Basic Vector PDF

Lecture programme
1 Contents of lectures
1. General introductions. Scalars and vectors. Cartesian components. Direction cosines.
Engineering Maths 1.2
Geometric representation. Modulus of a vector. Unit vectors. Parallel vectors.
Vector Algebra 2. Addition of vectors: parallelogram rule; triangle law; polygon law; vector laws for addition.
Dr P. A. Sleigh 3. Multiplication of vectors: the scalar product; work done by a force; angle between vectors;
Email: P.A.Sleigh@leeds.ac.uk components of forces in given directions.
4. Vector products: moments of forces; areas of triangles; parallel vectors.

Table of contents
1 Contents of lectures ................................................................................................................2
2 Scalars and Vectors ................................................................................................................3 5. Triple vector products and triple scalar products: volume of parallelepiped; co-planar vectors.
2.1 Cartesian Co-ordinates .......................................................................................................4
2.2 Direction Cosines ................................................................................................................5 6. Vector treatment of lines: vector and Cartesian forms; intersection of lines.
2.2.1 Examples......................................................................................................................7
2.3 A Geometric Representation ...............................................................................................8 7. Vector treatment of planes: equation of a plane from 3 co-ordinate points; vector and
2.4 Vector notation found in text books.....................................................................................9
2.5 Magnitude (or Modulus) ......................................................................................................9 Cartesian forms.
2.6 The Unit Vector ...................................................................................................................9
2.6.1 Example: ....................................................................................................................10 8. Further examples: intersection of a line with a plane; perpendicular distance from a point to a
2.7 Equal Vectors ....................................................................................................................10
2.8 Parallel Vectors .................................................................................................................11 plane.
3 Vector Addition......................................................................................................................12
3.1 The boat problem ..............................................................................................................12
3.2 Geometric addition laws ....................................................................................................12
3.3 Vector Laws for addition and subtraction ..........................................................................14
3.4 Vector Addition Examples .................................................................................................16
4 Vector Multiplication ..............................................................................................................18
4.1 The Scalar Product............................................................................................................18
4.2 Rules for the scalar (or dot) product..................................................................................20
4.3 Scalar Product Examples ..................................................................................................21
4.4 The Vector (or Cross) Product ..........................................................................................23
4.5 The Moment of force, F. ....................................................................................................24
4.6 Area calculation .................................................................................................................24
4.7 Laws for the Vector (or Cross) products ...........................................................................25
4.8 Parallel vectors. .................................................................................................................26
4.9 Cartesian (component) form. ............................................................................................26
4.10 Examples .......................................................................................................................27
4.11 Triple products of Vectors..............................................................................................30
5 Vector Equations of Lines and Planes..................................................................................32
5.1 The Vector Equation of a Line...........................................................................................32
5.2 Equation of line examples: ................................................................................................33
5.3 The Vector Equation of a Plane ........................................................................................35
5.4 Examples involving both lines and planes ........................................................................36
Engineering Mathematics 1.2: Vectors Algebra 1 Engineering Mathematics 1.2: Vectors Algebra 2
a) A temperature of 100o C
2 Scalars and Vectors b) An acceleration of 9.8142 m/s towards earth
In engineering much of the work in both analysis and design involves forces. You will be familiar c) The weight of a 2 kg mass
with forces in structural members in space frames, and know that a force acts in a given d) The sum of 500.00
direction with a given magnitude. A force is a three dimensional quality and one of the most e) A North easterly wind of 20 knots
common examples of a vector. Two other common vector quantities are acceleration and
Answers: a) Scalar b) Vector c) Vector d) Scalar e) Vector
velocity.
Note: To qualify as a vector the quantity must also satisfy some other basic rules of combination
In this section of the module we will introduce some formal mathematical notation and rules for
(addition, multiplication etc.) which we will see later in this course. For example, angular
the manipulation (multiplication, addition etc.) of these vector quantities. In the early stages it
displacement is a quantity that has both direction and magnitude but it does NOT obey the
will be easy to recognise the geometric meaning of vector addition and multiplication, but as the
addition rule - so it is NOT a vector
problems become more complex (notably, when they are three-dimensional) the formal rules
become more important.
2.1 Cartesian Co-ordinates

