas
veids: http://www.nasdaqomxbaltic.com/market/?pg=stats&lang=lv
16. Par Latvijas banku darbbas operatvajiem rdtjiem 2011.gada 3.ceturksn
[atsauce 2012.g. 19.febr.].Pieejas veids:
http://www.fktk.lv/lv/publikacijas/pazinojumi_masu_informacijas_l/2011/2
0111021_par_latvijas_banku_darbi
17. Prskats par valsts fondto pensiju ieguldjumu plniem [atsauce 2012.g.
19.febr.]. Pieejas veids: http://www.manapensija.lv/plans/ip00000.php
18. Valsts fondto pensiju shmas ldzeku prvaldana 2011.gada 3.ceturksn
http://fktk.lv/lv/statistika/pensiju_fondi/ceturksna_parskati/201112
16_valsts_fondeto_pensiju_s/
19. World Federation of Exchanges Annual statistics reports [atsauce 2012.g.
10.febr.]. Pieejas veids: http://www.world
exchanges.org/statistics/annual/2010
Summary
Securities market and its development is important for economy in every
country, because it performs not only classical specific functions for any market, but
also provides financial redistribution. In the same way securities market serves as an
indicator for assessment of economic trends because it is one of the indicators
characterizing the economic cycles.
In Latvia the securities market has developed since the mid90s of the 20th
century, when the laws and regulations were worked out, and the most important
market participants started their activities. The market infrastructure was constantly
improved, providing adequate legal framework, however, many indicators
characterizing the development of securities market do not show positive trends in
recent years.

Against this background, the aim of the study is to analyse the most important
statistical indicators of securities market, to determine the market trends and
problems and to offer solutions.
The study period is from 2000 to 2011, which is based on the fact that for this
period there is full information available, and during this period the impact of
privatization on market statistics is not longer felt.
Initial development of the market is characterized by a new issue of securities
into the market. In the study period at the Latvian Central Depository there have been
few registered emissions for debt securities as well as for shares. The maximum
number of emissions for corporate debt securities was 24 emissions per year, but for
shares only 21 emissions per year, at the same time there is no regularity in the
relationship between reported emissions and the amount of processes in economy as
a whole, the amount of reported emissions changes chaotically from year to year.
Similar trends are also shown at the Latvian Central Depository of Securities in
statistics about registered amount of securities. Within one year, the amount of
registered shares do not exceed 25 million LVL, while corporate debt securities are in
a slightly higher amount, particularly in recent years, when in 2010 they amounted to
93.5 million LVL, but these amounts remain limited on the overall background of
financial market. Higher emissions and amount is only for government securities, but
it should not be viewed as a positive indicator because the amount of growth is based
on the deficit.
A variety of trade statistics is used in characterization of secondary market
development. In the study period the number of traded shares in the Stock Exchange
has fallen by half, showing that the number of securities is unstable, but it is not a
downward trend. Trade turnover has decreased over the surveyed period, in the
stock market by 81%, but debt securities turnover from 424 million LVL in 2001 to
below 1 million LVL in 2011. The turnover has decreased in the Stock Exchanges of
neighbouring countries, but the decrease is not so important. Despite the dramatic
reduction in sales, other parameters characterizing marketing (the number of
transactions, the number of traded securities, etc.) were more stable and have shown
a degree of stability or even a small increase during recent years.
Primary and secondary market analyses revealed the following problems:
1. number and amount of the newly registered emissions are low, which
indicates that the redistribution function that must be performed by
market in economy is not completely carried out. Many of the new issues
are closed, which means that they are not accessible to the potential
investors, but the advantage is the growing variety of debt securities
issues are in different currencies, for different periods, with different
maturity terms.
2. the most important characteristics of the secondary market development
indicators demonstrate a negative trend that the number of quoted shares
is declining, the stock and bond market turnover in 2011 is only 5% from
2000 level. Weak trade figures also point to low liquidity, which is a
particularly important indicator of market quality.
Problems identified in the primary and secondary market indicate that
sufficient quantities of new securities do not enter the market therefore poor
performance is present in the primary market and also in the secondary market. The
situation can be improved only by attraction of new issuers to the market because it
is established that the problem of market development based on the lack of investors

or other market participants is unable to provide qualitative service. To improve the
situation in the coming years, operations in two directions are recommended: to
work with existing issuers and public entities that have a potential to enter the
security market business.


QUALITY ANALYSIS REGARDING ADVERTISEMENTS
OF SMALL AND MEDIUMSIZED ENTERPRISES
LATVIJAS MAZO UN VIDJO UZMUMU REKLMAS
ZIOJUMU KVALITTES ANALZE
Sergejs VOLVENKINS
Degree candidate, University of Latvia, Faculty of Economics and Management
Phone: +371 29435194, email: rigalat@gmail.com
Riga, Latvia

Abstract. The aim of the paper is to determine and analyse the quality of
advertisements created by small and mediumsized enterprises (SMEs) of Latvia. SMEs
often devote unreasonably little attention to the quality of making an advertisement
regardless of the restrictions faced by SMEs in their activity: lack of resources, lack of
marketing experience, scope of business activity, as well as tactical and strategic
customeroriented problems. The owners of SMEs do not have the required knowledge
and experience in making efficient advertisements, entrepreneurs do not believe in the
effect, which may be obtained from marketing communications by laying greater
emphasis on other marketing activities and, thereby, underestimating the contribution
of advertising in relation to promotion of products in the market. (2; 5; 12)
Keywords: advertisement, SME.

Introduction
Advertising is one of the tools providing help to the entrepreneurs
to generate a new flow of customers. Taking into account the restrictions
faced by SMEs in their economic activities, entrepreneurs may allocate
very limited and sometimes even little resources for advertising
activities. This fact substantially increases the importance of quality of an
advertisement. The more qualitative and correct is the advertisement
made, the greater is the return of advertising. (1; 9; 11).
Entrepreneurs will have a possibility to use the results of this
research in order to improve the quality of advertisements and to
increase the return from the resources invested in advertising.
Methodology
There are 231 press editions in Latvia (magazines and newspapers
in Latvian and Russian). The author of the paper has selected
advertisements at random: out of 231 press editions every third edition
was taken. Advertisements were selected out of 77 press editions.
Circulation of these media for the last three months was selected. Every
third advertisement was selected from each press edition apart from the
advertisements of large enterprises. Thereby, 824 advertisements were
selected (13.).

The author of the paper has assumed that SMEs make substantial
mistakes in their advertisements. In order to check this statement the
author of the paper has investigated 824 advertisements created by
SMEs. The author of the paper has also invited five highly qualified
experts to evaluate the selected advertisements: two experts represented
science and three experts were representatives of the leading advertising
agencies: Euro RSCG, JWT and Inorek&Grey.
Each advertisement consists of several components performing
certain functions. The key components of an advertisement are as
follows: headline, basic text, slogan, logo and visual layout. The author
has analysed all the aforementioned components in this paper (3.).
All the components except a logo were evaluated by experts
according to the fivegrade scale where 1 means totally unsatisfactory
and 5 satisfactory.
Research results
Headline
A headline performs an important function in the advertisement.
Several studies have proved that while turning over the pages, a person
initially spends only 23 seconds for reading an advertisement. During
this time the advertiser must attract the readers attention, as well as
motivate to read the content of the advertisement. In other words, the
amount of people willing to acquaint themselves with the content of
advertisement greatly depends on the headline. By reading the headline a
person quickly determines whether the particular advertisement is
interesting for him/her at that moment or not. If there is no headline, a
person is not able to make a decision whether it is worth to acquaint
himself/herself with an advertisement. The headline must be simple and
easily understandable. If it is not possible to understand the headline,
there is a great possibility that a person will not pay any attention to the
advertisement. One should avoid blind headlines when they are made
with the only purpose to attract peoples attention. In such case a lot of
people can acquaint themselves with an advertisement, except the target
audience of an advertiser (1; 7; 8; 9).
In the framework of this research, the experts were offered to
evaluate the headline from 0 to 5 grades, where 0 meant that, in the
experts opinion, the advertisement did not have a headline at all, 1 that
the headline was totally unsatisfactory (did not express the essence of
the content of an advertisement, nor encouraged to read the
advertisement further) and 5 meant that the headline of the
advertisement was completely satisfactory and encouraged to read the
advertisement thoroughly. The analysis of the results showed that the

