11/04/2017 IThoughtIUnderstoodtheAmericanRight.TrumpProvedMeWrong.

TheNewYorkTimes

https://nyti.ms/2p0iaX6

IThoughtIUnderstoodtheAmerican
Right.TrumpProvedMeWrong.
Ahistorianofconservatismlooksbackathowheandhispeersfailed
toanticipatetheriseofthepresident.
ByRICKPERLSTEIN APRIL11,2017
UntilNov.8,2016,historiansofAmericanpoliticssharedaroughconsensus
abouttheriseofmodernAmericanconservatism.Ittoldarespectabletale.Bythe
endofWorldWarII,thestorygoes,conservativeshadbecomeascatteredand
obscureremnant,vanquishedbytheNewDealandtheapparentrealitythat,as
thecriticLionelTrillingwrotein1950,liberalismwasnotonlythedominantbut
eventhesoleintellectualtradition.

YearZerowas1955,whenWilliamF.BuckleyJr.startedNationalReview,
thesmallcirculationmagazinewhoseaim,Buckleyexplained,wastoarticulatea
positiononworldaffairswhichaconservativecandidatecanadheretowithout
fearofintellectualembarrassmentorpoliticalsurrealism.Buckley
excommunicatedtheJohnBirchSociety,antiSemitesandsupportersofthe
hyperindividualistAynRand,andhiscohortfusedthediverseschoolsof
conservativethinkingtraditionalistphilosophers,militantantiCommunists,
libertarianeconomistsintoacoherentideology,onethateventuallycameto
dominateAmericanpolitics.

Iwasoneofthehistorianswhohelpedforgethisnarrative.Myfirstbook,
BeforetheStorm,wasabouttheriseofSenatorBarryGoldwater,the
uncompromisingNationalReviewfavoritewhoserefusaltoexploittheviolent
backlashagainstcivilrights,andwhosebracinglyidealisticdevotiontothe
ConstitutionasheunderstoodithecalledforSocialSecuritytobemade
voluntaryledtohiscrushingdefeatinthe1964presidentialelection.

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Goldwatersloss,farfromdoomingtheAmericanright,inspiredanewgeneration
ofconservativeactiviststoredoubletheirefforts,pavingthewayfortheReagan
revolution.EducatedwhitesintheprosperousmetropolisesoftheNewSouth
sublimatedthefrenetic,violentanxietiesthatoncemarkedracerelationsintheir
regionintomorepalatablepolicyconcernsaboutstablehousingvaluesand
qualitylocaleducation,backfootingliberalsandtransformingconservatives
intomainstreamchampionsofasetofpositionswithenormousappealtothe
whiteAmericanmiddleclass.

Thesewerethefactors,manyhistoriansconcluded,thatmadeAmericaa
centerrightnation.Forbetterorforworse,politiciansseekingtoleadeither
partyfacedanewreality.Democratshadtohonorthepublicsdistrustofactivist
government(asBillClintondidwithhiscallfortheendofwelfareasweknow
it).Republicans,fortheirpart,hadtoplaytheBuckleyroleofdenouncingthe
politicalsurrealismoftheparanoidfringe(MittRomneysfuriousbackpedaling
afterjoking,Nooneseveraskedtoseemybirthcertificate).

Thenthenationspreeminentbirtherranforpresident.Trumpscampaignwas
surrealandanintellectualembarrassment,andpoliticalexpertsofallstripestold
ushecouldneverbecomepresident.Thatwasnthowthestorywassupposedto
end.NationalReviewdevotedanissuetowritingTrumpoutoftheconservative
movementaneditorthere,JonahGoldberg,evenbecamealeaderoftheNever
Trumpcrusade.ButTrumpwonandconservativeintellectualsquickly
embracedamanwhoexploitedthesamebrutishenergiesthatBuckleyhad
supposedlybanished,withGoldbergexplainingsimplythatNeverTrumpwas
abouttheG.O.P.primaryandthegeneralelection,notthepresidency.

