Coffee

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the beverage. For the bean it is made from, see Coffee bean. For other uses, see Coffee
(disambiguation).

Coffee

A cup of black coffee

Type Hot or cold beverage

Country of origin Ethiopia

Introduced Approx. 15th century (beverage)

Color Dark brown, beige, black

Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans, of the coffee plant.
They are seeds of coffee cherries that grow on trees in over 70 countries. Green unroasted coffee is one of the
most traded agricultural commodities in the world.[1]Due to its caffeine content, coffee can have a stimulating
effect in humans. Today, coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide.[2]

The energizing effect of the coffee bean plant is thought to have been discovered in Yemen in Arabia and in the
northeast region ofEthiopia, and the cultivation of coffee first expanded in the Arab world.[3] The earliest
credible evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries
of Yemen in southern Arabia.[3] From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe,
to Indonesia, and to the Americas.[4] Coffee has played a crucial role in many societies throughout history. In
Africa and Yemen, it was used in religious ceremonies. As a result, the Ethiopian Church banned its secular
consumption, a ban in effect until the reign of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia.[5] It was banned
in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons,[6] and was associated with rebellious political
activities in Europe.

Coffee berries, which contain the coffee seed, or "bean", are produced by several species of
small evergreen bush of the genus Coffea. The two most commonly grown are the highly regarded Coffea
arabica, and the 'robusta' form of the hardier Coffea canephora. The latter is resistant to the devastating coffee
leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix). Both are cultivated primarily in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. Once
ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees,
depending on the desired flavor. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared
and presented in a variety of ways.

An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for twelve countries in 2004,[7] and it was
the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value in 2005.[8] Some controversy is associated with
coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment. Many studies have examined the relationship between
coffee consumption and certain medical conditions; whether the overall effects of coffee are ultimately positive
or negative has been widely disputed.[9] The method of brewing coffee has been found to be important to its
health effects.[10]

Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology

2 Biology

3 Cultivation

o 3.1 Production

o 3.2 Ecological effects

4 Processing

o 4.1 Roasting

4.1.1 Preparing green coffee

4.1.2 The roasting process

4.1.3 Grading the roasted beans

4.1.4 Roast characteristics

4.1.5 Decaffeination

o 4.2 Storage
 o 4.3 Preparation

o 4.4 Presentation

5 Sale and distribution

o 5.1 Commodity

o 5.2 Trade

6 Health and pharmacology

7 History

8 Social and cultural aspects

o 8.1 Coffeehouses

o 8.2 Prohibition

o 8.3 Folklore and culture

9 Notes

10 References

o 10.1 Footnotes

11 External links

[edit]Etymology

Illustration of Coffea arabica plant and seeds

The first reference to "coffee" in the English language

language, in the form chaoua,, dates to 1598. In English and other
European languages, coffeederives
derives from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, via the Italian caffè.. The Turkish word in
turn was borrowed from the Arabic: ‫@?ة‬A, qahwah. Arablexicographers maintain that qahwah originally referred
to a type of wine, and gave its etymology, in turn, to the verb qahiya, signifying "to have no appetite",[11] since
this beverage was thought to dull one's hunger. Several alternative etymologies exist that hold that the Arab
form may disguise a loanword from an Ethiopian or African source, suggesting Kaffa, the highland in
southwestern Ethiopia as one, since the plant is indigenous to that area.[11][12] However, the term used in that
region for the berry and plant is bunn, the native name in Shoa being būn.'[11]

[edit]Biology

Main articles: Coffea and coffee varieties

Several species of shrub of the genus Coffea produce the berries from which coffee is extracted. The two main
species commercially cultivated are Coffea canephora (predominantly a form known as 'robusta')
and C. arabica.[13] C. arabica, the original and most highly regarded species, is native to the southwestern
highlands of Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan and possibly Mount Marsabit in
northernKenya.[14] C. canephora is native to western and central subsaharan Africa, from Guinea to
the Uganda and southern Sudan.[15] Less popular species are C. liberica, excelsa, stenophylla, mauritiana,
and racemosa.

All coffee plants are classified in the large family Rubiaceae. They are evergreen shrubs or small trees that
may grow 5 m (15 ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 10–15 cm (4–6 in)
long and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide. The flowers are axillary, and clusters of fragrant white flowers bloom
simultaneously and are followed by oval berries of about 1.5 cm (0.6 in).[16] Green when immature, they ripen to
yellow, then crimson, before turning black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the
berries[17] have only one; these are called peaberries.[18] Berries ripen in seven to nine months.

