SPACE LOAD CALCULATIONS

Abdullah Nuhait, PhD

King Saud University
SPACE LOAD CALCULATIONS

Cooling Loads
Heating Loads
Important Question

Why Does One Need To Compute

Thermal Loads?
One Answer

In Order to Select Optimum Size of

Cooling and/or Heating Equipment
 Design of Acceptable Air Conditioning
System depends on good estimate of heat
gain or heat loss in space to be
conditioned
Precise Calculation of Heat Transfers
are Difficult Because of

Walls and roofs are complex assemblies of

materials

Windows are made of two or more layers of

glass with air space

Windows usually have drapes or curtains

In basement, floors and walls are in contact with

the ground
Solutions

Experience and experimental data make

reliable estimates possible
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Modes of heat transfer are conduction, radiation and
convection

The three modes occur simultaneously

All three modes are important in heat gain and heat loss
calculations in building structures

They will be considered separately for clarity and ease of

presentation
 Thermal conduction
Thermal conduction: a mechanism of heat by which
energy is transported between parts of continuum

q = - k A dt/dx

q = heat transfer rate, Btu/hr

k = thermal conductivity, Btu/(hr-ft-F)
A = area normal to heat flow, ft2
dt/dx = temperature gradient, F/ft

note: Equation has negative sign because q flows in

positive direction of x when dt/dx is negative
Conduction -cont.
Consider flat wall with uniform
temperature t1 and t2 on each surface

q = - k A (t2 - t1)/(x2 - x1)

= - (t2 - t1 )/R

Where R is thermal resistance defined by

R = (x2 - x1)/k A = x / k A

Thermal resistance for unit area of

material is very commonly used in
HVAC literature

It is called R-factor R = x / k
R-factor
Thermal Resistance of Composite Building
Element
Thermal resistance R is analogous to electrical resistance
q is analogous to electrical current
t2 - t1 is analogous to electrical potential difference in Ohms law

This analogy provides a very convenient method of analyzing wall

made up of two or more layers of dissimilar material

For wall constructed of three different materials

R= R1 + R2 + R3
= x1 / k1 A 1 + x2 / k2 A 2 + x2 / k2 A 2
Three Different Wall Layers
Thermal Conductivity Tables

ASHRAE constructed Tables that give

thermal conductivity k for wide variety of
building and insulating materials
 Thermal convection
Thermal convection: transport of energy by mixing in
addition to conduction

q = h A (t t wall)

h = convective heat transfer coefficient, Btu/(hr-ft2-F)

q = (t t wall)/R

R = 1/h A and R = 1/h

Convection -cont.

Most building structures have forced

convection along outer walls or roofs
and natural convection occurs inside
narrow air spaces and on inner walls
 Thermal radiation
Thermal radiation: transfer of thermal energy by
electromagnetic waves

it is different phenomenon from conduction

Occurs in perfect vacuum

Reduced by intervening medium

Radiation -cont.
Direct net transfer of thermal energy by radiation between
two surfaces that see only each other and that are
separated by non-absorbing medium is given by

q12 = (T1- T2)/ ( (1-1)/A11 + 1/A1F12 + (1-2)/A22 )

= Botzmann constant, 0.1713x10-8 Btu/(hr-ft2-R4)

T = absolute temperature, R
= emittance
A = surface area, ft2
Both surfaces are gray (emittance equals absorptance )
Two situations where the radiation may
be significant

One situation is found with single surface

of walls, floors, or roofs

The other is found with two surfaces such

as the false ceiling and the real slab,
called air space
Single surface
Two surfaces (air space)
Combined Resistance
Convective resistance is combined with
fictitious radiative resistance resulting in
total convective resistance that depends
on emittance
 Combined Resistance Tables
Tables give emittance and thermal
resistance
Overall heat transfer coefficient U
Overall heat transfer coefficient,
U, is computed by finding total
resistance, R t , of all
components of wall

U = 1/R A
= 1/R

R = 1/ho + x1/ k1 + x2 / k2
+ x3/ k3 + 1/hi
Heat transfer rate is given by:

q = U A t
U A = conductance, Btu/(hr-F)
A = surface area, ft2
t= overall temperature difference, F
Tables for U
For convenience of designer, tables have
been constructed that give overall heat
transfer coefficients, U, for many common
building sections including walls, roofs,
doors, windows, and skylights
 Heating Load
Estimate of heat loss of each room to be
heated
Two kinds of heat losses from space

