ΤΕΧΝΟΛΟΓΙΑ ΠΑΡΑΓΩΓΗΣ ΤΣΙΜΕΝΤΟΥ ΚΑΙ

-
, 2010

1
2
(2007) 2
2
5

1. 5
2. () 6

3. 7

4. (, .) 7
1. 7
2. 7
3. 7
1. 9

1.1. 9
1.2. 10
2. 14
2.1. 14
2.2. 15
15
, () 16
(, )
2.3. 18
- 21
32
33
2.4. 36
45

2.5. 48
i
48
51
(alternative fuels) 53
55
- 57

2.6. 58

59
60
,
61
(CO2) 65
(CO) 67
2.7. 68
3. TOY 72
3.1. Portland (OPC), Type I 72
3.2. 74
74
Tricalcium silicate (C3S, Alite) 76
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S, Belite) 76
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) 77
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF, Ferrite) 78
(Na2O + K2O) 79
3.3. Bogue 82
1. 82
2. Bogue 82
4. 87

87
4.1. ASTM 88
4.2. 92
4.3. 97

4.3.1. 97

ii
4.3.2. 97
4.4. 100
4.4.1. Powell 101
4.4.2. Powell 101
4.4.3. 101
5. 103
5.1. 103
5.2. 110
5.3 . 116
5.3.1. (Fineness) 116
5.3.2. (Soundness) 118
5.3.3. (Consistency) 119
5.3.4. Setting time ( ) 119
5.3.5. (compressive strength) 121
5.3.6. (Heat of Hydration) 122
6. 124
6.1. 124
6.2. 125
6.3. 130
1. 130
2. (bulk specific gravity) 132
1. 132
2. 133
3. (Moisture content) 134
4. 135
6.4. 140
6.5. 141
6.6. 142
6.7. 143
6.8. 146
7. 150
7.1. 150

7.2. - 154
154
7.3. 157
7.3.1. 157
( ) 158
iii
159
160

162

1. / 163
2. 0.45 (0.45 Power Curve) 165
3. % (Percent Retained Chart) 166
(Optimum Aggregate Blend) 170
1. 170
2. 170
7.3.2. 175

7.3.2.1. 175
7.3.2.2. (, .) 179
8. 181

8.1. 181
8.2. 187
8.2.1. 187
8.2.2. 187
8.3. 188
8.3.1. % 189
(fine aggregate content)
8.4. 189

8.5. 190
1. () 190
2. ( 191
)
9. (%) 193

10. - 195
11. ( , 202
)
. 202
iv

. 206

(
4 )
. 220

. 236
(BLAINE)
. 241

. 246
. 257
.1. 257
.2. 264
. 271
278
278
278
v

8
. - ...,
.
, , ,
- (,
, , , ,
),
-
.
-
.
, ,
,
.
, ,

, .
,

, ,
,
.
,
,
. ,
,
kostsakg@metal.ntua.gr.
, 2010
1

(2007)
: (-8-) (-7-)
..
1. ( 1, 1, 1,
1) + (U.S.A. 2, 2, 1, 1, 1)
2. (Lafarge Group) ( 1, 1,
1)
3. (Italcementi Group) ( 1).
1. .
2
2. .
3. E (2007) : 15.331.000 .
3
4.
2006 16.1 .
. 35.8 % (5.77 . )
, ... . ,
64.2 % (10.35 . ) .
(...,
), 70% (7.25 . ) 30% (3.1 .
) . 80% (5.8 . )

, 12-15%
5-8% .
4
5. (1998-2007).

(
2006)
1.
1 1,6-1,65
. 75%, . ,
0.75x1.65x16.1 . = 19.92 x 106 ,

4-4.5 x 106
( , , , .).
( )
6.
5
6. ( )
.
2. ()

90-95% . (0.90
x 10.35 . 9.32 . )
m3 300 kg
(0.3 t) , : (9.32/0.3) x 106 = 31.07 x 106 m3
m3 2
, 2 x 31.07 x 106 62.14 x 106
.
62.14 x 106 (,
-)
() . (
)
60-70% ,
:
(62.14 x 106 /0.70) 88.8 x 106

.
6
3.

(19.92 + 88.80) x106 108.72 x 106 .
, ( /
) = 1:5, 20%, .
:
(108.72 x 106) x 1.2 130.5 x 106 49.2x106 m3

( . 2.65 / m3).

, 4-4.5 x 106 1.8-2.0
x 106 m3 .
4. (, .)
1.
70 /,
:
5.77x106 x 70 / = 404 0.404

2.

( ..) 70 /m3 .
, 31.07x106 m3
:
31.07x106 m3 x 70 /m3 = 2175 x106 ( 2.18

)
3.
(0.404+2.18) 2.6 .
( ,
, .) ,

3.5-4.0 .

... ,

,
-

.
8
1.

, 01/04/01
, C
, :
197-1: -1: ,

197-2 : -2 :

( ).
197-1 197-2 2000,
( 917 / 17-07-01),
31/12/01
.
1.1.
, ,
CPD 89/106,
, ,
.
, ,

, .

,
, - -
.
9
1.2.

,
. , ,
.
Portland, ,
( ), ,
, .
' , (
5.1, . 112), , , '
. , ,
,
27 .
, 197-1 (-5-)
( 1.1).
1.1.

CEM I Portland
CEM II Portland
CEM III
CEM IV
CEM V
, 6 ,

, 196-1 (
- 1 : ).
.
(28 ) .

N R ( 1.2).
10
1.2.
, MPa (N/mm2)

()
()
2 7 28 min mm
32.5 N - 16.0
32.5 52.5 75
32.5 R 10.0 -
42.5 N 10.0 -
42.5 62.5 60 10
42.5 R 20.0 -
52.5 N 20.0 -
52.5 - 45
52.5 R 30.0 -

.
, EN 197-1,
197-1 ( 1.1), :
,
clinker ,
,
,
.
1.1 . .
11
,
EN 197-1
( 5.1),
:
S blastfurnace slag ( )
D silica fume ( )
P natural pozzolana ( )
Q natural calcined pozzolana ( )
V siliceous fly ash ( )
W calcareous fly ash ( )
L, LL limestone ()
T burnt shale ( )
M two or more of the above ( ).
( 244/80),
, 197-1
1.3.
1.3. 244/80 197-1

244/80 197-1
, ,
MPa (N/mm2) MPa (N/mm2)
35 25-45 32.5 32.5-52.5
45 35-55 42.5 42.5-62.5
55 45 52.5 52.5
% ( )
1.2. ,
(CEM II), (
CO2, ).
CO2
: ()

12

.
1.2. % ( )
(: CEMBUREAU, 2006).
13
2.
2.1.

. ()
, .
() ,
Portland (OPC, Ordinary Portland Cement).
, .
()
. ,
( , , ,
, )
,
(
).
, ,
.
2.1. ,
.
14
2.2.

,
. , 80% 1.50-1.65
, 1 ,
,
.
,
, 2.1 2.1.
2.1. 1 kg .
( , ,
, , , ..)
( 2.1). ()
(rotary kiln).
15
( 2.2 2.3), ,
( , , ),
. , ,

10-25 mm ( 2.2), .
2.1. ( %) (1, 2 3)
, [1]
, % .. ( ), % %

1 2 3
(

)

SiO2 14.35 4.83 65.0 91.58 21.8*
Al2O3 4.04 1.85 24.0 2.83 6.1* %
Fe2O3 0.92 0.64 2.5 2.53 1.4* 65.78%
CaO 43.55 50.5 4.0 0.92 65.2*

- - - - 1.0*
(CaO)
* (34.22% CO2
(

) % 85.02 13.61 1.37 43.55% CaO)

Bogue
, ()
(, )

()
. ,
( )
()
(). 2.2
,
, (S = SiO2, A = Al2O3, F = Fe2O3 C = CaO).

.

LSF (Lime saturation
factor), SR (Silica ratio) AR (Alumina
16
ratio). 0.92-0.98 LSF, 2.2-2.8
SR 1.2-2.0 AR.
1.0(%CaO) 0.7(%SO3 ) % SiO2

: LSF , SR
2.8(%SiO2 ) 1.2(% Al 2 O3 ) 0.65(% Fe2 O3 ) % Al 2 O3 % Fe2 O3
% Al 2 O3
AR
% Fe2 O3
2.2. [10].
17
70-80%
LSF SR ,
().
2.2. (pellets) 15-25 mm (

).
2.3.
( 2.3) , ,
, 3.5-4.5 m 200 m,
( ), .
.
(, ,
-, - .) ()
,
. 50-200m 2.6,
.
1-4 (rpm).
(
), ()
().
18
2.3.
, 20
min - (preheater-precalciner)
2 (wet kilns).
preheater-precalciner, -
( 2.8) 20-90 s ().
()
( 2.4):
1. ( )
2. ( )
( )
3. () (CaCO3)
4.
(C2S, 2CaOSiO2 C3S, 3CaOSiO2)
(C3, 3CaOAl2O3)
(C4AF, 4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3)
5. (clinker)
, (OPC, ordinary Portland

cement), ( 2.5):
1. (95%) ( 5%)
2. ()
19
2.4.
.
2.5. () .
20
-

2.6.
,
, (
2.8) ()
(Preheater-precalciner).
:
2.6.
[37].
A () ()

( 900-
1000C)
21
B
( 1000-1200C)
C (
1200-1450 C)

2.7.
2.7. .
22
(preheater-precalciner), ,
,
()
- (preheater/precalciner).
(preheater precalciner) %
() .
preheater 30-40% ,
precalciner 90-95%, .
,
60% 35%, (Peray, 1986).
, ( 2.8), (50-65%)

/
.
2.8.
(Preheater/Precalciner).
23
, precalciner,

.
()
(20-90 s) ( 850-900C)
precalciner, 90-95%
.
.
/
, - (precalcination)

.
2.9
.
2.9.
(Preheater/Precalciner)-
.
,
- ,
( ).
24
, - ( 2.10),
( ),
( )
, preheater precalciner,
.
, NOx, ,
, precalciner
.
2.11
(preheating) .
,
- (Preheater/Precalciner) .
2.6 2.9
40-45 min 20 min .
2.10. preheater/precalciner.
, /
/
14:1 11:1
.
25
2.11. (Preheater)-
.
- (semi-dry) - (semi-
wet) Lepol ( 2.12),
,
,
(filter cake)
(pellets),
-/- .
(grate preheater)
.
26
2.12. - (semi-dry) Lepol .
Lepol ,
,
()
.
.

( 2.6). ,
55% , 45%.
- ,
,
, 2.13 2.14
. ,
(preheater/precalciner).
. 600-900C ( )
1. , :
27
, 600C
,
(393kcal/kg = 1632 MJ/t)
2. ,
, :
800C:
,

3. , sulfoespurrite
( )
4. , carboespurrite
. (900-1450C)
1. (900-1160C)
5. 2, 3 4
,
6. 1160C,
7. ,
2. (1160-1338C)
8. 1200C ,
,
, .
9. 1250C

10. 1338C,
54.8% , 22.7% , 16.5% 6%

11. (- )
28
12. ,
.
3. (1338-1450C)
13. 1450C,
,
1230C ( ).
, (1450C), :
. (1450-1170C)
14.
, , 1450-
1230C :
, ,
1230C ( )
() ,
MgO CaO.
, ,
, . (Fe+3)
(Fe+2) (Fe),
(C4AF)
(C3A)
, .
FeO CaO
CaO
.
29
2.13. -
[32].
,
,
(),

. ,
FeO CaO,
(CaOfree), . FeO
Fe2O3 ( 1300C ),
Fe2O3 , CaO
(C2FC2S)
,
.
30
2.14. -
, ..
[55].
2.15.
[55].
31
2.16.
.
2.15 ,
LSF, SR AR,
.

. , 2.16 % CaOfree
(),
.

(),
( )

(LSF)

32
(SR)

(AR) 1.4
, ,

, Fe2O3. MgO
AR = 1.4
,
..
.

. 35%
, .

,
( 2.8
2.11).
,
.
, ,
, ( 2.17 2.18)
. ,
,

( 2.8).
,
. ,
33
, ,

.
.
2.17. .
2.18. .
34
,
, , .
, ,
, (CaO) (MgO),

(CaOfree) (MgO)
.
, (>1500C),
(MgO) (C3A)
(C4AF) . , MgO

. , (MgO)
. ,
, C3A
C4AF , MgO
. , 1.5% ..
,

,
.
, .
MgO 6%,
<1450C,
, , ,
,
.
,
:
,
,

35
.
,
(, ). ,
(C3A)
,
(setting)
(alite
resorption)
C3S C2S + CaOfree
(C2S),
-
CaOfree,

C2S C2S,

, ,

2.4.
,
, ,
.
Blaine, cm2/g m2/kg
2800-6000 cm2/g, .
100-110
kWh/tonne ( 2.19). , 63.7%

,
.
36

( ),
, (,
, ), (,
) ( ,
).
() .
..
.. kWh/t
35 35
% ..
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
30
26,1
24,6
10 10
5 5
5,1
4,4
5
3,2
0 0

&
.. kWh ..
2.19. ..
.

( Bond, Bond work index wi), Blaine
() ,
:
E 10 1.7410
4
FBl 0.035 wi 0.4714
kWh/tonne, FBl
(Blaine) cm2/g wi (work index) kWh/short ton.
1 short ton (s.t.)
= 0.907 tonne.
37
, (,
, , .),
(),
,
.
2.20
[48].
. 2.20
( ) ,

.
2.20. [48].
38
2.21. .
2.22. .
(,
), ,
2.21 2.22.
39
, 2
.
,
.
60-90 mm,
15-40 mm. ,
( Blaine), 5 mm,
.

( ) .

().
, (
),
,
,
.
(1
)
(Vertical roller mills).
(pregrinding)
(Roller press), ( )

- ( 2.23).
(semi-finish grinding),
- .
,
, ,
( 2.24).
40
2.23. (pregrinding)
(Roller press) ( FLSmidth).
2.2 (kWh/t)
. ,
,

- ().
41
2.24. (semi-finish grinding)
(Roller press) ( FLSmidth).

,
. ( 10 20%
, )
. , ( -
) .
2.2.
42
2.25. ( FLSmidth).
2.26. ( FLSmidth).
43
,
,
( 2.25). ,
- - (
, ), 2.26. ,
2.27 ,
(t/),
.
,
,
, .
()
.
2.27. ,
(t/) [48].
44

[50]

, , ()
(), ,
( , )
.
,
( , .
),
, ,
.
, ,
[Ca(OH)2] Mg(OH)2 (, brucite),

, .
(C3S)
( ). ,
(cracks) ,
() . (C2S) ,
,
.

, -
,
.
2.28 2.29
( ),
C3S C2S .
45
2.28. ,
[50].
2.29. ,
[50].
,
, 2.30
. (
) C3S C2S C2S
( ) .
46
2.30. (, )
- [50].
47
2.5.

,
, ,
.
( ),
, ,
. , :
1. 3000-3800 MJ/ t 3-6
/ (dry process preheater/precalciner)
2. 3100-4200 MJ/ t
(dry process preheater)
3. 3300-4500 MJ/ t -/- (Lepol-kiln)
4. 5000 MJ/ t
(dry process long kilns)
5. 5000-6000 MJ/ t
(wet process long kilns) and
6. 3100-4200 MJ/ t .
2.3
(preheater/precalciner) .

,
.

,

, ,
,
.
48

()
.
2.3. ( [8],
Taylor, 1997, p.61)

(MJ/t )
1807 1741

13 2364
623 753
88 59
427 100
348 682
3306 5699
(t / t )
0.13 0.23
( 25.3 GJ/ t)
. (t / t )
0.20 0.34
( 16.74 GJ/ t)
() ,
, .
C + O2 CO2 (-94.03 kcal/mol) -7836 kcal/kg

2 + O2 2 (-67.88 kcal/mol) -33940 kcal/kg
S + O2 SO2 (-70.81 kcal/mol) -2213 kcal/kg
,
, :
C + O2 CO ( CO CO2)
, ,
1/3 ( 2500 kcal/kg)

.
49

:
( )

, .
(% ) , ,

-.
, 78.1%
.. (75.5% ..) 20.9% .. (23% ..) ,
5
.

. ,

, . ,
. ,

(
)
, .
,
( )
, ()
. ,
,
,
. ,
, % :
10-20%
50
10-20%
20-25%
,
,
2.4.
2.4 ,
,
.
2.4.
, C
250
200
Fuel Oil No.1 210
Fuel Oil No.2 256
Fuel Oil No.4 262
550
Petcoke 620-670

( 2.5):
, ,
.
, ( 95% CH4),
,
.
. :
, ,
,
51

,

,
,
.
, ,
, ,

.
,
, ,
( )
( )
, .

( ) .
, .
( )

.
,
, ,
()

,

,
52
,
, ,

,
,
,
,
, ( )
0.5-10%
,
.
(, ,
)
.
.
(alternative fuels)
, (
, , CO2 .)
, ( )

.
( 2.5).