Coffea arabica is predominantly self-pollinating, and as a result the seedlings are generally uniform and vary
little from their parents. In contrast, Coffea canephora, C. excelsa and C. liberica are self-incompatible and
require outcrossing. This means that useful forms and hybrids must be propagated vegetatively.[19] Cuttings,
grafting, and budding are the usual methods of vegetative propagation.[20] On the other hand, there is great
scope for experimentation in search of potential new strains.[19]

[edit]Cultivation

Coffee is usually propagated by seeds. The traditional method of planting coffee is to put 20 seeds in each hole
at the beginning of the rainy season; half are eliminated naturally. A more effective method of growing coffee,
used in Brazil, is to raise seedlings in nurseries that are then planted outside at six to twelve months. Coffee is
often intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice during the first few years of cultivation.[16]
Map showing areas of coffee cultivation:
r:Coffea canephora
m:Coffea canephora and Coffea arabica
a:Coffea arabica

Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from C. arabica) is generally
nerally more highly regarded than robusta
coffee (from C. canephora);
); robusta tends to be bitter and have less flavor but better body than arabica. For
quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide is C. arabica.[13] Robusta strains also contain
these reasons, about three-quarters
50% more caffeine than arabica.[21] For this reason, it is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica
about 40–50%
in many commercial coffee blends. Good quality robusta beans are used in some espresso blends to provide a
known as crema), and to lower the ingredient cost.[22]
full-bodied taste, a better foam head (known

However, Coffea canephora is less susceptible to disease than C. arabica and can be cultivated in lower
altitudes and warmer climates where C. arabica will not thrive. The robusta strain was first collected in 1890
from the Lomani, a tributary of the Congo River, and was conveyed from Zaire to Brussels to Java around
n many countries.[23] In
1900. From Java, further breeding resulted in the establishment of robusta plantations iin
particular, the spread of the devastating coffee leaf rust ((Hemileia vastatrix), to which C. arabica is vulnerable,
hastened the uptake of the resistant robusta. Coffee leaf rust is found in virtually all countries that produce
coffee.[24]

Over 900 species of insect have been recorded as pests of coffee crops worldwide. Of these, over a third
are beetles, and over a quarter are bugs
bugs.. Some 20 species of nematodes, 9 species of mites, several snails
and slugs also attack the crop. Birds and rodents sometimes eat coffee berries but their impact is minor
compared to invertebrates.[25] In general, arabica is the more sensitive species to invertebrate predation overall.
Each part of the coffee plant is assailed by different animals. Nematodes attack the roots, and borer beetles
burrow into stems and woody material,[26] the foliage is attacked by over 100 species of larvae (caterpillars)
of butterflies and moths.[27] Mass spraying of insecticides has often proven disastrous, as the predators of the
themselves.[28] Instead, integrated pest management has developed,
pests are more sensitive than the pests them
using techniques such as targeted treatment of pest outbreaks, and managing crop environment away from
conditions favouring pests. Branches infested with scale are often cut and left on the ground, which p
promotes
scale parasites to not only attack the scale on the fallen branches but in the plant as well.[29]

[edit]Production

2007 Top twenty green coffee producers

Country Tonnes[30] Bags thousands[31]

Brazil 2,249,010 36,070

Vietnam 961,200 16,467

Colombia 697,377 12,504

Indonesia 676,475 7,751

Ethiopia[note 1] 325,800 4,906

India 288,000 4,148

Mexico 268,565
565 4,150

Guatemala[note 1] 252,000 4,100

Peru 225,992 2,953

Honduras 217,951 3,842

Côte d'Ivoire 170,849 2,150

 Uganda 168,000 3,250

Costa Rica 124,055 1,791

Philippines 97,877 431

El Salvador 95,456 1,626

Nicaragua 90,909 1,700

Papua New Guinea[note 1] 75,400 968

Venezuela 70,311 897

Madagascar[note 2] 62,000 604

Thailand 55,660 653

World[note 3] 7,742,675 117,319

In 2009 Brazil was the world leader in production of green coffee, followed
by Vietnam, Indonesia and Colombia..[32]Arabica coffee beans are cultivated in Latin America,
America eastern Africa,
Arabia, or Asia. Robusta coffee beans are grown iin western and central Africa, throughout southeast Asia,
Asia and
to some extent in Brazil.[13] Beans from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by
differences in flavor, aroma, body,, and acidity.[33] These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the
coffee's growing region, but also on genetic subspecies ((varietals) and processing.[34] Varietals are generally
known by the region in which they are grown, such as Colombian, Java andKona.

[edit]Ecological effects
A flowering Coffea arabica tree in aBrazilian
Brazilian plantation

