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Digital Image Processing in Remote Sensing

Conference Paper November 2009

DOI: 10.1109/SIBGRAPI-Tutorials.2009.13 Source: IEEE Xplore

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KING SAUD UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
RESEARCH CENTER

Final Research Report No. 6/427

"DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

IN REMOTE SENSING"

By

Prof. Ismat Mohammed El Hassan

Month 1. 1428 H
Month 1. 2007 G

Digital Image Processing in Remote Sensing

. .

1428 2007

13

14 .1 -

18 . 2 -

18 1.2

18 2.2

19 3.2

20 1.3.2

21 2.3.2

22 4.2

24 5.2

24 6.2

27 7.2

28 8.2

29 9.2

29 10.2

31 .3

31 1.3

32 2.3

33 3.3

33 4.3

3
34 5.3

34 1.5.3

35 2.5.3

36 3.5.3

36 6.3

39 7.3

40 . 4 - ) (

40 1.4

41 2.4

41 1.2.4

42 2.2.4

43 3.4

43 1.3.4

43 2.3.4

44 3.3.4

44 4.4

44 1.4.4

46 2.4.4

47 3.4.4

48 4.4.4

49 5.4

50 1.5.4

51 2.5.4

52 1.2.5.4

54 2.2.5.4

4
 55 3.2.5.4

56 3.5.4

58 6.4

60 .5 -

60 1.5

62 2.5

66 3.5

66 1.3.5

69 2.3.5

71 3.3.5

74 4.5

77 1.4.5 --

78 2.4.5

80 3.4.5

82 ) ( 5.5

85 6.5

86 - .6

86 1.6

87 2.6

88 3.6

92 4.6

96 5.6

97 - .7

97 1.7

97 2.7

5
 98 1.2.7

99 2.2.7

100 3.2.7

101 4.2.7

105 3.7

105 4.7

117 5.7

118 8. -

118 1.8

119 2.8

121 3.8

121 1.3.8

124 2.3.8

127 3.3.8

130 4.8

132 5.8

135 6.8

136

. .

. .

1428 2007

19 1.2

20 2.2

22 3.2

23 4.2

25 5.2 - QB 2.4

26 6.2 QB 0.6

26 7.2 - QB 0.6

26 8.2 SPOT 10

27 9.2 TM 30

27 10.2 MSS 79

28 11.2 8 256

28 12.2 7 128

29 TM 13.2 2

34 1.3

35 2.3

36 3.3

37 4.3 180

37 5.3 -

38 6.3

42 1.4

45 2.4 4

46 3.4 4 7

47 4.4. A

49 5.4

9
51 a.6.4

51 b.6.4

54 a.7.4

54 b.7.4

56 8.4

57 9.4

58 10.4

61 1.5 1.5

63 2.5

63 3.5

64 4.5

64 5.5

65 6.5

69 7.5

72 8.5

75 9.5 7

76 10.5 9.5

76 11.5 TM

76 12.5 11.5

78 13.5 RGB

80 14.5

83 15.5 4x4

83 16.5 15.5

84 17.5 15.5

87 1.6

10
87 2.6

89 3.6 5.5

89 4.6

90 5.6 -

90 6.6

90 7.6 5x3

91 8.6 7.6

91 9.6

91 10.6

92 11.6

92 12.6

93 13.6

93 14.6

93 15.6

94 16.6

94 17.6

95 18.6

95 19.6

100 1.7

102 2.7 1 2

103 3.7 5

104 4.7 7

104 5.7 5 7

107 6.7 1 2

109 7.7 1

11
110 8.7 2

115 9.7 4 TM

116 10.7

116 11.7

116 12.7

119 1.8

120 2.8

122 3.8

123 4.8 B1

123 5.8 B2

123 6.8

125 7.8

126 8.8 B1

126 9.8 B2

126 10.8

129 11.8

131 12.8

12


23 1.2

29 2.2

31 1.3 0 11

31 2.3 98 101 254 255

60 1.5 38000

67 2.5

70 3.5

71 4.5

73 5.5

13


Introduction

]. [1]-[5

" "

. ) (

. )(

) (photographic cameras

) (electronic sensors

14
 (digital

) images . :

) (active

) (passive

]. [5],[6

15 30

128 .

15
 - ) : (image restoration

- ) : (image enhancement

- ) (image classification :

- ) : (data merging

( .

16
 .

17


Digital Images

1.2

2.2 Data Acquisition

(incident

) . radiation

) (absorbed radiation

) (emitted radiation

) (transmitted radiation

) (reflected radiation

) (digital numbers, DN

) (scattered radiation 1.2

]. [5]-[8

) (sensor .

18
 ) (amplification

) (digital numbers, DN

) :(1.2

3.2

. )

( .

19
 .

1.3.2

) (

. . 2.2

) :(2.2

) . (Landsat ) ( (Multi Spectral Scanner), MSS

) (Thematic Mapper, TM

20


2.3.2 Push Broom Scanner

) (push broom

(charge coupled devices,

) . CCD

) . ( 3.2

) (Linear Array Multi Spectral Scanner

) (SPOT .

21


:3.2

4.2 Structure of digital image

) ( c ) ) ( r (4.2

) . (pixel

(ground

) pixels . 4.2 r

c .

)(

) (1,1 4.2 x

) (3,2 .

22
 )(c

1,1

)(r

:4.2

185 x 170 km 42

291

) . ( 1.2

:1.2

)(
42.33 4 10.58 3548 2983 MSS
290.91 7 41.56 6967 5965 TM

) (digital number, DN

23
 ) (r,c ) (DNs

) . (b :

)DN = E (b, r, c )(1.2

E r c . b

]. [8]-[10

5.2 )Digital Numbers (DN

255 .