Heat transmitted through walls, ceilings,

floors, roofs, windows, and/or other
surfaces to outside

Heat required to warm outdoor air entering

the space
Transient Heat Transfer
Actual heat loss problem is transient
because of variation of:

Outdoor temperature
Wind velocity
Sunlight
 Outdoor Temperature
During coldest months, sustained periods
of very cold, cloudy, and stormy weather
with relatively small variation in outdoor
temperature may occur
 Heat Loss
Heat losses from space are relatively
constant and probably at maximum
 Steady State Heat Transfer
For design purposes heat loss is
estimated from steady state heat transfer
 Steps for Computing Heat loss

Select outdoor design conditions:

Temperature
Humidity
Wind direction and speed
Steps for Computing Heat loss -cont.

Select indoor design conditions to be

maintained

Estimate temperature in any adjacent

unheated spaces
Steps for Computing Heat loss -cont.

Select the transmission coefficients

Compute heat losses for walls, floors,

roofs, windows etc.
Steps for Computing Heat loss -cont.

Compute the heat load due to infiltration

Compute the heat load due to ventilation
air
Sum all the losses to obtain the total heat
loss by transmission and infiltration
 Tables of Recommended Outdoor Air

ASHRAE STANDARD 62-1989

gives recommended amount of outdoor air
 Outdoor Design Conditions

Ideal heating system would provide

enough heat to match heat loss from
structure
Outdoor Design Conditions -cont.

Weather conditions vary considerably from

year to year

Heating systems designed for worst

weather conditions on record would have
great excess of capacity most of time
Outdoor Design Conditions -cont.

Failure of system to maintain design

conditions during brief periods of severe
weather is usually not critical
Outdoor Design Conditions -cont.

Outdoor air design conditions should be

based on official weather station record for
which hourly observations were available
for past 12 years

For SUMMER:
Outdoor Design air conditions should be
1% value
Outdoor Design Conditions -cont.

For Winter:
Dry bulb temperature should be 99% value

Humidity ratio equal to value of saturated

air at dry bulb temperature
 Indoor Design Conditions
Indoor air design conditions depends on
activity of occupants and their dresses
Comfort Zone
Infinite conditions on psychrometric chart
which 80% of people are satisfied

One can select 75 F db and relative

humidity of 20 to 50%
 Heat Loss Calculation

Heat transmission: walls, ceilings, roofs,

windows

q s = U A (t i t o)
Outdoor Air Heat Loss

Sensible heat is given by

q s = 1.08 Q o (ti to)

Latent heat is given by

q l = 4700 Q o (W i W o)
 Calculation of Infiltration

One method is called crack method

It is based on characteristics of windows

and doors and on pressure difference
between inside and outside
Calculation of Infiltration -cont.

Second method is called air change

method

It is based on assumed number of air

changes per hour for each room
It depends on number of windows and
doors
Calculation of Infiltration -cont.

Crack method is considered to be most

accurate when window and pressure
characteristics can be properly evaluated
Calculation of Infiltration -cont.

Accuracy of predicting air infiltration is

restricted by limited information on air
leakage characteristics of many
components that make up structure
Pressure differences are also difficult to
predict because wind conditions vary
Calculation of Infiltration -cont.

Air Change Method Will be Used in

Presentation
 Auxiliary Heat Sources
Heat energy supplied by people, lights and
equipment should be estimated, but any
actual allowance for these heat sources
requires careful consideration
Intermittently Heated Structures
Enlarge Heating Equipment Capacity
when structure is not heated on
continuous basis

In order to raise temperature to

comfortable level within reasonable period
of time
 Supply Air Requirement
Supplied Air quantity is computed from

qzone = 1.08 Qsa (tsa tr)

Supplied Air quantity for each room should be apportioned

according to heating load

Qrn = Qsa (qrn/qzone)

This is necessary for design of duct system and selection of air outlets
 Cooling Load

Solar Radiation has important effect on cooling

load of building
 Solar Radiation
Solar radiation effect depends on

location of sun in sky

Clearness of atmosphere
Nature and orientation of building
Solar Radiation -cont.

Earth rotates about its own axis

Fixed location on earth's surface goes
through 24 hour cycle in relation to sun
Earth is divided by longitudinal lines
passing through poles into 360 degrees of
circular arc
Solar Radiation -cont.

Point on earth's surface exactly 15

degrees west of another point will see sun
in exactly same position as first point after
one hour of time has passed
Universal time (Greenwich civil time) is
time along zero longitude line passing
through Greenwich, England
 Solar Angles
Any point on surface of earth can be
described in relation to the sun' rays at any
instant if three fundamental quantities are
known
Solar Angles -cont.
Solar Angles -cont.