evaluation made by each expert is below the average, namely, below 3
grades. The higher average evaluation is made by expert No.3 (JWT) and
equals to 2.71 grades. The lowest evaluation is made by expert No.1,
being 2.51 (University of Latvia). A mode or the most frequently used
evaluation is 2. Regardless of the critical importance of the headline, in
10.7% of the cases on average there was no headline in SMEs
advertisements at all. Figure 1 demonstrates how each expert
individually evaluated the headlines.

2,8
2,7 2,71
2,7 2,67
2,6 2,55
2,51
2,5
2,4
Eksperts Nr. 1 Eksperts Nr. 2 Eksperts Nr. 3 Eksperts Nr. 4 Eksperts Nr. 5
Figure 1. Average evaluation of the headline made by each expert
(authors research results)

60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 2. Evaluation of the headline (proportion of grades)
Basic text
A basic text it is a logical continuation of the headline. Its basic
task is to turn the readers attracted attention into the interest about the
advertised product, as well as motivate to perform an action. In order to
do that it is necessary not only to specify the needs of the potential

customer, but also the way how to satisfy them. The text should contain
the arguments, which would convince to purchase the product. Every
word in the basic text is important and therefore banalities should be
avoided, the language should be precise, and, as far as possible, the facts
should be mentioned. To rouse the readers interest and to motivate
him/her to an action, the basic text should include answers to six
questions (5 Ws and one H):
what what is advertised,
who who is the advertiser,
when the period within which it is possible to purchase the
product,
where the place where it is possible to purchase the product,
how product purchase conditions,
why benefits received by the customer upon buying the product
(1.; 7.; 9.).
In the framework of our research, experts evaluated the basic text
of an advertisement according to the 5 grade scale from 1 to 5, where 1
meant that the basic text is totally unsatisfactory (does not motivate,
neither convinces nor rouses interest) and 5 meant that the basic text is
very satisfactory. 0 in experts evaluations indicates that there was no
basic text in the advertisement. The evaluation results (Figure 3) showed
that each expert evaluated the basic text below 3 grades. That means that
the quality of the basic text, as well as quality of the headline is below the
average. The lowest evaluation is made by expert No.1 (University of
Latvia) and it is 2.71 grades of the five possible grades. The highest
evaluation of the basic text is made by expert No.5 (Inorek&Grey) and it
is 2.93 grades. A mode or the most frequently used evaluation is 3. In
5.4% of the cases on average there was no basic text in the
advertisement.
3
2,93
2,88 2,89
2,9
2,8
2,74
2,71
2,7
2,6
2,5
Nr. 1 Nr. 2 Nr. 3 Nr. 4 Nr. 5

Figure 3. Average evaluation of the basic text made by each expert

60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 4. Evaluation of the basic text (proportion of grades)
Slogan
A slogan it is a laconic, easily recognizable phrase providing the
essence of the advertisement. The slogan briefly and concisely formulates
the essence of the offer and plays an important role in the advertisement.
The slogan should demonstrate a benefit of the customer. Slogans are
often used to show a position of the company. In general, slogans may be
divided into three groups:
related. Include a name of the product. The name and slogan of
the product are not separable.
attracted. Related to the name of the product both by rhythm,
and phonetics. Namely, a slogan may be used without the name
of the product but in such a case, a slogan will not be so
understandable.
independent. These slogans are created without the name of the
product. The drawback of these slogans is the fact that it is
often complicated to connect or associate them with the
product. (1; 7).
In the framework of this research, the experts evaluated slogans
according to a 5grade Likert scale, where 1 meant that a slogan was
totally unsatisfactory (did not express the essence of the offer, did not
specify the benefit of the customer, nor showed the position) and 5
very satisfactory. 0 meant that there was no slogan in the
advertisement. The analysis of slogan evaluations demonstrates that all
experts evaluated them a little above the average, namely, above 3 grades
(Figure 5). The lowest evaluation is made by expert No.5 (Inorek&Grey)
and it is 3.07 grades. The highest evaluation is made by expert No.3
(JWT) and it is 3.74 grades. However, Figure 6 shows the proportion of
the advertisements without a slogan pursuant to the experts evaluations.

On average, 87.4% of SMEs neither take the advantages of a slogan nor
try to show the position of the company or benefit of the customer briefly
and concisely. Undoubtedly, it is a great mistake.

4 3,74
3,2 3,09 3,18 3,07
3
0
Nr. 1 Nr. 2 Nr. 3 Nr. 4 Nr. 5

Figure 5. Average evaluation of the slogan made by each expert

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 6. Evaluation of the slogan (proportion of grades)
Visual layout
An advertisement is not imaginable without a visual layout which
includes an illustration, logo of the company, graphic headline and other
parts of the text, as well as some other additional components (frames,
bullets, etc.).
The key function of the visual layout is to attract the attention of
readers. Moreover, there are also other functions, such as:
indicatory. The existing visual objects tell about the content of
the advertisement, specify the subject of the advertisement, its

users, as well as various details related to the subject and the
users.
organizational. Serves to provide a harmonic advertising
composition, as well as manage the readers attention in the
sequence required by the advertiser.
interpreting. Helps to explain complicated information. Graphs
and charts are mainly used for this purpose.
transforming. Often specified figuratively.
decorative. In this case decorative components are established
to make an advertisement more attractive for the readers
perception.
Visual components in the advertisement may perform several tasks
among which there are also the following tasks:
to attract attention of the potential customers,
to maintain attention during perception of an advertisement,
to interpret properties of the product declared in the text,
to provide atmosphere of faithfulness,
to arouse an intention to purchase the product. (1; 6; 10).
In the framework of this research, the experts also evaluated the
visual layout according to the Likert scale from 1 to 5, where 1 meant
that the visual layout is totally unsatisfactory (low quality illustration,
does not attract attention) and 5 that the visual layout is very
satisfactory. Only the average evaluation made by expert No.2 (Euro
RSCG) was a little above the average, namely, 3.02 (Figure 7). The rest
experts evaluated the visual layout below the average. The lowest
average evaluation is made by expert No.1 (University of Latvia).

3,05 3,02
3
2,96 2,95
2,95 2,93
2,9 2,87
2,85
2,8
2,75
Nr.1 Nr.2 Nr.3 Nr.4 Nr.5

Figure 7. Average evaluation of the visual layout made by each expert


80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1 2 3 4 5

Figure 8. Evaluation of the visual layout (proportion of grades)
Logo
A logo is the original image of full or abbreviated name of the
organization or product. A logo is one of the most important components
of the corporate image of the enterprise. It serves to identify the
enterprise in the market, as well as to distinguish products of different
enterprises. A correctly made logo must be:
easily remaining in ones memory,
original,
associative,
expressive,
functional,
laconic.
In consumers opinion, the existence of a logo serves as a quality
guarantee of the product. The products without a logo are called as
noname. Three types of logos are most often mentioned in the
literature:
original graphic image of the name,
a symbol of the enterprise. Type image,
a block of the enterprise. Combination of the name and image.
A logo should perform the following 6 main functions:
actual,
expressive,
referential,
impressive,
poetic,
metalinguistic. (1.; 6.)