Spatial Resolution 6.2

) ( pixel

. ) 79 m

(79x79m MSS

) 30 m ( 30x30m TM

) SPOT

24
 10x10m 20x20m ( .

2x2m IKONOS

) ( ) Quick Bird 5.2 - 10.2

Digital Globe Image Library

] [11 ] [12

]. ( [13

) (instantaneous field of view, IFOV

. IFOV

) (scale .

:5.2 Quick Bird

2.4 ][11

25
 :6.2 Quick Bird ][11

0.6

:7.2 Quick Bird

0.6 ][11

:8.2 SPOT

10 ][12

26
 :9.2 ) TM 30(

.[13] 1990

:10.2 ) MSS 79 (

- .[13] 1986

27
 7.2 Spectral Resolution

) (coarse spectral resolution

)( 0.51 - 0.73 m

0.22m )(fine

T M 3

0.63 m 0.69m . 0.06m

8.2 Radiometric Resolution

) (number of bits .

(8- bit data) 8 0 255

11.2 (7- bit data) 7 0

) 127 . ( 12.2 .

0 1 2 254 255

:11.2 8 256

0 1 2 126 127

:12.2 7 128

28
 2.2 6 7 8 .

:2.2

) (bit scale )(DN

64 0 - 63 )6 (26
128 0 - 127 )7 (27
256 0 - 255 )8 (28

9.2 Temporal Resolution

16 3 .

10.2

1.10.2 .

2.10.2 .

29
 . 3.10.2

4.10.2 3x3

3 1 1 2 4 5 6 5 3

2 4 4 6 7 6 2 3 2

30


Preparation of Digital Image Data

1.3

) (binary system

) (bit 0 . 1

0 9 10 99 100 999 .

0 1 10 11 100 111 1000 1111

1.3 0 11 2.3

98 101 254 . [14]-[16] 255

:1.3 0 11

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1011 1010 1001 1000 111 110 101 100 11 10 1 0

:2.3 98 101 254 255

255 254 101 100 99 98

11111111 11111110 1100101 1100100 1100011 1100010

2.3 255 8

8 ) . (8 bits ]. [14

) (byte 1 8 .

31
 256

256 1024 1024 .

2.3 Data storage media

. ) (tapes

) . (diskettes .

]. [3],[14],[16

- (9- track tape) 9- 10 .

120 150 ) 1 =

106 ( .

- ) (cartridge 4x6 150 .

- 4 2.0x1.75 2000

- 8 2.5x4.0 5000 10000

4 .

- ) (optical disc 644

. .

32
 3.3 Tape and diskette contents

) (header file

. -

. -

. -

) . (bits -

. -

. -

. -

4.2

) (data file

VDF = =

= VDF [ ( c * r * b ) * n ] * 1.2 )(1.3

= r :

= c

= n

= b ) (

1.2

1 . 1.5

33
 1.3

3 16

500 . 500

= 2.0 16

): (1.3

1800000 = [ ( 500 x 500 x 2 ) x 3 ] x 1.2 = 1.8 =

5.3

].[14],[16

)Band Interleaved by Line (BIL 1.5.3

1 2 n

1 2

3 1 2

3 . 1.3

1,1,1 1,2,1 1,3,1 1,4,1 1,5,1 1,6,1 1,7,1

1,1,2 1,2,2 1,3,2 1,4,2 1,5,2 1,6,2 1,7,2
1,1,3 1,2,3 1,3,3 1,4,3 1,5,3 1,6,3 1,7,3
2,1,1 2,2,1 2,3,1 2,4,1 2,5,1 2,6,1 2,7,1
2,1,2 2,2,2 2,3,2 2,4,2 2,5,2 2,6,2 2,7,2
2,1,3 2,2,3 2,3,3 2,4,3 2,5,3 2,6,3 2,7,3

34
 :1.3

2.5.3 )Band Sequential (BSQ

TM . :

. -

2.3

1
1,1,1 1,2,1 1,3,1 1,4,1 1,5,1 1,6,1 1,7,1
2,1,1 2,2,1 2,3,1 2,4,1 2,5,1 2,6,1 2,7,1

2
1,1,2 1,2,2 1,3,2 1,4,2 1,5,2 1,6,2 1,7,2
2,1,2 2,2,2 2,3,2 2,4,2 2,5,2 2,6,2 2,7,2

:2.3

35
 3.5.3 )Band Interleaved by Pixel (BIP

3.3

1,1,1 1,1,2 1,2,1 1,2,2 1,3,1 1,3,2 1,4,1 1,4,2 1,5,1 1,5,2
2,1,1 2,1,2 2,2,1 2,2,2 2,3,1 2,3,2 2,4,1 2,4,2 2,5,1 2,5,2

:3.3

6.3

) (pixel DN

0 255

" " .

) ( 255 - 0

0 63 63 127 127 191

191 . 255

) (

36
 4.3

) . (histogram 180 80

63 127 50 0 63 40

127 191 10 191 . 255

80
70
60
50

40

30
20
10
0
0-63 63-127 127-191 191-255

:4.3 180

:2.3

5.3 .

0 3 5 2 7
4 1 6 2 3
2 6 0 4 5
1 3 4 3 6
0 2 5 1 6

37
 :5.3 . 2.3

6.3 :

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 4 3 3 4 4 3 3

3

2

1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

:6.3

= = m ) ( DN )(n

= m DN / n )(2.3

= 81 / 25 = 3.24

) ( :

= { [DNi m]2 / (n-1) }1/2 )(3.3

= ( 108.56/24 )1/2 = 2.13

38
 7.3

1.7.3 101 . 111

2.7.3 4

16 250000 .