The general definitions of scalars and vectors are given below:
The theory of vectors is associated very closely with co-ordinate geometry so we shall start by
introducing the co-ordinate system.
A Scalar quantity is one that is defined by a single number with appropriate units. We use a rectangular Cartesian co-ordinate system with axes O x y z or O x1 x2 x3 , as shown below.
Some examples are length, area, volume, mass and time. The position of any point, P say, is given by co-ordinates, or components (x,y,z) or (x1,x2,x3).
x -axis
3
A Vector quantity is defined completely when we know both its magnitude (with units) and its x 3
direction of application.
Some examples are force, velocity and acceleration. P(x ,x ,x )
1 2 3
r
o x 2
x -axis
2
Two very simple (and common) examples demonstrating the differences between scalars and
vectors are speed - a scalar, and velocity - a vector. x 1
A speed of 10 km/h is a scalar quantity x -axis

1
x, y, z, axis system
A velocity of 10 km/h at 20 degrees is a vector quantity.
Examples:
What are these quantities, vectors or scalars?
Z-axis
Z-axis
z
z
P(x,y,z)
r P(x,y,z)
o y Y-axis r
o y Y-axis
x
x
X-axis
X-axis
x1 , x2 , x3 axis system
The order and direction of axes are assumed to be 'right handed'. This definition comes from
imagining a right handed screw - if you turn the screw in the direction from axis Ox to Oy the Z-axis
screw advances along Oz . (and Oy to Oz along Ox, from Oz to Ox along Oy). This is convention z
and MUST be adhered to.
The distance from point O to point P, r, can be calculated using the Pythagoras theorem to give P(x,y,z)
(
r = x2 + y2 + z2 )
1/ 2
o
r y Y-axis
2.2 Direction Cosines

We will see later that it is useful to know the angle the line OP makes with each axis. x
Fortunately this can be easily calculated. The shaded areas of the figures below each form
right-angled triangles with the axes. X-axis
So, knowing the length and the appropriate co-ordinate, each angle can be calculated.
Z-axis
z The angle POx is given by

x
l = cos =
r
P(x,y,z) The angle POy is given by
r
o y Y-axis y
m = cos =
r
The angle POz is given by
x z
n = cos =
r
X-axis
The cosines of these angles, , , are (often written) l , m, n and these are known as the Calculate the direction cosines:
direction cosines of the line OP. x
l= = cos = cos 60 = 0.5
r
y
It can easily be shown that m = = cos = cos 50 = 0.6428
r
x2 y2 z2 x2 + y2 + z2 We need the third direction cosine.
l 2 + m2 + n2 = + + = =1
r2 r2 r2 r2
Using l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1
2.2.1 Examples z
m= = cos = 1 l 2 m 2
1) If P has co-ordinates (5, 4, -9). What is the length OP and its direction cosines. r
= 0.58035
= 54.52 o
OP 2 = 25 + 16 + 81
The length OT, (r) can be calculated as we know the x co-ordinate, i.e. from l
OP = 122
x
l= = 0.5
r
Direction cosines: 7.0
r= = 14.0
5 0.5
l=
122 From the other direction cosines
4
m= y = 0.6428 14.0 = 9.0
122
z = 0.58035 14.0 = 8.125
9
n= Co-ordinates of the corner are: ( x, y, z ) = (7.0,9.0,8.125)
122
2) The position of the top corner of the lecture room was required. To find this a theodolite
2.3 A Geometric Representation
was set up as in the figure below. The distance to the side wall, along the x-axis is, 7m We represent vectors geometrically by line segments in space. The length of the line
and the following angles were measured: TOx = 70o and TOy = 50o . representing the magnitude and the direction of the line the direction of the vector.
Calculate the co-ordinates of the corner relative to the position of he theodolite.
T From this definition the starting point is irrelevant.
What is the difference between these two vectors?
A A
z y
x
a a
7m
O O
Their length is the same.
The unit vectors i, j, k
Their direction is the same. The unit vectors in the co-ordinate directions are denoted i, j, and k.
(The arrows indicate the direction along the line) i = (1,0,0), j = (01,0) and k = (0,0,1)
These two vectors are equivalent (equal). Any vector r can be expressed in terms of its component x, y, z with respect to the unit vector
(i,j,k) by
By the same argument, the two vectors are also equivalent to a vector of the same length and r = xi + yj + zk
direction which starts at the origin. We can therefore use a co-ordinate notation of three
numbers - as used previously for OP - to represent any vector (anywhere in three dimensional The notation (x,y,z) is interpreted as (xi, yj, zk).
space).
2.6.1 Example:
We have shown a vector described in two ways: in terms of co-ordinates (x, y, z) and also
A vector a = (3,1,4 ) = 3i j + 4k
represented geometrically by a line from an origin to this point. We say a dual definition can be
used either a geometrical or a co-ordinate (component) one. (
The modulus of a = a = 3 2 , ( 1) ,4 2
2
)
1/ 2
= 26
So the unit vector in the direction of a is