Main article: Coffee and the environment

Originally, coffee farming was done in the shade of trees that provided a habitat for many animals and
insects.[35] Originally remnant forest trees were used for this purpose, but many species have been planted as
clude leguminous trees of the genera Acacia, Albizia,Cassia[disambiguation
well. These include
needed]
, Erythrina, Gliricidia, Inga, and Leucaena
Leucaena, as well as the nitrogen-fixing non-legume
legume sheoaks of the
Grevillea robusta.[36] This method is commonly referred to as the traditional
genus Casuarina, and the silky oak Grevil
shaded method, or "shade-grown".
grown". Starting in the 1970s, many farmers switched their production method to
sun cultivation,
vation, in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes
berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but requires the clearing of trees and
increased use of fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause health
problems.[37] Ultimately, unshaded coffee enhanced by fertilizer use yields the highest amounts of coffee,
although unfertilized shaded crops generally yield higher than unfertilized unshaded crops - namely the
response to fertilizer is much greater in full sun.[38] Although traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen
more slowly and produce lower yields, the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior.[39] In addition, the
traditional
onal shaded method provides living space for many wildlife species. Opponents of sun cultivation say
environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution, habitat destruction,, and soil and water
degradation are the side effects of these practices.[35] The American Birding Association, Smithsonian Migratory
Bird Center,[40] National Arbor Day Foundation
Foundation,[41] and the Rainforest Alliance have led a campaign for "shade-
"
grown" and organic coffees,, which can be sustainably harvested.[42] However, while certain types of shaded
coffee
offee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full
full-sun
sun systems, those more distant from continuous
forest still compare rather poorly to undisturbed native forest in terms of habitat value for some bird
species.[43][44]

Another issue concerning coffee is its use of water. According to New Scientist,, if using industrial farming
practices, it takes about 140 liters of water to grow the coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee, and
the coffee is often grown in countries where there is a water shortage, such as Ethiopia.[45] By using sustainable
agriculture methods, the amount of water usage can be dramatically reduced, while retaining comparable
yields. For comparison, the United States Geological Survey reports that one egg requires an input of 454 liters
of water; one serving of milk requires an input of 246 liters of water; one serving of rice requires an input of 132
liters of water; and one glass of wine requires an input of 120 liters of water.[46]

Coffee grounds may be used for composting or as a mulch. They are especially appreciated
by worms and acid-loving plants such as blueberries.[47]

[edit]Processing

[edit]Roasting

Main articles: Coffee processing and Coffee roasting

[edit]Preparing green coffee

Coffee berries and their seeds undergo several processes before they become the familiar roasted coffee.
Berries have been traditionally selectively picked by hand; a labor intensive method, it involves the selection of
only the berries at the peak of ripeness. More commonly, crops are strip picked, where all berries are harvested
simultaneously regardless of ripeness by person or machine. After picking, green coffee is processed by one of
two methods—the dry process method, simpler and less labor intensive as the berries can be strip picked, and
the wet process method, which incorporates fermentation into the process and yields a mild coffee.[48]

Then they are sorted by ripeness and color and the flesh of the berry is removed, usually by machine, and the
seeds—usually called beans—are fermented to remove the slimy layer ofmucilage still present on the bean.
When the fermentation is finished, the beans are washed with large quantities of fresh water to remove the
fermentation residue, which generates massive amounts of coffee wastewater. Finally, the seeds are dried.
The best (but least used) method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this method, the pulped and
fermented coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which allows the air to pass on all sides of the coffee, and
then the coffee is mixed by hand. In this method the drying that takes place is more uniform, and fermentation
is less likely. Most African coffee is dried in this manner and certain coffee farms around the world are starting
to use this traditional method. Next, the coffee is sorted, and labeled as green coffee. Another way to let the
coffee beans dry is to let them sit on a concrete patio and rake over them in the sunlight. Some companies use
cylinders to pump in heated air to dry the coffee beans, though this is generally in places where the humidity is
very high.[49]

[edit]The roasting process

The next step in the process is the roasting of the green coffee. Coffee is usually sold in a roasted state, and
with rare exceptions all coffee is roasted before it is consumed. It can be sold roasted by the supplier, or it can
be home roasted.[50] The roasting process influences the taste of the beverage by changing the coffee bean
both physically and chemically. The bean decreases in weight as moisture is lost and increases in volume,
causing it to become less dense. The density of the bean also influences the strength of the coffee and
requirements for packaging. The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the bean reaches
approximately 200 °C (392 °F), though different varieties of beans differ in moisture and density and therefore
roast at different rates.[51] During roasting, caramelization occurs as intense heat breaks down starches in the
bean, changing them to simple sugars that begin to brown, changing the color of the bean.[52] Sucrose is rapidly
lost during the roasting process and may disappear entirely in darker roasts. During roasting, aromatic oils,
acids, and caffeine weaken, changing the flavor; at 205 °C (401 °F), other oils start to develop.[51] One of these
oils is caffeol, created at about 200 °C (392 °F), which is largely responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.[53]

[edit]Grading the roasted beans

Depending on the color of the roasted beans as perceived by the human eye, they will be labeled as light,
medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or very dark. A more accurate method of discerning the degree of
roast involves measuring the reflected light from roasted beans illuminated with a light source in the
near infrared spectrum. This elaborate light meter uses a process known as spectroscopy to return a number
that consistently indicates the roasted coffee's relative degree of roast or flavor development.