The experts of our research had to determine if there is a logo in
the advertisement or not. As it is seen in Figure 9, it was disclosed that on
average, in 21.7% of the cases SMEs do not place a logo in their
advertisements.

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
with logo without logo

Figure 9. Existence of logo in the advertisement according to the evaluations
made by experts
Conclusion
Experts evaluated the four key components of an advertisement
headline, basic text, slogan and visual layout according to the fivedegree
scale. The evaluation has/does not have was made for the fifth
component a logo of an advertisement. The commission of experts
consisted of 5 people among whom there were the leading specialists of
the international advertising agencies Euro RSCG, Inorek&Grey and JWT,
as well as two scientists of the University of Latvia. The implemented
research allows for conclusion that, in general, advertisements of SMEs
are of unsatisfactory quality.
Upon summarizing evaluations of each advertisement component it
was established that, in general, all the components are provided in low
quality, namely, each component performs its functions in the
advertisement rather satisfactorily. The main research results are as
follows: the maximum average evaluation of the headline is 2.71 grades
(expert No.3, JWT), the maximum average evaluation of the basic text is
2.93 (expert No.5, Inorek&Grey), the maximum average evaluation of the
slogan is 3.74 (expert No.3, JWT) and the maximum average evaluation of
the visual layout 3.02 grades (expert No.2, Euro RSCG). On average,
87.4% of SMEs do not use a slogan in their advertisements.

SMEs still have large reserves to improve the quality of
advertisements. Entrepreneurs should pay attention to each component
of an advertisement and try to make it as efficient as possible. However,
this research did not provide an answer to the question how each
component should be improved to make it efficient and how to make it
perform its functions as completely as possible. It is one of the main tasks
for the following research.
Advertising is not the only factor which helps enterprises to ensure
development but its improvement is one of the compulsory measures,
which will facilitate to increase competitiveness of SMEs. Qualitative
communication will allow entrepreneurs to increase efficiency of
advertising, as well as return from the resources invested in marketing.
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13. SJSC Latvijas Pasts.
Kopsavilkums
Eksperti pc piecu ballu skalas vrtja etrus galvenos reklmas ziojuma
elementus virsrakstu, pamattekstu, saukli un vizulo noformjumu. Piektajam
elementam logotipam tika dots vrtjums ir/nav reklmas ziojum. Veiktais
ptjums auj secint, ka mazo un vidjo uzmumu (MVU) reklmas ziojumu
kvalitte kopum ir neapmierinoa. Apkopojot katra reklmas elementa vrtjumus,
tika konstatts, ka visiem elementiem kopum ir nekvalitatvs izpildjums, proti, katrs
elements visai viduvji pilda savas funkcijas reklmas ziojum.

Virsraksts mrketinga komunikcijs pilda svargu funkciju. Daudzi ptjumi ir
pierdjui, ka cilvks, irot lapas, reklmai skotnji atvl tikai 23 sekundes. Pa o
laiku reklmdevjam jpiesaista lastja uzmanba un jveicina motivcija iepazties
ar reklmas ziojuma saturu. Ar virsraksta paldzbu cilvks tri nosaka, vai izvietot
reklma taj brd viam liekas interesanta, vai n. Ja virsraksta nav, cilvks nevar
pieemt lmumu, vai ar reklmas ziojumu ir vrts iepazties. Virsrakstam jbt
vienkram, viegli saprotamam un uztveramam. Ja to nav iespjams saprast, pastv
liela varbtba, ka cilvks reklmas ziojumam nepievrss uzmanbu. Jizvairs no
akliem virsrakstiem, kas sastdti viengi ar nolku piesaistt cilvku uzmanbu.
d gadjum ar reklmu var iepazties daudzi cilvki, bet tikai ne reklmdevja
mrauditorija.
ptjuma ietvaros ekspertiem tika piedvts novrtt virsrakstus robes no
0 ldz 5 ballm. Rezulttu analze atklja, ka katra eksperta vrtjums ir zem 3 ballm.
Lielkais vidjais vrtjums ir ekspertam Nr.3 2,71 balle. Zemkais vrtjums ir
ekspertam Nr.1 2,51. Moda jeb visbiek sastopamais vrtjums ir 2. Neskatoties uz
virsraksta nozmgumu, vidji 10,7% gadjumu MVU reklms virsraksta nebija
vispr.
Pamatteksts ir virsraksta loisks turpinjums. T galvenais uzdevums ir
lastju piesaistto uzmanbu prvrst interes par reklamjamo produktu un motivt
veikt tlku darbbu. Lai to izdartu, nepiecieams ne tikai nordt uz potencil
pircja vajadzbm, bet ar uz ceu, k ts iespjams apmierint. Tekst jbt
mintiem argumentiem, kas pircju sptu prliecint iegdties konkrto produktu.
Pamattekst ir svargs katrs vrds, tpc taj jizvairs no banalittm, jrun preczi,
un ja tas ir iespjams, jmin fakti.
Ptjum eksperti vrtja reklmas pamattekstu. Vrtjuma rezultti parda,
ka katrs eksperts pamattekstu novrtja zemk par 3 ballm. Tas nozm, ka
pamatteksta kvalitte tpat k virsraksta kvalitte ir zem vidj vrtjuma. Zemkais
vrtjums ir ekspertam Nr.1 un tas ir 2,71 balle no piecm iespjamajm. Augstkais
pamatteksta vrtjums ir ekspertam Nr.5 un tas sastda 2,93 balles. Moda jeb
visbiek sastopamais vrtjums ir 3 balles. Vidji 5,4% gadjumu reklmas laukum
nebija pamatteksta.
Sauklis t ir lakoniska, viegli atpazstama frze. Sauklis atklj piedvjuma
btbu s un kodolg form un tam ir atvlta svarga loma reklmas ziojuma
laukum. Sauklim jparda pircja ieguvums. Biei vien saukus izmanto, lai pardtu
uzmuma pozicionjumu.
ptjuma ietvaros eksperti vrtja saukus. Sauku vrtjumu analze parda,
ka visi eksperti novrtja tos nedaudz virs vidj lmea, proti, virs 3 ballm.
Zemkais vrtjums ir ekspertam Nr.5 un tas ir 3,07 balles. Augstkais vrtjums ir
ekspertam Nr.3 (3,74 balles). Vidji 87,4% MVU neizmanto sauka priekrocbas un
necenas s un kodolg veid pardt uzmuma pozicionjumu vai pircja
ieguvumu.
Reklmas ziojums nav iedomjams bez vizul noformjuma. Pie t pieder
dizains, uzmuma simbolika, grafiski noformts virsraksts un citas teksta daas,
atsevii citi papildus elementi.
ptjuma ietvaros eksperti vrtja vizulo noformjumu. Tikai eksperta Nr.2
vidjais vrtjums bija nedaudz virs vidj, proti, 3,02. Prjie eksperti vizulo
noformjumu novrtja zem vidj. Zemkais vidjais vrtjums ir ekspertam Nr.1.