2.4 Vector notation found in text books
a 3 1 4
a = = i j+ k
A vector can be written down in many ways. Some of the more common (and acceptable) ways a 26 26 26
you will come across are:
a OA a (a1 , a 2 , a3 )
2.7 Equal Vectors
Two vectors a and b are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction i.e.
2.5 Magnitude (or Modulus) a=b
The magnitude, modulus or length of the vector a is written as a or OA and given in Using the component definition
component form by
a = (a1 , a 2 , a 3 ) b = (b1 , b2 , b3 )
(
a = a12 + a 22 + a 3 )
2 1/ 2
then
Geometrically this is the length of the line OA a1 = b1 a 2 = b2 a3 = b3
2.6 The Unit Vector
A vector whose modulus is 1 is called a unit vector, sometimes written as a and
a
a =
a
2.8 Parallel Vectors
3 Vector Addition
If is a scalar and a = b
3.1 The boat problem
then
A boat steams at 4 knots due East for one hour. The tide is running North-North-East at 3 knots.
if >0, the vector a is in the same direction as b and has magnitude b Where will the boat be after one hour?
if <0, the vector a is in the opposite direction to b and has magnitude b A diagram of the vectors involved looks like that below, where a represents the velocity of the
boat and b represents the velocity of the tide.
In component form
NNE
a1 = b1 a 2 = b2 a 3 = b3
North
B C
This can be summarised as the vectors a and b are
a+b
Parallel if > 0 b b
Anti-parallel if < 0.
O a East
A
The net velocity of the boat is represented by the line OC which is the sum of a and b.
3.2 Geometric addition laws
This leads to the parallelogram rule for vector addition which may be written:
The sum, or resultant, of two vectors a and b is found by forming a parallelogram with a and b
as two adjacent sides.
The sum a + b is the vector represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram.
B C
b
a+b
O a A
In component form
a + b = (a1 + b1 , a 2 + b2 , a3 + b3 )
3.3 Vector Laws for addition and subtraction
Because the vector a is the same as any other vector which is parallel and in the same Commutative law
direction, a or b could be "moved" in the figure above to form a triangle. This leads to the
a+b=b+a
triangle law.
Order is NOT important
If two vectors a and b are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle
taken in order, then their sum is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing third
a+b
side. b
a
b a+b
a+b
b
In component form
The triangle rule can be made more general to apply to any geometrical shape - or polygon.
(a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ) = (b1 + a1 , b2 + a2 , b3 + a3 )
This then becomes the polygon law.
Associative law
If from a point O, say, as in the figures below, lines are drawn to represent the vectors a, b, c, d,
and e. Then the closing side represents the vector r and r is the sum of the vectors a, b, c, d, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
and e.
B
D d b This follows from the component definition and geometrically - from the triangle or polygon law.
C
e A
E c E In component form
e c
D
B a
r r d
b
C
a O c
O A
a+(b+c)
(a+b)+c b+c
r =a+b+c+d+e a+b
b
a
(a1 + b1 ) + c1 = a1 + (b1 + c1)
B
(a2 + b2 ) + c2 = a2 + (b2 + c2)
a-b
(a3 + b3 ) + c3 = a3 + (b3 + c3) b
a
O A
Distributive law
-b
(a + b ) = a + b
This follows from the component definition or geometrically from similar triangles
In component form Note BA = OA OB
( (a1 + b1 ), (a2 + b2 ), (a3 + b3 )) = (a1 + b1 , a 2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ) This is an important result as it shows that the vector represented by the line joining two points
is given by taking the vector giving the position of the first point from that for the second
B BA = OA OB = BO + OA = b + a = a b
(a+b) = a+b
b 3.4 Vector Addition Examples
B
(1)
a+b b
A a O a = (2,1,0 ) b = ( 1,2,3) c = (1,2,1)

O a A
a + b = (1,3,3)
2a b = (2 2 + 1, 2 1 2, 2 0 3) = (5,0,3)
a + b c = (0,1,2 )
Subtraction
Modulus of c
a - b = a + (-b)
In component form:
(
c = 12 ,2 2 ,12 )
1/ 2
= 6
The unit vector in the direction of c