TheprofessionalguardiansofAmericaspast,inshort,hadmadeamistake.
WeadvancedanarrativeoftheAmericanrightthatwasfartooconstrictedto
anticipatetheriseofamanlikeTrump.Historians,ofcourse,arenotcalledupon
tobeseers.Ourprofessionalcanonswarnusagainstpresentismweare
supposedtoweightheevidenceofthepastonitsowntermsbutatthesame
time,thequestionsweaskareconditionedbythepresent.Thatis,ultimately,
whatwearecalledupontoexplain.Whichposesaquestion:IfDonaldTrumpis
thelatestchapterofconservatismsstory,mighthistorianshavebeentellingthat
storywrong?

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Americanhistoriansrelationshiptoconservatismitselfhasatroubled
history.EvenafterRonaldReaganselectoralcollegelandslidein1980,wepaid
littleattentiontotheright:ThecentralnarrativeofAmericaspolitical
developmentwasstillbelievedtobetheriseoftheliberalstate.ButasNewt
GingrichsrightwingrevolutionariespreparedtotakeovertheHouseof
Representativesin1994,thescholarAlanBrinkleypublishedanessaycalledThe
ProblemofAmericanConservatisminTheAmericanHistoricalReview.
Americanconservatism,Brinkleyargued,hadbeensomethingofanorphanin
historicalscholarship,andthatwascomingtoseemanevermorecurious
omission.Thearticleinauguratedtheboominscholarshipthatbroughtusthe
story,nowwidelyaccepted,ofconservatismstriumphantrise.

Thatstorywasinpartarejectionofanolderstory.Untilthe1990s,themost
influentialwriteronthesubjectoftheAmericanrightwasRichardHofstadter,a
colleagueofTrillingsatColumbiaUniversityinthepostwaryears.Hofstadter
wastheleaderoftheconsensusschoolofhistorianstheconsensusbeing
Americanssupposedagreementuponmoderateliberalismasthenationsnatural
governingphilosophy.Hedidnttaketheselfidentifiedconservativesofhisown
timeatallseriously.Hecalledthempseudoconservativesanddescribed,for
instance,followersoftheredbaitingRepublicansenatorJosephMcCarthyas
crankswhosalvedtheirstatusanxietywithconspiracytheoriesandbizarre
panaceas.HenamedthisattitudetheparanoidstyleinAmericanpoliticsand,
inanarticlepublishedamonthbeforeBarryGoldwaterspresidentialdefeat,
asked,When,inallourhistory,hasanyonewithideassobizarre,soarchaic,so
selfconfounding,soremotefromthebasicAmericanconsensus,evergoneso
far?

ItwasastrangelyahistoricquestionmanyofGoldwatersideashewed
closelytoawellestablishedAmericandistrustofstatismthatgoesbackallthe
waytothenationsfounding.Itbetokenedtooacertainwillfulblindnesstoward
theevidencethatwasalreadyemergingofapopularbacklashagainstliberalism.
ReagansgubernatorialvictoryinCaliforniatwoyearslater,followedbyhistwo
landslidepresidentialwins,madeamockeryofHofstadter.Historiansseekingto
graspconservatismsnewlyrevealedmassappealwouldhavetotakethe
movementonitsownterms.

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ThatwasmyaimwhenItookupthesubjectinthelate1990sand,even
moreexplicitly,theaimofLisaMcGirr,nowofHarvardUniversity,whose2001
book,SuburbanWarriors:TheOriginsoftheNewAmericanRight,becamea
cornerstoneofthenewliterature.Insteadofpronouncinguponconservatism
fromonhigh,asHofstadterhad,McGirr,asocialhistorian,studieditfromthe
groundup,attendingrespectfullytowhatactivistsunderstoodthemselvestobe
doing.Whatshefoundwasahighlyeducatedandthoroughlymoderngroupof
menandwomen,normalparticipantsinthebureaucratizedworldofpost
WorldWarIIAmerica.Theybuiltavibrantandremarkablepolitical
mobilization,shewrote,inanefforttoaddresspoliticalconcernsthatwould
soonberesonatingnationwideforinstance,theiranguishatliberal
permissivenessaboutmatterslikerisingcrimeratesandtheteachingofsex
educationinpublicschools.