,
(CEMBUREAU), 2.6,
2.31.
53
2.5.
,
GJ/tonne
A.
(6000 kcal/kg) 25.3
Petcoke 33.7
-Petcoke 29.0
B. (alternative fuels)
1. 27-31
2. 33
3.
, , 17
21
22
21
21
4. 15
5. 19
6. 13
7. () 24
8. , :
13

() 13-16
2.6.
,
%
Petcoke 50.5
24
5
5.5
1.0
14
54
2.31. % (106 tonnes)
.

(Fixed carbon, FC)

FC
( +
+ ) 100 :
FC = 100 - ( + + )

, ,
,
. ,
(segregation)
,
55
.
% .
2.7
.
2.7.
,
, % , , Coal Natural Gas
Fuel Oil ()
, Carbon 84 41.11 74
, Hydrogen 12 2.76 25
, Sulphur 3 0.41 -
, Oxygen 1 9.89
, Nitrogen 1.22 0.75
, Ash 38.63 -
, moisture 5.98 -
4000 kcal/kg =
16.74 GJ/t
9350 kcal/Nm3
10500-10700
(
kcal/kg 4000-6000 kcal/kg
,
(16.74-25.3 GJ/t),
GCV (Gross 9000-11000
43.9-44.8 GJ/t
calorific value), kcal/Nm3)

56
-

(),
5-40%

. ,
(), ,
,
(70-80%)
,
(LSF, SR)
( 2.8). ,

SO2,
.
.
2.8. [10]
1 2 3 4
%

(), ( 80%
%
%

,
,
0.15t/t
, .
)
C = % CaO 43.74 8 68.45 67.72
S = % SiO2 14.53 48 22.73 63.12/0.639 23.03
63.12
A = % Al2O3 3.41 29 5.36 = 98.78 5.64
F = % Fe2O3 1.44 10 2.25 2.34
, R
100-63.12 36.88 5 1.22 100-98.78 1.27
CO2, H2O .
LSF, % 96 - 96 93.2
SR 3.0 - 3.0 2.89
(-3-)
( LSF 96% SR 3.0),
1
2.8. 3
57
2.8.
, CO2 (34.37%) H2O, 36.1% ( 36.88%,
1, 2.8) .
1 63.9% = (100-36.1)%,
3.
,
0.15t /t 10%
2, 80% ,
0.8x0.15x0.10 =
0.012 t /t . ,
(100%) 98.8% 3 1.2%
2. ,
4 . , ,
LSF = 93.2%
96% SR = 2.89 3.0.

(.. LSF
SR),
.
2.6.

,
CO2, ,
.
O2

.
( ) (kg/h, m3/min
). ,
, .
58

.
(
)
,
.

.
,

( ).
%, ,
% ,

% x100

,

, ,
CO2, H2O SO2,
( A). () O2,
:
O2

0.23
, O2 23%
N2 75.5%, 20.95% 78.1% .
(kg) ,
(), (Peray, 1986):
59
(kg /kg ) = 10.478SCF ,
SCF (standard coal factor) :

100 a B
SCF ,
100 7000
:

kcal/kg
5%
.
( kg /kg
), (
), :
:
m% % ( 5%)
C% % C
H% %
O% %
S% % S
( ,
2.7) ,
:
5.63 kg /kg ,
( )
5.58 kg /kg .
( 1%).
60
( 2.9), .
,
.
, p , R
287.05 J/(kgK) T
.
2.9. 760 mm Hg
, (oC) , (kg/m3)
-50 1.534
0 1.293
20 1.205
40 1.127
60 1.067
80 1.000
100 0.946
%
.
O2 ( ) CO2 CO
2.32, ,
, CO
. , CO
CO2.
CO2 .. , ()
(O2 N2) ,
CO2 ( 2.11),
. CO2 (max)
61

(, , .) ( 2.10),
17-20.0%
15.5-16.5%, 11.8%
, .

.
2.32. CO, CO2 O2

( ).
2.10. CO2

#2 #6
% , C 94.5 85.84 87.49 81.82 70.93 98.2
% , H2 5.2 12.46 9.92 18.18 23.47 1.5
kcal/kg HHV 7438 10840 10167 12038 12148 9184
kcal/kg LHV 7168 10198 9560 11075 10910 9107
CO2 max 17 15.6 16.5 13.8 11.8 20.1
% , S 0.034 1.6 1.4 0 0 0
% 0.12 0 0 0 0 0.5
62
2.11. CO2 O2 %
CO2 (% )
O2
%
(% )

86-97% C
45-86% C
0 12 15.5 18 20 0
20 10.5 13.5 15.5 16.5 3
40 9 12 13.5 14 5
60 8 10 12 12.5 7.5
80 7 9 11 11.5 9
100 6 8 9.5 10 10

( %) ,
, .

:
1. %
,

2. %
,
,
( )
( ).
% 2
,
. 2
, CO
63
,
-, .
, % ,
:
% O 2 )
% x100
20.9 - % O 2 )
, %
% 2 , ,
2.33, .
,
,
(2, CO CO2)
,
(. CO),
(.. CO2 ).
2.33. % % 2
.
64
(CO2)
, (2)

.
% CO2

, % O2
CO2 (max) .
, CO2
.
:
20.9 %O2 ( )
%CO2 ( ) CO2 (max)
20.9
CO2
2.32, % CO2
(. 1 2),
. , O2
.
, (CO2)

. CO2
(
), CO2
(CO2,max) , , 11.8-20.0%,
(. 2.34 ).

, CO2 (
). CO2 22-
28%, (
) .
65
CO2,
,
% CO2
.
, ,
, .
% CO2
,

().
2.34. CO2 O2 %
.
CO2
,
.
66
,
.
( 2.35) %
,
% CO2 .
( 9-13% CO2
), 20-70%.
2.35. % % CO2
, .
(CO)
, CO
.
,
CO NOx ( ) ,

CO2.
O2 1.5-
2.5% , .

CO, .
67
, (CO)

.
CO ( )
O2 ,

/.
CO, ,

2-3 min.
, ,
.
CO, (%) 2 %
( 2.36),
.
2.36. CO (%) O2 .
2.7.
68
1. 0.7-3.5%
O2 ( 1.5-2.5%)
( 2.36)
2. % CO2,
( , Eff, max)
.
,
( 2.37)
3.
(CO). 100 ppm (0.01% CO).
- % , -
% -
& ( % CO2
) 2.38, 2.39 2.40, .
2.37.
69
2.38. % % .
2.39. % .
70
2.40. %
( % CO2).
71
3. TOY
Portland (OPC, Ordinary Portland Cement, Type I)

,
(
). ( )
95-100% 0-5% .
ENV 197-1:1992, % (C3S+C2S)
2/3=67%, CaO/SiO2 2.0
MgO 5-6 % .
3.1. Portland (OPC), Type I
(C3S+C2S) 67%
CaO/SiO2 2
MgO 5-6 %
( , 5.1
5.6- 5) .
( .. )
. (
, ),
(.. , )
,
(.. , .)
.

,
" (LSF, Lime Saturation Factor).
0.66 1.02 :
72
1.0(%CaO) 0.7(%SO3 )
LSF
2.8(% SiO2 ) 1.18(% Al2O3 ) 0.65(% Fe2O3 )
% ( )
. LSF (C3S) (C2S)
. LSF (1.02) ,
, (CaO, free
lime),
. LSF,
CaO , 1.0. ,

CaO, 1.0.
LSF 0.66,
% (C3S, 3CaOSiO2)
. ,
,
C3S.
LSF 0.92-0.98.
(SR, Silica Ratio Silica modulus) :
%SiO2
SR
% Al2 O3 % Fe2 O3

(C3S+C2S) C3 C4F .
1.9-3.2 2.2 2.8. SR

C3 C4F,
, .
O R (Alumina Ratio Alumina modulus),

, C3 C4F.
1.0 2.5,
73
1.4 ( 3.1),
( )
.
% Al2 O3
AR
% Fe2 O3
3.1..
[55].
3.2,

3.2.

(C3S) 55-65%
Portland (OPC, Ordinary Portland Cement). ,
C3S 65% ,
. (C2S) 20-25%
. C3S
74
C2S,
C2S C3S,
.
3.2.
.
(C3, 3CaOAl2O3)
(workability)
, C3
. , %
C3
C3.
(C4AF)
( %Fe2O3 0.6). C4AF
, ,
( )
,
Fe2O3 .
75
Tricalcium silicate (C3S, Alite)
C3S
. , ()
,
C3S. C3S :
clinker ,
50% ..
C3S C2S

( )
25%
C3S
: 500 kJ/kg
C3S
C3 . C3
C3S.
C3S.
C3S :
Ca3SiO5 + (y+z)H2O = zCa(OH)2 + Ca(3-z)SiO(5-z)yH2O
Bogue C3S :
C3S = 4.071CaO(%) (7.6SiO2 + 6.718Al2O3 + 1.43Fe2O3 + 2.852SO3)(%)
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S, Belite)

clinker,
10-60%
C2S C3S
C2S

.

76
20%
C2S
: 260 kJ/kg (200 kJ/kg
90 )
C2S C3S,
.

Bogue C2S :
C2S = 2.87SiO2 (%) 0.7544C3S (%)
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)

C3A
. .
(CaSO4), ,
. , ()
C3A. , C3A
. C3A
.
3-10%
(early strength)

40-210%
C3

3 : 900 kJ/kg
C3S
:
2C3 + 21 = C4AH13 + C2AH8

C3AH6,
77
.
, C4AH13,
C3AH6,
C4AH13 .

(ettringite) :
C3 + 3CaSO42H2O + (25-26)H2O = Ca6Al2O6(SO4)(31-32) H2O
Bogue C3A :
C3A = 2.65(%)Al2O3 1.692(%)Fe2O3
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF, Ferrite)

5-10%

37-70 %
: 420 kJ/kg ( )
: C4F + 13 = C4F13
Bogue C4AF :
C4F = 3.04Fe2O3
C4AF ()
.
,
.
C4AF .
3.1.
, (kJ/kg)

Taylor ()
C3S 243 (3 ) 517 (1 )
C2S 105 ( 28 ) 262 (> 1 )
C3A 867 (3 ) 1144 (> 1 )
C4AF 289 (3 ) 418

78
(Na2O + K2O)

,
(SiO2). ()
.
,
.
,
clinker ( ).

Bogue
:
%Na2O ()= %Na2O + 0.658(%K2O)
79
3.2.

(LSF) Lime 1.
Saturation : 2.
Factor (
100 C / (2.8S +1.65A +0.35F) AM >0.64 CaOfree)
100C / ( 2.8 S + 1.1 A + 0.7 F ) AM < 0.64 3. C3S
C2S
0.66-1.02 100 (C+0.75 M) / 2.8S + 1.18 A +0.65 F 100 M < 2.0 % 4. ,
( C + 1.5M) / 2.8 S + 1.8 A+0.65 F M > 2.0 %

0.92 0.98
1.

SR SM 2.
Silica Ratio,
Silica Modulus SR SM CaOfree
3.
S / (A+F) ()

1.9 3.2 2.3 2.8
4.

5.

1.
AR AM
Alumina Ratio 2. C3A
Alumina C4AF
AR AM
Modulus 3. C3S C2S
A/F 4.

1.4
5.
1.0 2.5
6.

80
1.
2.
SiO2 free
3.

4.

03% 5.
( )
1.

2. C2S CaOfree

C3S
(MgO), M 3.
,
(MgO), M
02% 4.
( ),
06%
2.0% < M (MgO) < 6 %
5. C3S ,
C2S ( M <
2 %)
: C = CaO %, S = SiO2 %, A = Al2O3 %, F = Fe2O3 % = MgO %
81
3.3. Bogue
1.
,
() Bogue
.
, Bogue, ,
() .

.

Bogue,
.
( , XRD)
Rietveld .
2. Bogue
SO3 Mn2O3 ,

Bogue.
CaO, SO3 CaSO4,
(free lime, CaO)
Mn2O3.
, Bogue :
%Fe2O3 (Bogue) = %Fe2O3 + %Mn2O3 (1)
% CaO(Bogue) = %CaO CaO (CaO CaSO4) (2)

CaO CaSO4,
SO3, (2, a2O) K2SO4 a2SO4,
. .
82
1.
(%2/%SO3) 1.176, SO3 2 K2SO4, :
%SO3( 2) = 0.85(%2)
2.
SO3 :
SO3() = %SO3- %SO3 ( 2) =%SO3 - 0.85(%2)
(%a2/%SO3()) 0.774, SO3() a2

a2SO4, :
%SO3 ( 2) = 1.292 (%2)
3.
CaO SO3 CaSO4
CaO ( SO3) = 0.7 [%SO3 -%SO3 ( 2)-%SO3 ( 2)]
= 0.7 [%SO3 - 0.85(%2) - 1.292 (%2)] (3)
CaO,
CaSO4, Bogue.
, Bogue, (2), (1),

() %Fe2O3 (Bogue) .
Bogue (
) ,
:
83
, %
% (..
)

()
( ).

Bogue,
XRD XRF
(C3S, C2S, C3A,
C4AF) Bogue :
1. CaO, CaSO4,
. CaO SO3 CaSO4
:
(56/80)x (%SO3) = 0.7 x (%SO3) (4)

(2) 2 a2O.
2. Fe2O3 Al2O3 CaO C4AF.

%Fe2O3 ( Mn2O3),
Fe2O3. :
Al2O3 = (102/160) x (%Fe2O3) = 0.64 x (%Fe2O3)
4 CaO = (4 x 56/160) = 1.4 x (%Fe2O3)
C4AF :
(1 + 0.64 + 1.4) (%Fe2O3) = 3.04 x (%Fe2O3) ,

% (C4AF) = 3.04 x (%Fe2O3),
Bogue
3. Al2O3 CaO C3A. CaO,

:
84
3 CaO = (3 x 56/102) = 1.65 x [(%Al2O3) 0.64 x (%Fe2O3)]

[1.65 x (%Al2O3) 1.056 x (%Fe2O3)] + [1 x (%Al2O3) 0.64 x (%Fe2O3)]
% (C3A) = 2.65 x (%Al2O3) 1.696 x (%Fe2O3),
Bogue.
4. CaO,
, C2S (
) C3S.
, Bogue, :
. I: A/F >= 0.64, = % Al2O3 F = % Fe2O3
C4AF = 3.043 (%Fe2O3)

C3A = 2.650 (%Al2O3) - 1.692 (Fe2O3)
C2S = 2.867 (%SiO2) - 0.7544 (%C3S)
C3S = 4.071 (% CaO) - 7.6 (% SiO2) - 6.718 (% Al2O3) 1.43 (% Fe2O3) -
2.852 (% SO3)
B. II: A/F < 0.64 ( Al2O3 Fe2O3)
C4AF = 2.1 (% Al2O3) + 1.702 (%Fe2O3)

C3A = 0 ( Al2O3, C4AF)
C2S = 2.867 (%SiO2) - 0.7544 (%C3S)
C3S = 4.071 (% CaO) - 7.6 (% SiO2) - 4.479 (% Al2O3) 2.859 (% Fe2O3) -
2.852 (% SO3)
85
:
: % .. (Raw material oxide
composition)
CaO = 63 (% ..)
SiO2 = 20
Al2O3 = 6
Fe2O3 = 3
MgO = 1.5
SO3 = 2
(2, a2O) = 1
, A/F = 6/3 = 2 (> 0.64), .
: "" %
C4AF = 3.043 3 = 9.13%
C3A = 2.656 - 1.6923 = 10.82%
C3S = 4.07 63 - 7.620 - 6.726 - 1.43 3 - 2.852 2 = 54.1% (
)
C2S = 2.86720 - 0.7544 54.1 = 16.52% ( )
86
4.

,

.

.
.
,
.
,

,
( ,
.).
,
,
.
(), ,
,
CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 Fe2O3
C3S, C2S, C3A C4AF. %
, (Blaine fineness)
,
() .