Logotips ir oriinls pilns vai sasints organizcijas vai produkta nosaukuma
attls. Logotips ir viens no svargkajiem uzmuma korporatv imida (tla)
elementiem. Tas kalpo, lai ar t paldzbu vartu identifict uzmumu un atirt
dadu uzmumu produktus.
Aplkotaj ptjum ekspertiem bija jnosaka, vai logotips ir iekauts reklmas
ziojum, vai nav. Tika konstatts, ka vidji 21,7% gadjumu MVU vispr neizvieto
logotipu savos reklmas ziojumos.
MVU biei vien nepamatoti maz uzmanbas velta reklmas ziojuma izstrdes
kvalittei, neskatoties uz ierobeojumiem, ar kuriem MVU saskaras sav darbb:
resursu trkums, mrketinga pieredzes trkums, uzmjdarbbas apmrs, taktisks
un stratisks uz klientu orientts problmas. MVU paniekiem trkst
nepiecieamo zinanu un pieredzes efektvu reklmas ziojumu izstrd, uzmji
netic efektam, ko iespjams pankt no mrketinga komunikcijm. Lielku uzsvaru
MVU liek uz citm mrketinga aktivittm, tdjdi ldz galam nenovrtjot reklmas
ieguldjumu produktu virzan tirg.

CITA UZMUMA TIRDZNIECBAS VAI PAKALPOJUMU
ZMES IZMANTOANAS EKONOMISKS SEKAS
THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF USE OF ANOTHERS
COMPANIES TRADE MARK OR SERVICE MARK

, ,
.: +370 610 30036, email: ivetavitkute@yahoo.com
,

, ,
.: +370 671 11055, email: jurideks@gmail.com
,

Abstract. Today the fashion of unfair use of Trade mark or Service mark is rooted in
trade. The question is do the new challenges of economy endanger the security of
society, market and human rights? The idea of branding went the limit of commerce
many years ago. Its impact on social and cultural terms has become immeasurable. She
broke into education, sports, fashion world, business travel, art and literature. In other
words, branding has become a matrix spiritual ideological matrix of society, a
manifestation of trust. The violation of branding, as violation of rights of intellectual
property, impact on many areas the economy, the reputation, the final users of mark.
The article deals with the values concerning the illegal, unfair use of the Trade marks or
Service marks of intellectual property in order to determine how and how much it
influences interests of consumers, producers, suppliers and affects processes of
economics of a state.
Keywords: Trade mark, Service mark, unfair use of the Trade mark or Service mark, an
economic damage, the rights of manufacturers and users.

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1. Lietuvos Respublikos administracini teiss paeidim kodeksas. Valstybs
inios, 1985, Nr. 11 (
. , Nr. 11).
2. Lietuvos Respublikos baudiamasis kodeksas. Valstybs inios, 2000, Nr. 89
2741 ( .
, 2000, Nr. 892741).
3. Lietuvos Respublikos konkurencijos statymas. Valstybs inios, 1999, Nr. 30
856 ( .
, 1999, Nr. 30856).
4. Lietuvos Respublikos muitins statymas. Valstybs inios, 2004, Nr. 732517
( . , 2004,
Nr. 732517)
5. Lietuvos Respublikos preki enkl statymas. Valstybs inios, 2000, Nr. 92
2844 ( .
,. 2000, Nr. 922844)
6. Paryiaus konvencija dl pramonins nuosavybs saugojimo. Valstybs
inios, 1996, Nr. 751796 (
. , 1996, Nr. 75
1796)
7. 192/72 Van
Zuylen Freresv. HAGA G(HAG I) [1974] ECR 731
8. Preki enklai ir j krimas. Istorija, vert, praktika (straipsni rinkinys).
Vilnius: Alma litera. 2011 ( . ,
, ( ). : . 2011)

9. SAVIANO Roberto. Gomora. Vilnius. 2009 ( . .
. 2009 ( ))
10. ILINSKAS Jonas Vytautas, KASPERAVIIUS Petras, KIKIS Mindaugas.
Intelektin nuosavyb ir jos teisin apsauga. Klaipda. 2007 (
, , .
. . 2007 (
))
11. . . . . 1. :
, 2004 p. 181182.
12. BERANSKIEN Renata. Pasakojimas apie netikr blizges. Verslo teis. 2011
rugpjio 18 d. ( . .
. 18 2011 . ( )):
http://vz.lt/blog/2011/8/18/pasakojimas_apie_netikr%C4%85_blizges%C4
%AF
13. EPULIONY Emilija, Savait, 2011 balandio 17 d. ( ,
, 17 2011 . ( )):
http://verslas.delfi.lt/business/lietuvojedaugiausiaadidaschanelgucci
nikenokiabakuganpradapumaklastociu.d?id=44499491
14. Report on EU customs enforcement of intellectual property rights. Results at the
EU border 2010
15. http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/customs/custo
ms_controls/counterfeit_piracy/statistics/statistics_2010.pdf
16. 2008 . :
http://www.cust.lt/mport/failai/veikla/ataskaitos/2008.pdf
17. 2009 . :
http://www.cust.lt/mport/failai/veikla/ataskaitos/2009_ataskaita_2.pdf
18. 2010 . :
http://www.cust.lt/mport/failai/veikla/ataskaitos/data_activity/Ataskaita_20
10_002.pdf
Kopsavilkums
Intelektulo paumu veido literatras, mkslas un zintnes darbbas
rezulttu, mksliniecisks darbbas, fonogrammu ierakstu, raidjumu, izgudrojumu,
dizaina nozares izstrdjumu, uzmumu nosaukumu tiesbas, preu zmju un
pakalpojumu zmju tiesbas (Konvencij par Pasaules intelektul pauma
organizcijas (WIPO) dibinanu).
Preu zme ir atirbas zme vai indikators, ko izmanto fiziska persona,
komercsabiedrba vai cita juridisk persona, lai identifictu, ka precm vai
pakalpojumiem, ar ko saisttas preu zmes, ir unikla skotnj izcelsme, un lai
atirtu savas preces vai pakalpojumus no citu personu precm vai pakalpojumiem.
Termins preu zme tiek izmantots ar neformli, lai apzmtu jebkuru atirgu
raksturgu pazmi, pc kuras persona ir viegli identificjama, piemram, slavenbu
plai zinms pabas. Kad preu zme tiek izmantota attiecb uz pakalpojumiem,
nevis precm, dareiz to var saukt par pakalpojuma zmi.
Liela Preu zmes vrtba liecina par raotja konkurtspjas priekrocbm.
Plai pazstama Preu zme palielina preu un to cenas konkurtspju. Tirgus
apstkos konkurtspjai ir oti liela nozme. Raoan vai tirdzniecb konkurence
var bt godga un negodga, likumga vai nelikumga.