[edit]Roast characteristics

Darker roasts are generally smoother because they have less fiber content and a more sugary flavor. Lighter
roasts have more caffeine and a stronger flavor from aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer
roasting times.[54] A small amount of chaff is produced during roasting from the skin left on the bean after
processing.[55] Chaff is usually removed from the beans by air movement, though a small amount is added to
dark roast coffees to soak up oils on the beans.[51]

[edit]Decaffeination

Decaffeination may also be part of the processing that coffee seeds undergo. Seeds are decaffeinated when
they are still green. Many methods can remove caffeine from coffee, but all involve either soaking the green
beans in hot water (often wrongly called the "Swiss water" process) or steaming them, then using a solvent to
dissolve caffeine-containing oils.[53]Decaffeination is often done by processing companies, and the extracted
caffeine is usually sold to the pharmaceutical industry.[53]

[edit]Storage

Once roasted, coffee beans must be stored properly to preserve the fresh taste of the bean. Ideally, the
container must be airtight and kept in a cool, dry & dark place. In order of importance: air, moisture, heat, and
light are the environmental factors[56] responsible for deteriorating flavor in coffee beans.

Folded-over bags, a common way consumers often purchase coffee, are generally not ideal for long-term
storage because they allow air to enter. A better package contains a one-way valve, which prevents air from
entering.[56]
[edit]Preparation

For more details on this topic, see Coffee preparation

preparation.

Espresso brewing, with dark reddish-brown

brown crema

Coffee beans must be ground and brewed to create a beverage. Almost all methods of preparing coffee require
the beans to be ground and mixed with hot water for long enough to extract the flavor, but without boiling for
more than an instant; boiling develops an unpleasant "cooked" flavor. Finall
Finally,
y, the spent grounds are removed
from the liquid, and the liquid is drunk. There are many variations in the fineness of grind, the ways in which the
water extracts the flavor, additional flavorings (sugar, milk, spices), and the removal of the spent ground
grounds. The
ideal holding temperature is 79 to 85 °C (174 to 185 °F) and the ideal serving temperature is 68 to 79 °C
(154 to 174 °F).

The criteria for choosing a method include flavor and economy.

The roasted coffee beans may be ground at a roastery, in a groc

grocery
ery store, or in the home. Most coffee is
roasted and ground at a roastery and sold in packaged form, though roasted coffee beans can be ground at
home immediately before consumption. It is also possible, though uncommon, to roast raw beans at home.

Coffee beans may be ground in several ways. A burr mill uses revolving elements to shear the bean; an electric
grinder smashes the beans with blunt blades moving at high speed; and a mortar an
andd pestle crushes the
beans. For most brewing methods, a burr mill is deemed superior because the grind is more even and the grind
size can be adjusted.

The type of grind is often named after the brewing method for which it is generally used. Turkish grind is the
finest grind, while coffee percolatoror French press are the coarsest grinds. The most common grinds are
between the extremes; a medium grind is used in most common home coffee brewing machines.[57]
coffee-brewing

Coffee may be brewed by several methods: boiled, steeped, or pressured.

Brewing coffee by boiling was the earliest method, and Turkish coffee is an example of this method.[58] It is
prepared by grinding or pounding the beans to a fine powder, then adding it to water and bringing it to the boil
for no more than an instant in a pot called a cezve or, in Greek, a bríki. This produces a strong coffee with a
layer of foam on the surface and sediment (which is not meant for drinking) settling on the bottom of the cup.[58]

Coffee percolators and automatic coffeemakers brew coffee using gravity. In an automatic coffeemaker hot
water drips onto coffee grounds held in a coffee filter made of paper, plastic, or perforated metal, allowing the
water to seep through the ground coffee while extracting its oils and essences. The liquid drips through the
coffee and the filter into a carafe or pot, and the spent grounds are retained in the filter.[59] In a percolator,
boiling water is forced into a chamber above a filter by steam pressure created by boiling. The water then
seeps through the grounds, and the process is repeated until terminated by removing from the heat, by an
internal timer,[59] or by a thermostat that turns off the heater when the entire pot reaches a certain temperature.

Coffee may be brewed by steeping in a device such as a French press (also known as a cafetière or coffee
press). Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a cylindrical vessel and left to brew for a few minutes. A
circular filter which fits tightly in the cylinder fixed to a plunger is then pushed down from the top to force the
grounds to the bottom. Because the coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils
remain in the beverage, making it stronger and leaving more sediment than in coffee made by an automatic
coffee machine.[60] The coffee is poured from the container; the filter retains the grounds at the bottom.

The espresso method forces hot (but not boiling) pressurized water through ground coffee. As a result of
brewing under high pressure (ideally between 9–10 atm), the espresso beverage is more concentrated (as
much as 10 to 15 times the quantity of coffee to water as gravity-brewing methods can produce) and has a
more complex physical and chemical constitution. A well-prepared espresso has a reddish-brown foam
called crema that floats on the surface.[57] Other pressurized water methods include the Moka pot and Vacuum
coffee maker.

Coffee may also be brewed in cold water by steeping coarsely ground beans in cold water for several hours,
then filtering.[61]

[edit]Presentation

See also: List of coffee beverages

Presentation can be an integral part of coffeehouse service, as illustrated by the common fern design layered into this latte.