(steady state conditions)
87
.
Mathcad,
.
4.1. ASTM
ASTM (American Standards Testing

Materials) I, II, III, IV V [2].
, ( ,
, , .) .
I ASTM
(OPC, ordinary Portland cement). :
55% (C3S), 19% (C2S), 10% (C3A), 7% (C4AF), 2.8% MgO, 2.9% (SO3), 1.0%
1.0% (CaOfree).
II ASTM (
) C3A 8%.
, I.
:
51% (C3S), 24% (C2S), 6% (C3A), 11% (C4AF), 2.9% MgO, 2.5% (SO3), 0.8%
1.0% (CaOfree).
III
C3S ( I)
(Blaine fineness),
, ,
,
. :
57% (C3S), 19% (C2S), 10% (C3A), 7% (C4AF), 3.0% MgO, 3.1% (SO3), 0.9%
, 1.3% (CaOfree).
, ,
.
88
IV ASTM
( % C3S) C3A.
C3A 7% 35% C3S, .
( .)
,

.
, .
:
28% (C3S), 49% (C2S), 4% (C3A), 12% (C4AF), 1.8% MgO, 1.9% (SO3), 0.9%
, 0.8% (CaOfree).
ASTM Type IV ,
(),
.
V ASTM ( 5%) C3A ,

(C4AF%)+(2C3A%)20%.
(.. )
:
38% (C3S), 43% (C2S), 4% (C3A), 9% (C4AF), 1.9% MgO, 1.8% (SO3), 0.9% ,
0.8% (CaOfree).
, ASTM Type IV,
(+
, OPC+GGBFS) : ( +
+ , OPC+slag+fly ash).
4.1
ASTM.
, 4.2 SR ( ), AR
( ), Leq ( ) LSF ( )
4.1.
89
LSF, SR, AR Leq
,
. (1), (2), (3) (4).
4.1. Portland, [2]
% , %
Free
CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 SiO2 SO3 C3S C2S C3A C4AF
ASTM CaO
I1 63.8 5.6 2.4 20.7 1.6 0.4 55 18 11 7
2 63.1 4.7 3.0 22.1 1.7 0.2 47 28 7 9
I
I3 65.8 4.7 2.1 22.2 1.6 1.6 54 23 9 6
I4 62.8 6.7 2.5 21.1 1.8 2.0 33 35 14 8
II1 61.4 4.8 4.8 20.8 1.8 0.9 44 26 5 15
II
II2 64.9 4.0 2.1 24.0 1.7 1.5 41 38 7 6
III1 65.6 5.2 2.5 20.0 2.3 1.8 63 10 10 8
III
III2 63.3 5.1 2.0 20.3 2.5 1.9 51 19 10 6
IV1 59.6 4.6 5.0 22.9 1.3 0.4 25 47 4 15
IV
IV2 63.6 3.7 3.1 25.2 1.9 0.4 31 49 5 9
V1 64.3 3.1 3.3 24.4 1.4 0.5 45 36 3 10
V
V2 63.3* 3.3 4.7 23.1 1.7 0.0 49 30 1 14
* (Free CaO)
: C3S = 3CaOSiO2, C2S = 2CaOSiO2, C3A = 3CaOAl2O3, C4AF = 4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3
, %
(Bogue, Rietveld, XRD, .).
s SiO 2%
SR (1)
a f ( Al 2O3 Fe2O3)%
a Al 2O3(%)
AR
f Fe2O3(%) (2)
100 c
LSF % (3)
2.8 s 1.18 a 0.65 f
c% CaO%
Leq
( s a f )% SiO 2 Al 2O3 Fe2O3% (4)
(1), (2), (3) (4), , ,

, :
90
100 Leq ( AR 1) ( SR 1)
LSF (5)
2.8 SR ( AR 1) 1.18 AR 0.65
4.2. SR, AR, Leq LSF

(ASTM) 4.1. [2]
LSF,
SR AR Leq ,
(
( ( (

) ) )
ASTM ), %*
I1 2.6 2.3 2.2 95.43
2 2.9 1.6 2.1 90.04
I
I3 3.3 2.2 2.3 96.45
I4 2.3 2.7 2.1 92.69
II1 2.2 1.0 2.0 90.46
II
II2 3.9 1.9 2.2 90.46
III1 2.6 2.1 2.4 102.81
III
III2 2.9 2.6 2.3 98.00
IV1 2.4 0.9 1.8 80.30
IV
IV2 3.7 1.2 2.0 83.19
V1 3.8 0.9 2.1 87.34
V
V2 2.9 0.7 2.0 86.78
* O LSF Leq LSF, AR SR,

(5) 4.2,
4.1, LSF.
% C3S, C2S, C3A C4AF (
Bogue), 1, I1, I3, III1 III2
(ordinary Portland cements),
( C2S).
LSF
0.66-1.02.
LSF (1.02) ,
, (CaOfree),
.
LSF 0.66, ()
C3S . ,
91
,
(C3S, 3CaOSiO2 ).
SR (C3S+C2S) %
C3 C4F .
1.9-3.2 2.2 2.8. SR
C3 C4F,
. R
C3 C4F.
1.0 2.5.
% C3S C2S
70-82%,
:
0-17 % C3A
1-17% C4AF
0.5-6% MgO
0.5-3% Na2SO4, K2SO4
0.2-4% (CaOfree)
4.2.
4.3, 4.4 4.5,

(4), (3) (2) ,
(, , % )
(OPC)
() .

,
, (2)
,
.

.
CaCO3 80-85% (44.8-
92
47.6% CaO) ( ,
, , ..).

.
,
AR (a/f)
MgO (%)
( 4.1),
.
,
, (, ,
.) ,

.
,
(, , ),
,

(CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 Fe2O3) .
( 150C)

() .
( ),
,
.
, ,
45 m
(325 mesh) 125 m (80 mesh).
93
4.3. (OPC, Ordinary Portland Cement)
ASTM [9]
( ), %
% .. %
1 2 3 4
(
- -
)

SiO2 13.6 1.4 37.9 95.0 2.7 20.3* %
Al2O3 4.2 0.5 16.5 1.4 6.6 6.2* 66.45%
Fe2O3 1.6 0.2 5.1 1.3 84.0 2.4*

(33.55% CO2
CaO 42.7 53.7 15.4 1.0 2.7 64.1* 42.7%
CaO)

- - - - - 1.0*
(CaO)
CaCO3 77.8 95.9 27.5 1.8 4.8 -
C3S (Bogue) - - - - - 57.52
C2S (Bogue) - - - - - 14.81
C3A (Bogue) - - - - - 12.4
C4AF (Bogue) - - - - - 7.3
(
) %
*
- 73 22.5 4.2 0.3
Bogue

94
4.4. ( %) (1, 2 3)
, [1]
, % .. %
( ), %

1 2 3
(
)
SiO2 14.35 4.83 65.0 91.58 21.5*
Al2O3 4.04 1.85 24.0 2.83 6.1*
Fe2O3 0.92 0.64 2.5 2.53 1.4*
CaO 43.55 50.5 4.0 0.92 65.3*
- - - - 1.0*
(CaO)
CaCO3 77.8 90.18 7.14 1.64 -
C3S (Bogue) - - - - 55.4
C2S (Bogue) - - - - 19.9
C3A (Bogue) - - - - 13.8
C4AF (Bogue) - - - - 4.3
(
*
) % 85.02 13.61 1.37
Bogue

4.5. ( %) (1 2) ,
[2]
, % ..
( ), % %
(
1 2 )

SiO2 13.7 6.9 15.9 20.5*
Al2O3 4.0 1.9 4.7 6.0*
Fe2O3 1.6 0.6 1.9 2.4*
CaO 43.55 49.0 41.7 65.5*

- - - 1.0*
(CaO) %
CaCO3 77.8 87.5 74.5 - 65.78%
C3S (Bogue) - - - 63
C2S (Bogue) - - - 11.0 (34.22% CO2
C3A (Bogue) - - - 11.8 43.55% CaO)
C4AF (Bogue) - - - 7.3
*
( ) %
- 25 75
Bogue

,
, (, )
(),
,
(C3S C2S)
95
.
CaO SiO2,
C3S C2S
. C3A
C4AF.
,
,
.
. MgO, Na2O, K2O,
.
MgO, ,
,
, ,
[Mg(OH)2]
, .
, ,
,

. , ,
,
.

, ,
(gel) .
(Alkali Silica Reaction, ASR).
, ( ),
C2S C2S C3S,
C3A ,

.

.
96
4.3.
[1]
4.3.1.

W1, W2, W3 , W4 , W5, ..., W,

,
- .
,
( )
-
.
4.3.2.

,
, .
,
.
,
.

(Lime saturation factor, LSF),
(Silica ratio, SR) (Alumina ratio, AR),
.

% c, s, a f ()
(CaO), (SiO2), (Al2O3) (Fe2O3),
.
, W1,
W2, W3 , W4 , W5, ..., W,
97
,

.
, ,
.

, :
c1 c2 c3 cN
s1 s2 s3 sN
a1 a2 a3 aN
f1 f2 f3 fN
W1, W2, W3 , W4 , ..., W . ,

c, s, a f ()
:
c1 W1 c 2 W 2 c 3 W3 c N W N c WT
s1 W1 s 2 W2 s 3 W3 s N W N s WT (6)
a1 W1 a 2 W2 a3 W3 a N W N a WT
f 1 W1 f 2W2 f 3 W3 f N W N f WT
WT W1 W2 W3 W4 W N (7)
.
,
LSF, SR AR :
100 c
l 2 LSF h2 (8)
2.8 s 1.18 a 0.65 f
s
l 3 SR h3 (9)
a f
a
l 4 AR h4 (10)
f
98
(constraints) ,
WT l1 WT h1
W1, W2, W3 , W4 , ..., W
( ).
, LSF, SR AR
,
, N
(-1-)
,

. ( 11) (W1, W2, W3, W4,
c, s, a f) (8).
(c, s, a f)
, (1) (3)
(LSF, SR AR).
, ,
.
c1 c2 c3 c4 Wtot 0 0 0 W1 0
s1 W2 0
s2 s3 s4 0 Wtot 0 0

a1 a2 a3 a4 0 0 Wtot 0 W3 0
f1 f2 f3 f4 0 0 0 Wtot
W4 0
x =
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
c Wtot
0 0 0 0 100 2.8xLSF 1.18xLSF 0.65xLSF s 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 SR SR
a 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 AR f 0 (11)
WT = Wtot (12)
:
Bxb C (13)
()
.
99
= 4,
(8 x 8) () b
( 7).
b B 1 xC , (14)
-1
.
, = 3 =
2, (1) (2)
. AR (SR, AR), (7x7) (6x6)
.

(..
Wi (i = 1, 2, , N).
C (11)
, W1, W2, W3 , W4 , ..., W. > 0.
, C
AR
(.. W3) . C
(.. W3)

c1 c2 c3 c4 Wtot 0 0 0 W1
W2 0
s1 Wtot
0
s2 s3 s4 0 0 0

a1 a2 a3 a4 0 0 Wtot 0 W3 0
f1 f2 f3 f4 0 0 0 Wtot
W4
x = 0
c
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Wtot
0 0 0 0 100 2.8xLSF 1.18xLSF 0.65xLSF s 0
0 a
0 0 0 0 1 SR SR 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 f W3min (15)
,
LSF, SR AR, ,
,
.
4.4.
100
4.4.1. Powell
Powell [1]

( LSF, SR
AR) (steady state) .

.

. ,
,
(, initial point) .
4.4.2. Powell
Powell, ,

,
W1, W2, W3 , W4 , ..., W W, LSF, SR
AR. , ,
, Powell
.
, Powell,

Box
x n l1 h1 l1 sin 2 Yn (16)
l1, h1 Xn
n .
4.4.3.
,
Powell ,

101

F ( x) e j 2 a LSF LSF j 2 bSR SR j 2 cAR AR j 2 (WT WT
J
)2 (17)
j = 1, 2, 3, , N,
LSFj, SRj ARj
.
(17) 0 , b, c 1,
LSF, SR AR
. ,
0, 1
.
= b = c = 1, LSF, SR AR
,
LSF AR .

,
. ,
Powell
,
.
102
5.
5.1.
, () :
(), %
3 CaO SiO2 C3S 50
2 CaO SiO2 C2S 25
3 CaO Al2O3 C3A 10
4 CaOAl2O3Fe2O3 C4AF 10
CaSO4 5
5.1.
[51].
( 5.1) ,

.
(C3S, C2S) ,
( ) .
103
C3 C4AF ,
.
() :
C3 C3S C4AF C2S

.
To (C3A) (.. ), ,

-gel ) - 5.2,
().
5.2. -gel ) C3A [51].
,
,
% . ,

.
, ( ) (flash set)
,
104
(false set), .
) ( )
.

, (2-4
), ,
( ).
, C3S
, Ca+ (OH)-, .
Ca+ (OH)-
, Le Chatelier,
.
pH , (OH)- 12. ,
.

. Ca+ (OH)- ()
. ,
,
:

,
,
(C3S, C2S):
2 C3S + 7 2 + + ()
. 2 [3CaO SiO2] + 72 3CaO 2SiO2 42 + 3Ca(OH)2 + 173 kJ
2 [2CaOSiO2 ] + 5 2 3CaO2SiO242 + Ca(OH)2 + 58.6 kJ C2S.

.

.
105
.

( a,b,c d 5.3).
,

(initial set), 5.4.
,
. (final set).

(Setting time).
5.3.

(a,b,c d)
. (a)
.
(b) . (c) ,
(d) .
.
, ,
,
.
, :
1. C3S Ca+ (OH)-

2. Ca+ (OH)- Ca(OH)2
3. C3S (Ca3Si2O7 4H2O)
106
4. Ca(OH)2 (Ca3Si2O74H2O) ,
Ca3Si2O742O
5. ( ) Ca3Si2O74H2O ,

C3S
6.
()
Ca3Si2O74H2O. ,
C3S.
C3S 7
( ), C2S
.
5.4. Portland [51].
5.4 ,
. 1
C3A [
Ca+ (OH)-],
. 2
(dormancy period), 2-4
.
107
,
. 2
,
C3S.
3 4. 5 36
,
,
.
5.5. Ca+ ()- [51].
5.6. (C-S-H)
[Ca(OH)2, CH] [51].
108
5.7. (C-S-H)
[Ca(OH)2, CH] [51].
5.8 (C-S-H)
[51].
5.9
,
( W/C, :).
109

: (W/C) : (W/C)
= =

5.9. ( W/C)
.
5.2.
,
(prEN 197-1), (6) (5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5
5.6), , %
,
,
. , 5.7 5.8
(ASTM C 150), .
, ,
(, ) ( ,
), ,
,
.
CaO-SiO2 -Al2O3
( 5.10).
110
5.1. (prEN 197-1)
111
5.2. (prEN 197-1)
5.10. .
112
5.3. (prEN 197-1)
5.4. (prEN 197-1)
113
5.5. (prEN 197-1)
114
5.6. (prEN 197-1)
5.7. (ASTM)

1
2

IV3

V4
IA4
IIA4
IIIA4
1. , .
2. ( < 0.6 Na2O)
- (Alkali Silica Reaction, ASR).
3. IV .
4. .
115
5.8. ASTM C 150

Blaine
, % Bogue, %*
, fineness,
(L.O.I.),
Portland SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 % C3S C2S C3A C4AF m2/kg
%
Type I 20.9 5.2 2.3 64.4 2.8 2.9 1.0 0.2 55 19 10 7 370
Type II 21.7 4.7 3.6 63.6 2.9 2.4 0.8 0.4 51 24 6 11 370
Type III 21.3 5.1 2.3 64.9 3.0 3.1 0.8 0.2 56 19 10 7 540
Type IV 24.3 4.3 4.1 62.3 1.8 1.9 0.9 0.2 28 49 4 12 380
Type V 25.0 3.4 2.8 64.4 1.9 1.6 0.9 0.2 38 43 4 9 380
White 24.5 5.9 0.6 65.0 1.1 1.8 0.9 0.2 33 46 14 2 490
* ASTM C 150.
5.3.

(.. , .),
,
.
5.3.1. (Fineness)

() .
( 5.11 5.12) Blaine (
) m2/kg cm2/g (1 m2/kg = 10 cm2/g)
1 kg 1 g (
5.12). ,

( , ).
,
, ,
7 .
:
116
) Wagner turbidimeter ASTM C 115
) Blaine air-permeability test ( ASTM C 204)
) 45m (325 mesh), [
ASTM C 430].
5.11. .
117
5.12.
Blaine (cm2/g).
5.3.2. (Soundness)

. ,
, (expansion)
.
( , CaO , MgO)

.
:
) Le-Chatelier (BS 4550 : Part 3)
) (ASTM C 151)
118
5.3.3. (Consistency)
. Vicat
%
(), 10 mm 1 mm.
5.3.4. Setting time ( )

( )
(setting time period).
,
2 10 .

.
:
, % (C3A)
(% CaOfree) CaSO4 ,
C3A
5.13 5.14, .
5.13.
119
5.14. % C3A % SO3
.
5.9. % C3A % SO3 ( )

, %
( 10 min 1 3
% C3A) ettringite

, (Vicat Initial
Setting Time, VIST) :
120
CaOfree = 2%, Blaine = 360 m2/kg, 7% C3A,
:
, (Vicat)
% CaOfree,
Blaine () %
C3A.
,
(
C3A ). W/C (/)
(admixtures).
ASTM C 150
. Vicat
Gillmore (ASTM C 266).
5 mm
60 min,

10 ( -)
Portland.
5.3.5. (compressive strength)

ASTM C 109 2 inch (50.8 mm),
.

C3S, C2S, C3A C4AF (Blaine fineness).
,
,
121
,
.
5.15. 28
PCA (Portland Cement Association).
5.15 () 28
.
5.3.6. (Heat of Hydration)

.
C3S C3A .
W/C,
.
.
( ),
,
, . ,

122

, .
,
,
(
. ).
ASTM C 186.
7
, (100%) Portland
(Type I) :
Type I (OPC) 100%

Type II 80-85%
Type III 150%
Type IV 40-60%
Type V 60-75%
123
6.
6.1.