a b = (a1 b1 , a 2 b2 , a 3 b3 )
c 1 2 1
c = = , ,
c 6 6 6
Not that the modulus of c = c = 1
Geometrically:
2) From analysis of the forces in a new bridge it is calculated that the following forces are
imposed at one of the bridge supports (in Newtons).
4 Vector Multiplication
We have seen how vectors can be added, another natural operation in maths is to multiply
F1 = (1,1,1)
quantities together. The idea of multiplication of vectors becomes very useful in engineering. In
F2 is 6N and acts in the direction (1,2,-2)
particular we will show how to use them to calculate moments and work-done with great ease.
F3 is 10N and acts in the direction (1,2,-2)
In order to design the bridge support the resultant force is required. What is the force the
Two types of multiplication exist. They are called the vector and scalar products.
support must impose on the bridge to reduce the resultant force to zero.
4.1 The Scalar Product
The first force is given in the usual vector form. The second two are in valid forms but need to
(also known as the dot product or the inner product)
be converted so that we can perform the usual vector addition.
First calculate the unit vectors in the direction of F2 and F3
A
F
F 2 = 2 =
(1,2,2) = 1 (1,2,2)
F2 1+ 4 + 4 3
F
F 3 = 3 =
(3,4,0) = 1 (3,4,0) a
F2 9 + 16 + 0 5
So the in vector for the two forces are

P
1 2 2 O
F2 = 6 , , = (2,4,4 ) N
3 3 3 The component of the vector a in the direction of OP is easily calculated as equivalent to the
3 4 length ON by
F2 = 10 , ,0 = (6,8,0 )
5 5 ON = a cos
The resultant force F is found by vector addition
F = F1 + F1 + F1 = (1,1,1) + (2,4,4 ) + (6,8,0 ) = (9,3,3)
Considering the constant force F in the figure below, which acts through the point O. If this force
is moved along the line OA, along the vector a, then we can calculate the work done by the
The force the support must impose on the bridge is equal and in the opposite direction as the
force. (Remember: work done is the component of the force in the direction of movement
resultant i.e.
multiplied by distance moved by the point of application.)
Reaction force = ( 9,3,3)
F F
O a A
The component of F along OA is F cos . This force is moved the distance a , giving,
work done = F a cos
This is the scalar product of the two vectors F and a and can be seen as a geometric
definition. (3) Use of the "dot" is essential to indicate that the calculation is a scalar product.
An equivalent component definition can be written.
4.2 Rules for the scalar (or dot) product.

Scalar product definition:
Commutative Law
The scalar product of two vectors a = (a1 , a 2 , a 3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) is written with a dot () ab = ba
between the to vectors. a b cos = b a cos
It is defined in component form as
a b = a1b1 + a 2 b2 + a 3b3 Associative Law
You cannot have a scalar product of three vectors as 'dotting' the first two gives a scalar.
And in geometrical form
a b = b a cos Distributive Law (for a scalar multiplier)
Brackets are multiplied out in the usual way.
Where is the angle between the two vectors and 0 . a (b ) = (a ) b = (a b )
The two definitions can be proved to be equivalent by the cosine rule for a triangle, Distributive Law (for vector addition)
B a (b + c ) = a b + a c
Powers of vectors
b a a = a12 + a 22 + a32
= a a cos 0
2
=a
O a A No other powers of vectors are possible other than 2.

AB 2 = OA 2 + OB 2 2( AO )(OB ) cos Note that for unit vectors i, j, k
i2 = i i = 1 j2 = j j = 1 k2 = k k =1
Which can be expanded to show that
a1b1 + a 2 b2 + a 3b3 = b a cos Perpendicular Vectors

If a and b are perpendicular then = and cos = cos =0
Three important points about a scalar product: 2 2
Hence a b = 0
(1) The scalar product of two vectors gives a number (a scalar) BUT a b = 0 does not imply that a and b are perpendicular, because a could be zero or b could
be zero.
(2) The scalar product is a product of vectors Note: Suppose a b = a c [ a (b c ) = 0 ]

(it cannot be of two scalars nor a vector and a scalar) This does not mean that b = c, since a could be zero or a perpendicular to b-c.
i.e. vectors cannot be cancelled in the same way as scalars. (3) Find the work done by the force F = (3, 1, 5) in moving a particle from P to Q where position
vectors of P and Q are (1, 2, 3) and (2, 4, 4) respectively.
For unit vectors which are perpendicular r = PQ = OQ OP
i j = j k = k i = 0 = (1,2,1)
Work done by the force F = F r
Perpendicularity is important in engineering, for example pressure acts normal to a surface, so (3,1,5) (1,2,1) = 3 + 2 + 5 = 10 units of work.
force per unit area is pn , where p is the pressure and n the unit normal vector.
We often have to find a vector that is normal to another vector. (4) Find the component of the vector F = (2, -2, 3) in
(i) the i direction
Component of a vector (ii) the direction (3, 1, -2)
The component of a vector, F say, in a given direction a is given by F cos .
And we can write (i) The i direction is the vector (1,0,0) so the component in the i direction is
F a = F a cos = F cos F (1,0,0 ) = (2,2,3) (1,0,0 ) = 2