Coffee in Syria

Once brewed, coffee may be presented in a variety of ways. Drip

Drip-brewed,
brewed, percolated, or French-
French
pressed/cafetière coffee may be served with a dairy product such as milk or cream, or dairy substitute
(colloquially known as white coffee),
), or not ((black coffee).
). It may be sweetened with sugar or artificial
sweetener. When served cold, it is called iced coffee.

Espresso-based
based coffee has a wide variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, it is served alone as
a shot or in the more watered-down
down style Caffè Americano —a
a shot or two of espresso with hot water added.
Reversing the process
ocess by adding espresso to hot water preserves the crema, and is known as a long
black.[62] Milk can be added in various forms to espresso: steamed milk makes a caffè latte,[63]equal parts
cappuccino,[62] and a dollop of hot foamed milk on top creates a caffè
steamed milk and milk froth make a cappuccino
macchiato.[64] The use of steamed milk to form patterns such as hearts or maple leaves is referred to as latte
art.

A number of products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare their own coffee.

Instant coffee is dried into soluble powder or freeze-dried into granules that can be quickly dissolved in hot
water.[65] Originally invented in 1907,[66] it rapidly gained in popularity in many countries in the post-war
post period,
with Nescafé the most popular product.[67] Many consumers determined that the convenience in preparing a
cup of instant coffee more than made up for a perceived inferior taste.[68] Paralleling (and complementing) the
rapid rise of instant coffee was the coffee vending machine,, invented in 1947 and multiplying rapidly through
the 1950s.[69]

Canned coffee has been popular in Asian countries for many years, particularly in China, Japan, and South
Korea. Vending machines typically sell varieties of flavored canned coffee, much like brewed or percolated
coffee, available both hot and cold. Japa
Japanese
nese convenience stores and groceries also have a wide availability of
bottled coffee drinks, which are typically lightly sweetened and pre
pre-blended
blended with milk. Bottled coffee drinks are
also consumed in the United States.[70] Liquid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in large institutional
situations where coffee needs to be produced for thousands of people at the same time. It is described as
having a flavor about as good as low-grade
grade robusta coffee, and costs about 10¢ a cup to produce. The
machines used can process up to 500 cups an hour, or 1,000 if the water is preheated.[71]

Coffee can also be incorporated with alcohol in beverages

beverages—it is combined with whiskey in Irish coffee,
coffee and
forms the base of alcoholic coffee liqueurs such as Baileys, Kahlúa, and Tia Maria.

[edit]Sale and distribution

Brazilian coffee sacks.

Small-sized bag of coffee beans.

Main article: Economics of coffee

See also: List of countries by coffee consumption per capita

Coffee ingestion on average is about a third of that of tap water in North America and Europe.[2] Worldwide, 6.7
million metric tons of coffee were produced annually in 1998–2000, and the forecast is a rise to seven million
metric tons annually by 2010.[72]

Brazil remains the largest coffee exporting nation, but Vietnam tripled its exports between 1995 and 1999, and
became a major producer of robusta beans.[73] Indonesia is the third-largest exporter and the largest producer
of washed arabica coffee.

[edit]Commodity

While coffee is not technically a commodity (it is fresh produce; its value is directly affected by the length of
time it is held), coffee is bought and sold by roasters, investors and price speculators as a tradable commodity.
Coffee futures contracts for Grade 3 washed arabicas are traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange under
ticker symbol KT, with contract deliveries occurring every year in March, May, July, September, and
December.[74] Higher and lower grade arabica coffees are sold through other channels. Futures contracts for
robusta coffee are traded on the London Liffe exchange and, since 2007, on the New York ICE exchange. As
of 2006 green coffee was purported to be the second most traded commodity in the world. However Mark
Pendergrast, who originally wrote about this,[75] now believes, after further research, that his statement was
incorrect.[76]

[edit]Trade

Main article: Fair trade

The concept of fair trade labeling, which guarantees coffee growers a negotiated preharvest price, began with
the Max Havelaar Foundation's labeling program in the Netherlands. In 2004, 24,222 metric tons (of 7,050,000
produced worldwide) were fair trade; in 2005, 33,991 metric tons out of 6,685,000 were fair trade, an increase
from 0.34% to 0.51%.[77][78] A number of fair trade impact studies have shown that fair trade coffee has a
positive impact on the communities that grow it. Coffee was incorporated into the fair-trade movement in 1988,
when the Max Havelaar mark was introduced in the Netherlands. The very first fair-trade coffee was an effort to
import a Guatemalan coffee into Europe as "Indio Solidarity Coffee".[79]