,
.
6.1.
6.1. .
. ,

( +). ,
( ),

.
124
70-80% ,
,
, .
.
. , ,
.
,

.
( )
.
, (
) ,
( ).
, ,
( ), .

.
:
8 mm 3/8= -9.5 mm (100%) -4 mm (95%),
( ) 5-12.5 mm
12.5-38 mm .
6.2.
,
, ,

(. ).
,
,
() . ..
125
,
. ...
-
6.2, 6.3, 6.4 6.5, , .
6.2. ( Svedala Arbra)
126
6.3. - (
BROWN LENOX Ltd).
127
1 2
3
32
16
-16 mm
4 5 8
10
4
+32 mm
6 -4 mm
+32 16-32 8-16 4-8 0-4 7

11 8
/
1
2
3 (scalp screen)
4
5 (32 mm 16 mm)
6 (8 mm 4 mm)
7 (silos)
8
9
10 3 ( )
11
6.4. ( Svedala Arbra).
128
6.5.
129
6.3.
3.

(.. , , )
(.. ).
,
:
1.
2. ,
3.
4.
5.
6. ()
7.
8. ..
, ,
mm 1/10 mm.

. ( )
, %
(grading)
( 6.6, 6.7. 6.8.):
1.
2. ()
3. ( )
4.
130
.6.6. .
6.7. (3) (4) .
131
.6.8.
.
2. (bulk specific gravity)
,
, (-2-) :
1.

ASTM C 127 .
A
(I)
BC
B
(II) ( ) , :
BC
( 6.6, 1),
132
( ) ( 6.7,
4), ( )
C ( ) ( 6.7,
4), .
, (-C)
( ).
= 3168.5 g
B = 3190.0 g
C = 1972.0 g
3168.5
2.60 g/cm3
3190.0 1972.0
3190.0
2.62 g/cm3
3190.0 1972.0
2.
ASTM
C 128 .
A
I ()
BC D
B
II ( )
BC D
:
( 6.6., 1)
( ) ( 6.7,
4), ( )
133
C ( )

D
, (B+C-D)
.
= 490.7 g ( )
B = 501.4 g ( )
C = 647.2 g ( )
D = 953.5 g ( )
490.7
2.51 g/cm3
501.4 647.2 953.5
( )
501.4
2.57 g/cm3
501.4 647.2 953.5
3. (Moisture content)

, .
,

. , (
), .
,
, .
1. (Oven-dry OD);

134
2. (Air-dry AD);
, .
3. (Saturated-surface-dry SSD);
.
4. (Damp Wet);
() .
3 (
6.7), ,
.
.
4.
,
, (-3-)
:
(Absorption capacity AC).

.

(ASTM C 127 C 128).
1 2.5% :
WSSD WOD
AC 100(%)
WOD
:
( , SSD) (WSSD = 501.4 g)
(OD) (WOD = 490.7 g)
501.4 490.7
(AC) = 100 2.18%
490.7
(%) ASTM C 566
:
135
W WOD
(%) = 100 ,
WOD
W = ( )
WOD = (OD)
(Effective Absorption EA)
() ,
, (AD)
(SSD), 0-
8%.
WSSD W AD
: EA 100(%)
WSSD
(Wabs), Wagg
(AD), :
Wabs ( EA) Wagg
(Surface Moisture SM)
, ,
(SSD).
Wwet WSSD
SM 100(%)
WSSD

(Wadd), ,
Wagg.
Wadd ( SM ) W agg
(Moisture content MC) :
136
WStock WSSD
MC 100(%)
WSSD
MC > 0, , MC < 0,
. ,

.
W MC ( MC ) Wagg
,
0-10%, 0-2%.

, , .
( )
,
.
:
(AC) 1.2% 847.3 g,
(damp wet). (OD)
792.7 g. %
.
W WOD
(%)= 100 = 847.3 792.7 100 6.9%
WOD 792.7
1.2%, %
:
(%) = 6.9 - 1.2 = 5.7%

.
( )
137
(). (
), .
, ( )
, ,
.
(.. m3), , ,
.
,
,
.

,
.
. 6.9. .

( ) .
138
, ,
,
.
.. , ,
. ,
, ,

. ,
,
,
.
139
6.4.

BS 812: Part 1:1975
ASTM C 294-69 (.. )

(, .)
6.10. BS ASTM.
,
(British Standards, B.S.) ,
.
ASTM (American Standards Testing of Materials)
, . (ASTM)
,
.
, ,

.
, ..
SiO2 , .
, (
, ) (.. ).
140
6.5.

.

( ) 6.1.
6.1. BS 812 Part 102:1989

, mm , kg
28 mm 50
5-28 mm 25
5 mm 13
(scoop)
(), (segregation) .
, 10
.
(.. ),
, .
, ,
,
( ),
,
(.. , ).
(
) , :
1. (quartering),
2. (riffling)
141

, ,
,
.
6.6.
,
( ) .

.

, .

( ).
BS 812 : Part
1:1975 :

(workability) .
:

142

(sphericity) (roundness).
6.7.

, ,
:
B.S. 882: 1992
B.S. 882 Section 105.1: 1989

, , ,
. ,
,

.
BS 882: 1992 , BS 882 : S 105.1Q 1989,
50% 40%
.

.
(packing) ,
, (, voids)
, ()
, BS 812 : Part 1:1975.
, 67%

.
( ),
( ) : -20 + 14 mm, -14 + 10 mm,
-10 + 6.3 mm -6.3 + 5.0 mm.
143
,
.
/ ,
- .
.
()
.
, 10-15%
,
.

.

.
1.8
,
0.6 .
o
.
()
, , .
, ,

(, , .).
, , ,
, .
,
, (.. ).
6.2.
.
144
6.2.

, (%)

31 26 43
22 44 34

. , (cm2/g
m2/kg) ,
.

.

(packing) .. ,
.
.
6.11. .
145
6.11 A ,
, .
(A
) .
( ), ( C),
.
6.8.

408 ( -301, -305 306),
(ASTM) :
1. ASTM C 33
2. ASTM C 29/ C 29M .

3. ASTM C 40

4. ASTM C 87

5. ASTM C 88
6. ASTM C 117 200 mesh (-75 m) (
% )
7. ASTM C 127-88 128-97
( , )
8. ASTM C 131 ( Los
Angeles)
9. ASTM C 136

10. ASTM C 289
11. ASTM C 295
12. ASTM C 125 ( ).
146
(BS 812) (CEN/TC
154) , 6.3 6.4, .
6.3. (BS) (ASTM)

( )
Tests / Services Standard Methods / Techniques

()
Sampling BS 821 : Pt 102 : 1989
SS 73 : 1974
Clay, silt & dust content (field settling) BS 812: Pt 1 : 1975
SS 73 : 1974
Clay, silt & dust content (decantation) BS 812 : Pt 1 : 1975
SS 73 : 1974
Materials finer then 75 m ASTM C 117-90
< 75 m
Particle size distribution by sieving BS 812: Sect 103.1 : 1985
() ASTM C 136-84a & SS 73 : 1974
Moisture content BS 812 : Pt 109 : 1990
ASTM C 566-89 & SS 73 : 1974
Organic impurities (colour test) SS 73 : 1974
( ) ASTM C 40-84
Bulk density, voids & bulking BS 812 : Pt 2 : 1975
SS 73 : 1974
Relative densities & water absorption BS 812 : Pt 2 : 1975 & SS 73 : 1974

Aggregate crushing value (ACV) BS 812 : Pt 110 : 1990 & SS 73 : 1974
(ACV)
10% fines value (TFV) BS 812 : Pt 111 : 1990 & SS 73 : 1974
10% ..
Angularity number BS 812 : Pt 1 : 1975 & SS 73 : 1974

Flakiness index BS 812 : Pt 105.1 : 1989 & SS 73 : 1974

Elongation index BS 812 : Pt 105.2 : 1990
SS 73 : 1974
147
Soundness BS 812 : Pt 121 : 1989
SS 73 : 1974
Impact value BS 812 : Pt 121 : 1990
SS 73 : 1974
Los Angeles Abrasion ASTM C 131-89
Los Angeles ASTM C 535-89 & SS 73 : 1974
Chloride content BS 812: Pt 117 : 1988
SS 73 : Pt 17 : 1992
Sulphate content BS 812 : Pt 118 : 1988
SS 73 : Pt 18 : 1992
6.4. (CEN/TC 154)

( 31 January 2002 )
EN 932-1: 1996 Tests for general properties of aggregates - Part 1: Methods for sampling
Tests for general properties of aggregates - Part 2: Methods for reducing laboratory
EN 932-2: 1999
samples
Tests for general properties of aggregates - Part 3: Procedure and terminology for
EN 932-3: 1996
simplified petrographic description
Tests for general properties of aggregates - Part 5: Common equipment and
EN 932-5: 1999
calibration
Tests for general properties of aggregates - Part 6: Definitions of repeatability and
EN 932-6: 1999
reproducibility
Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part 1: Determination of particle size
EN 933-1: 1997
distribution - Sieving method
Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part 2: Determination of particle size
EN 933-2: 1995
distribution - Test sieves, nominal size of apterures
Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part 3: Determination of particle
EN 933-3: 1997
shape - Flakiness index
Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part 4: Determination of particle
EN 933-4: 1999
shape - Shape index
Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part 5: Determination of percentage
EN 933-5: 1998
of crushed and broken surfaces in coarse aggregate particles
Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part 6: Assessment of surface
EN 933-6: 2001
characteristics - Flow coefficient of aggregates
Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part 7: Determination of shell
EN 933-7: 1999
content - Percentage of shells in coarse aggregates
Test for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part 8: Assessment of fines - Sand
EN 933-8: 1999
equivalent test
Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part 9: Assessment of fines -
EN 933-9: 1998
Methylene blue test
EN 933-10: 2001 Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates - Part 10: Assessment of fines -
148
Grading of fillers (air jet sieving)
Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates - Part 1: Determination of
EN 1097-1: 1996
the resistance to water (micro-Deval)
Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates - Part 2: Methods for the
EN 1097-2: 1998
determination of resistance to fragmentation
EN 1097-3: 1998
loose bulk density and voids
EN 1097- 4: 1999
the voids of dry compacted filler
EN 1097- 5: 1999
the water content by drying in a ventilated oven
EN 1097-6: 2000
particle density and water absorption
EN 1097-7: 1999
the particle density of filler - Pyknometer method
EN 1097-8: 1999
the polished stone value
EN 1097-9: 1998
the resistance to wear by abrasion from studded tyres - Nordic test
Tests for thermal and weathering properties of aggregates - Part 1: Determination of
EN 1367-1: 1999
resistance to freezing and thawing
Tests for thermal and weathering properties of aggregates - Part 2: Magnesium
EN 1367-2: 1998
sulfate test
Tests for thermal and weathering properties of aggregates - Part 3: Boiling test for
EN 1367-3: 2001
"Sonnenbrand basalt"
Tests for thermal and weathering properties of aggregates - Part 4: Determination of
EN 1367-4: 1998
drying shrinkage
EN 1744-1: 1998 Tests for chemical properties of aggregates - Part 1: Chemical analysis
Tests for filler aggregate used in bituminous mixtures - Part 1: Delta ring and ball
EN 13179-1: 2000
test
EN 13179-2: 2000 Tests for filler aggregate used in bituminous mixtures - Part 2: Bitumen number
149
7.
, /, .
PCA (Portland Cement Association),
7.1.
7.1. .
7.1.

(-2-) :
(batch)
.
,
( , , )
( 7.2 7.3).
, (ready mixed concrete)
( )
150
(), .
.
,
( W/C) o
(.. ) -. ,

,
( 7.3).
7.2.
.
7.4.
(ready mixed concrete)
,
.
()
,

,
.
151

.

.
7.3. (-) .
152
7.4. .
153
7.3. -

,
(workability), , (durability),
,
.
- ,

.
1.

:
(trial-batch method)

,
, (compressive strength),

().
.

:
/ (W/C)
, %

(slump)
, ,
(W/C), :
(W/C, Water-Cement ratio) = /

154
, , (workable),
,
() .
(hydration)
.
.
( )
.
(W/C)
,

. (W/C)
(.. 7.1.), .
:
(W/C), ,
, ,
( ).
(W/C)
( ). ,
( ) ,
( )
( 7.1, . 165)
(bleeding) . ,
,
.
155
7.1. (W/C)

(
W/C )
W/C
(freezing ,
and thawing)
*
0.50
0.45

0.45
5 cm

0.50

*
0.50
0.45

386 kg/m3
W/C

( 8.1)
* ,

156
7.3.
7.3.3.

:
1. 9.5 mm (3/8 in.)
2. 2.36 9.5 mm mm (8 mesh-3/8 in.)
3. 2.36 mm (8 mesh)
(-5+0.075) mm
(sand), 0.075 mm (200 mesh) .
7.5. .
157
(2) (3), ,
7.5 FINE, (1),
, COARSE.
.
, ,
(.. 5 mm
5 mm), 7.6.
7.6. .
( )

( ) ,

. ,
() , ,
, .
, 1/3

. ,
158
( ) ,
1/3 .
, (fine aggregates)
(coarse aggregates),

,
.

7.2.
7.2.

,
, ,
No mm %
g %
4 4.75 18.4 1.85 1.85 (Fineness modulus)
8 2.36 135.2 13.59 15.44
16 1.18 202.4 20.35 35.79
30 0.60 204.4 20.55 56.34
50 0.30 241.0 24.23 80.57
100 0.15 184.2 18.52 99.09 (1.85+15.44+35.79+56.34+80.57+99.09)/100
= 289.08/100 2.89
0.0 9.0 0.91 0.91
- 994.6 100 100

, 7.3.
7.3.

(Fineness modulus)

2.3 to 2.59
Fine Sand

2.6 to 2.89
Medium Sand

2.9 to 3.10
Coarse Sand
159

,
()
( 7.7 7.8).
7.7. (grading)
12.7 mm (1/2-inch).
7.8. (grading)
25.4 mm (1-inch).
, ,
, 12.7 mm ( 7.7), 19 25.4
mm ( 7.8),
, .
160

7.9, % ,
.
7.9.
.
(kg/m3 )
32% ( 7.10).
32%, ,
,
. ,
(>32%), ,
( 7.10).
161
7.10.
.
,
( ),
( W/C, ),
,
.

(durability).
,
(gap graded aggregate combination),
, % (
162
)
() (shrinkage effect).
()
. ,
/
( 7.11),
.

, , ,
.
1. /
(coarseness factor) :
% A omm(3 / 8in)
= 100 ,
% A o 3mm(8mesh)
% 2.36 mm
. :
% A mm (3 / 8 in )
= 100 ,
100
100-% 2.36 mm = % 2.36

mm.
163
7.11.
.
Shilstone [13] 60 35
( ). ,
25 mm 37.5 mm, 52
34 38,
68 32 36.
II ( 7.11).

, ,
V,
( ).
.
, ,
, IV ,
164
, * (segregation)
. ,
( 75),
,
, .

3/4" (19 mm).
*( , ,
, , 7.1).
7.1. (
)
2. 0.45 (0.45 Power Curve)
7.12 Gates-Gaudin-Schuhmann (G-G-S)

25.0 mm m = 0.45, %
P :
0.45
x
P 100
25
P % () x.
165
,

37.5 mm (1 1/2 in.).
( )
90%
( 7.12 19 mm).
.
1.18 mm (16 mesh),
,
,
( 7.12).
7 %
. . ,
S,
( 7.13).
3. % (Percent Retained Chart)
%
( 7.14).
, ,
.
, Shilstone,
% 13%.
% 8 18%,
7.14.
7.15 ,
, .
(gap graded aggregate combination).
166
7.12. ( 0.45) 25 mm.
167
7.13. ( 0.45) 25 mm.
168
7.14. .
7.15. .
169
(Optimum Aggregate Blend)
1.
, , ,
,
(
)
,
(). ,
,
,
()
.
, ,
ASTM C33,
,
.
,

4.75-9.5 mm, Shilstone
15-30%
4.75-9.5 mm.
2.

(-3-)
.
/

.
( 0.45
170
%)

/
.
7.16, ()
(a),
(b) . (b), ,
-4.75+2.36 mm, -2.36+1.18 mm -1.18+0.6
mm ( ), -1+3/8 in.(-25.4+9.5 mm)
.
,
,
.
7.16. % (
%
).
171

, (-
97), 7.17, 7.18, 7.19, 7.20 ,
% ( mm)
(DIN 4187 4188)
ASTM E 11 ( 97
-97).

, mm
0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16
7.17.
8 mm ( ) 9.5 mm (3/8) .
172
7.18.
16 mm ( ) 12.5 mm (1/2) .
7.19.
31.5 mm ( ) 25.4 mm (1) .
173
7.20.
37.5 mm (1 ) .
174
7.3.2.
-
,
,
.
(-2-) :
7.3.2.1.