(iii) Is the vector (3, 1, -2) a unit vector?
to give the component of F in the direction on a.
(9 + 1 + 4)1 / 2 = 14 Therefore it is not a unit vector.
Unit vector =
(3,1,2)
4.3 Scalar Product Examples 14
Component of F in direction (3, 1, -2) is
(1) Find the angle between the two vectors a = (2, 0, 3) and b = (3, 2, 4)
F
(3,1,2) = (2,2,3) (3,1,2) / 14 =
2
Using a b = b a cos and a b = a1b1 + a 2 b2 + a 3b3 14 14
a b = 6 + 0 + 12 = 18
a = (2, 0, 3) = (4 + 0 + 9 )
1/ 2
= 13
b = (3, 2, 4 ) = (9 + 4 + 16 )
1/ 2
= 29
18 = 13 29 cos
18
cos = = 0.927
13 29
= 22.02
(2) For a = (1, 2, -2), b = (0, 2, 2) c = (3, 2, 1) find

i) a c ii) (a + b ) c iii) (a b )c
i) a c = (3 + 4 2 ) = 5
ii) (a + b ) c = (1,4,0) (3,2,1) = (3 + 8 + 0) = 11
iii) (a b )c = (0 + 4 4)(3,2,1) = 0(3,2,1) = (0,0,0)
Note that a and b are perpendicular since neither a or b are zero.
Remember that a b is just a number (not a vector).
4.4 The Vector (or Cross) Product 4.5 The Moment of force, F.
The main practical use of the vector product is to calculate the moment of a force in three
dimensions. It is of very limited use in two dimensions.
n
For two vectors a and b, the vector product is defined as: F

(a b ) = a b sin n

r
P
where is the angle between the vectors a and b, ( 0 ) and n is the unit vector normal to O
both a and b.
a , b and n are three vectors which form a right-handed set. (Remember how a right handed
axes system was defined earlier.) If the force F passes through the point P and OP = r , then the moment of the force about O is
defined as
It is very important to realise that the result of a vector product is itself a vector. M = rF
M is a vector in the direction of the normal n .

n
So, as with all vectors, moments add by the parallelogram rule.
a
b
The use of calculating moments by the vector (cross) product comes into itself when used in

b situations (particularly in three dimensions) which are very difficult to visualise.
a
n
4.6 Area calculation
Note how from this definition order of multiplication matters: D

C
The vector given by (b a ) is in the opposite direction to (a b ) . h
(This follows from the right-hand screw rule), so

(a b ) = (b a ) A B
The area of the parallelogram ABCD is given by
Area = h AB = AD sin AB = AD AB
The area of the triangle PQR is given by Distributive law with addition
Q a (b + c ) = (a b ) + (a c )
4.8 Parallel vectors.

From the definition of the vector product, if a and b are parallel, then
=0
R and
h ab = 0

So we can say that if a b = 0 then
P a=0
or
1
Area = h PR b=0
2
1 or
= PQ sin PR
2 a and b are parallel.
1
= PQ PR
2
If a b = a c it cannot be deduced that b = c. You must first show that a 0 and that a is not
parallel to b - c.
4.7 Laws for the Vector (or Cross) products
4.9 Cartesian (component) form.
For unit vectors i,j,k
Anti-Commutative
ii = j j = k k = 0 (as = 0, sin = 0 )
(a b ) = (b a )
This follows from the definition that includes the 'right-handed axes', n changes direction when
Because of perpendiculatiry
the multiplication is reversed.
i j = k, j k = i, k i = j
j i = k , k j = i , ik = j
Non-associative
Component form of the vector product:
(The triple vector product)
a = (a1 , a 2 , a3 ) = a1i + a 2 j + a3 k
a (b c ) (a b ) c
b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) = b1i + b2 j + b3 k
The vector b c is perpendicular to both b and c and the plane containing b and c.
a b = (a1 , a 2 , a3 ) (b1 , b2 , b3 )
Similarly, (a b ) c is in the plane of a and b, so a (b c ) and (a b ) c are different vectors.
= ( a1i + a 2 j + a3 k ) (b1i + b2 j + b3 k )
Brackets must always be used for more than two vectors in a vector product. = a1b1 (i i ) + a1b2 (i j ) + a1b3 (i k )
+ a 2 b1 ( j i ) + a 2 b2 ( j j ) + a 2 b3 ( j k )
Distributive law with multiplication by a scalar + a 3b1 (k i ) + a 3b2 (k j ) + a3 b3 (k k )
a (b ) = (a ) b = a1b2 k + a1b3 ( j ) + a 2 b1 ( k )
+ a 2 b3 i + a3 b1 j + a3 b2 ( i )
So, how do you remember this!!?
There are several ways, the determinant form is shown here It can be shown that in general,
i j k (a b ) c = (a c )b (b c )a
a b = a1 a2 a3 It can also be shown that
b1 b2 b3
a (b c ) = (a c )b (a b )c
a2 a3 a a3 a a2
=i j 1 +k 1 (2) Find the area of the triangle having vertices at
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
P= (3, 2, 2), Q= (1, -1, 2), R = (2, 1, 1)
a b = (a 2 b3 a 3b2 )i (a1b3 a3 b1 ) j + (a1b2 a 2b1)k