ButifHofstadterwasoverlydismissiveofhowconservativesunderstood
themselves,thenewbreedofhistoriansattimesprovedtoocredulous.McGirr
diligentlyplayeddownthesheerbloodcurdlinghysteriaofconservativesduring
theperiodshewasstudyingforexample,oneCaliforniasenatorsreportin
1962thathehadreceivedthousandsoflettersfromconstituentsconcernedabout
arumorthatCommunistChinesecommandosweretraininginMexicoforan
imminentinvasionofSanDiego.Isometimesmadethesamemistake.Writing
aboutthemovementthatledtoGoldwaters1964Republicannomination,for
instance,itneveroccurredtometopaymuchattentiontoMcCarthyism,even
thoughMcCarthyhelpedGoldwaterwinhisSenateseatin1952,andGoldwater
supportedMcCarthytotheend.(AsdidWilliamF.Buckley.)Iwaswritingabout
themodernconservativemovement,theonethatledtoReagan,notaboutthe
brutishrelicsofamoregothic,illformedandsupposedlyincoherentreactionary
erathatprecededit.

Afewhistorianshaveprovocativelyfollowedadifferentintellectualpath,
avoidingboththebloodlessnessofthenewsocialhistoriansandthe
psychologizingcondescensionoftheoldHofstadterschool.Foremostamong
themisLeoRibuffo,aprofessoratGeorgeWashingtonUniversity.Ribuffos
surnameannounceshisidentityintheDickensianstyle:Irascible,brilliantand
deeplylearned,heisoneoftheprofessionsgreatrebuffers.Hemadehis
reputationwithanawardwinning1983study,TheOldChristianRight:The
ProtestantFarRightFromtheGreatDepressiontotheColdWar,andhasnt

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publishedaproperbooksincejustaseriesofcoruscatingessaysthatfrequently
focusonwhateveryoneelseisgettingwrong.Inthe1994issueofTheAmerican
HistoricalReviewthatfeaturedAlanBrinkleysTheProblemofAmerican
Conservatism,RibuffowrotearesponsecontestingBrinkleyscontention,now
commonplace,thatTrillingwasrightaboutAmericanconservatismsshallow
roots.RibuffoarguedthatAmericasantiliberaltraditionswerefarmoredeeply
rootedinthepast,andfarangrier,thanmosthistorianswouldacknowledge,
citingalonglistofexamplesfromregionalsuspicionsofvariousmetropolitan
centersandthesnobswholivedtheretowhiteracisminstitutionalizedin
slaveryandsegregation.

Aftertheelection,Ribuffotoldmethatifheweretowriteasimilarresponse
today,hewouldcallit,WhyIsThereSoMuchScholarshiponConservatism,
andWhyHasItLefttheHistoricalProfessionSoObtuseAboutTrumpism?One
reason,asRibuffoargues,istheconceptualerrorofidentifyingadiscrete
modernconservativemovementinthefirstplace.Anotherreason,though,is
thathistoriansofconservatism,likehistoriansingeneral,tendtobeliberal,and
arepronetoliberalismstraditionsofpolitesse.Itsnosurprisethatweare
attractedtopolitesubjectslikecolorblindconservatismorWilliamF.Buckley.

OurworkmighthavebeenlessobtusehadwesharedtheinstinctsofaNew
YorkUniversityprofessornamedKimPhillipsFein.Historianswhowriteabout
therightshouldfindwaystodosowithasenseofthedignityoftheirsubjects,
sheobservedina2011review,buttheyshouldnothesitatetokeepaneyeoutfor
thebizarre,theunusual,ortheunsettling.