(durability) (workability), -
,
. (1)
(
), (2)
( ), (3)
(4) /
.
(accelerating admixture)

.

. (
2% )
,
,
( 7.21), ,

(durability) ASTM C 494 (Types B D).
175
7.21. .
, ,
:
1. III ( )
2. /
m3
3. .
(Retarding admixture).
( 1 )
,
.
,
,
.
176
,
C3A
C3S, . ,

,
..
.
,
- .

, ,
(
ASTM C 494 Types B D).
(air-entraining admixtures or agents).

()
,

(freeze and thawing)
(de-icers).
,
,
( 7.22 7.2).
, 1%
5% . ,
(1) ., (2)
(
) , (3)
(bleeding) (4)
,
(durability).
177
7.22. .
7.2.
.
Water reducing admixtures ( )

, (1)
(2)
178
() (
/).

.
5-10% ASTM C 494 (Type ).
(High range water reducers, HRWR)
12-30%
,

.
- (superplasicizers)
ASTM C 494 (Types F G) ASTM C 1017 (Types 1 2).
-
75-100 mm
30-60 min.
(waterproofing admixtures)
7.3.2.2. (, .)

(, , ),

15-35% .
,
[Ca(OH)2]
.
:
1.
2. ()
3.
179
4. ( 25-50%)
,
.
180
8.

8.1.
( .. 28 ,

),
, ,
, :
1. ( 8.1),
()

2. ( ),
:

(Fineness modulus)
% ( )
% () ,

3.
, % , .
4. H ( ) %
(fully compacted aggregates)

,
,
( ) ,
.
181
8.1. (kg/m3 l/ m3) % (
ACI, American Concrete Institute)
, mm
9.5 12.5 19 25 37.5 50 75 150
, mm
( )
25-50 207 199 190 179 166 154 130 113
75-100 228 216 205 193 181 169 145 124
150-175 242 228 216 202 190 178 160 -
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.3 0.2
, %
( )
25-50 181 175 168 160 150 142 122 107
75-100 202 193 184 175 165 157 133 119
150-175 216 205 197 184 174 166 154 -
, %
4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
1
6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0
2
7.5 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0
3
1
( )
2
( )
3
( )
182
8.1. (slump) .
8.2. / 28
( ACI, American Concrete Institute)
/
28 (W/C, Water-cement ratio)
MPa
(psi)

41.4 (6000) 0.41 -
34.5 (5000) 0.48 0.40
27.6 (4000) 0.57 0.48
20.7 (3000) 0.68 0.59
13.8 (2000) 0.82 0.74
28
/ / 8.2
8.2 8.3,
.
8.3
,
ACI (American Concrete Institute, ACI 211-1-91).
183
8.2. / (W/cm)
28 ( American Concrete Institute, ACI).
8.3. 28
( Cement Association of Canada, 2006).
184
8.3.
, (: American Concrete Institute,
ACI 211-1-91).
(Fineness modulus)
2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00

, mm
9.5 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
12.5 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
19.0 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
25.0 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
37.5 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
50.0 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72
75.0 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76
150.0 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81
8.4 8.4
( ) ,

.
8.4.

,
kg / m3 ,
(%)
in mm kg
1 37.5 278.9 5 1/2
1 25.0 308.7 6
3/4 19.0 320 6
1/2 12.7 350 7
3/8 9.5 362 7 1/2
185
8.4. () (kg/m3) MPa.
186
8.2.
8.2.1.
(fcr ),
:
f c r f c 1.4 , fc
( ) 3.5 MPa
f c r f c 2.4 3.5 , fc
( )
3.5 MPa
fc ( 28 ),

.
,
(, .)
,
( .. 28 ,
),
, ,
:
8.2.2. ( )
,

( ),
,
187
(Fineness modulus), % ( )
% () ,

, % , .
H ( ) %
(fully compacted aggregates) ( 8.1)
,
,
( ) ,
.
8.3.
1. ( 8.1)
(kg L / m3 ), :
( mm),

( mm).
2. m3 ,
(kg / m3 ) (
8.2.) 8.2, (W/cm,
),
28 (fcr).
3. , ( 8.3) (
) , :
( mm)
(
).
: ( kg)
( )
188

( ).
4. ,
( )
(1 m3 ), .
8.3.1. % (fine
aggregate content)
,
,
,
:
(Unit volume of concrete), .. 1 m3)

- ()
- ()
- Portland ()
- ()
()
(, , ,
) ( m3 )
(kg t) .
8.4.

( ). ,
,
,
,
.
, (
, , .),
189
. , ,
.
8.5.

1. ()
:
:
( )
: ( ,
)
: 1 in. ( 37.5 mm)
: 3-4 in. ( 75-100 mm)
: 24 MPa ( 2 MPa)
( )
8.5.

3.15 2.60 2.70
()
, - 1602 -
3
kg/m ( )
,
- - 2.80
Fineness modulus

- +2.5 +0.5
, (%)
190
8.1. .
2. (
)
:
1. fcr = 24 + 1.42 = 26.8 MPa
2. 8.1 ( 37.5 mm)
75-100 mm 181 kg / m3
3. ( 8.2) 8.2 ( ) fcr =
26.8 MPa, W/C = 0.58, : C
= 181/0.58 = 312 kg /m3
4.
8.3, 37.5 mm
2.80,
0.71,
: 0.711602 = 1137.42 kg /m3 ,
: 1137.42/2600 = 0.4375 m3 / m3
1. : 312/3150 = 0.099 m3 / m3
2. : 0.181 m3 / m3
3. : 0.01 m3 / m3
191
4. :
1-(0.4375+0.099+0.181+0.01) = 0.2725 m3 / m3 ,
: 0.27252700 = 736 kg / m3
, 1 m3 :
1. 181 kg
2. 312 kg
3. 1137.42 kg
4. 736 kg
5. 2366.42 kg / m3
, (0.5%) (2.5%),
,
.
1. 312 kg
2. 736 + 0.025736 = 754.4 kg ( )
3. 1137.42 + 0.0051137.42 =1143.1 kg (
)
4. 156.92 kg ( )
5. 2366.42 kg / m3 .
,
, ,
.
192
9. (%)

9.1. (W/C).
, % , % , %
W/C 0.5 0.4 0.45

12 12 13

34 34.56 33.85

48 48.60 47.3

6 4.84 5.85
- - -
100 100 100
1.
1 m3
( 1 2), W/C ( ) 1/(1 + 2) =
( m3 ).
( 9.1)
W/C.
W C B1 B2
1 m3 (1)
1000 1000 c 1000 1 1000 2
W kg ( lt) /m3 ,
C kg /m3 ,
B1 kg /m3
B2 kg /m3
c = 3.10 t/m3
1 = ( ) 2.69 t/m3
193
2 = 2.69 t/m3.
, 2.4783 t/m3
, (1) (2)
C W B1 B 2 2478.3kg (2)
, W/C = 0.5 1/(1 + 2) = 0.416 ( 1 m3 )

2478.3 kg/ m3, (1) (2) :
C = 297.4 kg
W = 148.7 kg ,
B1 = 842.6 kg ( )
B2 = 1189.6 kg .
4 4 .
2.48 t/m3,
(3-6%)
( 4.5% 2.37 t/m3 ).
: (1)
kg ( t/m3),
t () (1) :
W C B1 B2
1 m3 (3)
1 c 1 2
194
10. -

1. E:
A: .
(),
(, ) .
2. E:

: , , ( ), .
% ( )
10.1
10.1. (W/C).
, % , % , %
W/C (/) 0.5 0.4 0.45
12 12 13
( ) 34 34.56 33.85
48 48.60 47.3
6 4.84 5.85
- - -
100 100 100
3. E:
: ().
,
/ (W/C).
(compressive
strength), (durable)
195

.
4. E: ,

: ,
.
(slump test), . (
) .
.

. ,
50-75% ,
.
5. E: (
) .

A:
, -
. 1-3
,
. ,
196

.
6. E:

() (curing)

A: ,
( ) 10-25 C.

.
, , ,
(),

.

.
,
,

.
, ( )
.
(.. )
.
( 10-25 C),
.

.
197

.
,
()
. ()
5-7
,
( ).
7.

, 10 C 25 C,
. , ,
. ,
,
. ,
()
.
,
,

.

.
8.

.
... (6s rule).
198
I. 6 / = 6 (42.64 kg)/(0.9144 m)3 =
334.6 kg/m3 .
II. 6 (6 x 4.55 = 27.27 liters)
III. 6 ()
IV. 6% . (
).
9.

.
.
10.

(CaCl2)

.
.
11.
()
. ,

.
12. /
.
/ .
(
199
. ),
.
13. (superplasticizers)
.

( ) .
.
.
14.
:.
1. (slump test)
2. (compressive strength)
3. (air content)
4.
(
flowability), -309 .
,
.
( )
,
( , segregation) .
.
(%)
,
.
200
()

(. ).
3.5 MPa 500 psi
,
.
201
11. ( ,
)
,
( ), 1.
1.
%

, C 85.9
, H 12
, O 0.7
, N 0.5
, S 0.5
0.35
(ash) 0.05
,
10880 kcal/kg
G.C.V. H.H.V.

100 kg, O2
, , :
1. C + O2 CO2 (12 kg C 32 kg O2 44 kg CO2)
2. H2 + 1/2O2 H2O (2 kg H2 32/2 = 16 kg O2 18 kg H2O)
3. S + O2 SO2 (32 kg S 32 kg O2 64 kg SO2),
: C = 12, O =16, H = 1, S = 32 N = 14 CO2 =

44, H2O = 18, SO2 = 64 .
202
% ( 1) :
(85.9) C + (85.9 x 32/12) O2 314.97 CO2, 32/12 O / C CO2
(12) H2 + (12 x 16/2) O2 (12 x 9 ) H2O, 16/2 O / H H2O
(0.5) S + (0.5 x 32/32) O2 1.0 SO2, 32/32 O / S SO2
O2
100 kg , :
85.9 x 32/12 + 12 x 16/2 + 0.5 = 325.57 kg O2
100 kg 0.7 kg O2,

O2 : 325.57 - 0.7 = 324.87 kg O2 / 100 kg
.
(23.2% O2 75.47% N2),
:
324.87 kg O2 / 0.232 = 1400.30 kg / 100 kg
14.003 kg / kg
CO2
, ,
CO2, N2 SO2, .
, (N2)
100 kg , :
N2 = 1400.30 kg 324.87 kg O2 = 1075.43 kg
:
Moles CO2 = (314.97 kg) / 4410-3 kg/mole = 7.158103 moles
Moles N2 = (1075.43 kg) / 2810-3 kg/mole = 38.41103 moles
Moles SO2 = 1 kg/ 6410-3 kg/mole = 15.625 moles
, % CO2 (CO2 max) =

(moles CO2 x 100) / moles ()
203
= (7158 x 100) / (7158 + 38410 + 15.625) = 15.70% CO2
(% .) CO2,max
.

.
%
() % O2.
.. 2.8% O2 ( ),
% (..) :
% O 2 )
% 100
20.9-% O 2 )
:
2 .8
% 100 15.47%
20.9 2.8
100 kg = 1400.30 kg
15.47% : 1400.30 x 1.1547 = 1616.93 kg
= (1616.93 1400.30) kg = 216.63 kg
O2 (23.2%) = 216.63 x 0.232 = 50.26 kg
N2 + .. (76.8%) = (216.63 50.26) kg = 166.37 kg
, 100 kg
15.47% :
1. CO2 = 314.97 kg
2. H2O = 108 kg ( )
3. SO2 = 1 kg
4. O2 = 50.26 kg
5. N2 = 1241.8 kg ( = 1075.43 + 166.37 )
204
% CO2 (
15.47%)
, , moles:
Moles CO2 = 314.97 / 4410-3 kg/mole = 7.158103 moles
Moles SO2 = 1/ 6410-3 kg/mole = 15.625 moles
Moles O2 = 50.26 / 3210-3 kg/mole = 1.57063103 moles
Moles N2 = 1241.8 / 2810-3 kg/mole = 44.35103moles
= 53094.26 moles
% CO2 % ( ) = (7158 x 100) / 53094.26

= 13.48% CO2
CO2,max (15.70%)
% 2.8% O2,
CO2, :
20.9 %O2 ( )
%CO2 ( ) CO2,max
20.9
20.9 2.8
%CO2 ( ) 15.7 13.60%CO2
20.9
0.9% .
(13.48 13.60%)
CO2,max (15.7%). , , CO2,max, %
CO2 ,
( % ), .

.
205
.
[1]

( 4
)
%
4.1 (. 90)
. ,
, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8 4.9,
(1, 2, 3 4) (1, 2, 3). ()
(LSF, SR AR)
. 4.2
ASTM 4.1 ( . 90).
4.2. SR, AR ,Leq LSF

(ASTM) 4.1. [2].
LSF,
SR AR Leq ,
(
( ( (

) ) )
ASTM ), %*
I1 2.6 2.3 2.2 95.43
2 2.9 1.6 2.1 90.04
I
I3 3.3 2.2 2.3 96.45
I4 2.3 2.7 2.1 92.69
II1 2.2 1.0 2.0 90.46
II
II2 3.9 1.9 2.2 90.46
III1 2.6 2.1 2.4 102.81
III
III2 2.9 2.6 2.3 98.00
IV1 2.4 0.9 1.8 80.30
IV
IV2 3.7 1.2 2.0 83.19
V1 3.8 0.9 2.1 87.34
V
V2 2.9 0.7 2.0 86.78
* O LSF Leq LSF, AR SR,

206
4.6.
( ), %
1 2 3 4
- -

CaO 50.5 2.7 1.0 4.0
SiO2 4.83 2.7 95.0 65.0
Al2O3 1.85 6.6 1.4 24.0
Fe2O3 0.64 84.0 1.3 2.5
CaCO3 90.2 4.8 1.8 7.14
4.1 ( ASTM)
CaO,

SO3
4.7.
( ), %
1 2 3 4
- -

CaO 50.5 2.7 1.0 15.4
SiO2 4.83 2.7 95.0 37.9
Al2O3 1.85 6.6 1.4 16.5
Fe2O3 0.64 84.0 1.3 5.1
CaCO3 90.2 4.8 1.8 27.5
4.1 ( ASTM)
CaO,

SO3
4.8.
( ), %
1 2 3
-

CaO 50.5 15.4 1.0
SiO2 4.83 37.9 95.0
Al2O3 1.85 16.5 1.4
Fe2O3 0.64 5.1 1.3
CaCO3 90.2 27.5 1.8
4.1 ( ASTM)
(CaO), SO3
207
4.9.
( ), %
1 2 3
-

CaO 50.5 2.7 1.0
SiO2 4.83 2.7 95.0
Al2O3 1.85 6.6 1.4
Fe2O3 0.64 84.0 1.3
CaCO3 90.2 4.8 1.8
4.1 ( ASTM)
(CaO), SO3
,
( Bogue)
, 4.2, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8 4.9

Mathcad Excel, 4.10, 4.11, 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 4.15, 4.16 4.17.
4.10 4.11
(I1, I3, III1 III2 4.1)
(-4-) 4.6 4.7
LSF, SR AR ( 4.2).
4.12
(I1, I3, III1 III2 4.1) (-3-)
4.8 LSF, SR 4.2.
4.13
( Bogue) , (-4-)
4.6 (LSF, AR) I2, I4,
II1, II2, IV1, IV2, V1 V2 4.2.
4.14 4
( 4.6) LSF.
4.15 4.16
(-3-)
4.8 4.9, 4.17
208
4.16 , .,
(W2 = 0) 4.9 ().
209
4.10. 4 ( 4.6)
BOGUE %

% t/h CaO
()
, % 4.1
LSF SR AR 1 2 3 4 C3S C2S C3A C4AF
CaO 42.953
OPC
SiO2 14.1
1 0.9543 2.60 2.3 80.90 0.455 5.453 13.19 53.75 20.09 10.86 7.50
Al2O3 3.78
ASTM Type I
Fe2O3 1.643
CaO 43.593
SiO2 14.545 OPC
3 0.9645 3.3 2.2 83.66 0.386 7.787 8.17 55.82 20.44 8.55 6.29
Al2O3 3.03
ASTM Type I
Fe2O3 1.377
CaO 43.426
SiO2 14.04 OPC
2 0.98 2.90 2.60 82.40 0.19 6.051 11.364 52.14 21.05 10.49 6.14 ASTM
Al2O3 3.497 Type I III
Fe2O3 1.345
CaO 43.679
SiO2 13.326
1 1.0281 2.6 2.1 82.99 0.582 5.384 11.049 62.39 10.24 9.61 7.55
Al2O3 3.472 ,
Fe2O3 1.653 ASTM Type III
210
4.11. 4 ( 4.7)
BOGUE %
% t/h CaO