Q
4.10 Examples
(1) Given the three vectors a = (3, 1, 1), b = (2, -1, 1), c = (0, 1, 2)
i j k
R
ab = 3 1 1
2 1 1

1 1 3 1 3 1 P
=i j +k
1 1 2 1 2 1
1
Area PQR = PQ PR
= (2,1,5) 2
PQ = ( 2,3,0 ) PR = ( 1,1,1)
This vector is perpendicular to the plane containing a and b. i j k

i j k PQ PR = 2 3 0
(a b ) c = 2 1 5 1 1 1
0 1 2
3 0 2 0 2 3
=i j +k
1 5 2 5 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=i j +k
1 2 0 2 0 1
= (3,2,1)
= (3,4,2 ) 1 1 14
Area = PQ PR = (9 + 4 + 1) =
This lies in the plane containing a and b. 2 2 2
(a c )b (b c )a = 3b 1a
= (6,3,3) (3,1,1)
= (3,4,2 )
This is the same as the solution for (a b ) c above.

(3) A force F of 6 units acts through the point P=(2,3,1) in the direction of the vector (4,1,2). Find
4.11 Triple products of Vectors
the moment of the force about the point Q=(1,2,1).
Definitions of the two triple products are
(a b ) c is the Triple Vector product.

P
Q (a b ) c is the Triple Scalar product.
The unit vector in the direction of the force is

The triple scalar product has an interesting geometrical meaning:
We know that
4i + j + 2k 4 1 2
= , ,
16 + 1 + 4 21 21 21 (a b ) = a b sin n
= (area of the parallelogram defined by a and b )
So the force F, has components
4 1 2
F = 6 , ,
21 21 21 Thus
The position vector of P relative to Q is

(a b ) c = (area of the parallelogram)n c
QP = (1,1,0 )
= (area of the parallelogram ) n c cos
i.e. r
So the moment of the force about Q is

i j k
6
M = QP F = 1 1 0 c
21 h B
4 1 2 C
i j k b
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 =i j +k O a A
1 2 4 2 4 1
4 1 2
= (2,2,3) But c cos = h =height of the parallelepiped normal to the plane containing a and b . ( is the
12 12 18 angle between c and n ).
M= , ,
21 21 21
So
(a b ) c = area of the parallelepiped defined by a, b and c.
It follows then that:

(a) If any two vectors are parallel (a b ) c = 0 (zero volume)
(b) If the three vectors a co-planar then (a b ) c = 0 (zero volume)
(c) If (a b ) c = 0 then either
5 Vector Equations of Lines and Planes
i) a = 0, or
ii) b = 0 or 5.1 The Vector Equation of a Line
iii) c =0 or Consider the line which passes through the points A and B with position vectors a and b
iv) two of the vectors are parallel or respectively and a point P, which has position vector r, and lies on this line as shown
v) the three vectors are co-planar

(d) (a b ) c = a (b c ) = b (c a ) = the same volume. A
P
B
a r
b
OA = a OB = b OP = r
From this diagram we can see that
OP = OA + AP
r = a + AP
If t is some multiple of AB such that
r = a + t AB
as a + AB = b , then
r = a + t (b a )
So the equation of the line AB is:
r = (1 t )a + tb
for < t < .
In component form
r = ( x, y , z )
a = (a1 , a 2 , a 3 )
b = (b1 , b2 , b3 )
( x, y, z ) = (1 t )(a1 , a 2 , a3 ) + t (b1 , b2 , b3 )
= (a1 , a 2 , a 3 ) + t [(b1 , b2 , b3 ) (a1 , a 2 , a3 )]
If we equate components e.g. those of x gives
x = (1 t )a1 + tb1 In Cartesian form
x a1 x 1 y 1 z
t= = = =s
b1 a1 4 3 7
Similarly for y and z (3) Do r1 and r2 intersect?
y a2 z a3 For the lines to intersect then t and s should be such that:
t= t=
b2 a 2 b3 a3 3t = 1 4 s
Hence the Cartesian equation of a line passing through the points (a1,a2,a3) and (b1,b2,b3).is 1 + 3t = 1 3s
2 + 5s = 7 s
x a1 y a2 z a3
= = =t are all satisfied.
b1 a1 b2 a 2 b3 a3
Solving the first two simultaneously s = 1 and t = -1.