Lookingbackfromthatperspective,wecannowseeahistorythatis
indeedunsettlingbutalsounsettlinglyfamiliar.Consider,forexample,an
essaypublishedin1926byHiramEvans,theimperialwizardoftheKuKluxKlan,
intheexceedinglymainstreamNorthAmericanReview.Hissubjectwasthe
declineofAmericanism.Evansclaimedtospeakforanabusedwhitemajority,
thesocalledNordicrace,which,withallitsfaults,hasgiventheworldalmost
thewholeofmoderncivilization.Evans,aformerdentist,proposedthathiswas
amovementofplainpeople,andacknowledgedthatthislaysusopentothe
chargeofbeinghicksandrubesanddriversofsecondhandFords.Butoverthe
courseofthelastgeneration,hewrote,thesegoodpeoplehavefoundthemselves
increasinglyuncomfortable,andfinallydeeplydistressed,watchingamoral

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breakdownthatwasdestroyingaoncegreatnation.First,therewasconfusion
inthoughtandopinion,agropingandhesitancyaboutnationalaffairsand
privatelifealike,insharpcontrasttotheclear,straightforwardpurposesofour
earlieryears.Next,theyfoundthecontrolofmuchofourindustryand
commercetakenoverbystrangers,whostackedthecardsofsuccessand
prosperityagainstus,andultimatelythesestrangerscametodominateour
government.TheonlythingthatwouldmakeAmericagreatagain,asitwere,
wasareturnofpowerintothehandsofeveryday,nothighlycultured,notoverly
intellectualized,butentirelyunspoiledandnotdeAmericanizedaveragecitizens
ofoldstock.

ThisSecondKlan(thefirstwasformedduringReconstruction)scrambles
ourpreTrumpsenseofwhatrightwingideologydoesanddoesnotcomprise.
(Itsdoctrines,forexample,includedsupportforpubliceducation,toweaken
Catholicparochialschools.)TheKlanalsoputthepredationsoftheinternational
bankingclassatthecenterofitsrhetoric.Itsworldviewresembles,infact,the
rightwingpoliticsofcontemporaryEuropeatradition,heretoforejudged
foreigntoAmericanpolitics,calledherrenvolkrepublicanism,thatreserved
socialdemocracysolelyforthewhitemajority.Byreachingbacktothe
reactionarytraditionsofthe1920s,wemightbetterunderstandthealliance
betweenthealtrightfiguresthatemergedasferventTrumpsupportersduring
lastyearselectionandtheascendantfarrightnativistpoliticalpartiesinEurope.

Noneofthishistoryishidden.Indeed,inthe1990s,arichscholarly
literatureemergedonthe1920sKlananditsextraordinary,anddecidedly
national,influence.(OnehotbedofKlanactivity,forexample,wasAnaheim,
Calif.McGirrsSuburbanWarriorsmentionsthisbutdoesntdiscussitneither
didIinmyownaccountofOrangeCountyconservatisminBeforetheStorm.
Again,itjustdidntseemrelevanttothesubjectofthemodernconservative
movement.)Thegeneralbeliefamonghistorians,however,wasthattheKlans
nationalinfluencefadedintheyearsafter1925,whenIndianasgranddragon,
D.C.Stephenson,whoservedasthedefactopoliticalbossfortheentirestate,was
convictedofmurderingayoungwoman.

ButtheKlanremainedrelevantfarbeyondtheSouth.In1936agroupcalled
theBlackLegion,activeintheindustrialMidwest,burstintopublic
consciousnessaftermembersassassinatedaWorksProgressAdministration

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officialinDetroit.Thegroup,whichconsidereditselfaKlanenforcementarm,
dominatedthenewsthatyear.TheF.B.I.estimateditsmembershipat135,000,
includingalargenumberofpublicofficials,possiblyincludingDetroitspolice
chief.TheAssociatedPressreportedin1936thatthegroupwassuspectedof
assassinatingasmanyas50people.In1937,HumphreyBogartstarredinafilm
aboutit.Inaninformalsurvey,however,Ifoundthatmanyleadinghistoriansof
therightincludingonewhowroteanimportantbookcoveringthe1930s
hadntheardoftheBlackLegion.