Since the founding of organisations such as the European Fair Trade Association (1987), the production and
consumption of fair trade coffee has grown as some local and national coffee chains started to offer fair trade
alternatives.[80][81] For example, in April 2000, after a year-long campaign by the human rights organization
Global Exchange, Starbucks decided to carry fair-trade coffee in its stores.[82] Since September 2009 all
Starbucks Espresso beverages in UK and Ireland are made with Fairtrade and Shared Planet certified
coffee.[83] A 2005 study done in Belgium concluded that consumers' buying behavior is not consistent with their
positive attitude toward ethical products. On average 46% of European consumers claimed to be willing to pay
 fair-trade products such as coffee.[82] The study found that the
substantially more for ethical products, including fair
majority of respondents were unwilling to pay the actual price premium of 27% for fair trade coffee.[82]

[edit]Health and pharmacology

Main article: Health effects of coffee

Scientific studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and an array of medical
conditions. Findings have been contradictory as to whether coffee has any specific health benefits, and results
are similarly conflicting regarding the potentially harmful effects of coffee consumption.[9] Variations in findings,
however, can be at least partially resolved by considering the method of preparation. Coffee prepared using
paper filters removes oily components called diterpenes that are present in unfiltered coffee. Two types of
diterpenes are present in coffee: kahweol and cafestol, both of which have been associated with increased risk
of coronary heart disease via elevation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels in blood.[84]Metal filters, on the
other hand, do not remove the oily components of coffee.[10]

In addition to differences in methods of preparation, conflicting data regarding serving size could partially
explain differences between beneficial/harmful effects of coffee consumption.

view of the more common effects of caffeine,[85] a main active component of coffee
Overview

Coffee consumption has been shown to have minimal or no impact, positive or negative, on cancer
development;[86] however, researchers involved in an ongoing 22
22-year study by the Harvard School of Public
Health state that "the overall balance of risks and benefits [of coffee consumption] are on the side of
benefits."[86] Other studies suggest coffee consumption reduces the risk of being affected by Alzheimer's
disease, diabetes mellitus type 2, cirrhosis of the liver,[87] and gout.
disease, Parkinson's disease, heart disease
A longitudinal study in 2009 showed that those who consumed a moderate amount of coffee or tea (3–5 cups
per day) at midlife were less likely to develop dementiaand Alzheimer's disease in late-life compared with those
who drank little coffee or avoided it altogether.[88] It increases the risk of acid reflux and associated
diseases.[89] Most of coffee's beneficial effects against type 2 diabetes are not due to its caffeine content, as the
positive effects of consumption are greater in those who drink decaffeinated coffee.[90] The presence
of antioxidants in coffee has been shown to prevent free radicals from causing cell damage.[91] A recent study
showed that roast coffee, high in lipophic antioxidants and chlorogenic acid lactones, protected primary
neuronal cell cultures against hydrogen peroxide-induced cell death.[92]

In a healthy liver, caffeine is mostly broken down by the hepatic microsomal enzymatic system. The resulting
metabolites are mostlyparaxanthines-theobromine and theophylline-and a small amount of unchanged caffeine
is excreted by urine. Therefore, the metabolism of caffeine depends on the state of this enzymatic system of
the liver. Elderly individuals with a depleted enzymatic system do not tolerate coffee with caffeine. They are
recommended to take decaffeinated coffee, and this only if their stomach is healthy, because both
decaffeinated coffee and coffee with caffeine cause heartburn. Moderate amounts of coffee (50–100 mg of
caffeine or 5–10 g of coffee powder a day) are well tolerated by most elderly people. Excessive amounts of
coffee, however, can, in many individuals, cause very unpleasant, exceptionally even life-threatening adverse
effects.[93]

Coffee consumption can lead to iron deficiency anemia in mothers and infants.[94] Coffee also interferes with the
absorption of supplemental iron.[95] Interference with iron absorption is due to the polyphenols present in coffee.
Although the inhibition of iron absorption can cause an iron deficiency, iron is considered a carcinogen in
relation to the liver. Polyphenols contained in coffee are therefore associated with decreasing the risk of liver
cancer development.[96]

American scientist Yaser Dorri has suggested that the smell of coffee can restore appetite and
refresh olfactory receptors. He suggests that people can regain their appetite after cooking by smelling coffee
beans, and that this method can also be used for research animals.[97]

Over 1,000 chemicals have been reported in roasted coffee; more than half of those tested (19/28) are
rodent carcinogens.[98] Coffee's negative health effects are often blamed on itscaffeine content. Instant coffee
has a much greater amount of acrylamide than brewed coffee.[99] Research suggests that drinking caffeinated
coffee can cause a temporary increase in the stiffening of arterial walls.[100] Caffeinated coffee is not
recommended for everybody. It may aggravate preexisting conditions such as gastroesophageal reflux
disease, migraines, arrhythmias, and cause sleep disturbances.[101]