. 1.3

. 5x5 3.7.3

5 4 7 6 3

6 3 2 4 5

3 4 6 5 7

2 4 4 5 6

4 3 5 4 5

4.7.3 . 5x5 .

5 7 6 4 3
4 3 4 3 2
2 5 7 7 7
4 6 2 2 3
1 4 6 7 7

39


)(

Digital Image Restoration

1.4

)(

. ) (radiometric distortion

) (geometric distortion ) (systematic and random noise

) (data restoration ) (preprocessing

) (Solid State Camera, SSC

MSS

)( .

40
 2.4 Geometric Correction

. :

(change in platform -

) height, orientation and speed

(earth curvature) -

) (atmospheric refraction -

) (earth rotation -

) (relief variation -

). (instrumental errors -

]. [9],[14],[16]-[22

1.2.4

) (skew distortion

) (de skewing

. 1.4

41
 A O B

D2 D Q P C2 C

:1.4

AB CD

CD

C2D2 CD OQ . OP

2.2.4

) (ground control .

) (1.4

) (2.4 ) (x , y

) (xo , yo .

xo = a1 + a2 x + a3 y + a4 x y + a5 x2 )(1.4

yo = b1 + b2 x + b3 y + b4 x y + b5 x2 )(2.4

42
 Resampling 3.4

1.3 .4 Nearest Neighbour

. ):(3.4

)I(x,y) = I (u,v )(3.4

) (x,y ) (u,v

" "I .

) ( .

2.3.4 Bilinear Interpolation

: .

)I(x,y) = a1I(u,v+1) + a2I(u,v) +a3I(u+1,v+1) + a4I(u+1,v )(4.4

43
 Cubic Convolution 3.3.4

. . :

)I(x,y) = am,n I(u+m, v+n )(5.4

- 1 < m,n < 2

Radiometric Correction 4.4

1.4.4 Atmospheric Correction

) (scattered radiation

RT = ( * I * T ) / + RP )(6.4

= RT

= I

= T

= Rp ) (

44
 .

4 ) (0.5 - 0.6 um MSS

7 )(0.8 - 1.1 um

0 1

. 7 .

( 2.4 . ) 4

. 4

. 4

5 6 7 .

:2.4 4

45
 :

7 ) (4

. 3.4

0 255 0 255

7 4

:3.4 4 7

7 0

4 .

2.4.4

46
 .

. 90

) (DNo ) (DNn

90 :

DNn = DNo / cos )(7.4

) ( 4.4

:4.4 A

3.4.4

) = 146.4 (

) 151.2 ( .

47


]. [3

1.4

50, 100,

. 200

. ) ( " " .

= . (151.2/146.4)2 :

2
50x(151.2/146.4) = 53 50
2
100x(151.2/146.4) = 107 100
2
200x(151.2/146.4) = 213 200

4.4.4

48
 5.4 A,B,C .

. A B

. C

B C

:5.4

5.4 Noise Removal

49
 .

. ]. [9],[14

1.5.4 Destripping

MSS

. .

0 . 255

DNi,j ) DN 0 ( 255

) i (i j DNi,j-1

) i (i j-1 :

DNi,j = DNi,j-1 )(8.4

DNi,j = DNi,j+1 )(9.4

a.6.4 b.6.4 .

50
 16 19 24 27 29 31
17 18 22 25 28 30
0 0 0 0 0 0
15 17 20 24 26 33
16 19 23 26 27 32

:a.6.4

16 19 24 27 29 31
17 18 22 25 28 30
17 18 22 25 28 30
15 17 20 24 26 33
16 19 23 26 27 32

:b.6.4

2.5.4

MSS

TM .

)( .

) (threshold value

51


1.2.5.4

) (i )

xi

x i

) ( :

= { [ ni ( xi2 + i2 ) / ni ] - x2 }0.5 )(10.4

ni . i

2.4

. )

( .

52

2 3 4 2 4 1
2 7 3 2 6 2
4 2 6 3 8 3
3 4 5 3 8 4
2 2 2 4 6 5
0 4 4 2 8 6

i2 i xi2 xi

0.800 0.894 9.00 3.0 1

4.400 2.098 16.00 4.0 2

4.640 2.154 21.16 4.6 3

2.960 1.720 21.16 4.6 4

2.560 1.600 10.24 3.2 5

7.040 2.653 12.96 3.6 6

22.40 90.52 23.0

= 6

x = 23 / 6 = 3.833

) (10.4 :

= { 5 (22.40 + 90.52) / 30 - (3.833)2 }0.5

= 2.05

i .

53
 2.2.5.4

DN i,j = ( DN i,j-1 + DN i,j+1 ) / 2 )(11.4

. a.7.4 b.7.4

20.00 , 21.75 , 44.25 , 20.75 :

26.69 44.25

23 19 18 20
23 24 18 22
45 47 42 43
21 22 20 20

:a.7.4

23 19 18 20
23 24 18 22
22 23 19 21
21 22 20 20

:b.7.4

54
 .

Linear method 3.2.5.4

)( ) (histograms

)(

EROS Data Center

) DNO (i,c) = DNI (i,c) ( / i) + x - xi ( / i )(12.4

c r = )DNO(i,c

c r )= DNI(Ii,c

55
 .

) .( 8.4

43 21 16 27
32 37 10 28
31 43 14 19
30 42 17 17

:8.4

26.50 , 26.75 :

26.75 , 26.75, = . 26.69

10.40 , 11.23 , 10.25 , 10.16 :

. 10.52

Random Noise 3.5.4

. .

56
 9.4

40 60 : 90 0

40 60 50 40 50
40 0 40 90 60
40 60 60 40 50

:9.4

) . (moving average filter

) 3x3 : . ( 5x5

3x3 .