These quantities are latitude, sun's

declination and hour angle

Latitude angle represents location of

observer on the earth
Solar Angles -cont.

Other angles:

Solar altitude
Solar azimuth
Wall azimuth
wall solar azimuth
Tilt angle
Angle of incidence
 Solar Irradiation
Mean solar constant is rate of irradiation
on surface normal to sun's rays beyond
earth atmosphere
Solar Irradiation -cont.

Mean solar constant

Gsc = 433 Btu/(hr-ft2)

Irradiations from sun vary (3.5% ) Due to

variation in distance
Solar Irradiation -cont.

Precise value of solar constant is not used

in most HVAC calculations
Solar Irradiation -cont.

Because of large amount of atmospheric

absorption of this radiation and
Because this absorption is variable and
difficult to predict
Solar Irradiation -cont.

Normal Direct Radiation:

Part of radiation that is not scattered or
absorbed and reaches earth's surface
Solar Irradiation -cont.

Diffuse Radiation:
Radiation that has been scattered or
reemitted

Radiation may also be reflected onto

surface from nearby surfaces
Solar Irradiation -cont.

Total irradiation on surface normal to sun's

rays is thus made up of normal direct
irradiation, diffuse irradiation and reflected
irradiation
 Heat Gains Through Glass

Total Heat Admission Through Glass is

equal
Radiation transmitted through glass
Inward flow of absorbed solar radiation
Conduction heat gain
Heat Gains Through Glass -cont.
Heat Gains Through Glass -cont.

Heat gain through simplest window is

complicated because of:
window is finite in size
It is framed
Sunlight striking it does so at varying
angles through day
Heat Gains Through Glass -cont.

Simplified solar heat gain calculations are

done for double-strength sheet glass
(Reference Glass)
It is called solar heat gain factor
Heat Gains Through Glass -cont.

It takes into account combined effects of

transmitted solar heat gain and absorbed
solar heat gain conducted into space
 Shading coefficient
Solar Heat Gain through any given window
Is equal to

Solar Heat Gain Factor

Times
shading coefficient of given window
Shading coefficient -cont.

Value of shading coefficient is between

zero and one

Value SC are given by glass manufacturer

Following Tables give SC
 Cooling Load
Larger number of variables are considered in
making cooling load calculations than in heating
load calculations
Cooling Load -cont.

In both situations actual heat loss and gain

is transient one
For design purposes heat loss is usually
based on steady state heat transfer and
results obtained are quite adequate
Cooling Load -cont.

Design for cooling, transient analysis must

be used if satisfactory results are to be
obtained
Instantaneous heat gain is quite variable
with time because of hourly variation in
solar radiation
Cooling Load -cont.
Appreciable difference between heat gain of
structure and heat removed by cooling
equipment

This difference is caused by storage and

subsequent transfer of energy from structure
and contents to circulated air
Cooling Load -cont.

If this is not taken into account

Cooling and Dehumidifying Equipment will

be grossly oversized
Cooling Load -cont.
It is important to differentiate between heat gain,
cooling load, and heat extracted rate

Heat gain is rate at which heat is transferred to

or generated within space

Cooling load is rate at which heat energy must

be removed to maintain temperature and
humidity at design values
 Heat Extracted
Heat extracted rate is rate at which heat is
removed from space by cooling and
dehumidifying equipment

Following figures show heat gain, cooling

load and heat extracted
 Differences Between heat gains
and cooling loads

Some of heat gains absorbed by structure

and contents and appear as cooling load
later
Interior surfaces and other objects are
cooled by convection when they attain
temperature higher than room air
Differences Between heat gains cooling
loads -cont.
Heat storage characteristics of structure
govern relationship between heat gain and
cooling load
Radiant heat transfer inputs to structure
are delayed while convective and latent
inputs are not
Heat Extracted
Heat extracted rate is equal to cooling load when space
conditions are constant and equipment are operating

This is rarely true because of:

Some fluctuation in room temperature is necessary for

control system to operate

Cooling load is below design value most of time

Therefore, variable operation of cooling equipment is
required
 Sources of Heat Gains
Solar radiation
Heat conduction through exterior surfaces
Heat conduction through interior surfaces
Heat generated by occupants, light, and
equipment
Ventilation and infiltration air
Other latent heat gains generated within space
Steps for Computing Cooling Load
Select outdoor design conditions
Select indoor design conditions
Steps for Computing Cooling Load -cont.