StephenH.Norwood,oneofthefewhistorianswhodidstudytheBlack
Legion,alsominedanotherrichseamofneglectedhistoryinwhichfarright
vigilantismandoutrightfascismroutinelyinfiltratedthemainstreamofAmerican
life.ThestorybeginswithFatherCharlesCoughlin,theDetroitbasedradio
priestwhoathispeakreachedasmanyas30millionweeklylisteners.In1938,
Coughlinsmagazine,SocialJustice,beganreprintingProtocolsoftheLearned
EldersofZion,aforgedtractaboutaglobalJewishconspiracyfirstpopularized
intheUnitedStatesbyHenryFord.Afterpresentingthisfictitiousthreat,
Coughlinspapercalledforaction,intheformofacrusadeagainsttheanti
Christianforcesoftheredrevolutionacallthatwasanswered,inNewYork
andBoston,byaneworganization,theChristianFront.Itsmemberswereamong
themostenthusiasticparticipantsina1939proHitlerrallythatpackedMadison
SquareGarden,wheretheleaderoftheGermanAmericanBundspokeinfrontof
anenormousportraitofGeorgeWashingtonflankedbyswastikas.

TheBundtookamortalhitthatsameyearitsleaderwascaught
embezzlingbuttheChristianFrontsoldieredon.In1940,aNewYorkchapter
wasraidedbytheF.B.I.forplottingtooverthrowthegovernment.The
organizationsurvived,andthroughoutWorldWarIIcarriedoutwhattheNew
YorkYiddishpaperTheDaycalledsmallpogromsinBostonandNewYorkthat
leftJewsinmortalfearofalmostdailybeatings.Victimswhocomplainedto
authorities,accordingtonewsreports,wereinsultedandbeatenagain.Young
IrishCatholicmeninspiredbytheChristianFrontdesecratednearlyevery
synagogueinWashingtonHeights.TheNewYorkCatholichierarchy,themayor
ofBostonandthegovernorofMassachusettslargelylookedtheotherway.

Whyhasntthepresenceoforganizedmobswithbackinginpowerfulplaces
disturbedhistoriansconclusionthattheAmericanrightwasdormantduringthis

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period?Infact,thefarrightwasneverthatfarfromtheAmericanmainstream.
ThehistorianRichardSteigmannGall,writinginthejournalSocialHistory,
pointsoutthatscholarsofAmericanhistoryarebyandlargeinagreementthat,
inspiteofawelteroffringeradicalgroupsontherightintheUnitedStates
betweenthewars,fascismnevertookhere.And,unlikeinEurope,fascistsdid
notachievegovernmentalpower.Nevertheless,SteigmannGallcontinues,
fascismhadaveryrealpresenceintheU.S.A.,comparabletothatoncontinental
Europe.HecitesnolessmainstreamanorganizationthantheAmericanLegion,
whoseNationalCommanderAlvinOwsleyproclaimedin1922,theFascistiare
toItalywhattheAmericanLegionistotheUnitedStates.Adecadelater,
ChicagonamedathoroughfareaftertheFascistmilitaryleaderItaloBalbo.In
2011,ItalianAmericangroupsinChicagoprotestedamovementtorenameit.

AntiSemitisminAmericadeclinedafterWorldWarII.ButasLeoRibuffo
pointsout,theunderlyingnarrativeofadiabolicaltransnationalcabalofaliens
plottingtounderminetheveryfoundationsofChristiancivilizationsurvivedin
theantiCommunistdiatribesofJosephMcCarthy.Thealiennarrativecontinues
todayintheworkofNationalReviewwriterslikeAndrewMcCarthy(How
ObamaEmbracesIslamsShariaAgenda)andLisaSchiffren(whoarguedthat
ObamasparentscouldbesecretCommunistsbecauseforawhitewomanto
marryablackmanin1958,or60,therewasalmostinevitablyaconnectionto
explicitCommunistpolitics).AnditfounditsmostpotentexpressioninDonald
TrumpsstubborninsistencethatBarackObamawasnotbornintheUnited
States.