()
() , % 4.1
CaO 43.61
OPC
SiO2 14.316
1 0.9543 2.60 2.3 85.51 1 4.636 8.854 54.65 20.33 11.02 7.62
Al2O3 3.838
ASTM Type I
Fe2O3 1.669
CaO 44.004
SiO2 14.682 OPC
3 0.9645 3.3 2.2 86.52 0.721 7.306 5.451 56.45 20.55 8.63 6.34
Al2O3 3.059
ASTM Type I
Fe2O3 1.39
CaO 43.997
14.225 OPC
SiO2
2 0.98 2.90 2.60 86.38 0.655 5.356 7.61 53.01 21.18 10.62 6.22 ASTM
Al2O3 3.543 Type I III
Fe2O3 1.363
CaO 44.237
SiO2 13.497
1 1.0281 2.6 2.1 86.86 1.039 4.7 7.396 63.36 10.25 9.72 7.65
Al2O3 3.516 ,
211
4.12. 3 4.8 ( LSF, SR)
BOGUE %
CaO
%
4.1
t/h
( LSF, SR) , %
AR C3S C2S C3A C4AF
LSF SR (.)
1 2 3
CaO 42.882
SiO2 14.029
1 0.9543 2.60 3.006 80.201 15.155 4.644 52.05 21.07 12.68 6.15
Al2O3 4.049
Fe2O3 1.349
CaO 43.531
SiO2 14.483
0.9645 3.30 2.897 83.053 9.858 7.09 54.35 21.28 10.11 5.14
3 Al2O3 3.262
Fe2O3 1.126
CaO 43.395
SiO2 14.01
0.98 2.90 2.96 82.102 12.187 5.711 51.42 21.46 11.25 5.57
2 Al2O3 3.61
Fe2O3 5.711
CaO 43.587
SiO2 13.237
1.0281 2.60 2.996 82.088 13.563 4.349 60.18 11.53 11.94 5.82
1 Al2O3 3.817
Fe2O3 1.274
212
4.13. 4 ( 4.6)
BOGUE %

% t/h CaO
()
, % 4.1

CaO 42.602
SiO2 15.085
I2 0.9004 2.90 1.60 74.54 15.99 8.37 1.104 Al2O3 3.201 45.97 30.19 7.65 9.13
,
Fe2O3 42.602
ASTM Type II
CaO 42.311

SiO2 14.042
I4 0.9269 2.30 2.70 78.26 0.229 3.686 17.822 36.84 32.60 13.53 7.51
Al2O3 4.455
ASTM Type I
Fe2O3 1.65
CaO 42.154
SiO2 14.49
II1 0.9046 2.20 1.0 73.63 16.01 7.704 2.654 Al2O3 3.293 43.18 29.74 4.73 15.03
,
Fe2O3 3.293
ASTM Type IV
CaO 43.198
SiO2 15.628
II2 0.9046 3.9 1.9 74.64 12.495 10.32 0.544 Al2O3 2.625 45.26 33.07 6.93 6.31
,
Fe2O3 1.382
ASTM Type II
CaO 41.208
SiO2 16.161
IV1 0.8030 2.4 0.90 72.069 15.122 9.832 2.977 Al2O3 3.19 22.32 52.66 3.69 16.18
,
Fe2O3 3.544
ASTM Type IV
CaO 42.42
SiO2 16.698
IV2 0.8319 3.70 1.20 75.53 11.05 12.02 1.40 Al2O3 2.462 32.42 47.35 4.58 9.36
,
Fe2O3 2.051
ASTM Type IV
CaO 43.027
SiO2 16.198
V1 0.8734 3.80 0.90 77.47 8.10 12.63 1.80 Al2O3 2.019 46.90 34.28 2.33 10.24
,
Fe2O3 2.243
ASTM Type V
CaO 42.511
SiO2 15.805
V2 0.8678 2.90 0.70 76.18 9.13 11.79 2.90 Al2O3 2.244 45.08 33.96 0.78 14.63
,
Fe2O3 3.206
ASTM Type V
213
4.14. 4 ( 4.6)
BOGUE %

% t/h CaO
(LSF, SR, AR) ()
, % 4.1
CaO 40.63
SiO2 16.836
1 0.76 2.4 0.90 70.76 15.88 10.25 3.10 9.44 65.29 3.84 16.85
Al2O3 3.323
Fe2O3 3.692
CaO 40.905
SiO2 16.515
2 0.78 2.4 0.90 71.382 15.521 10.054 3.044 15.56 59.28 3.77 16.53 X
Al2O3 3.26
Fe2O3 3.622
CaO 41.208

SiO2 16.161
IV1 0.803 2.4 0.90 72.069 15.122 9.832 2.977 22.32 52.66 3.69 16.18
Al2O3 3.19 ,
Fe2O3 3.544 ASTM Type IV
CaO 41.424
SiO2 15.909
3 0.82 2.4 0.90 72.56 14.838 9.674 2.93 27.13 47.95 3.63 15.93
Al2O3 3.14 ,
CaO 41.67
SiO2 15.622
3 0.84 2.4 0.90 73.11 14.515 9.494 2.876 32.61 42.58 3.56 15.64
Al2O3 3.083 ,
214
4.15. 3 ( 4.8)
BOGUE %

% t/h CaO
(LSF, SR)
, % 4.1 ()
AR
LSF SR 1 2 3 C3S C2S C3A C4AF
(.)
CaO 42.582

SiO2 14.962
I2 0.9004 2.90 2.968 79.961 13.901 6.138 42.12 32.57 12.04 5.93
Al2O3 3.859 ASTM Type I
Fe2O3 1.30
CaO 42.276

SiO2 14.007
I4 0.9269 2.30 3.06 77.916 18.802 3.282 35.73 33.28 14.44 6.85
Fe2O3 1.50
CaO 41.907

SiO2 14.136
II1 0.9046 2.20 3.079 76.659 20.562 2.779 45.65 32.64 9.07 4.78
Fe2O3 1.575
CaO 43.269

SiO2 15.596
II2 0.9046 3.9 2.816 83.123 7.796 9.08 31.55 36.99 15.28 7.19
Fe2O3 1.048
CaO 40.913
SiO2 15.739
IV1 0.803 2.4 3.058 74.453 21.238 4.308 11.81 58.78 15.54 7.38 X
Al2O3 4.942
Fe2O3 1.616
CaO 42.35

SiO2 16.519
IV2 0.8319 3.70 2.858 80.558 10.231 9.211 27.44 50.34 10.21 5.28
Fe2O3 1.157
CaO 42.882

SiO2 15.971
V1 0.8734 3.80 2.838 82.032 8.863 9.105 40.09 38.44 9.58 5.00
Fe2O3 1.095
CaO 42.216

SiO2 15.391
V2 0.8678 2.90 2.972 78.997 14.672 6.331 34.60 40.08 12.39 6.10
Fe2O3 1.336
215
4.16. 3 ( 4.9)
BOGUE %
% t/h
(LSF, AR) CaO 4.1
()
SR , %
LSF AR 1 2 3 C3S C2S C3A C4AF
(.)
CaO 43.913 OPC,
SiO2 16.39
I2 0.9004 5.55 1.60 86.677 0.492 12.831 54.91 29.06 4.34 5.18
Al2O3 1.816 ,
Fe2O3 1.135 Type V
CaO 44.312
SiO2 16.166
I4 0.9269 6.59 2.70 87.502 -0.072 12.57 53.56 29.11 5.43 3.03
Al2O3 1.79
Fe2O3 0.663
CaO 43.683 OPC,
SiO2 16.032
II1 0.9046 4.31 1.0 86.182 1.363 12.455 52.47 29.36 2.67 8.49
Al2O3 1.859 ,
Fe2O3 1.859 Type V
CaO 44.018 OPC,
SiO2 16.397
II2 0.9046 5.94 1.9 86.895 0.27 12.835 50.69 32.28 4.76 4.34
Al2O3 1.805 ,
Fe2O3 0.95 Type V
CaO 42.649
SiO2 17.704
IV1 0.803 4.50 0.90 84.085 1.6 14.315 30.08 53.45 2.15 9.44
Al2O3 1.862 ,
Fe2O3 2.068 Type V
CaO 43.137
SiO2 17.392
IV2 0.8319 5.18 1.20 85.092 0.954 13.954 36.35 47.37 3.41 6.97
Al2O3 1.833 ,
Fe2O3 1.527 Type V
CaO 43.328
SiO2 16.448
V1 0.8734 4.17 0.90 85.456 1.621 12.923 47.76 34.70 2.16 9.48
Al2O3 1.869 ,
Fe2O3 2.076 Type V
CaO 43.041
SiO2 16.278
V2 0.8678 3.52 0.70 84.489 2.399 12.752 47.35 34.28 0.67 12.43
Al2O3 1.907 ,
Fe2O3 2.724 Type V
216
4.17. 3 ( 4.9)
BOGUE %

% t/h CaO
(LSF, AR) ()
, % 4.1

SR
LSF (.)
AR 1 2 3 C3S C2S C3A C4AF
CaO 44.312
SiO2 16.166
I2 0.9269 6.59 2.70 87.502 -0.072 12.57 53.56 29.11 5.43 3.03
Al2O3 1.79
Fe2O3 0.663
CaO 44.713
,
SiO2 15.371
I2 0.9269 88.31 0 11.69 Al2O3 1.797 65.13 16.97 5.32 3.27
6.11 2.51 ,
217
-
4.10 4.11,
4.6 4.7 LSF, SR
AR ( 4.2),
(4 ), , ,
.
4.13 , (-4-)
4.6 ASTM , , IV
V (LSF, SR AR).
4.14 LSF
0.80 (ASTM Type IV)
. LSF
.
(4)

( ).
,
,
(.. LSF), 4.14.
(-3-) , 4.8 4.9,
( 4.15 4.16).
, ,
(LSF SR) (LSF AR) .
, () LSF, SR AR
.

.
, (-3-)
, ,
.
, , ,

( 4.17).
218

,

.
1. . . & ., 2000, ,
, ..., .
2. Leas Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 1998, 4th Edition, Edited by P.C.
Hewlett, Arnold, London.
3. Schofield G.C., 1980, Homogenisation/Blending Systems Design and Control for
Mineral Processing, Series on Bulk Materials Handling Vol. 2, Trans Tech
Publications.
4. SME, 1985, Mineral Processing Handbook, Edited by N.L. Weiss, S.W. MUDD
SERIES, New York.
219
.

.
,

(),
.

,
( ),
( ).

,

.
,

.
.
1.
()
, () ( ), () , ()
() .
1.

.
95%
. ,
:
1. ( ),
220
2. (. ) (
),
3. ( )
4. ( )
.
1. %
,
%
12
( ) 34
48
6

100
,
(),
( 250.000 t
),
150.000 t [35].

( )
[3],
.
1.
,
,
:
1. ,
2. (, )

:
1. ,
2. ( )
.
221
,
,

.

,
,

.
,

/
1. [1].
Figure 1. Flowsheet for the cement production [1].
222
3.

(1998)
() ,
1997 14.8 . [6]. 52% (7.7 . )
48% (7.1 .
) .
, 68% 32% . 80%

, 12-15% 5-8%
.
2.1.
1.6
. , 75%, . 0.75 1.6 14.8 . =
17.8 . ,
.
2.2.
75% (
0.75 7.1 . = 5.3 . ) -
, , m3 300 kg
, (5. 3/0.3) 106 = 17.8 106 m3 .
2 /m3 ,
35.6 . .
35.6 .
( )
75% ,
35.6 106/0.75 = 47.4 . .
2.3.

223

: (17.8 + 47.4)106 = 65.2 . . ( :
) 1:5 ,
20% .
(65.2 106) 1.2 = 78.2 . 30 106 m3
( 2.65 /m3)

, 25%
18 106 . 7-7.5 106 m3 .
3. (, )
3.1.
70$/
. 28.000 ./,
: 7.7 106 28.000 ./ = 215.6 . .
(632.7 . ).
3.2.
(
) 17.000 ./m3. 17.8
106 m3 : 17.8 106 m3 17.000
./m3 = 302.3 . . (887.2 . ).
3.3.

518 . . 1.52 . .
,

600 . . 1.8-2.0 . .

.
,
224

.
4.
4.1.

2% 5%
(World Energy Council, 1995).
2030%
. ,
, 2 [8].
2. (%)
[8].
% ..
36
Petcoke 39
6
7
2
10
100
100 kWh/t (-
58% ), [9]:
27.5% ,
27.7% ( ),
39.8% ( ..),
5% .
,
,
1975 6.5 . BTU , 1870 kWh/t
[10]. t
o Neville [11], (1975) 1.8 MWh/t
(dry process).
225
, 25
25% 7.2 5.5 GJ/t . 5.5 GJ/t
1528 kWh/t . kWh/t
( 3 4).

.

[8, 9, 12].
,

.
3 t [1].
o 4 m3 ,
.
m3 , 91.5%
(
, , , , ,
..) 8.5% .
4.2.
2000 , 5%
[1, 2].
,
.

.
:
1. ,
2. ,
3. ,
4. ,
5. ,
6. ,
226
7. ,
8. ( , -
..).
3.
Portland Cement Association (PCA) [1].
/t
BTU 103 kWh (%)

(diesel, ..)
69.5 20.4 1.2
524.8 153.8 9.0
3885.3 1138.4 66.5
1 315.3 92.4 5.4
2 1050.3 307.8 17.9
5215 + 420.1 1527.9 + 123.1 100.0
1
(, ,
..).
2
( )
.
2.5 ( )
(2.5 420.1 103 BTU = 2.5 123.1 kWh, 40%).
4. .

kWh/t kWh/m3
-
(%) (t/m3 - (%)
)
12 1651 162.8 539.4 0.297 91.6
34 1.6 12.0 11.4 0.843 1.9
48 15.1 17.1 38.3 1.190 6.5
6 0.149

100 1859.6 589.1 2.479 100.0
227
, .
.
,

, .
(> 1870C)

. (US EPA)
99.99% ( )
,
.

(.. )
, ()
,
. ..
, .
100 o
(calorific value) 1 t ( 5000 kcal/kg ).
H

(, , )
.

(.. ) .

,
.
228
2 . .
2 .
. ,
2 106/1000 = 20.000 t . 1
kg 5000 kcal, 20.000 t
20.000 t (5 106 kcal /1000 kg ) = 1011 kcal.
50%
5 1010 kcal.
58.106.000 kWh 58.106 MWh.
7.33 MW .
(300 kWh/) 65.000 .
, (1997) 14.8 . t
100
kWh/t . 14.8
108 kWh . 2 .
(%): (58.106 106/14.8 108) 100 = 3.93%.
() . ,

,

(.. ).
5.

[1, 2, 12, 13].

.
.
5.1. CO2
229

(CO2, , , x, , ..)

1.9 5.3C.
o .

CO2 1990.
1.6 . t CO2,
5% CO2
. CO2
.
CO2/t

.
:
1. (, )
CaCO3, . (), Ca CO2
,
2. (, , )
.

0.63 t CO2 t , 0.53 t CO2
t . 1.16 t CO2 t
.
5.2. CO2
CaCO3 :

CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) (1)
100 56 44
230
1 t 1.21 t
CaCO3, : (44/100) 1.21
0.532 t CO2.
60%
(, ),
:
C(s) +O2(g) CO2(g) 94.052 cal/mol (2)
12 32 44
94052/12 = 7837.7 cal/g .

1 g . 1 cal
= 4.1868 joules, . 7837.7 4.1868 32815 kJ/kg .
3
: (69.5 + 524.8 + 3885.3) 103 BTU/t ,
1 BTU = 1.0555 kJ, 4728.2 103 kJ/t = 4728.2 kJ/kg
.
: (4728.2 kJ/kg ) / 32815 kJ/kg = 0.144 kg /kg
. : 0.144 (44/12) = 0.528 kg
CO2/kg .

(
).
CO2. : 840.2
103 BTU/t = (840.2 1.0555) 103kJ/ t = 886.4 103 kJ/ t
(886.4 kJ/ kg ) / (32815 kJ/kg ) = 0.027 kg /kg
. : 0.027
(44/12) = 0.099 kg CO2/ kg .
1 m3
0.2974 t , 5.
5.3. CO2
CO2
-
,
231
( , , ..)
CO2, (
) .
5. CO2
( ).
CO2 kg CO2/ t kg CO2/ m3 %

CO2

CO2 532 158.2 45.9
CO2
528 157.2 45.6
CO2
99 29.3 8.5
CO2 1159 344.7 100

, , (Ca)
.

(fly ash) [2, 11, 15].

, (, ,
..),
( ) (15%

12.50% m3 , . 589.13 kWh/m3
515.49 kWh/m3 , 4).1
SiO2,
.

1535% ( )
70%.
Ca(OH)2
,
1
0.2974 (15/100) 1651 kWh/t = 73.65 kWh/t
232
.
,
, ,
/ (W/C) ()
.
(early strength)
o ( F, C
). , ,
C F,
[11, 15].

,
.. .
5.4.

CO2, ..
, ,
, ..
[2,1214]. ,
.

, , ,
..

.

.
pH
.

( , ,
..).
233

.
5.5.

,
.
.
2 m3 (500 gallons) ()
pH 12.