Note: For any equation in Cartesian form we can readily express the equation in vector form.
Substituting these values into the third gives
e.g.
-7 = -7
x y 9 z 2
= = =t
3 1 1 i.e. the three equations are satisfied, so the two lines intersect.
In vector form
r = a + t (b a ) Substituting the values for s or t into the respective Cartesian equations gives the point of
r = (0,9,2) + t (3,1,1) intersection as (-3,-2,-7)
(4) Find the angle between the two lines which are in the same direction as the two vectors c =
(3,3,5) and d = (-4,-3,-7)
5.2 Equation of line examples:
c d = c d cos
r = (1 t )a + tb = a + t (b a )
c d = 12 9 35 = 56
(1) Find the equation of the line r1 through the points (0,1,-2) and (3,4,3).
r = (1 t )a + tb
c = (9 + 9 + 25)
1/ 2
= 43
= (0,1 t ,2 + 2t ) + (3t ,4t ,3t )
d = (16 + 9 + 49 )
1/ 2
= (3t ,1 + 3t ,2 + 5t ) = 74
i.e. x = 3t y = 1 + 3t z = 2 + 5t
56
In Cartesian form cos = = 0.9927
43 74
x 0 y 1 z + 2
= = =t = 173.1
3 0 3 1 3 + 2
x 0 y 1 z + 2
= = =t
3 2 5
(2) Find the equation of the line r2 through the points (1,1,0) and (-3,-2,-7)
r = (1 s )a + sb
= (1 s,1 s,0) + ( 3s,2s,7 s )
= (1 4s,1 3s,7 s )
5.4 Examples involving both lines and planes
5.3 The Vector Equation of a Plane (1) Find the equation of the plane through the points
a = (3,2,0) b = (1,3,-1) c = (0,-2,3)
We can use the fact that a line joining any two points in the plane is perpendicular to the normal
to the plane.
a - b lies in the plane
i.e. n and AP are perpendicular. a - b = (2, -1, 1)
a - c lies in the plane
n a - c = (3, 4, -3)
A normal, n, to the plane is

P n = (a b ) (a c ) = (2,1,1) (3,4,3)
A
i j k
= 2 1 1
3 4 3
1 1 2 1 2 1
=i j +k
O 4 3 3 3 3 4
= ((3 4 ), ( 6 3), (8 + 3))
The vector n is normal to the plane, a is the position vector of A, r is the position vector of P (r = n = ( 1, 9, 11)
(x, y, z)).
Equation of the plane is r n = a n
The vector
r ( 1,9,11) = (3,2,0 ) ( 1,9,11)
AP = OP OA = r a = 3 + 18 + 0
= 15
Now r - a is perpendicular to n if In component form this is
(r a ) n = 0 ( x, y, z ) ( 1,9,11) = 15
x + 9 y + 11z = 15
or
r n = an
or Check
r n = p a: 3 + 18 + 0 = 15
b: 1 + 27 11 = 15
The above two are the general form of the vector equation of a plane.
c: 0 18 + 33 = 15
All are consistent.
If we can take n = (, , ) the equation in Cartesian form is
x + y + z = p
since r = (x, y, z)
(2) (a) Find the point where the plane r (1,2,1) = 4 (or x + 2 y + z = 4 ) meets the line (3) Find the perpendicular distance from the point P (2,-3,4) to the plane x+2y+2z=13
x 2 y 1 z +1 The equation of the plane in vector form is