720/15 = 48 .

) = 720 = . ( 15

32 = (2/3)*48 =

3x3 = 43 = 390/9

0 32

3x3 0 43

32 0 . 43

49

9.4 40 9 .

) ( 53

90 ) (37

90 . 53

57
 . 10.4

40 60 50 40 50
40 43 40 53 60
40 60 60 40 50

:10.4

6.4

1.6.4 .

2.6.4 .

3.6.4

4.6.4 .

5.6.4 . 5x5

2 3 1 4 4
1 10 3 2 5
2 2 3 4 2
4 1 6 0 6
3 4 4 5 3

58
 6.6.4 4x4 .

9 8 7 7
6 4 6 8
0 0 0 0
8 4 4 8

59


Digital Image Enhancement

1.5

255 .

255

. 1.5

38000 25 100 .

:1.5 38000

100 75 50 25
5000 10000 15000 8000

) (1.5

60
 16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 255

:1.5 1.5

0 255

)C = (Imax Imin) / (Imax + Imin 1.5

C Imax Imin .

0 255

. .

61
 2.5 Linear contrast stretch

) 1.5

25 ( 100

0 255

] ) DNo = 255 [ ( DNi - DNmin ) / ( DNmax - DNmin )(2.5

= DNo

= DNi )(

= DNmin

= DNmax

1.5 ) (DNmin 25

) (DNmax 100 ) (2.5

25 0 100 255

50 ] ) 85 = 255[ (50-25) / (100- 25 75

(look ]) . 170 = 255[ (75- 25)/(100- 25

) up table, LUT . 2.5

62
 255

DNo

0 25 100 255

DNi

:2.5

16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 85 170 255

:3.5

LUT

. 0 255

) 256( 2.5 .

512x512 262144

. 3.5

63
 . 4.5

) ] ( [12

5.5 )( ERDAS

] .[23

:4.5 ][12

:5.5

64
 1.5

55 DNmax

0 . 255

68 75

DNmax .

: 2.5

] )DNo = 68 = 255 [ (75 - 55) / (DNmax - 55

DNmax = [ 255 (75 - 55) / 68 ] + 55

= 130

. .

) (piecewise contrast stretch

. 6.5

255

DNo

0 DNi 255

:6.5

65
 3.5 Nonlinear stretch

). (histogram equalization

Histogram equalization 1.3.5

. )( .

- 1 ) (N

)) (T 0 255 ( 256

) (nt :

nt = N / T )(3.5

0 j . kj

0 : j

kj = n0 + n1 + n2 + . . . + nj )(4.5

66
 nj . j

j0 nt

j0 . 0 LUT j1

) (2nt j0 j1

ji ji

2.5

16 0 15 2.5

. .

:2.5

)(
)(
0 1500 1500 0
0 4000 2500 1
0 9000 5000 2
1 19000 10000 3
1 32000 13000 4
3 57000 25000 5
5 87000 30000 6
7 129000 42000 7
11 189000 60000 8
14 239000 50000 9
15 249000 10000 10
15 253000 4000 11
15 257000 4000 12
15 260000 3000 13
15 260000 0 14
15 260000 0 15

67
 :

: = 260000

: =

16250 = 260000 / 16 = nt

: 0 15

2.5 . ( 16250) nt

19000 3

0 1 2 0 )

( 3 1nt 1

. (2nt = 32500) 2nt

57000 5 2

19000 1 . 19000

(3nt = 48750) 3nt 57000

3 2 2 .

(4nt = 65000) 4nt

87000 (5nt = 81250) 5nt 6

87000 5 4 .

) (113750 129 7 7nt

7 6 .

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
42000 0 30000 0 25000 0 23000 9000

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
21000 50000 0 0 60000 0 0 0

68


7.5 4.5

:7.5

2.3.5 Contrast stretching with nonlinear

functions

) DNin n (2,3,4

DNo = DNin )(5.5

69
 5 15

240 250 . 2

DN2

3.5 :

:3.5

DNo = DNi2 DNi
25 5
225 15
= 200
5.76 x 104 240
4
6.25 x 10 250
4
= 0.49x10

DNo = log DNi )(6.5

. 4.5

70
 : 4.5

DNo = Log DNi DNi
70 5
118 15
= 48
238 240
240 250
= 2

4.5

) (bimodal

3.3.5 )( Normal distribution

) (Gauss Distribution :

f(x) = C e-ax2 )(7.5

71
 C = (a/)0.5 ) a = 0.5 * (1/2

x ) f(x e-0.5 0.607 1/(2a)0.5

60.7% .

) (bell shape

8.5 .

- )( +

:8.5

5.5

3 . 16 .

) (DNi

) (ni .

) . (DNi

72
 ) ( ) (p

. ) (nt

) . (nt

0 1500

3780 2 0

2 ) ( 3 1 4000

9505 3 1

3 .

:5.5

DNo nt nt P DNi ni DNi

2 525 525 0.0020 -3 1500 1500 0

2 1385 860 0.0033 -2.6 4000 2500 1
3 3780 2395 0.0092 -2.2 9000 5000 2
4 9505 5725 0.0220 -1.8 19000 10000 3
5 21155 11650 0.0448 -1.4 32000 13000 4
6 41410 20255 0.0779 -1.0 57000 25000 5
7 71470 30060 0.1156 -0.6 87000 30000 6
8 109565 38095 0.1465 -0.2 129000 42000 7
10 150780 41215 0.1585 0.2 189000 60000 8
11 188870 38090 0.1465 0.6 239000 50000 9
12 218930 30060 0.1156 1.0 249000 10000 10
13 239190 20260 0.0779 1.4 253000 4000 11
14 250840 11650 0.0448 1.8 257000 4000 12
15 256565 5725 0.0220 2.2 260000 3000 13
15 258960 2395 0.0092 2.6 260000 0 14
15 260000 1040 0.0040 3.0 260000 0 15

73
 4.5 Color Enhancement

. )

) ( .