Trumpsconnectiontothisalternaterightwinggenealogyisnotjust
rhetorical.In1927,1,000hoodedKlansmenfoughtpoliceinQueensinwhatThe
Timesreportedasafreeforall.Oneofthosearrestedatthescenewasthe
presidentsfather,FredTrump.(Trumpsroleinthemeleeisunclearthecharge
refusingtodispersewaslaterdropped.)Inthe1950s,WoodyGuthrie,at
thetimearesidentoftheBeachHavenhousingcomplextheelderTrumpbuilt
nearConeyIsland,wroteasongaboutOldManTrumpandtheRacialhate/He
stirredup/Inthebloodpotofhumanhearts/Whenhedrawed/Thatcolorlinein
oneofhishousingdevelopments.In1973,whenDonaldTrumpwasworkingat
Fredsside,bothfatherandsonwerenamedinafederalhousingdiscrimination
suit.ThefamilysettledwiththeJusticeDepartmentinthefaceofevidencethat

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blackapplicantsweretoldunitswerenotavailableevenaswhiteswerewelcomed
withopenarms.

The1960sand70sNewYorkinwhichDonaldTrumpcameofage,asmuch
asKlanriddenIndianainthe1920sorBarryGoldwatersArizonainthe1950s,
wasatconservatismscuttingedge,settingtheemotionaltoneforapoliticsof
rage.In1966,whenTrumpwas20,MayorJohnLindsayplacedciviliansona
boardtomoreeffectivelymonitorpoliceabuse.ThepresidentofthePatrolmens
BenevolentAssociationresponding,Iamsickandtiredofgivinginto
minoritygroupsandtheirgripesandtheirshoutingledareferendumeffortto
dissolvetheboardthatwon63percentofthevote.Twoyearslater,fights
betweensupportersandprotestersofGeorgeWallaceataMadisonSquare
Gardenrallygrewsoviolentthat,TheNewRepublicobserved,neveragainwill
youreadaboutBerlininthe30swithoutrememberingthiswildconfrontation
hereoftwoirrationalforces.

TherestofthecountryfollowedNewYorkslead.In1970,aftertheshooting
deathsoffourstudentsduringantiwarprotestsatKentStateUniversityinOhio,a
Galluppollfoundthat58percentofAmericansblamedthestudentsfortheirown
deaths.(IftheydidntdowhattheGuardstoldthem,theyshouldhavebeen
moweddown,oneparentofKentStatestudentstoldaninterviewer.)Dayslater,
hundredsofconstructionworkersfromtheWorldTradeCentersitebeatantiwar
protestersatCityHallwiththeirhardhats.(ItwasjustlikeIwoJima,an
impressedwitnessremarked.)Thatyear,reportsthehistorianKatherineScott,76
percentofAmericanssaidtheydidnotsupporttheFirstAmendmentrightto
assembleanddissentfromgovernmentpolicies.

In1973,thereporterGailSheehyjoinedagroupofbluecollarworkers
watchingtheWatergatehearingsinabarinAstoria,Queens.IfIwasNixon,
oneofthemsaid,Idshooteveryoneofthem.(Whotheywerewent
unspecified.)ThiswasaroundthetimewhenNewYorkerswereleapingtotheir
feetandcheeringduringscreeningsofDeathWish,ahitmovieaboutaliberal
architect,playedbyCharlesBronson,whoshootsmuggersatpointblankrange.
AtanOctober2015rallynearNashville,DonaldTrumptoldhissupporters:I
havealicensetocarryinNewYork,canyoubelievethat?Nobodyknowsthat.
Somebodyattacksme,oh,theyregonnabeshocked.Heimitatedacowboystyle

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quickdraw,andanappreciativecrowdshoutedoutthenameofBronsonsthen
41yearoldfilm:DeathWish!