Preu zmju nelikumga izmantoana (bez panieka piekrianas) tirg tiei
ietekm viltotu preu iegdans. Piemram, lielk daa klientu saprot, ka smaru
Chanel saturs ir kvalitatvs un oti drgs raojums, bet ja is pats parfimrijas
izstrdjums ir ievietots nemartos flakonos, tas iet mazk kvalitatvs, lai gan
smaro ldzgi. Lielk daa aj tirg ir raotji, kas izmanto du pankumu
atslgu. Tdjdi tas negatvi ietekm likumgo panieku intelektul pauma
tiesbas. Turklt negodgu konkurentu preu un pakalpojumu zmes maldina
patrtjus, nodara kaitjumu ekonomikas procesiem.
2010. gad ES muitas uz ES rjm robem aizturja vairk nek 103
miljonus izstrdjumu, pamatojoties uz aizdomm par intelektul pauma tiesbu
(IT) prkpumiem. Saska ar 2011. gada 14. jlij publicto Komisijas gada
ziojumu par IT ievroanu ES muitas darbb, muitas aizturtu stjumu skaits
saldzinjum ar pagjuo gadu bija gandrz divkrojies, pieaugot no 43500 2009.
gad ldz gandrz 80000 2010. gad. Aizturto preu vrtba tiek aprinta vairk
nek 1 miljarda eiro apmr. Galvens muit aizturto preu kategorijas bija
cigaretes (34 %), kancelejas piederumi (9 %), prjie tabakas izstrdjumi (8 %),
uzlmes, etietes un emblmas (8 %), aprbs (7 %) un rotalietas (7 %). 14,5% no
visiem aizturtajiem priekmetiem bija mjsaimniecbas preces, piemram, ampni,
ziepes, medikamenti vai sadzves tehnika (skuveki, fni, datoru detaas), kas
potencili vartu ietekmt patrtju veselbu un drobu. Viena no galvenajm 2011.
gada tendencm ir arvien vairk aizturtas pasta pakas.
Attiecb uz izcelsmes valstm, na joprojm ir galvenais IT prkpjoo preu
avots, kop piegdjot 85 % no vism IT prkpjoajm precm. Citas valstis,
piemram, Turcija, Taizeme, Honkonga un Indija saraoja vairkumu no noteiktm
preu kategorijm (respektvi, prtikas produktus, dzrienus, izemot alkoholiskos
dzrienus, atmias kartes un medikamentus). 90 % no visiem aizturtajiem produkti
tika vai nu izncinti, vai tika uzskta tiesvedba, lai noteiktu prkpumu.
o iemeslu d ir svargi pievrst tam sabiedrbas uzmanbu un informt
patrtjus un uzmjus par to, kda veida zaudjumus da veida noziegumi
nodara intelektul pauma tiesbu paniekiem (godgiem raotjiem), valsts
budetam, godgiem uzmjiem un patrtjiem, kuri iegdjas s preces. Turklt
efektva intelektul pauma aizsardzba veicina intelektul pauma procesus. Ir
btiski svargi novrst da veida preu ieveanu. Ir mints sasniegt o mri ar
starptautiski. eit svarga loma ir ES muitas iestdm, starptautiskajm
organizcijm, Lietuvas Republikas tieslietu iestdm, intelektul pauma tiesbu
paniekiem un viu prstvjiem, to sadarbbai.
Summary
The intellectual property consists of rights of literature, art and scientific
products, the activity of artists, the records of phonogram, the broadcasts, inventions,
the products of design branche, the names of firms, rights of Trademarks and
Servicemarks (Establishing convention of World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO)).
A trademark is a distinctive sign or indicator, used by an individual, business
organization, or other legal entity, to identify that the products or services with which
the trademark appears originate from a unique source, and to distinguish its products
or services from those of other entities. The term trademark is also used informally to
refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such

as the wellknown characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used in relation
to services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a service mark.
A large value of Trademark testifies about competitive advantage of a
manufacturer. Wellknown Trademark increases the competitive of goods and their
price. The competitive is very important in market conditions. In production or trade
the competitive can be fair and unfair, or leagal or iileagal.
The illeagal use of trade marks (without an agreement of owner) in market
influences directly acquisition of fake items. For instance, majority of customers
realise that, e. g., perfume Chanel contents high quality and is very expensive
production, but the same perfumes packed into unmarked flasks seems to be less
qualitive when it smeels alike. Majority of this market consist producers who use
such a key to success. Thus, it affects negatively intellectual property rights of a
legal owner. In addition, the trade and service marks of unfair competitors deceive
consumers, make damage to processes of economics.
In 2010, EU Customs seized more than 103 million products suspected of
violating intellectual property rights (IPR) at the EU's external borders. According to
the Commission's annual report on EU Customs enforcement of IPR published 14 July,
2011, the number of shipments stopped by customs almost doubled compared to last
year, rising from 43,500 in 2009 to almost 80,000 in 2010. The value of the goods
detained which is estimated at over 1 billion. The top categories of articles stopped
by customs were cigarettes (34%), office supplies (9%) other tobacco products (8%),
labels, tags and emblems (8%), clothing (7%) and toys (7%). 14.5% of all detained
articles were household products such as shampoos, soaps, medicines or household
appliances (hair dryers, shavers, computer parts) which could potentially have health
and safety implications for consumers. One of the major trends in 2011 is the growing
number of detentions of postal packages.
Regarding the countries of provenance, China continued to be the main source
of IPR infringing products, totalling 85% of all IPR infringing articles. Other countries
such as Turkey, Thailand, Hong Kong or India accounted for the majority in certain
product categories (respectively foodstuffs, beverages other than alcoholic beverages,
memory cards and medicines). 90% of all detained products were either destroyed or
a court case was initiated to determine the infringement.
For these grounds, it is vital to pay the attitude of society into it and to inform
consumers and entrepreneurs what kind of damage make this criminal act for the
owners of intellectual property rights (fair producers), the budget of the state, fair
business and consumers who acquire the items. Moreover, the effective protection of
intellectual property encourages processes of intellectual property. It is essential to
prevent the importo of such kind of items. It is tried to achieve this aim internationaly
too. The important role play there the customs of EU, international organisations,
institutions of justice of the Republic of Lithuania, owners of intellectual property
rights and their representatives, their cooperation.


NISKANENA KLASISK BIROJA DARBBAS MODEA
PIELIETOJUMA POTENCILS IESPJAS
POTENTIAL APPLICATION OPPORTUNITIES OF NISKANENS
CLASSICAL MODEL OF BUREAU PERFORMANCE
rika UBULE
Mg. oec., lektore, Rzeknes Augstskola
Tlrunis: +371 26430306, epasts: erika@ru.lv
Rzekne, Latvija
Pteris GRABUSTS
Dr. sc. ing., asoc. profesors, Rzeknes Augstskola
Tlrunis: +371 26593165, epasts: peter@ru.lv
Rzekne, Latvija

Abstract. The economic downturn has caused fiscal tension in the country during recent
years. Budget revenues decreased and it indicated the need for the revision and control
of expenditure. Therefore, the issues related to evaluation opportunities of the
governmental expenditures are becoming particularly urgent. It is emphasised that a
key factor in public sectors performance is the public good, which ensures services of
government institutions, and encompasses both quantitative and qualitative aspects.
However, economic research of the public sectors performance efficiency focus on
problems related to the determination of the public good as well as activating the
possibility for its practical application. The US economist W.A.Niskanen mathematically
grounded the bureau performance balanceshaping principles in the context of
possibilities for evaluation of public administration, i.e. the situation in which the
institutions performance can be evaluated as effective.
In order to evaluate efficiency aspects of the public sectors performance as well as their
potential impact on the formation process of the state budget spending part, the
authors of the research put forward the following objective to perform mathematical
calculations of the bureau performance balanceshaping principles, grounded by the US
economist W. A. Niskanen, and to assess the models potential opportunities for practical
application. As a research novelty, the developed practical application software of
Niskanens classical model of bureau performance is presented in MATLAB environment.
Keywords: Niskanen, governmental expenditure, public good, public sectors
performance efficiency.