) (additive colors

) R G . ( B

) . ( Infra Red

) (

) (DN

( . 9.5 [ 24 ] 7

) ( false

74


. 7 10.5

:9.5 [24] 7

:10.5 9.5 ][24

: 11.5

[12] 7 )(3

75
 ) (2 ) (1

)( ) (2 ) (3

) (4 . 12.5

:11.5 [12] TM

:12.5 11.5 ][12

76


)/(

: ) (Red, Blue, Green " " .

) - - ( RGB

) : - . ( HSI

1.4.5 - - RGB Model

) Red Green ( Blue

R G B .

. 13.5 K ) (Black

) (0,0,0

: ) ( R ) (255,0,0 ) (G ) (0,255,0 )(B

) (0,0,255 KR - KG -

KB - .

) . (R, G, B ) (White, W

). (255,255,255

) (K-W

77
 :13 .5 RGB

RGB

2.4.5 Hue, Saturation, Intensity

(HSI) Model

- ) :(Hue, H

400 700 )

78
 - ) :(Saturation, S

: .

- ) :(Intensity, I

. ) (Grey level

: ) (HSI

) (RGB

) (14.5

) (I ) (K 0

255 ) (W .

. ) (H

. 0 ) ( R

) (G 85

) (B 170 255 0 .

)) (S ( 0

0 255 . 0 255

79
 :14.5 HSI

RGB . HIS

RGB HSI

HSI RGB .

3.4.5

- RGB HSI

RGB HSI 0 1

0 . 255 HSI
RGB

0 1 S I 0o 360o

. H

I R G B

80
 ) I = (1/3) ( R + G + B )(8.5

S :

]S = 1 - [ min(R,G,B) / I )(9.5

} )= 1 { 3*[ min(R,G,B)] / (R+G+B

) min(R,G,B

R,G,B 0 .

H :

)H = cos-1 (q / p )(10.5

] )q = 0.5 * [ (R-G) + (R-B

p = [ (R-G)2 + (R-B) * (G-B) ]1/2

G < B H :

H' = 360o - H )(11.5

- HSI : RGB

H :

H 0o ) 1200 R ( G R G

B r g b :

} )r = (1/3) * { 1 + S * cos (H) / cos (60o H )(12.5

)b = (1/3)* (1 S )(13.5

)g = 1 (r + b )(14.5

H ) (120o - 240o - G-B H

-:

H' = H - 120o )(15.5

)r = (1/3) * (1 S )(16.5

} )g = (1/3) * { 1 + S * cos (H) / cos (60o H )(17.5

)b=1(r+g )(18.5

81
 H : B R 240o H 360o

H H 240o :

)r = (1/3) * (1 S )(19.5

} )g = (1/3) * { 1 + S * cos (H) / cos (60o H )(20.5

)b=1(r+g )(21.5

r g b R G B:

R = 31 * r , G = 31 * g , B = 31 * b )(22.5

H .

5.5 Density Slicing

. 0 255

. 0 20

0 21 40

2 255 n-1

.n

0 255

-1 : -2

. ]:[25

-1 : .

) T (

82
) I(i,j j i 0 T

) Io(i,j 1 . T

0 I(i,j) < T

= )Io(i,j )(23.5

1 I(i,j) T

4 4 15.5

: 16.5

3 3 5 6
2 5 4 7
1 2 8 9
2 1 6 7

:15.5 4x4

0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1

:16.5 15.5

83
 -2 : n

0 T1

0 T1 T2

1 T2

T3 2

) Tn-1 ( ) N

( n :

0 I(i,j) T1

1 T1< I(i,j) T2

2 )T2 < I(i,j T3

= )Io(i,j . . )(24.5

. .

. .

n Tn-1 < I(i,j) N

15.5

T4 = 9 T3 = 7 T2 = 5 T1 = 3 :

. 17.5

0 0 1 2
0 1 1 2
0 0 3 3
0 0 2 2

:17.5 15.5

84


. 0 . 3

6.5

1.6.5 3x5 10 90

0 . 255

70 90 80 60 50
60 40 50 30 60
10 70 90 20 30

2.6.5 50 . DNmax

250 70

65 DNmax

3.6.5 RGB . HIS

4.6.5 4x4 7

7 4 5 8
8 2 4 9
6 9 9 8
3 4 8 9

5.6.5 : 4.6.5

T3 = 9 T2 = 6 T1 = 4

85


Image Filtering

1.6

) (filtering

(spatial

) enhancement (spatial

) . filtering ) (spatial frequency

) (

. [6] Jensen "

) ( " .

) (high spatial frequency

) (low spatial frequency .

) . (smooth

). (coarse

- : .

- : .

- : .

86


.
.

2.6

) (filter

)3 3x 5 5x (

1.6 3x3

. 1 5x5

2.6

1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

:1.6

18 20 17 19 18
20 24 19 22 14
23 32 29 27 19
21 36 30 28 16
20 34 28 26 18

:2.6

87


[(18x1)+(20x1)+(17x1)+(20x1)+(24x1)+(19x1)+(23x1)+(32x1)+(29x1)] / 9 = 22

24 . 22

19 .

3x3

1.6 . 1

3.6 )High Pass Filters (HPF

) (

(edge enhancement

) filters .