.
,
.

.

,
.
6.

.
,

.

CO2 .

(..
, ,
234
,
..). ,
,
- ...
(, ).
1. Portland Cement Association (2000), The Cement Industry, January.

2. ENV (1993), Cement and Concrete: Environmental Considerations, vol. 2, no. 2,
March/April.
3. , . ., , . ., , . . (1999),
.. & . .. , , . 2.
4. , . (1997),
. ,
, , .
5. , . (1997), :
, ,
, , .
6. (1997), Executive Summary of the Greek Cement Industry, June.
7. ,
30.6.2000, .
8. CEMBUREAU, The European Cement Association, Best available techniques for the
cement industry, Brussels, December 1999.
9. UNIDO & Sustainable Industrial Development (1998), Energy conservation in the
cement industry, August.
10. Weiss, N. L., editor (1985), Mineral Processing Handbook, Society of Mining Engineers,
NY, USA.
11. Neville, A. M. (1981), Properties of Cement and Concrete, 3rd Edition, Pitman.
12. Cadence Environmental Energy Inc. (2000), Using Whole Scrap Tires as Fuel in a
Cement Kiln.
13. Hewlett, P. C., editor (1998), Leas Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 4th edition,
Arnold.
14. IEA GREENHOUSE R&D PROGRAMME (2000), Emission Reduction of Greenhouse
Gases from the Cement Industry.
15. , . , . (1999),
, ..., , . 2.
16. Kosmatka, S. H. and Panarese, W. C. (1994), Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures,
13th Edn., PCA, Illinois.
235
.
(BLAINE)

( ),
, (,
, ), (,
) ( ,
).
() .

,
( Blaine)
.
1.

. 30-35%
. (
, )

1.
,
,

(.. , , .)
() .
,
, , ,
.
Blaine, cm2/g
m2/kg 2800-6000 cm2/g,
236
.
2.

(1965-2000), (wet)
(dry) (semi-dry),
6000 MJ/tonne 3000-3800 MJ/tonne .
(1993),
2.2% [1].
Portland
[2,3,4] (0.110-0.140) tonnes /tonne (
27000 MJ/tonne) .
[4]
100-110 kWh/tonne ( 1 2).
2, 63.7%
,
. kWh
0.055 / kWh [5]
. ()

50-55 / tonne [5].
:
(110 kWh/tonne x 0.055 /kWh) + (0.14 tonnes /tonne
x 55 / tonne ) = 13.75 / tonne
:
(13.75 /tonne ) / 0.3 46 /tonne ,
[1,2,3] 30-35%
. ( 14 /tonne ), ,
, 70
/tonne .
237
..
35 35
% ..
.. kWh
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
30
26,1
24,6
10 10
5 5
5,1
4,4
5
3,2
0 0

.
.

&
.. kWh ..
1. .. .
,

.

(30% ..)
.
100%
, ,
90% .., 5.1%
,
24,6

80% , 24.6%
% ..
,
70%
.., 1.6%
60% 4,4 &
,
.. 63.7%
, 5%
50%
, 4.4%
30
40%
-
30% , 30%
20% .., ,
26,1 26.1%
10% -
3,2 .., 3.2%
0%
2. % ..
.
238
3.

[6,7] kWh/tonne
(Blaine fineness)
(work index) .
..
().

[8,9],
:
E 101.7410
4
FBl 0.035 wi 0.4714
(1)
kWh/tonne, FBl
(Blaine) cm2/g wi (work index) kwh/short ton.
(1) 1 short
ton (s.t.) = 0.907 tonne.
(1) ( 3200-5000,
200 cm2/g) Blaine 3
(12, 14 16 kWh/s.t.) ,
.

3,
kWh/tonne,

.
239
Wi =12 kWh/s.t.

70 Wi =14 kWh/s.t
Wi = 16 kwh/s.t.

60
kWh/tonne
50
40
30
30 40 50 60 70
kWh/tonne
(Fuller Traylor Grinding Mill Systems)
3. (1)
.
[1] COMPETITIVENESS OF THE EUROPEAN CEMENT INDUSTRY, The European Cement

Association, CEMBUREAU, www.cembureau.be.
[2] .., 2000,
,
() 2/2000, . 79-92.
[3] Tsakalakis K.G., 2003, The Greek cement industry sector and its potential towards sustainable
development, Sustainable Development Indicators in the Mineral Industry (SDIMI 2003), Milos
2003, 21-23 May, Greece.
[4] Stoiber W., 2002, Comminution Technology and Energy Management, LAFARGE Cement
Division in Verein Deutscher Zementwerke (VDZ) Kongress, September 2002.
[5] ENERGY AND TRANSPORT IN FIGURES 2004, European Commission Directorate-General for
Energy and Transport in Cooperation with Eurostat, European Union, November 2004.
[6] Tsakalakis K.G. and Stamboltzis G.A., 2004, Modelling the specific grinding energy and ball-mill
scale up, 11th IFAC Symposium on Automation in Mining, Mineral and Metal Processing, Nancy.
[7] Schnatz, R., 2004, Optimization of continuous ball mills used for finish-grinding of cement by
varying the L/D ratio, ball charge filling ratio, ball size and residence time, Int. J. Miner. Process.
74S, pp. S55-S63.
[8] Fuller Traylor Grinding Mill Systems, GATX-FULLER, Bulletin M-2 5M 6/76,
PENNSYLVANIA, U.S.A.
[9] MARCY, Ball and Rod Mills, MINE AND SMELTER SUPPLY Co., CATALOG 101-B.
240
.

. -, .., 15780 -

FBl (Blaine) Bond (wi) ,
,
Bond (wi) , (
) R d80 .

d80. d80
,
.
d80
.

kWh/t,

.

. 30-35% (.
) .
( ,
)
1.
,
, , ,
241
.
Blaine, cm2/g
m2/kg 2800-6000 cm2/g,
Bond (wi)
Df () d80
() R.

(1965-2000), (wet)
(dry) (semi-dry),
6000 MJ/tonne 3000-3800 MJ/tonne .

100-110 kWh/tonne . 1, 63.7%
, ,
,
.
1. % ..
.
()
242
, , kWh/tonne
(Blaine fineness)
(work index) Bond (wi) .
..
(
).

,
:
E 10 1.7410
4
FBl 0.035wi 0.4714
(1)
: kWh/tonne, FBl
(Blaine) cm2/g wi (work index) kwh/short ton.
. (1) 1 short ton
(s.t.) = 0.907 tonne.
,
, ,
Bond (wi),
( ) R d80 :
E 23.7 wi R 0.193 d80 0.769 (2)
: E, . (1), R = Df /d80
, Df
() 80% d80
(), 80%
.
R = Df /d80 (2), :
E 23 .7 wi D f 0.193 d 80 0.962 (3)
, ,
() ,
243
(-2-) ( 2).
, , ,
.
1 ,
, 2 .
R1 R2,
,
: R = R1 x R2.
, . (3) : E = E1 + E2.
, E1
E2 .
E1 : E 23.7 w D 0.193 d 0.962 (4)

1 i f in
2 : E2 0.87 23.7 w d 0.193 d 0.962 (5)

i in 80

1 , R1 2 , R2
2. () .
0.87 . (5)., 13%

, 1 2

. (4). :
E 23.7 wi D f 0.193 din 0.962 0.87 23.7 wi din 0.193 d80 0.962 (6)
(1), (6) wi = 14.5 kWh/short ton, Df = 16000
m d80, 1,
244
3
.
, %
x, m
3. (Blaine).
1. d80 3.
= R0.5=R (Y),
3
() R1

d80, m d80, m d80, m
R, R,
Blaine FBl, ( R, - -
R1 = R0.5 - -
cm2/g )

2500 55 290.9 17.06 57.15 280 R1 = 15 57.70 277.30
3000 41 390.24 19.75 44.70 357.94 45.84 349.04
4000 30 533.33 23.06 27.76 576.37 29.28 546.45
5000 23 695.7 26.38 17.41 919.01 18.91 846.11
,
kWh/t
,
d80

.
245
.
.
.. .- . -
:
(, )
()
( ).
,
,
.
,

.
()
,

(% )
(-5 mm).
1.
(, -),
,
(-5 mm),
(, .).

( ) .
.
1 ()
. , o
1 %
.
246
1.
. : www.goodquarry.com (2007) & (1994)

,
, mm mm
Jaw crusher
, ()
700-1000 100-300
Primary Gyratory crusher
()
Cone crusher
()
HSI crusher
,
( 100-250 20-100
Secondary
)
Jaw crusher
()
Cone crusher
()
, VSI crusher
14-100 10-50
Tertiary (

Barmac)
VSI crusher
(

..., 10-40 10-20
Barmac)
Quaternary
Cone crusher
()
247
( .), 13%
, 9%
13,0%
-, (3+7) %
27,8%
9,0% , 2%
, 11%
10,0%
, 13%
2,0%
14,0%
(), 0.2%
11,0% , 14%
0,2%
13,0%
, 27.8%
1. (Metso
Minerals, 2007)
2.
( 2), (-5 mm)

,
.
,
(blasting).
( 10-
15%)
.

, 700 mm,

:
1.

2.
-

248
3. 440 t/h.
, 24 (14
), (300 ) :
1.848.000 t/

2.
.
3 4 ,
(, ) ,
(close side setting, c.s.s.).
Metso Minerals (2007).
2. (-5 mm) (%
) ( )
(: www.goodquarry.com, 2007)
(-5 mm)

(% )
1. +
1. 3 - 6% () 10 -

15% ()
(Igneous +
2. 6 - 7% () 20%
, metamorphic)
()
Primary 2.
3. 1 - 2% () 15 -
(Limestone)
20% ( &
3.
)
(Sandstone)
1. +

(Igneous + 1. 0 - 23% ()
, metamorphic) 2. 15 - 25% () <30%
Secondary 2. ()
(Limestone) 3. 10 - 15% ()
3.
(Sandstone)
1. +
1. 5 - 30% () 40%
(Igneous + ()
metamorphic) 2. <20% () 40%
..., Tertiary 2. ()
(Limestone) 3. ~15% () 40%
3. ()
(Sandstone)
249
100
y = 0,0002x3 - 0,0377x2 + 3,067x + 9,4486
90 R2 = 0,9997 (3)
%
80
3
70
60 2
50 y = -0,0003x3 + 0,0316x2 + 0,3502x + 3,1645
R2 = 0,9969 (2)
40
30 1
20
y = 2E-06x3 - 0,0006x2 + 0,4319x + 0,4908
10 R 2 = 0,9977 (1)
0
1 10 100 1000
, mm
2. (1-. , 2-.
, 3-. )
+38 mm -38+20 mm -20+10 mm -10+5 mm -5 mm

51 mm 50 27 12 5 6
45 mm 38 35 14 6 7
, mm
38 mm 24 46 15 7 8
32 mm 10 51 21 8 10
25 mm 2 38 30 13,5 16,5
22 mm 0 30 36 16 18
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% .
3.
.
250
+ 38 mm -38+20 mm -20+10 mm -10+5 mm -5 mm
200 m m 71 11 8,2 4,8 5

150 m m 60 15 10 6 9
100 m m 48 18 14 8 12

80 m m 40 21 15,2 9,8 14
60 m m 30 23,5 17,5 11 18
50 m m 20 23,5 19,5 13 24
40 m m 12 24 21 14 29
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% .
4.
.

, (t/h)
, ( 5, 6, 7, 8 9).

,
- (,
1993; , 1996; Tsakalakis, 2000; , 2001).
( -)
38 mm , 4
()
38 mm 20, 10 5 mm.
251
5. ( -
22 mm).
6. ( -
25 mm).
252
7. ( -
38 mm).
8. (
50 mm).
253
9. (
60 mm).
3.
3.
3. -

440 t/h
( 175 mm)
. .
() ()
, c.s.s.: 22, 25 38 mm c.s.s.: 50 60 mm
%
22 mm 25 mm 38 mm 50 mm 60 mm
-38+20 mm 31.5 40.1 56 30.9 35
-20+10 mm 36 30.6 23.5 24.9 25.4
-10+5 mm 15.7 13.6 10.5 16.2 15.6
-5 mm 16.8 15.7 10 28.0 24.0
100 100 100 100 100
c.s.s. (close side setting):
, -
, % (-5
mm) 8%
.

254
.
,
140.000 t/.
( 4 / t)
:
140.000 t / 4 / t = 560.000 /

.

,

,
.
Mitchell & Benn (2007),

.
4.
Metso Minerals, Crushing and Screening Handbook, Brochure No. 2051-04-07-

CBL/ Tampere (2007)
Mitchell, C., Benn, A., Quarry Fines Minimisation: Process Optimisation Case
Study 4 British Geological Survey & Metso Minerals (UK) Ltd (2007),
www.goodquarry.com
, ..,
(--),
(1994)
, .., "
a ", -
, 75, - 1990, 41-48
, .., " - ", -

, 3, 4 (1993), 37-45
255
T, .., "
", - , 6, 1
(1996), 25-36
Tsakalakis, K., Use of a simplified method to calculate closed crushing circuits,
Minerals Engineering, Vol. 13, No 12 (2000), pp.1289-1299, Pergamon
, .., "
", . .
, (2001), 263-272
, .., .,
,
.. , (2005), 105-112
Tsakalakis, K.G., Modelling the Crushing-Sizing Procedure of Industrial Gyratory
Crushers, in 11th European Symposium on Comminution, October 9-12, 2006,
Budapest, Hungary (2006).
256
.
.1.

( m2)
()
, .
-
.

(t/h), ( ,
, .),
( ),
%
() . .
,
(t/h) (t/h) ,
,
() .
, )

.
( - : )
:
25% , 40% ,
1.6 t/m3 95%.
T-O
(S) (m 2 )
A B C D F H J M W
1. ( t / m2& h)
() ,
25% ( ) 40% (1/2)
257
( C), 1.6 t / m3.
()
mm 1
, ,
.
25 mm (1) > 25 mm (2)
200
A , t / m 2 & h
180
160
(2) y = 0,8559x + 27,375
140
R2 = 0,9966
120
100
80
(1) y = -0,058x2 + 3,3564x + 4,4034
60
R2 = 0,9955
40
20
0
1 10 100 1000
( ), mm
1. (t/m2h)
( ), mm.
2. %
(%
) 25%
.
%
2
.
,

.
(stratification)
. ,

258

. (
).
1,3
1,2
B
1,1
1
0,9 y = -0,0088x + 1,2254
0,8
0,7 R2 = 0,9934
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

, %
2. B %
.
3. C % o (1/2)
(%
)
(40%) (1/2)
.
C, %
(1/2) ,
3
,
.
259
2,5
y = 1,5215x2 + 0,8061x + 0,4045
R2 = 0,9989
2
C
1,5
0,5
**!!! x
(.. 45.3% 0.453)
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

3. C %
.
4. D
( ). 1 ,
,
,

1 . , ,
1 , (. )
(
). D
1.
1. D
- D
1 ( ) 1.0
2 ( 1 ) 0.9
3( 2 ) 0.8
260
5. F
1.6 t / m3 (100 Lbs./ ft3),
2.
2. F.
.
F
t / m3 Lbs./cu. ft.
2.4 150 1.50
2 125 1.25
1.6 100 1.00
1.44 90 0.90
1.28 80 0.80
1.2 75 0.75
1.12 70 0.70
0.96 60 0.60
0.8 50 0.50
0.64 40 0.40
0.48 30 0.30
F 0.625 . .
6. ()
.

, .
3.
3. .
() H
1.00
(3 4 x ) 1.15
( 4 x ) 1.20
7. J ( 4)
() (95 %),
.
261
4. J.

J

95% 1.00
90% 1.15
85% 1.35
80% 1.50
75% 1.70
70% 1.90
8.
, ,
.
(moisture)
0-1%,
.
5.
5. .
%

0-1 1.0
1-4 0.95
5 0.90
6 0.88
7 0.85
8 0.80
9 0.78
10 0.75
15 0.50
9. W ( 6)
.
11.4 / (3 GPM, /) 19 / (5
GPM).
6. W

1-6 6-12 12-25 26-40 41-50 51-75 +75
(), mm

1.4 1.3 1.25 1.2 1.15 1.1 1
W
262
, W
( 7).
7. W
W
() W
-0.85 mm -20 mesh 1.25
-2 + 0.85 mm -10+20 mesh 2.0 - 3.0
-12.7 + 5 mm in. + 4 mesh 3.0 - 3.5
-25.4 + 12.7 mm -1 in. + in. 1.5 - 2.0
+25.4 mm +1 in. 1.25
263
.
.2.
:
(-3)
S (surface) (-3-)
499 t/h.
25 mm (c.s.s. = 25
mm). () 32 mm, 20 mm 10 mm,
. ,
1.8 t/m3, 90% (
) 5% .
.
1 (
Metso Minerals ).
K c.c.s. = 25 mm
100
, %
90
80
y = -0,0011x 3 + 0,0476x 2 + 2,2109x + 2,8477
70
R2 = 0,9986
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 10 100
, m m
1. (
). : Metso Minerals
1, ,
1.
264
1.
, mm , %
32 86.3
20 57.30
16 45.90
10 28.61
5 15
2.5 8.7
, , ,
2, 3 4.
2.