Obtain characteristics of structure from

plans and specifications
Determine building location, orientation,
and external shading
Determine schedule of lighting,
occupancy, and other sources of internal
heat gains
Estimate time of day, day, and month for
calculations
Steps for Computing Cooling Load -cont.

Computing Heat Gain due to

Solar heat gain for glass, walls, and roof
Conduction through interior partitions,
ceilings, and floors because of
temperature differential
Steps for Computing Cooling Load -cont.

Computing Heat Gain due to

Heat sources within the conditioned space
Infiltration
Other latent loads

Convert heat gains to cooling loads

 Heat balance Method
Estimation of cooling load for space involves
calculating surface-by-surface conductive,
convective, and radiative heat balance for each
room surface and convective heat balance for
the room air

This will ensure all energy flows in each zone

are balanced and involved solution of set of
energy balance equations for zone air and the
interior and exterior surfaces of each wall, roof,
and floor
Representation of heat balance
Heat Balance Method -cont.

These energy balance equations are

combined with equations for transient
conduction heat transfer through walls and
roofs and data for weather conditions
including outdoor air dry bulb temperature,
wet bulb temperature, solar radiation, and
so on
 Internal heat gains
Internal heat gains such as people, lights, and
equipment are often significant component of
cooling load in commercial and institutional
buildings

In fact, for many large office buildings, internal

heat gains are dominant source of cooling load
Heat Gain from People

Heat gain from people has two components:

sensible and latent

Total and proportions of sensible and latent heat

vary depending on level of activity

Heat gain data from occupants in conditioned

spaces are given in following table
Heat Gain from People -cont.
Latent and sensible heat gain for occupants
should be computed separately until estimating
building refrigeration load

Latent heat gain is assumed to become cooling

load instantly

Sensible heat gain is partially delayed

depending on nature of conditioned space
Heat Gain from People -cont.

sensible heat gain for people generally is

assumed to be 30% convective (instant
cooling load) and 70% radiative (delayed
portion)
 Heat Gain from Lights
Source of heat from lighting comes from
lamps
Instantaneous rate of heat gain from
lighting may be calculated using
q = 3.41 W F
Where
W = Total installed light wattage
F = Special allowance factor
Heat Gain from Lights -cont.

Heat gain to space from fluorescent

fixtures is often assumed to be 59%
radiative and 41% convective

Heat gain to space from Tungsten fixtures

is often assumed to be 80% radiative and
20% convective
 Miscellaneous Equipment
Estimates of heat gain for miscellaneous
equipment more subjective than for people and
lights

However, considerable data are available

sensible heat gain generally is assumed to be

30% convective (instant cooling load) and 70%
radiative (the delayed portion) similar to people
Several Examples to be Presented

Several example will be presented to show

load calculations using computer software

Computer software computes cooling load

using heat balanced method
 Description of Computer Software

Computer software will be described and

through examples one can see how it
works

Users Guide is supplied with a copy of CD

 Examples to be Presented

Example # 1: Three different west walls

without windows
Example # 2: West wall with three different
windows
Example # 3: Three different Roof without
skylights
Example # 3: Roof with three different
skylights
Examples to be Presented -cont.

Example # 5: People with different

schedule
Example # 6: light with different schedule
Example # 7: Infiltration with different rates
Example # 8: Ventilation with different
rates
Examples to be Presented -cont.

Example # 9: Large mosque in Riyadh

If Time Is Available Example # 10 Will Be
Presented: Small Commercial Office
Building
 Steps Executed by Software
First: all zone parameters such as surface areas,
thermal properties etc are determined

Second: all temperature-independent quantities

such as transmitted and incident solar radiation,
internal loads, infiltration rates etc are
determined for each hour

Third: surface temperatures are determined

within nested loop that repeats the day until
steady periodic solution is achieved
Description of buildings used
in Examples
Example # 1

Single Room Has:

Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2
West Wall, 200 ft2:
Case A: 8 Concrete Block (without insulation)
Case B: 8 Concrete Block (with insulation)
Case C: Wood and 6 Insulation
Example # 2

Single Room Has:

Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2
West Wall, 200 ft2, 8 Concrete Block: (un-
insulated)
Case A: Window Single sheet, 20 ft2
Case B: Window Single sheet, 100 ft2 Case
C: Window Single sheet, 180 ft2
Example # 3

Single Room Has:

Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2
Partition Wall, 200 ft2:
Roof 200 ft2:
Case A: Steel Decking (Un-insulation)
Case B: Concrete Slab (with insulation)
Case C: Steel Decking (with insulation)
Example # 4