Coffee is no longer thought to be a risk factor for coronary heart disease.[102] One study suggests that it may
have a mixed effect on short-term memory, by improving it when the information to be recalled is related to the
current train of thought but making it more difficult to recall unrelated information.[103] Caffeine has been
associated with its ability to act as an antidepressant. A review by de Paulis and Martin indicated a link
between a decrease in suicide rates and coffee consumption, and suggested that the action of caffeine in
blocking the inhibitory effects of adenosine on dopamine nerves in the brain reduced feelings of
depression.[104] A 1992 study concluded that about 10% of people with a moderate daily intake (235 mg per
withdrawn,[105] but a 2002 review of the
day) experienced increased depression and anxiety when caffeine was withdrawn
literature criticised its methodology and concluded that "[t]he effects of caffeine withdrawal are still
controversial."[106] About 15% of the U.S. general population report having stopped drinking coffee altogether,
citing concern about health and unpleasant side effects of caffeine.[107]

[edit]History

The following text needs to be harmonized with text in History of coffee.

coffee

Main article: History of coffee

Over the door of a Leipzig coffeeshop is a sculptural representation of a man inTurkish dress,, receiving a cup of coffee from
a boy

Ethiopian ancestors of today's Oromo people were believed to have been the first to recognize the energizing
effect of the coffee bean plant.[3]However, no direct evidence has been found indicating where in Africa coffee
grew
w or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant or even known about it, earlier than the 17th
century.[3] The story of Kaldi, the 9th-century
century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee, did not appear in
writing until 1671 and is probably apocryphal.[3] From Ethiopia, the beverage was introduced
ntroduced into the Arab world
through Egypt and Yemen.[108]

The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of
monasteries around Mokha in Yemen.[3] It was here in Arabia that coffee beans
the fifteenth century, in the Sufimonasteries
were first roasted and brewed, in a similar way to how it is now prepare
prepared.
d. By the 16th century, it had reached
the rest of the Middle East, Persia, Turkey
Turkey, and northern Africa.. Coffee then spread to Italy, and to the rest of
Europe, to Indonesia,, and to the Americas.[4]

In 1583, Leonhard Rauwolf,, a German physician, gave this description of coffee after returning from a ten
ten-year
trip to the Near East:

A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous illnesses,, particularly those of the stomach. Its consumers
consume
take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup that is passed around and from which each one drinks a
cupful. It is composed of water and the fruit from a bush called bunnu.
—Léonard Rauwolf, Reise in die Morgenländer (in German)

Pouring Turkish coffee in the Arab villageAbu

Abu Ghosh (Israel)

From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy. The thriving trade between Venice and North Africa, Egypt, and
the Middle East brought many goods, including coffee, to the Venetian port. From Venice, it was introduced to
the rest of Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted after it was deemed a Christian beverage by Pope
Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the "Muslim drink." The first European coffee house opened in
Italy in 1645.[4] The Dutch were the first to import coffee on a large scale, and they were among the first to defy
the Arab prohibition on the exportation of plants or unroasted seeds when Pieter van den Broeck smuggled
seedlings from Mocha, Yemen,, into Europe in 1616.[109] The Dutch later grew the crop
in Java and Ceylon.[53] The first exports of Indonesian coffee from Java to the Netherlands occurred in
1711.[110] Through the efforts of the Britis
British East India Company,, coffee became popular in England as well.
Oxford's Queen's Lane Coffee House,, established in 1654, is still in existence today. Co
Coffee
ffee was introduced in
France in 1657, and in Austria and Poland after the 1683Battle of Vienna, when coffee was captured from
supplies of the defeated Turks.[111]

When coffee reached North America during the Colonial period, it was initially not as successful as it had been
in Europe as alcoholic beverages remained more popular. During the Revolutionary War, however, the demand
for coffee increased so much that dealers had to hoard their scarce supplies and raise prices dramatically; this
was also due to the reduced availability of tea from British merchants.[112] After theWar of 1812, during which
Britain temporarily cut off access to tea imports, the Americans' taste for coffee grew, and high demand during
theAmerican Civil War together with advances in brewing technology secured the position of coffee as an
everyday commodity in the United States.[113][not in citation given] Paradoxically, coffee consumption declined in
England, giving way to tea during the 18th century. The latter beverage was simpler to make, and had become
cheaper with the British conquest of India and the tea industry there.[114]

The Frenchman Gabriel de Clieu brought a coffee plant to the French territory of Martinique in the Caribbean,
from which much of the world's cultivated arabica coffee is descended. Coffee thrived in the climate and was
conveyed across the Americas.[115] The territory of San Domingo (now Haiti) saw coffee cultivated from 1734,
and by 1788 it supplied half the world's coffee. However, the dreadful conditions that the slaves worked in on
coffee plantations were a factor in the soon to follow Haitian Revolution. The coffee industry never fully
recovered there.[116]Meanwhile, coffee had been introduced to Brazil in 1727, although its cultivation didn't
gather momentum until independence in 1822.[117] After this time, massive tracts of rainforest were cleared first
from the vicinity of Rio and later São Paulo for coffee plantations.[118] Cultivation was taken up by many
countries in Central America in the latter half of the 19th century, and almost all involved the large-scale
displacement and exploitation of the indigenous Indian people. Harsh conditions led to many uprisings, coups
and bloody suppression of peasants.[119]The notable exception was Costa Rica, where lack of ready labor
prevented the formation of large farms. Smaller farms and more egalitarian conditions ameliorated unrest over
the 19th and 20th centuries.[120]

Coffee has become a vital cash crop for many Third World countries. Over one hundred million people
in developing countries have become dependent on coffee as their primary source of income. It has become
the primary export and backbone for African countries like Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ethiopia,[121] as well
as many Central American countries.