Ievads
Valsts budets atspoguo valdbas izdevumus un tos nodroinoos
iemumus, bet valsts finanu teorij un praks lielka uzmanba tiek
pievrsta izdevumu daai, k btiskko argumentu akcentjot, ka
visefektvks budeta reformas ir iespjamas tiei valdbas izdevumu
jom, jo valstu budetu trios tradicionli veidojas t saucamie

neproduktvie izdevumi un ar nekontroljamie izdevumi, kuru
samazinana ir galvenais valdbu uzdevums.
Juzsver, ka it sevii tas ir aktuli palaik virknei attstto valstu, jo
ekonomisks situcijas pasliktinans apstkos valdbas nespj
nodroint pietiekous iemumus no nodokiem, tpc valsts pieaug
budeta deficta apjomi, un par valstu budetu galveno ienkumu avotu ir
kuvui aizmumi. Tdejdi valsts finanu aspekt palaik aktuli ir
kuvui valdbas izdevumi un to samazinanas potencils iespjas.
Esoaj situcij ar Latvijas valsts finanu jom ir sevii
aktualizjus budeta izdevumu veidoanas problmas, kuras saisttas
ar diem aspektiem:
kategoriski fiskls konsolidcijas nosacjumi rada izteiktu
budeta izdevumu samazinanas nepiecieambu;
valsts prvaldes strukturls reformas paskumi veicami ar
mri ierobeot valdbas trius.
Izptot ekonomiskaj literatr pastvoos viedokus, k btiskko
var akcentt uzskatu, ka valdbas izdevumu samazinana iespjama jau
budeta plnoanas proces, paaugstinot budeta ldzeku izmantotju
atbildbu taj.
Juzsver, ka laika gait tika izvirzti dadi viedoki akcentts
problmas atspoguoanai budeta izdevumu plnoanas kontekst. K
populrko var mint ASV ekonomista W.A.Niskanena (W.A.Niskanen)
budeta maksimizanas jeb biroja klasisko modeli (Rational Choise
model of bureaucracy), kur autors pta ierdu darbbas ietekmi uz
publiskajm finansm, franu ekonomistu J.L Migue (J.L. Migue) un
G.Belangera (G.Belenger) ptjumus, kuros btiskk uzmanba pievrsta
budeta neproduktvajm izmaksm, kas negatvi ietekm budeta
izdevumu efektivitti (2.;3.;1.). 21.gs. skum pozicionjs jauni uzskati
budeta izdevumu forman, kuru potencilos risinjumus piedvja
Japnas ekonomisti H.Shibata un A.Shibata (H.Shibata, A.Shibata),
apzmjot tos k budeta birokrtijas mazinanas iespjas (Budget
Minimizing Bureaucrat) (6.).
Ttad, var apgalvot, ka valsts finanu teorij un praks viens no
dominjoiem jautjumiem ir valsts budeta izdevumu lietdergums, t
izvrtanas iespjas. Mintie aspekti it sevii ir aktuli pareizj
ekonomisks un finanu krzes situcij, kad fiskls konsolidcijas
nosacjumu kontekst valsts arvien lielka uzmanba tiek pievrsta
valsts izdevumu vadbai. Ierobeotie valsts finanu resursi aktualiz
valdbas funkciju izmaksu un to efektivittes problemtiku. Tpc k
btiskkais uzdevums tiek izvirzts strukturlo reformu veikana valsts
prvald. Autoru viedoklis, ka tm jnodroina ne tikai valsts izdevumu
struktras izvrtana, bet ar to vadbas sistmu prskatana, kuras

laika gait ietekmja valdbas funkciju paplainanos un ldz ar to valstu
budetu pieaugumus. Ttad, nozmgs kst valsts sektora darbbas
rezulttu un to novrtanas nepiecieambas aspekts.
Nostiprinoties viedoklim, ka valsts prvald ir ierobeotas iespjas
izmantot privtajam sektoram raksturgus efektvas un mrtiecgas
darbbas novrtanas elementus, attsttajs valsts budeta procesa
reformanas gait pakpeniski ar mri nodroint publisk sektora
prvaldes efektivittes izvrtanu tika izstrdta un ieviesta rezultatvo
rdtju sistma. Par galveno ts kritriju izvirzta valsts prvaldes
darbbas atbilstba sabiedrbas vajadzbm. Atbilstoi rezultatvo rdtju
sistmas pieejai valsts budeta finansjuma apjomiem un to efektivittei
jbt pamatotai, nosakot finanu resursu izlietojuma mri, kura
kontekst tiek plnoti un apstiprinti sasniedzamie rezultti (5., 196.; 4.,
222).
Tiek uzsvrts, ka valsts sektora darbbas izvrtan btiskkais
rdtjs ir valsts iestu pakalpojumu nodroinoais sabiedriskais
labums, kur koncentr sev gan kvantitatvos, gan ar kvalitatvos
aspektus. Bet ekonomiskajos ptjumos par valsts sektora darbbas
efektivitti ir akcentta problemtika sabiedrisk labuma noteikan, k
ar aktualizta t praktisk pielietojuma iespjamba (4., 197).
Lai izvrttu valsts sektora darbbas efektivittes novrtanas
aspektus un to potencilo ietekmi uz valsts budeta izdevumu veidoanas
procesu, ptjuma autori izvirzja mri veikt ASV ekonomista
W.A.Niskanena pamatoto biroja darbbas ldzsvara nosacjumu
matemtiskos aprinus un izvrtt to praktisks darbbas iespjas.
Ptjuma uzdevumi pakrtoti izvirztajam mrim:
Izptt W.A.Niskanena biroja darbbas klasisk modea
teortisko pamatojumu.
Izveidot modea praktisk pielietojuma programmas realizciju.
Apkopot iegtos rezulttus un izdart secinjumus.
Mra sasnieganai un uzdevumu stenoanai izmantotas tdas
ptanas metodes k kontentanalze, loiski konstruktv, matemtisk
modelana, pamatojoties uz ekonomiskaj literatr pastvoo viedoku
izpti.
1. W.A.Niskanena biroja darbbas klasisk modea teortiski
matemtiskais izklsts
20.gs. 90.gados ASV ekonomists W.A.Niskanens, ptot valdbas
izdevumu veidoans ietekmjoos faktorus, uzsvra, ka btiska nozme
ir ierdniecbai jeb birokrtijai, kurai raksturgi izteikti paaizsardzbas
un pasaglabans instinkti, un tas viss ietekm ierdu iespjas valsts
budeta izdevumu forman. Valsts prvaldes darbbas izvrtanas

iespju kontekst ekonomists matemtiski pamatoja biroja darbbas
ldzsvara nosacjumus, tas ir, situciju, kad iestdes darbbu var vrtt k
efektvu (2., 35.37.).
W.A.Niskanena izvirztaj biroja darbbas klasiskaj model ir
akcentti galvenie iestdes darbbas efektivitti ietekmjoie rdtji:
izmaksas, pieirtie budeta ldzeku apjomi, iestdes pakalpojumi un
kopum iestdes darbbas rezultt nodrointais sabiedriskais labums.
Model tiek uzsvrti di aspekti:
birojs ir monopolists noteiktu pakalpojumu sniegan;
finansjums biroja darbbai tiek nodroints no budeta
ldzekiem, ko tam pieir varas orgni: valdba, parlaments;
birojam ir pieejama btiski labka informcija par pakalpojumu
izmaksm nek varas orgniem, un da informcijas asimetrija
veido situciju, ka birojam tiek pieirts lielks finansjums,
nek tam reli btu nepiecieams.
Tiek ieviesti sekojoi agregti:
B birojam pieirtie budeta ldzeki (Budget), ko sabiedrba
uztver k ieguvumu no sniegto pakalpojumu daudzuma Q, tpc
B ir funkcija no biroja darbbas jeb pakalpojumu apjoma, ko
nodroina birojs;
C biroja izmaksas (Cost), kuras ar ir atkargas no Q.
W.A.Niskanena modelis balsts uz piemumu, ka pilnga
informcija par C=C(Q) ir pieejama tikai birojam, kas cenas iegt
maksimli lielku budetu, bet, atkarba B=B(Q) ir izprotama budeta
finanstjiem.
W.A.Niskanena modea matemtiskais apraksts ir ds. Tiek
ieviestas formulas (3., 78 79):
V=a2bQ (1)
C=c+2dQ, (2)
kur V maksimlais labums patrtjiem;
C maksimls biroja izmaksas;
Q biroja sniegto pakalpojumu apjoms;
valdbas gatavba makst par biroja pakalpojumiem;
b parametra a izmaiu potencil amplitda;
c biroja izmaksas;
d parametra c izmaiu potencil amplitda.
Parametri a un b ir saistti ar pieirto un izmantoto budeta
ldzeku apjomiem, bet, parametri c un d ar iestdes darbbu
nodroinom izmaksm. Pie dotajiem nosacjumiem tiek uzdots:

B=aQbQ
2 (3)

TC=cQ+dQ2, (4)

kur B biroja kopjais budets un TC biroja kopjs minimls
izmaksas.
Pie iem nosacjumiem Q ldzsvara lmenis tiek noteikts di: B
maksimizcija dod Q augstko robeu: Q=a/b, ierobeojums B > TC dod Q
zemko robeu Q = 2(ac)/b+2d. ie Q lmei sakrt pie a=2bc/b 2d.
Tdjdi, biroja sniegto pakalpojumu ldzsvara lmenis tiek sasniegts pie
diem nosacjumiem (3., 81):

Td veid W.A.Niskanens matemtiski pamato optimlo biroja
sniegto pakalpojumu daudzumu un tam atbilstoos pieirtos budeta
ldzekus un rels biroja darbbas izmaksas. Bet, juzsver, ka ekonomists
k vislabvlgkos ir piemis dus nosacjumus: a= 100, b=1, c=75,
d=0.3, un k btiskko izvirzjis parametru a.
Ptjuma eksperimentlaj da praktiski tika prbaudts
W.A.Niskanena klasisk biroja darbbas ldzsvara stvoka nosacjums pie
dadm parametra a vrtbm un izskaitota optiml vrtba, kura
norda uz efektvu iestdes darbbu, tas ir, kad tiek nodroints
maksimlais labums iestdes pakalpojumu patrtjiem. Tas ir saistts ar
iestdes kopj budeta un galjo izmaksu maksimlo starpbu (B C).
2. W.A.Niskanena modea praktisk pielietojuma
programmrealizcija
W.A.Niskanena pamatot biroja darbbas klasisk modea
ilustrcijai tika izstrdts programmnodroinjums Matlab vid.
Programmvides realizcijai tika izmantota programmanas valoda
Matlab (www.mathworks.com). Pie W.A.Niskanena pieemtajiem
nosacjumiem, ka a=100, b=1, c=75 un d=0.3, atbilstoi formulm (2), (3),
(5) tika iegtas das rdtju optimuma vrtbas: Q=124,2857,
B=4687,3469 un C=149,5714. Grafiski tas pardts 1. attl.


1. attls. Iestdes sniegto pakalpojumu apjoma, budeta ldzeku un galjo
izmaksu optimls vrtbas pie W.A.Niskanena noteiktajiem parametriem

2.1. Programmas apraksts
Izpildmajai datnei niskanen.exe un rezulttu datnei results.txt
jatrodas vien map. Datoros, kuros nav Matlab vides, iespjams, bs
nepiecieams Matlab Compiler Runtime (MCR), ko var lejupieldt no
vietnes www.mathworks.com.
Programmas darbbas laik tiek pieprasts ievadt W.A.Niskanena
model izvirztos parametrus a, b, c, d un to pieauguma vrtbas. Pc tam
tiek startts dot modea vrtbu Q, B,C aprina process un rezultt uz
ekrna pards model akcentts biroja darbbas ldzsvara optimls
vrtbas un tm atbilsto grafisk diagramma. Paralli visi modea
parametri a, b, c, d un izskaitots Q, B, C vrtbas tiek ieraksttas datn
results.txt, kuru var izmantot modea skaitliskai analzei.
2.2. Lietotja instrukcija
Programmas darbbai nepiecieama datne niskanen.exe. Pc ts
palaianas pardsies galvenais logs (2.att.), kur attloti
pamatinformcijas ievada lauki (skotnjs vrtbas ir uzdotas pc
noklusjuma).


2. attls. Galvens pamatformas logs

Ja dati ievadti korekti, var skt model aktualizto vrtbu aprina
procedru, nospieot pogu Start. Programmas veiksmgas izpildes
rezultt ks redzams ekrns, kur bs atspoguoti darbbas rezultti
(3. att.).

3. attls. Programmas darbbas rezulttu logs

Log kreisaj apakj str ir redzami skaitojumu rezultti, kas
raksturo W.A.Niskanena biroja darbbas optiml ldzsvara nosacjumus
pie skotnjm a, b, c, d vrtbm, tas ir, Q, B un C vrtbas (4. att.).

4. attls. Modea ldzsvara nosacjuma optimls vrtbas

Log labaj pus tiek konstruts grafiks, kas parda funkcijas B(Q)
un C(Q) (5. att.). Grafika kreisaj pus pardta B atkarba no Q, uz kreiss
koordintu ass dotas izskaitots B vrtbas. Funkciju B(Q) atspoguo zil
svtrot lnija. Attiecgi, grafika labaj pus pardta C atkarba no Q un uz
labs koordintu ass dotas izskaitots C vrtbas. Funkciju C(Q)
atspoguo punktt za lnija. Vienlaicgi tiek izskaitots optimuma
punkts, kur tiek uzrdta maksiml BC vrtba (grafik tas atspoguojas
k sarkans aplis, kam blakus ir uzraksts Optimums).

5. attls. Modea grafisk interpretcija, pamatojoties uz W.A.Niskanena
pieemtajm parametru vrtbm

Mainot modea parametrus, piem, Parametrs d lauk ievadot
vrtbu 0,25, tiek iegti di rezultti (6. att.):

6. attls. Modea grafisk interpretcija pie nosacjuma, ka d=0,25

Eksperimentjot ar dadm parametru a, b, c, d vrtbm, var
konstatt, ka lielkaj skait gadjumu W.A.Niskanena pamatotais
modelis nesasniedz ldzsvaru un optimums, attiecgi, netiek izrints.
Grafiks tiek konstruts, bet tas nav atbilstos modea ldzsvara
nosacjumiem. Piemram, nomainot parametra b vrtbu uz 10, tiek
iegti di rezultti (7. att.).

7. attls. Modea grafisk interpretcija pie nosacjuma, ka b=10

Tdjdi, var secint, ka ticamai W.A.Niskanena biroja darbbas
modea interpretcija ir atkarga no noteiktm skotnjo parametru a, b,
c un d vrtbu proporcionlm izmaim.
2.3. Programmas darbbas rezultti
Programmas darbbas rezultti pc katras ievades tika ierakstti
teksta datn results.txt (saturu var apskatt, piemram, ar teksta
redaktoru NotePad). Tika noteiktas skotnjs parametru vrtbas: a=
100,00 ar soli= 1; b= 1; c= 75 ar soli= 0; d= 0,30. Pie diem
nosacjumiem optiml situcija, kad starpba starp B un C ir vislielk,
tiek sasniegta, kad a vrtba ir 162,00, Q vrtba 124,29, C 149,57,
B 4687,35, un starpba BC sastda 4537,78.
3. W.A.Niskanena biroja darbbas modea praktisk
pielietojuma programmrealizcijas rezultti
1. Eksperimentli prbaudot biroja darbbas klasisk modea
ldzsvara nosacjumus ar dadm parametru a, c un to
pieaugumu b, d vrtbm, var konstatt, ka lielkaj skait
gadjumu Niskanena modelis nesasniedz ldzsvaru un attiecgi
optimls vrtbas nav iespjams izrint. Grafiski lknes tiek
konstrutas, bet ts neparda optimlo situciju (7.att.).