) (faults

) (fractures ). (mineral deposits

88
 3.6 )

( 5.5

:3.6 ) (5.5

. 4.6

-1 -1 -1
-1 8 -1
-1 -1 -1

:4.6 )(high pass filter

. - ) ( 5.6

89
 / ) ( 6.6

1 0 -1
2 0 -2
1 0 -1

:5.6 )(NS

0 0 1
0 0 0
-1 0 0

:6.6 )(NW

) (

. .

) 7.6 5 3

) . (8.6

24 29 30 28 26
24 25 27 26 20
22 24 26 26 24

) :(7.6 5x3

90
 30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5

) :(8.6

). (9.6

-1 3 -1

) :(9.6 HPF

) (7.6

) (10.6 ). (11.6

27 24 30 31 10

) :(10.6

91
 35
30
25
20

15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5

) :(11.6

) (8.6 ) (11.6

4.6 )Low Pass Filters (LPF

LPF

. ) (1.6

. 1

):(12.6

22 24 70 25 20

) :(12.6

1 ):(13.6

92
 22 39 40 38 39

) :(13.6

) (14.6

) (15.6 .

70
60
50
40

30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5

) :(14.6

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5

) :(15.6

93


) 16.6

17.6 19.6 MSS

5 ] [12 ( .

16.6

:17.6 ][12

94
 18.6 LPF

19.6 HPF

) (median filter

. 3x3

95


3x3 :

10,20,20,20,15,20,20,25,100 :

100, 25, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 15, 10 20

5.6

1.5.6 .

2.5.6 ) ( .

. ) (

1- 3 -1 64 66 60 65 60

)( )(

3.5.6 ) (

)( . .

1 1 1 9 9
0 1/4 0 1 1 9 9 1
1/4 -1 1/4 1 9 9 1 1
0 1/4 0 1 9 1 1 1
9 1 9 9 1

)( ) (

96


Image Transformation

1.7

" "

. .

" " ) (theoretical transformation methods

) (empirical transformation methods " "

) (principal components .

2.7 Arithmetic Operations

] . [9],[14],[21

97
 1.2.7 Image Addition

). (vegetation indices

)G(x,y) = F(x,y) + N(x,y )(1.7

) = G(x,y ) (x,y

) = F(x,y ) (x,y

) = N(x,y ) (x,y

) N(x,y (normal

) distribution 0

. .

) (x,y ) F(x,y

) N(x,y .

) G1(x,y ) (x,y )G2(x,y

) (x,y ) . GSUM(x,y

0 255 0 510

8 .

) ( 0 255 .

GSUM(x,y) = [ G1(x,y) + G2(x,y) ] / 2 )(2.7

) (a

) (d :

98
 GSUM(x,y) = [ G1(x,y) + G2(x,y) a ] / d )(3.7

a d ) G1(x,y )G2(x,y

2.2.7 Image Subtraction

) ( 0 255

) -255 255 ( 0 . 255

0 . 255

255 0-510 2

0-255 :

GDIF = [ 255 + G1(x,y) G2(x,y) ] / 2 )(4.7

a 1/d .

) GDIF(x,y 127

) . ( 1.7 127

99


0 100 127 150 255

:1.7

127 1.7

100 150

0 100 150 255 . 1.7

3.2.7 Image Multiplication

100
 4 . 7

. (masking

). process

. 7

) ( 7

0 1 . 1

. ) (

0 1 . 4 4 1

0 0 .

4 0

0 . :

4.2.7 Image Division or Ratio

) . (ratioing

- 1 )(spectral reflectance curves

- 2 .

101
 1

2 . 2.7 ) (B

. )(A

180 = 1

2.40 =180/75 75 = 2 =

90 = 1

37 = 2 = 2.43 = 90/37

2 . (0.41) 1

) (180-75=105

). (90-37=53

A B

:2.7 1 2

102


. 7

5 .

7 . 5 3.7

4.7 5 7 ] . [14

) ( 7

. 5 .

5.7

. .

. 3:4 2:4 2:3 1:4 1:3 1:2 :

(false )color

:3.7 [14] 5

103
 :4.7 [14] 7

:5.7 5 [14] 7

104
 3.7 Complex Ratios Transform

. 4.2.7

(normalized difference

) . vegetation index, NDVI

7 : 5

)NDVI = (B7 B5) / (B7 + B5 )(5.7

B5 B7 5 7 .

NDVI = [(B7-B5) / (B7 + B5)] +1 -1 ): (5.7

= [(B7 B5 + B7 + B5) / (B7 + B5)] -1

= [2*B7/(B7 + B5)] -1 )(6.7

soil adjusted vegetation index

)(SAVI

SAVI = [ (B7 B5) / (B7 + B5 + 0.5) ] * 1.5 )(7.7

4.7 Principal Components Analysis

]. [14], [21] ,[25

105
 :

* .

( .

) (scatter graph

) (diagonal line 6.7

6.7

y1 y2

y1 = a11 x1 + a12 x2
)8.7
y2 = a21 x1 + a22 x2

) (x1 , x2 .

) (y1 , y2 .

106
 x2

y2 y1

x1

:6.7 1 2

a11 a12 a21 a22 :

-1 .

-2 ) (xi ) ( ) (yi

) i 1 .( 2

-3 ) (y1 ). (y2

MSS

TM .