(), mm
(t / m2h)
32 54.76
20 48.33
10 32.17
5 19.74
3. () B, C, D
.
()
32 mm 20 mm 10 mm
% % % % % %

() . .
(16 mm) (10 mm) (5 mm)
13.7 45.90 26.2 36.8 44.5 29.10
1.105 0.9948 0.834
C 1.095 0.9072 0.768
D 1.0 (1 ) 0.9 (2 ) 0.8 (3 )
4. () F, J, M
.

5 %
() 1.8 t/m3 90 %
F 1.125
J 1.15
M 0.9
265
( = 90% ) 1, 2.

1 (32 mm)
1. : 100% (499 t/h)
499 t/h 2. : 13.7%
100 % T = OT + UT = 68.4 + 430.6 = 499 t/h
3. (86.3 %): 0.863499 = 430.6 t/h
t/h
a1 = 32 mm 4. : 45.9%
5. : 0.90.863499 = 387.6 t/h
111.4 t/h, (22.3%)
2 (20 mm)
387.6 t/h 1. : 0.90.863499 = 387.6 t/h
2. (57.3%): 0.573499 = 285.9 t/h
a2 = 20 mm : (285.9/387.6)100 = 73.8%
130.2 t/h, (26.1%) 3. : 100-73.8 = 26.2 %
4. : 0.2861499 = 142.8 t/h
:(142.8/387.6)100 = 36.8%
257.4 t/h : 0.90.738387.6 = 257.4 t/h
a3 = 10 mm 3 (10 mm)
128.8 t/h, (25.8%) 1. : 0.90.738387.6 = 257.4 t/h
2. (28.61%): 0.2861499 = 142.8 t/h
: (142.8/257.4)100 =55.5 %
128.6 t/h (25.8%) 3. : 100-55.5 = 44.5 %
4. (15%):
0.15499 = 74.9 t/h
: (74.9/257.4)100
= 29.1 %.
2. ( t/h %) .(E = 90%).
266
,
(), ,
, :
430.6
S (32 mm) 5.58 (m 2 )
54.76 1.105 1.095 1.0 1.125 1.15 0.9
285.9
S (20 mm) 6.25 (m 2 )
48.33 0.9948 0.9072 0.9 1.125 1.15 0.9
142.8
S (10 mm) 7.44 (m 2 )
32.17 0.834 0.768 0.8 1.125 1.15 0.9
1.

, 10-12% ,

.
10 mm, :
S = (7.44/0.9) = 8.27 m2
, (L) / (Wid) 2.3:1
3:1, .
, / (L / Wid = 2.5:1) (L / Wid = 2.9:1),
(8.27 m2) (L = 4.55 m, Wid =1.82
m) (L = 4.90 m, Wid =1.69 m),
,
4
(). , () a = 10 mm
410 mm = 40 mm, a = 15 mm
60 mm.
267
1. (t/h m3/h) , 2.
, 3. 4. .
, D , :
D
TP / 1000 (mm),
V Wid
:
1. P t/h,
2. t / m3,
3. V * ( m/h),
1080-2160 m/h.
4. Wid m
* V : (
, , ),
[ (18-36 m/min) (0.30-
0.60 m/s].
10 mm, Wid = 1.82 m 1.69 m ( ),

:
P = 128.8 t/h ( 2), = 1.8 t /m3 ( ), V = 1500 m/h (),
D :
. D = 26.2 mm 40 mm ( )
. D = 28.2 mm 40 mm ( ).
. ()
( = 95-100%, ), 1,
3 5.
268
499 t/h
100 % T = OT + UT = 68.4 + 430.6 = 499 t/h
a1 = 32 mm
13.7 % (68.4 t/h)
86.3 %
a2 = 20 mm
29.0 % (144.7 t/h)
57.3 %
a3 = 10 mm
28.69 % (143.2 t/h)
28.61 % (142.8 t/h)
3.
( = 95-100%).
5.
, mm 32 20 10
100 86.3 57.3
, %
, % 86.3 57.3 28.61
, % 86.3-57.3 = 29 57.3-28.61 = 28.69
%
% (29/86.3)100 %
100-86.3=13.7 %
= 33.6 % (28.61/57.3)100 = 50.07 %
(16 mm) (10 mm) (5 mm)
, %
% % %

45.9 % (28.61/86.3)100 = 33.2 % (15/57.3)100 = 26.2 %
5 6.
6. () B, C, D 5.
()
32 mm 20 mm 10 mm
% % % % % %

() . .
(16 mm) (10 mm) (5 mm)
13.7 45.90 33.6 33.2 50.07 26.20
1.105 0.93 0.785
C 1.095 0.84 0.72
D 1.0 (1 ) 0.9 (2 ) 0.8 (3 )
269
F M , 4,
J 1.0.
( = 95-100% )
:
430.6
S (32 mm) 6.42 (m 2 )
54.76 1.105 1.095 1.0 1.125 0.9
285.9
S (20 mm) 8.31 (m 2 )
48.33 0.93 0.84 0.9 1.125 0.9
142.8
S (10 mm) 9.69 (m 2 )
32.17 0.785 0.72 0.8 1.125 0.9
,
(95-100 %) . ,
(%
% 1/2 ) (
5). ,
(J = 1.0) J = 1.15 ( ),
C
(m2) (% t/h) ( 3)
7.
7. (%) -
.
, %

, mm
(90 % ) (95-100% )
+32 22.3 13.7
-32+20 26.1 29.0
-20+10 25.8 28.69
-10 25.8 28.61
100 100
270
.
Absorption
(-SO3)
Acid-soluble sulfate content, AS

Additive
Admixture
Aggregate ( , .)
Aggregates Abrasion Value, AAV
Aggregates for bituminous mixtures
Aggregates for concrete
Aggregates for mortar
Aggregates for railway track ballast
Aggregates for unbound and
hydraulically bound materials for use
civil engineering work and road
construction
air content
Air-entrained concrete
air lime
air-cooled blastfurnace slag
all-in aggregates ( )
Alternative fuels
Alite, C3S ()
Aluminate cement
Ash
Armourstone -
background
Ball mill
Batch
Belite, C2S ()
Bending tensile strength
Binder
Blaine fineness of cement Blaine
Blast furnace slag
Bleeding
Bond strength
Bond work index, Wi Bond (
)

Bottom ash

Building elements ()
Building lime
Building materials
Bulk density (
271
)
Burnability
CACs (calcium aluminate cements)
Calcareous fly ash
Calcination
Calorific value (fuels) ()
Capillary action
Capillary water absorption
Carbonate Content
(
Cellular concrete
, )
Cement
Cement fineness
Cement PSD (particle size ()
distribution)
Cement paste
Cement plant
Cement mortar
Cement clinker
Clinker
Chloride content, C
,
clay masonry units, clay bricks
, ,
Coarse aggregates ()
Coat ,
coloured rendering mortar
combustibility (, .)
Composition
Composite cements
Compressive strength
Concrete (Beton) ()
- Air-entrained -
- Self compacting - o-
- Self- levelling - o-
concrete masonry units
Conformity
conformity criteria
Consistence, consistency ,
( > 2
content of coarse Lightweight organic
mm) ()
Contaminants, LPC

Conventional (fossil) fuels ()
Conveyor belts ()
Cooler
crushed or broken and totally rounded
272
particles percentage

Crusher ()
- Cone -
- Gyratory -
- Jaw -
- Impact -
- Roll -
Curing (concrete) ()
Dense aggregate concrete masonry units
designed mortar
Dicalcium silicate C2S, ()

dimension, D

dimension, d

Dormancy (dormant) period
(
Dry mortar ,
.)
Drying shrinkage
Durability
Electric arc furnace slag, EAF slag
Elongated particles
Elongation index ()
Energy consumption

Entrained air

Entrapped air
Excess air
Expansive cement
Factory made mortar
filler,
2
Filler aggregate
mm 70-100%
0.063 mm
Final coat ()
Fine aggregates ()
Fineness Modulus, F
(
Fines, f 0.063mm
0.075mm)
Flakiness Index, FI ( )
Flexural strength
Flow coefficient, FCS
Flow table ( )
273
Flue gas (.. )
Fly ash
Forms
(, ,
Fossil fuels
)
Free lime
Freeze-thaw resistance, F -
fresh mortar
Frost resistant
Fuel
Fuel consumption
general purpose mortar
Grading, G
Grinding ,
- autogenous - ( , .)
- Clinker -
- media -
Grout
GGBS (Ground granulated blast ()
furnace slag)
Heat of hydration
Heat released
Heavy Mass grading, HM
High early strength cement ()
Hydraulic lime
Hydration
Impact value, SZ (Schlagversuch) Schlagversuch
Impact crusher
inorganic binder
internal plaster
Kiln
Length-to-Thickness ratio > 3, L:T / >3
Light Mass grading
lightweight aggregate-concrete with
open structure
Lightweight mortar
Lime ( , CaO)
Limestone
Los Angeles coefficient, LA Los Angeles ( )
Loss on ignition (L.O.I.)
Magnesium sulfate value, MS ( )
,

Manufactured aggregate

274
Masonry units ,
Methylene Blue value
micro-Deval coefficient, MDE micro-Deval ( )
Modulus of rupture ( )
Mohs
- Hardness - Mohs
- Scale - Mohs
Moisture
Mortar
,
,
Natural aggregates
(,
, .)
Natural graded aggregates

Nordic Abrasion value, AN
( )
OPC (ordinary portland cement)
overall limits and tolerances of a
grading
Particle density, cm,
Passing percentage, P
(
Pelletizing
)
Permeability
PFA (pulverized fly ash)
(
Pitting popping
)
Plasticity Index
plunger penetration
(
Polished Stone Value, PSV
)
( ,
Pozzolana ,
)
Pre-batched mortar

Pre-calcination
( )
Precast concrete
Preheating
Premixed lime-sand-mortar
Prescribed mortar
PSD (particle size distribution) ()
,
Pumice concrete units

Pyrometric cone
Quarry ( )
275
Quarrying ( )
Rapid setting (hardening) cement

Raw feed/meal/mix
()
Raw feed/meal/mix proportioning
Ready-mixed concrete
,
Recycled aggregates

Refractory bricks

Refuse-derived fuel (RDF)

Reinforced concrete
Reinforced masonry
Renovation mortar
Reproducibility (, .)
Residue
Resistance to fragmentation
Resistance to wear/ attrition /
Rod mill
Roller mill (vertical, VRM)
Rollerpress ( )
Rotary kiln
Sand Equivalent value, SE
Screen
- Aperture - ()
- Cloth - ()
Screening
- Area - ()
- Efficiency -
- Surface -
()
(
Segregation , .. ,

)

Semi-finished factory made mortar

Setting (, )
Setting retarder
Shape Index, SI
Shotcrete
Sieve size ()
Silica fume
Siliceous fly ash
Site-made mortar
276
Slag
(
Slump test
)
Solid waste management
Soundness ( , )
Specifications
Stockpile ()
Substitute (, .)

Sulfate attack

Strength
- Compressive -
- Fatigue -
- Flexural -
- Tensile -
(
Sulfate resistant (cement)
C3A)
Surface area
thermal conductivity index ()
thermal conductivity
thermal insulating mortar
thermal insulation
thermal resistance
thermal shock ( )
Thickness, E () /
Total sulfur, S
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite C4AF,
Tricalcium aluminate C3A,
Tricalcium silicate C3S, ()
Undercoat ( )
Viscosity

Voids, v
/ ,
Volume stability of steel slag
water absorption
Water absorption, WA (Wcm)
Water density, w

Water reducer ( )

Water Solubility
water vapour permeability
Workability (, )
, Conformity Marking ,
277

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Mineral Processing, Series on Bulk Materials Handling Vol. 2, Trans Tech
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SERIES, New York.
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6. . ., 1993, , 2 , ART
OF TEXT, .
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12. . . & ., 2000, ,
, ..., .

13. Shilstone, Sr., J.M., 1990, Concrete Mixture Optimization, ACI Concrete International
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14. .., 1990,
, -
, 75, - 1990, . 41-48.
15. ENV (1993), Cement and Concrete: Environmental Considerations, vol. 2, no. 2,
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16. .., .., 1993,
, - , 3, 1,
- 1993, . 17-26.
17. , ., 1997,
.
, , , .
278
18. , ., 1997, :
, ,
, , .
19. (1997), Executive Summary of the Greek Cement Industry, June.
20. UNIDO & Sustainable Industrial Development (1998), Energy conservation in the
cement industry.
21. , . ., , . . , . . (1999),
.. & . .. , ...,
, . 2.
22. , . , .,1999,
, ..., , . 2.
23. ,
30.6.2000, .
24. CEMBUREAU, The European Cement Association, Best available techniques for the
cement industry, Brussels, December 1999.
25. Portland Cement Association-PCA, 2000, The Cement Industry, January.
26. Cadence Environmental Energy Inc. (2000), Using Whole Scrap Tires as Fuel in a
Cement Kiln.
27. IEA GREENHOUSE R&D PROGRAMME (2000), Emission Reduction of
Greenhouse Gases from the Cement Industry.
28. , .., 2000,

, ()
2/2000, . 79-92.
29. European Commission, 2001, Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC),
Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime
Manufacturing Industries, December 2001.
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Cement Association, CEMBUREAU, www.cembureau.be.
31. Stoiber W., 2002, Comminution Technology and Energy Management, LAFARGE
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(62.14 x 106 /0.70) 88.8 x 106

(19.92 + 88.80) x106 108.72 x 106 .

(108.72 x 106) x 1.2 130.5 x 106 49.2x106 m3

5.77x106 x 70 / = 404 0.404

31.07x106 m3 x 70 /m3 = 2175 x106 ( 2.18

1.3. 244/80 197-1

1.0(%CaO) 0.7(%SO3 ) % SiO2

2.2. (pellets) 15-25 mm (

, (OPC, ordinary Portland

54.8% , 22.7% , 16.5% 6%

C + O2 CO2 (-94.03 kcal/mol) -7836 kcal/kg

1/3 ( 2500 kcal/kg)

, Nitrogen 1.22 0.75

SCF (standard coal factor) :

2.32. CO, CO2 O2

Portland (OPC, Ordinary Portland Cement, Type I)

3.1. Portland (OPC), Type I

(SR, Silica Ratio Silica modulus) :

O R (Alumina Ratio Alumina modulus),

Dicalcium Silicate (C2S, Belite)

Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)

Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF, Ferrite)

%Na2O ()= %Na2O + 0.658(%K2O)

%Fe2O3 (Bogue) = %Fe2O3 + %Mn2O3 (1)

% CaO(Bogue) = %CaO CaO (CaO CaSO4) (2)

SO3() = %SO3- %SO3 ( 2) =%SO3 - 0.85(%2)

(%a2/%SO3()) 0.774, SO3() a2

%SO3 ( 2) = 1.292 (%2)

CaO ( SO3) = 0.7 [%SO3 -%SO3 ( 2)-%SO3 ( 2)]

= 0.7 [%SO3 - 0.85(%2) - 1.292 (%2)] (3)

, Bogue, (2), (1),

(56/80)x (%SO3) = 0.7 x (%SO3) (4)

2. Fe2O3 Al2O3 CaO C4AF.

(1 + 0.64 + 1.4) (%Fe2O3) = 3.04 x (%Fe2O3) ,

3. Al2O3 CaO C3A. CaO,

% (C3A) = 2.65 x (%Al2O3) 1.696 x (%Fe2O3),

. I: A/F >= 0.64, = % Al2O3 F = % Fe2O3

C4AF = 3.043 (%Fe2O3)

B. II: A/F < 0.64 ( Al2O3 Fe2O3)

C4AF = 2.1 (% Al2O3) + 1.702 (%Fe2O3)

ASTM (American Standards Testing

V ASTM ( 5%) C3A ,

4.1. Portland, [2]

(1), (2), (3) (4), , ,

4.2. SR, AR, Leq LSF

4.3, 4.4 4.5,

W1, W2, W3 , W4 , ..., W . ,

C3 C3S C4AF C2S

5.2. -gel ) C3A [51].

. 2 [3CaO SiO2] + 72 3CaO 2SiO2 42 + 3Ca(OH)2 + 173 kJ

2 [2CaOSiO2 ] + 5 2 3CaO2SiO242 + Ca(OH)2 + 58.6 kJ C2S.

1. C3S Ca+ (OH)-

5.4. Portland [51].

5.5. Ca+ ()- [51].

5.4. (prEN 197-1)

5.3.4. Setting time ( )

5.9. % C3A % SO3 ( )

5.3.5. (compressive strength)

5.3.6. (Heat of Hydration)

Type I (OPC) 100%

6.2. ( Svedala Arbra)

+32 16-32 8-16 4-8 0-4 7

6.4. ( Svedala Arbra).