2. Pamatojoties uz Niskanena biroja darbbas ldzsvara
nosacjumiem pie konstantm b, c, d vrtbm, var secint, ka
pakpeniski palielinot parametra a vrtbas un fiksjot
atbilstos pakalpojumu apjoma (Q), maksimlo izmaksu (C),
kopj budeta (B) un starpbas starp pieirtajiem budeta
ldzekiem un izmaksm (BC) vrtbas, proporcionli pieaug
biroja nodrointo pakalpojumu, izmaksu apjomi, k ar
starpba starp kopjiem budeta ldzekiem un maksimlm
izmaksm.
3. Tiek noskaidrotas parametra a pieauguma vrtbas, kad,
pirmkrt, starpba starp pieirtajiem budeta ldzekiem un
izmaksm ir vislielk, kas norda uz vislabvlgko situciju
iestdes darbb un, otrkrt, kad attiecgais rdtjs sk
samazinties, kas norda, ka iestdes darbbas efektivitte
iegst negatvu raksturu.
4. Var secint, ka Niskanena pamatotais biroja darbbas ldzsvara
nosacjums darbojas tikai pie noteiktm parametru vrtbm.
Ptjuma secinjumi un prieklikumi izriet no Niskanena biroja
darbbas modea teortisk un praktisk pielietojuma iespjambas
izvrtjuma.
1. Niskanena izvirztaj biroja darbbas klasiskaj model ir
akcentti galvenie iestdes darbbas efektivitti ietekmjoie
rdtji: izmaksas, pieirtie budeta ldzeku apjomi, iestdes
pakalpojumi un kopum iestdes darbbas rezultt
nodrointais sabiedriskais labums.
2. Eksperimentli prbaudot biroja darbbas klasisk modea
ldzsvara nosacjumus ar dadm parametru a, c un to
pieaugumu b, d vrtbm, var konstatt, ka lielkaj skait
gadjumu Niskanena modelis nesasniedz ldzsvaru un attiecgi
optimls vrtbas nav iespjams izrint.
3. Pielietojot Niskanena izvirzt biroja darbbas ldzsvara
nosacjumu prbaudes programmrealizciju, no valsts budeta
finansts iestdes var noteikt nodrointo pakalpojumu un
ldz ar to iestu darbbas efektivitti, uz ko nords sniegto
pakalpojumu optimlais punkts, kad starpba starp
pieirtajiem budeta ldzekiem un pakalpojumu
nodroinom izmaksm palielins un sasniedz maksimumu.
4. Ar Niskanena biroja darbbas ldzsvara nosacjumu modea
paldzbu ir iespjams veidot situcijas analzi pie noteiktiem
parametriem, tdejdi nodroinot sistmpieeju valsts iestu

darbbas izvrtanai un ldz ar to ar budeta izdevumu
veidoanas uzlaboanai. Tdejdi tas var kalpot k bzes
modelis valsts budeta izdevumu plnoanas pilnveidoanai.
1. MIGUE, J., L., BELANGER, G. Toward a General Theory of Managerial Discretion.
Public Choise. 1994. vol.17, p. 3746
2. NISKANEN,W.A. Bureaucracy and Representative Government, Chicago, 1971,
263 p.
3. NISKANEN, W.A. Bureaucracy and Public Economics, Cheltenham, Edward
Elgar, 1994, 287 p.
4. Public Productivity Handbook, ed.by Holzer M., Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1992,
811 p.
5. STIGLITZ, J.E. Economics of the Public sector. Princeton University, 1988, 612 p.
6. SHIBATA, H., SHIBATA, A. The budget minimizing bureaucrat, The Challenge
of Fiscal Disparities for State and Local Governments. The selected Essayss of
Ladd H., E.E.Cheltenham, UK, Horthampton, MA. USA, 1999, 477 p.
Summary
One of the predominant issues in the public finance theory and practice is the
expediency of the state budget spending part, and its evaluation possibilities. The
listed aspects are particularly topical in the current economic and financial crisis,
when in the context of fiscal consolidation circumstances more and more attention is
paid to public expenditure management. The limited public financial resources
activate the governments cost function and mark efficiency problems. This is
primarily because the most important task being put forward is related to the
implementation of structural reforms in the state administration. They have to
provide not only assessment of the structure of public expenditure but also ensure
revision of its management systems, which over the time affected expansion of
governments functions as well as increase of the state budget. Accordingly, the
aspect of public sectors performance and the need for its evaluation is becoming
extremely significant.
It is emphasized that the most important index in evaluating the public
sectors performance is the public good, which ensures services of governmental
institutions, and encompasses both quantitative and qualitative aspects. However,
economic researches of the public sectors performance efficiency are focused on
problems related to the determination of public good as well as activate the
possibility for its practical application.
In order to evaluate efficiency aspects of the public sectors performance as
well as their potential impact on the formation process of the state budget spending
part, the authors of the research put forward the following objective to perform
mathematical calculations of bureau performance balanceshaping principles,
grounded by the US economist W. A. Niskanen, and to assess the models potential
opportunities for practical application. In order to achieve the objective of the
research the following tasks were put forward (to explore theoretical substantiation
of W. A. Niskanens classical model of bureau performance; to implement the software
related to practical application of the model; to generalise the obtained results and to
draw conclusions) and the following research methods used (content analysis, logical
constructive method, mathematical modelling).

In the 1990s, the US economist W. A. Niskanen studying the factors that
influence formation of the governmental expenditure, emphasised crucial importance
of civil services and bureaucracy, characterised by marked selfdefence and self
preservation instincts and having a great impact on the officials opportunities related
to forming the state budgets spending part. The economist mathematically grounded
the bureau performance balanceshaping principles in the context of possibilities for
evaluation of public administration, i.e. the situation in which the institutions
performance can be evaluated as effective.
The key indices influencing institutions effective performance, highlighted in
W. A. Niskanens proposed classical model of bureau performance, were the
following: costs, allotted budget funds, institutions services and the public good
assured by institutions performance.
Conclusions and proposals arise from the evaluation opportunities of
theoretical and practical application of Niskanens bureau performance model.
1. Niskanens proposed classical model of bureau performance focuses on
key indices influencing the institutions performance efficiency: costs,
allotted budget funds, institutions services and the public good assured by
institutions performance.
2. Testing the balance principles of classical bureau performance model in an
experimental way with different values of parameters a, c and their
increase in b, d, it can be concluded that in the majority of cases the
Niskanens model does not reach the balance, accordingly it is impossible
to figure out the optimal values.
3. Determining specific initial parameter values, that is, a= 100.00 with the
gap= 1.00; b= 1.00; c= 75.00 with the gap= 0.00; d= 0.30, the optimal
situation, where the difference between B and C is the greatest, is achieved
when a value is 162.00, Q value 124.29, C 149.57, B 4687.35, and B
C make 4537.78.
4. Implementing the software, to test the bureau performance balance
shaping principles proposed by Niskanen, it is possible to identify the
service provided by government institutions financed from the budget and
hence to determine efficiency of institutions performance, which will be
indicated by the optimal point of the provided service, when the difference
between allotted budget funds and serviceproviding costs increase and
reach its maximum.
5. With the help of Niskanens proposed bureau performance balance
shaping model, it is possible to perform the situation analysis applying
particular parameters, thus providing a system approach to the evaluation
of government institutions performance and, consequently, perfecting
formation of the state budget spending part. Thus, it can serve as a basic
model for enhancing the planning stage of the state budgets spending
part.


Rzeknes Augstskola
Rzeknes Augstskolas Reionlistikas zintniskais institts
Atbrvoanas alej 90, Rzekn, LV 4601
RA Izdevniecba, 2012
Atbrvoanas alej 115, Rzekn, LV 4601
Tlr./fakss: +371 64625840

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