107
 eigen vectors covariance

) matrix (V ) correlation matrix ( R

] [20

) (1 B1 B2 :

)(Xi M2 )(Xi M1 )DN (B2 )DN (B1

-0.33 -2 2 1 1
-1.33 -1 1 2 2
-1.33 1 1 4 3
-0.33 2 2 5 4
1.67 1 4 4 5
1.67 -1 4 2 6
M2 = 2.33 M1=3

M1 M2 B1 B2

" "scatter plot : 7.7

108
 4.5
4
3.5

-B2
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 2 4 6
-B1

7.7 1

) (2 :

)(Xi M2 )(Xi M1 )DN (B2 )DN (B1

-1.5 -1.5 2 2 1
-0.5 0.5 3 4 2
0.5 1.5 4 5 3
1.5 1.5 5 5 4
0.5 -0.5 4 3 5
-0.5 -1.5 3 2 6
M2 = 3.5 M1 = 3.5

8.7 .

109
 6

-B2
4

0
0 2 4 6
-B1

8.7 2

) variance-covarience matrix (V :

)V = {(Xi M) * (Xi M)T} / (N 1 )(9.7

N :

}V = {(Xi M) * (Xi M)T )(10.7

V1 :

-2 -1
{ = V1 [ -2 -0.33] + [-1 -1.33] +
-0.33 -1.33

1 2
[1 -1.33] + [2 -0.33] +
-1.33 -0.33

1 -1
[1 1.67] + [-1 1.67] }/6
1.67 1.67

2 0
=
0 1.223

110
 V2 :

1.9 1.1
= V2
1.1 1.1

R1 R2

1 r12

=R

r21 1

rij = Vij / (Vii - Vjj)1/2

i = 1,2 j =1,2

1 0

= R1

0 1

1 0
= R2

0.76 1

0.76

111
 . .

) (

X Y ) (

Y = GX )(11.7

G ) ( (i) eigen values

)( (gi) eigen vectors Vx :

: :

Vx - I = 0 )(12.7

I i

gi :

[ Vx i I ] gi = 0 )(13.7

G = [ g1 g2 g3 gnb ]T )(14.7

V2

1.9 1.10
= 0
1.10 - 1.10

2 - 2.0 + 0.88 = 0

112
 1 = 2.67 ; 2 = 0.33

2.67
=
0.33

1 ) (5.7 :

1.10 2.67 1.10 g11

= 0
1.10 1.10 2.67 g21

-0.77 g11 + 1.10 g21 = 0

1.10 g11 - 1.57 g21 = 0

g11 = 1.43 g21

g112 + g212 = 1 . :

0.82
= g1
0.57

T
0.82 -0.57
= G
0.57 0.82

Y = G X

y1 0.82 0.57 x1
=
y2 -0.57 0.82 x2

113
 Vy :

2.67 0
= Vy

0 0.33

C1 C2 ) B1 ( B2

variance C1 2.67 0.33

. C2

) 1.90 + 1.10 = 3.00

(2.67 + 0.33 = 3 .

1.9/3 1.1/3 B1 : B2

B1 63.3% = (1.9/3)*100 :

B2 36.7% = (1.1/3)*100 : .

C1 C2

C1 89% = (2.67/3)*100 :

C2 11% = (0.33/3)*100 : .

C1

. C2 principal component

. secondary component

. .

].[25

-:

114
 - 1

- 2 .

9.7 4

TM ] . [12 10.7 11.7 12.7

. 10.7

9.7

:9.7 4 TM

] [12

115
 :10.7 ] [ 12

:11.7 ][12

:12.7 ] [12

116


5.7

1.5.7 .

2.5.7

3.5.7

4.5.7 A B : C

28 30 35 80 60 70 20 30 40
30 25 26 60 50 80 10 20 20
C B A

- A B

- B C .

5.5.7 A B B1 B2

B A
B2 B1 B2 B1

5 1 2 2 1 2 2 4 5 6 4 3
2 4 3 4 4 2 3 5 4 5 3 2

- A . B

- A . B

- .

117


Image Classification

1.8

118


2.8 Spectral Signature

1.8

C,B,A )( 3,2,1

. .

) ( C

1 2 3

:1.8

1 A C

2 B C 3

A B

119


) . (2.8

A1, C1 A2 B C2

B1 B2

:2.8

. 2.8 .

. :

].[14], [21] ,[25

120
 3.8 Supervised Classification

. ). (training sites

) . (thematic map

1.3.8 Minimum Distance Classifier

. ) (

B1 . B2

c1 c2 c3

. 3.8 a

) . (c1, c2, c3 .

121
 y c3

B2 a

c2

c1

B1

:3.8

) ( :

(y) B2 (x) B1

y1 x1 c1

y2 x2 c2

y3 x3 c3

) (a-ci ) a (xa , ya ) ci ( i=1,2,3:

a-ci = [ (xi xa)2 + (yi ya)2 ]1/2 )(1.8

:1.8

4.8 5.8 B1 B2

6.8 : ) (V ) (W

x1 x2 x3 x1(1,1), x2( 2,3), x3(3,1) :

122
 5 2 1
4 7 2
2 4 0

:4.8 B1

8 2 1
6 5 1
5 1 2

:5.8 B2

V
W

:6.8

) B1

) W(0,2 : ( B2 V(7,5) :

B2 B1

8 5 x1

1 2 x2

5 2 x3

123


(13)1/2 = x1 [(7-5)2 + (5-8)2]1/2 = V

(61)1/2 = x1 [(0-5)2 + (2-8)2]1/2 = W

x1 V .

x2 (41)1/2 = [(7-2)2 + (5-1)2]1/2 = V

x2 (5)1/2 = [(0-2)2 + (2-1)1/2 = W

x2 W

x3 (25)1/2 = [(7-2)2 + (5-5)2]1/2 = V

x3 (34)1/2 = [(7-2)2 + (2-5)2]1/2 = W

x3 V .

2.3.8 Parallelepiped Classifier

7.8 B1 . B2

a1 c3 a2 .