Single Room Has:

Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2
Partition Wall, 200 ft2:
Roof 200 ft2: Conc. Slab insulation
Case A: Skylight Single sheet, 25 ft2
Case B: Skylight Single sheet, 50 ft2 Case
C: Skylight Single sheet,100 ft2
Example # 5

Single Room Has:

Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2
Partition Wall, 200 ft2:
People, 20 persons:
Case A: 24 Hours Occupancy
Case B: 8 Hours Occupancy
Case C: 2 Hours Occupancy
Example # 6

Single Room Has:

Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2
Partition Wall, 200 ft2:
Lighting, 2.5 Watt/ft2:
Case A: 24 Hours, Turned on
Case B: 8 Hours, Turned on
Case C: 2 Hours, Turned on
Example # 7

Single Room Has:

Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2
Partition Wall, 200 ft2:
Equipment, 35 Watt/ft2:
Case A: 24 Hours, Operating
Case B: 8 Hours, Operating
Case C: 2Hours, Operating
Example # 8

Single Room Has:

Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 200 ft2
Partition Wall, 200 ft2:
Infiltration: Continuous
Case A: 6 Air change/hour
Case B: 3 Air change/hour
Case C: 0.6 Air change/hour
Space Load
Example # 8

Ventilation : Continuous
Case A: 6 Air change/hour
Case B: 3 Air change/hour
Case C: 0.6 Air change/hour
Coil Load
Example # 9

Large Mosque located in Riyadh

One Story Building (One Room) Has:

Floor: 4 Concrete Slab, 12000 ft2
North and South Walls, Each: 6000 ft2: 8
Concrete Block Un-insulated With 600 ft2
Window Single Sheet
East and West Walls, Each: 8000 ft2: 8
Concrete Block Un-insulated With 800 ft2
Window Single Sheet
Example # 9 -cont. : Plan of The Mosque
Example # 9 -cont.

Roof: 12000 ft2: 6 Concrete Un-insulated With

300 ft2 Skylight Single Sheet
Lighting: 2.5 Watt/ft2 Fluorescent on for 24 Hours
and 1 Watt/ft2 Tungsten On for 24 Hours
People: 1200 persons 2 Hours Occupancy
Ventilation : 3 Air change/hour for 2 hours
Example # 10

One story small commercial building

located in Riyadh
Adjoining buildings on north and west are
not conditioned (air temperature within
them is approximately equal to outdoor air
temperature at any time)
Example # 10 -cont. : Plan of Small Office
Building

S N

E
Example # 10 -cont.

South wall construction: 4 light-color face brick,

8 common brick, 0.625 plaster, 0.25 plywood
panel glued on plaster
East wall and outside north wall construction: 8
light-colored heavy concrete block, .625 plaster
on wall
West wall and adjoining north part wall
construction: 13 solid brick, no plaster
Example # 10 -cont.

Roof construction: 4.5 flat roof, gypsum

slab on metal roof deck, 2 rigid roof
insulation, surfaced with two layers of
mopped 15 lb felt vapor-seal build-up
roofing, no false ceiling

Floor construction: 80x50 ft2, 4 concrete on

ground
Windows: 3x5 ft2 non-operable windows of
regular plate glass with light colored venetian
blinds
Example # 10 -cont.

Door construction: 5x7 ft2 light-colored 1.75

steel door with solid urethane core thermal
break
Occupancy: 85 office workers from 8:00 to 17:00

Lights: 17500 W, fluorescent, operating

from 8:00 to 17:00 hours daily, along with
4000 W tungsten, operated continuously,
lighting fixture are non-ventilated type

Equipment: none
Ventilation: 15 cfm/person
Example # 10 -cont. : Calculation of
Infiltration

Infiltration through windows should be

considered zero (windows are sealed)
Infiltration through wall surfaces should be
neglected
Infiltration through doors: calculation of door
infiltration require some judgment
Example # 10 -cont. : Calculation of
Infiltration
Assume that outside and inside doors are
frequently opened simultaneously
Use of outside doors: 10 persons/hour
Use of inside doors: 30 persons/hour
Assume 100 ft3 of air per person per door
passage

Qo =(30+10)(100 ft3)/(60 minutes) = 67 cfm

Example # 10 -cont. : Calculation of
Ventilation

Ventilation = 85 persons x 15 cfm / person

Qoa = 1275 cfm
Ventilation > Infiltration
Use only Ventilation