r = (2, 1, -1) + t(1, 1, 2) or ( = = =t)
1 1 2 r (1,2,2) = 13
(b) Find the angle that the line makes with the plane. A vector normal to the plane is
n = (1,2,2 )
[Remember the equations of a line
Hence the equation of a line perpendicular to the plane and passing through P is
r = a + t (b a )
r = a + t (b a )
x a1 y a2 z a3 = (2,3,4 ) + t (1,2,2 )
= = =t
b1 a1 b2 a 2 b3 a3 This line meets the plane when
] r (1,2,2 ) = (2,3,4 ) (1,2,2 ) + t (1,2,2 ) (1,2,2 ) = 13
i.e.
The point of intersection must satisfy both the equation of the plane AND the equations of the
(2 6 + 8) + t (1 + 4 + 4) = 13
line. 4 + 9t = 13
i.e (using the vector form) t =1
[a + t (b a )] (1,2,1) = 4 Thus the line meets the plane at N with co-ordinates
(2 + 2 1) + t (1 + 2 + 2) = 4 (2,3,4) + 1(1,2,2) = (3,1,6)
3 + 5t = 4
Hence the perpendicular distance PN
t = 1/ 5
Substituting into the equation of the line gives the point of intersection [(3 2 ) + ( 1 + 3)
2 2
+ (6 4 ) ]
2 1/ 2
= 3 units
r = a + t (b a )
1 (3) Find the equation of the line of intersection of the two planes given by:
= (2,1,1) +(1,1,2)
5 x+y+z=5 and 4x + y + 2z = 15
11 6 3
= , , In vector from these planes can be written:
5 5 5
r (1,1,1) = 5
(b) Find the angle that the line makes with the plane.
r (4,1,2) = 15
The normal to the plane is (1, 2, 1) = n.
The line of intersection must be perpendicular to both the vectors (1,1,1) and (4,1,2).
A vector in the direction of the line is (1, 1, 2) = b - a
Hence a vector in the direction of the line must be in the direction
(1,1,1)(4,1,2) = (1,2,-3)
(b a ) n = b a n cos
(b a ) n = 1 + 2 + 2 = 5
To complete the equation of the line we need to find any one point on the line. Choosing x=0
b a = (1 + 1 + 4 )
1/ 2
= 6 then, from the Cartesian equations of the two planes,
n = (1 + 4 + 1)
1/ 2
= 6 y+z=5
5 y + 2z = 15
cos = = 0.833
6 Hence for x=0, y=-5 and z = 10
= 33.56
And the point (0, -5, 10) is a point on the line.
The equation of the line can then be written r = (0, -5, 10) + t (1, 2, -3)

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Lecture programme

4. Vector products: moments of forces; areas of triangles; parallel vectors.

2.1 Cartesian Co-ordinates

A speed of 10 km/h is a scalar quantity x -axis

What are these quantities, vectors or scalars?

2.2 Direction Cosines

z The angle POx is given by

T From this definition the starting point is irrelevant.

What is the difference between these two vectors?

So the unit vector in the direction of a is

2.5 Magnitude (or Modulus) a=b

Geometrically this is the length of the line OA a1 = b1 a 2 = b2 a3 = b3

2.6 The Unit Vector

A vector whose modulus is 1 is called a unit vector, sometimes written as a and

3.2 Geometric addition laws

In component form Note BA = OA OB

A a O a = (2,1,0 ) b = ( 1,2,3) c = (1,2,1)

The unit vector in the direction of c

Not that the modulus of c = c = 1

work done = F a cos

An equivalent component definition can be written.

4.2 Rules for the scalar (or dot) product.

Where is the angle between the two vectors and 0 . a (b ) = (a ) b = (a b )

O a A No other powers of vectors are possible other than 2.

(2) The scalar product is a product of vectors Note: Suppose a b = a c [ a (b c ) = 0 ]

F a = F a cos = F cos F (1,0,0 ) = (2,2,3) (1,0,0 ) = 2

(2) For a = (1, 2, -2), b = (0, 2, 2) c = (3, 2, 1) find

For two vectors a and b, the vector product is defined as: F

M is a vector in the direction of the normal n .

Note how from this definition order of multiplication matters: D

The vector given by (b a ) is in the opposite direction to (a b ) . h

(This follows from the right-hand screw rule), so

The area of the parallelogram ABCD is given by

4.8 Parallel vectors.

So, how do you remember this!!?

a b = (a 2 b3 a 3b2 )i (a1b3 a3 b1 ) j + (a1b2 a 2b1)k

This vector is perpendicular to the plane containing a and b. i j k

This is the same as the solution for (a b ) c above.

(a b ) c is the Triple Vector product.

The unit vector in the direction of the force is

The position vector of P relative to Q is

So the moment of the force about Q is

It follows then that:

v) the three vectors are co-planar

If we equate components e.g. those of x gives

Solving the first two simultaneously s = 1 and t = -1.

A normal, n, to the plane is

x 2 y 1 z +1 The equation of the plane in vector form is

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