In1989,ayoungwhitewomanwasrapedinCentralPark.Fiveteenagers,
fourblackandoneLatino,confessedtoparticipatinginthecrime.Attheheightof
thecontroversy,DonaldTrumptookoutfullpageadsinallthemajorNewYork
dailypaperscallingforthereturnofthedeathpenalty.Itwaslaterprovedthe
policehadessentiallytorturedthefiveintotheirconfessions,andtheywere
eventuallyclearedbyDNAevidence.Trump,however,continuestoinsistupon
theirguilt.ThatconfidenceresonatesdeeplywithwhatthesociologistLawrence
RosenthalcallsNewYorkshardhatpopulismanattitude,Rosenthal
hypothesizes,thatTrumplearnedworkingalongsidethetradesmeninhisfathers
realestateempire.Butthecaseitselfalsoresonatesdeeplywithnarrativesdating
backtothefirstKuKluxKlanofwhitewomanhooddefiledbydarksavages.
Trumpspubliccallforthesupposedperpetratorshides,nomattertheproofof
guiltorinnocence,mimicstheritualsofSouthernlynchings.

WhenTrumpvowedonthecampaigntrailtoMakeAmericaGreatAgain,he
wasgenerallyunclearaboutwhenexactlyitstoppedbeinggreat.TheVanderbilt
UniversityhistorianJeffersonCowietellsastorythatpointstoapossibleanswer.
InhisbookTheGreatException,hesuggeststhatwhathistoriansconsidered
themaineventin20thcenturyAmericanpoliticaldevelopmenttheriseand
consolidationoftheNewDealorderwasinfactananomaly,madepolitically
possiblebyaconvergenceofpoliticalfactors.Oneofthosewasimmigration.At
thebeginningofthe20thcentury,millionsofimpoverishedimmigrants,mostly
CatholicandJewish,enteredanoverwhelminglyProtestantcountry.Itwasonly
whenthatdemographictransformationwassuspendedbythe1924Immigration
ActthatmajoritiesofAmericansprovedwillingtovoteformanyliberalpolicies.
In1965,CongressoncemoreallowedlargescaleimmigrationtotheUnited
Statesanditisnoaccidentthatthisdatecoincideswiththeincreasing
conservativebacklashagainstliberalismitself,nowthatitsspoilswouldbemore
widelydistributedamongnonwhites.

Theliberalizationofimmigrationlawisanobsessionofthealtright.Trump
hasechoedtheirrage.Weveadmitted59millionimmigrantstotheUnited
Statesbetween1965and2015,henotedlastsummer,withrarespecificity.
Comeonin,anybody.Justcomeonin.Notanymore.Thiswasastarkcontrast

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toReagan,whoveneratedimmigrants,proudlysigninga1986bill,sponsoredby
theconservativeRepublicansenatorAlanSimpson,thatgrantedmany
undocumentedimmigrantscitizenship.Shortlybeforeannouncinghis1980
presidentialrun,Reaganevenboastedofhiswishtocreate,literally,acommon
marketsituationhereintheAmericaswithanopenborderbetweenourselvesand
Mexico.Butonimmigration,atleast,itisTrump,notReagan,whoisthe
apotheosisofthebrandofconservatismthatnowprevails.

Apuzzleremains.IfDonaldTrumpwaselectedasaMarineLePenstyle
orHiramEvansstyleherrenvolkrepublican,whatarewetomakeofthefact
thatheplacedsomanybankersandbillionairesinhiscabinet,andhas
relentlesslypursuedsomany1percentfriendlypolicies?Moretothepoint,what
arewetothemakeofthefactthathissupportersdontseemtomind?

Here,however,Trumpisfarfromunique.Thehistoryofbaitandswitch
betweenconservativeelectioneeringandconservativegovernanceisanotherrich
seamthatcallsoutforfreshscholarlyexcavation:notofhowconservativevoters
seetheirleaders,butoftheneglectedhistoryofhowconservativeleaderssee
theirvoters.

Intheir1987book,RightTurn,thepoliticalscientistsJoelRogersand
ThomasFergusonpresentedpublicopiniondatademonstratingthatReagans
crusadeagainstactivistgovernment,whichwaswidelyunderstoodtobethe
sourceofhispopularity,wasnot,infact,particularlypopular.Forexample,when
Reaganwasreelectedin1984,only35percentofvotersfavoredsignificantcuts
insocialprogramstoreducethedeficit.Muchexcellentscholarship,wellworth
revisitingintheageofTrump,suggestsanexplanationforReaganssubsequent
successatcuttingbacksocialprogramsinthefaceofhostilepublicopinion:It
wasbusinessleaders,notthegeneralpublic,whomovedtotheright,andthey
becameincreasinglyaggressiveandskilledinmanipulatingthepoliticalprocess
behindthescenes.