124
 c3

a1

B2 a2

c1
c2

B1

:7.8

:2.8

8.8 9.8 B1 B2

5x5 10.8 )(

V :

- )

125
 4 6 5 2 1
3 5 4 1 2
5 3 2 4 0
4 4 2 2 1
4 5 1 3 2

:8.8 B1

8 6 8 2 1
7 8 6 0 1
6 7 5 1 0
6 6 6 2 4
8 7 4 3 4

:9.8 B2

V
V

:10.8

10.8 B1 8.8 B2 : 9.8

: B1 = 3

= 5

: B2 = 6

= 8

4 = (4 + 3 +5)/3 = B1

126
 7 = (6 + 7 + 8)/3 = B2

: B1

V V
V V V
V V V
V V
V V V

: B2

V V V
V V V
V V V
V V V
V V

V V
V V V
V V
V V
V V

3.3.8 Maximum Likelihood Classification

. Bay's rule :

C:

127
 C = C1, C2, C3, . . . , Cnc )(2.8

nc pixel x

) x (

x Ci:

) P( Ci | x )(3.8

. i= 1, 2, 3, .. nc ) P( Ci | x

x ) . P( Ci | x

x Ci ) P( Ci | x ) > P( Cj | x j # 1

) P( Ci | x

: ) P( Ci Ci )

( ) P( x x Ci

) P( x ) = P( x | Ci ) * P( Ci )(4.8

i 1 nc

) P( x

P( C1 | x ) : ) . P( C2 | x

P( x | Ci ) : i= 1, 2, ., nc

) (

])P( x | Ci ) = {1/ [ (2)1/2 i ] } ex[ - (x - i)2 / (2 i2 )(5.8

i : Ci i

Ci .

nb :

])P( x| Ci ) = {1/ [ (2)nb/2(|Vi|)1/2 ex[ -0.5(x - i)T Vi-1(x - i )(6.8

128
 i : Ci Vi ) P( Ci

P( C1 ) = P( C2 ) = . = P( Cnc ) :

) P( x | Ci ) P( Ci .

) P( x | Ci ) P( Ci 1 nc ) P( Ci | x

. x 8.8 :

xi Ci ) P( x | Ci )* P( Ci

x1 C1 x2 C2

) ( .11.8

:11.8 ][25

Log {P( x| Ci ) . P( Ci )} = - (nb/2) Log 2 0.5 Log |Vi| -

)) 0.5 (x - i)T Vi-1(x - i) + Log (P( Ci )(7.8

129
 - (nb/2) Log 2 :

) g(x) = -0.5 Log |Vi | - 0.5(x - i)T Vi-1(x - i) + Log P( Ci )(8.8

) g(x discrimination function ) P( Ci

)g(x) = -Log |V| - (x - i)T Vi-1 (x - i )(9.8

) g(x x .

4.8 Unsupervised Classification

) ( ) . (clusters

) (spectral classes .

"

" " " .

12.8

B1

130
 . B2

. ao bo

a b .

. ao bo

. .

ao bo

a . b

a1 . b1

a2 b2 .

a bo

B2 a3 a2 b

b1

a1 b2 b3

ao

B1

:12.8

131
 5.8 Accuracy Assessment of Classification

( .

"classification

"error matrix " "contingency table

) " .( "reference data

) (V ) (W ): (U

132
 U W V

51% 57 15 14 28 V
29% 21 5 15 1 W
9% 22 20 1 1 U
100 40 30 30

50% 50% 7%

) (28, 15, 20

. (15, 14, 5, 1, 1, 1) :

) (

commission error (1, 1, 14, 1, 15, 5) :

. omission error ) (t

= t ( 28 + 15 + 20 ) / 100 = 63% )(10.8

) (t

) (user's accuracy ) (producer's accuracy :

)( =

)( =

= - 1
)(11.8
= -1

133
 ) kappa coefficient (k

) (beyond chance agreement )(

) . (expected disagreement

]:[25],[26

N xij

j i xij = xi+

j xij = x+j

]k = [N xii - xi+ x+i] / [ ( N2 - xi+ x+i )(12.8

k 0 k=1

] [27

k = 0.75 . k 0.4

]. [14], [25]-[27

[14],[23] ERDAS . [14] ENVI

. [14],[17],[21],[28] :

134
 6.8

1.6.8 .

B1 : B2 2.6.8

B1 B2

9 6 4 9 6 8
8 5 6 3 7 6
7 9 5 2 5 7

U
U U
V V U

U V .

) (1,2) (1,1 ). (2,1

3.6.8 :

- .

- .

- .

4.6.8

A : B C .

C B A
3 4 42 A
12 45 5 B
2 3 39 C

135


References

[1] Campbele, J. B., "Introduction to Remote Sensing," Guilford Press, New York,

USA, 2002.

[2] Colwell, R. N., "Manual of Remote Sensing," American Society of

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Falls Church, Virginia, USA, 1983.

[3] Gibson, P. and C. H. Power, "Introductory Remote Sensing Digital Image

Processing and Applications," Routledge, London, UK, 2000.

" " [ 4]

. 1986

[5] Lillesand, T. M., R. W. Keifer and J. W. Chipman, "Remote Sensing and Image

Interpretation," 5th edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA, 2004.

[6] Jensen, J. R., "Introductory Digital Image Processing: A Remote Sensing

Prespective," Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA, 2005.

" " . [ 7]

. 1993

[8] Schowengerdt, R. A., "Remote Sensing Models and Methods for Image

Processing," Academic Press, Burlington, MA, USA, 1997.

[9] Sabins, F. F. Jr., "Remote Sensing Principles and Interpretation," W. H. Freeman

and Co., New York, USA, 1997.

[10] Rencz, A. N. and R. A. Ryerson, "Manual of Remote Sensing for the Earth

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