Butanotheranswerhidesinplainsight.Theoftencynicalnegotiation
betweenpopulistelectioneeringandplutocraticgovernanceontherighthaslong
beennotsomuchamatterofpolicyasithasbeenamatterofshowbusiness.The
mediascholarTimRaphael,inhis2009book,ThePresidentElectric:Ronald
ReaganandthePoliticsofPerformance,callsthethreeminutecommercialsthat
interruptedepisodesofTheGeneralElectricTheaterstarringReaganandhis

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familyintheirstateoftheartPacificPalisadeshome,outfittedforthembyG.E.
televisionsfirstrealityshow.FortheCaliforniavoterswhosoonmadehim
governor,theadscreatedasenseofReaganasacertainkindofcharacter:the
kindlypaterfamilias,atrustworthyandnonthreateningguardianofthewhite
middleclasssuburbanenclave.Yearslater,theproducersofTheApprentice
carefullycraftedaTrumpcharacterwhowasthequintessenceofsteelyresolve
andallknowingmastery.Americanvotersnoticed.LindaLucchese,aTrump
conventiondelegatefromIllinoiswhohadneverpreviouslybeeninvolvedin
politics,toldmethatshewatchedTheApprenticeanddecidedthatTrump
wouldmakeaperfectpresident.Allthosecelebrities,shetoldme:They
showedhimrespect.

ItisashortleapfromadvertisingandrealityTVtodarkerformsof
manipulation.Considertheparallelssincethe1970sbetweenconservative
activismandthetraditionaltechniquesofconmen.Directmailpioneerslike
RichardVigueriecreatedhaironfirecampaignfundraisinglettersabout
civilizationonthevergeofcollapse.One1979pitchwarnedthatfederalandstate
legislaturesareliterallyfloodedwithproposedlawsthatareaimedattotal
confiscationoffirearmsfromlawabidingcitizens.Another,fromthe1990s,
warnedthatbabiesarebeingharvestedandsoldontheblackmarketbyPlanned
Parenthoodclinics.Recipientsofthesealarmingmissivessentcheckstobattle
phonycrises,andwhattheygotinreturnwasveryrealtaxcutsfortherich.Note
alsothemorerecentconnectionbetweenRepublicanpoliticsandmultilevel
marketingoperationslikeAmway(Trumpseducationsecretary,BetsyDeVos,is
thewifeofAmwaysformerpresidentandthedaughterinlawofitscofounder)
andhoweasilysomeofthesemarketingschemesshadeintothepromotionof
dubiousmiraclecures(BenCarson,secretaryofhousingandurbandevelopment,
withglyconutrientsMikeHuckabeeshillingforasolutionkittoreverse
diabetesTrumphimselftakingonashortlivednutritionalsupplements
multilevelmarketingschemein2009).ThedubiousgriftingofDonaldTrump,in
short,isapartofthestructureofconservativehistory.

FuturehistorianswontfindallthatmuchofafoundationforTrumpismin
thegrimessaysofWilliamF.Buckley,thescrupulousconstitutionalistprinciples
ofBarryGoldwaterorthebrighteyedoptimismofRonaldReagan.Theyllneed
insteadtostudyconservativehistoryspoliticalsurrealistsandintellectual
embarrassments,itsconartistsandtribunesofwhiterage.Itwillnotbea

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pleasantstory.Butifthosehistoriansaretoconstructnewargumentstomake
senseofTrump,thefirststepmaybetoriskbeingimpolite.

RickPerlsteinistheauthor,mostrecently,ofTheInvisibleBridge:TheFallof
NixonandtheRiseofReagan.

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AversionofthisarticleappearsinprintonApril16,2017,onPageMM37oftheSundayMagazinewith
theheadline:TheCorrections.

2017TheNewYorkTimesCompany

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