[edit]Social and cultural aspects

Main article: Coffee culture

A coffeehouse in Palestine (1900)

Coffee is often consumed alongside (or instead of) breakfast by many at home. It is often served at the end of a
meal, normally with a dessert, and at times with an after
after-dinner
dinner mint especially when consumed at a restaurant
or dinner party.

Aggressively promoted by the Pan-American

American Coffee Bureau, the "coffee break" was first promoted in 1952.
Hitherto unknown in the workplace, its uptake was facilitated by the recent popularity of both instant coffee and
the American workplace.[69]
vending machines, and has become an institution of th

[edit]Coffeehouses

See also: Coffeehouse for a social history of coffee, and caffè for specifically Italian traditions

Most widely known

wn as coffeehouses or cafés, establishments serving prepared coffee or other hot beverages
have existed for over five hundred years.

Various legends involving the introduction of coffee to Istanbul at a "Kiva Han" in the late 15th century circulate
nary tradition, but with no documentation.[122]
in culinary

Coffeehouses in Mecca soon became a concern as places for political gatherings to the imams who banned
them, and the drink, for Muslims between 1512 and 1524. In 1530 the first coffee house was opened
in Damascus,[123] and not long after there were many coffee houses in
inCairo.

In the 17th century, coffee appeared for the first time in Europe outside the Ottoman Empire,, and coffeehouses
were established and quickly became popular. The first coffeehous
coffeehouses inWestern Europe appeared in Venice, a
result of the traffic between La Serenissima and the Ottomans; the very first one is recorded in 1645. The first
coffeehouse in England was set up in Oxford in 1650 by a Jewish man named Jacob in the building now known
as "The Grand Cafe". A plaque on the wall still commemorates this and the Cafe is now a trendy cocktail
bar.[124]
By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses in England.[125] An Armenian named Pascal
established Paris' a coffee stall in 1672 that was ultimately unsuccessful and the city had to wait until 1689 for
its first coffeehouse when Procopio Cutò opened the Café Procope. This coffeehouse still exists today and was
a major meeting place of the FrenchEnlightenment; Voltaire, Rousseau, and Denis Diderot frequented it, and it
is arguably the birthplace of the Encyclopédie, the first modern encyclopedia.[126] America had its first
coffeehouse in Boston, in 1676.[127] Coffee, tea and beer were often served together in establishments which
functioned both as coffeehouses and taverns; one such was the Green Dragon in Boston, where John
Adams, James Otis and Paul Revere planned rebellion.[114]

The modern espresso machine was born in Milan in 1945 by Achille Gaggia,[128] and from there spread
across coffeehouses and restaurants across Italy and the rest of Europe and North America in the early 1950s.
An Italian named Pino Riservato opened the first espresso bar, the Moka Bar, in Soho in 1952, and there were
400 such bars in London alone by 1956.Cappucino was particularly popular among English
drinkers.[129] Similarly in the United States, the espresso craze spread. North Beach in San Francisco saw the
opening of the Caffe Trieste in 1957, which saw Beat Generation poets such as Allan Ginsberg and Bob
Kaufman alongside bemused Italian immigrants.[129] Similar such cafes existed in Greenwich Village and
elsewhere.[129]

The international coffeehouse chain Starbucks began as a modest business roasting and selling quality coffee
beans in Seattle in 1971, by three college students Jerry Baldwin, Gordon Bowker and Zev Siegl. The first store
opened on March 30, 1971, followed by a second and third over the next two years.[130] Entrepreneur Howard
Schultz joined the company in 1982 as Director of Retail Operations and Marketing, and pushed to sell
premade espresso coffee. The others were reluctant, but Schultz opened Il Giornale in Seattle in April
1986.[131] He bought the other owners out in March 1987 and pushed on with plans to expand – from 1987 to
the end of 1991, the chain (rebranded from Il Giornale to Starbucks) expanded to over 100 outlets.[132] The
company's name graces 16,600 stores in over 40 countries worldwide.[133]

[edit]Prohibition

Coffee was initially used for spiritual reasons. At least 1,000 years ago, traders brought coffee across the Red
Sea into Arabia (modern-day Yemen), where Muslim monks began cultivating the shrub in their gardens. At
first, the Arabians made wine from the pulp of the fermented coffee berries. This beverage was known
as qishr (kisher in modern usage) and was used during religious ceremonies.[134]

Coffee drinking was prohibited by jurists and scholars (ulema) meeting in Mecca in 1511 as haraam, but the
subject of whether it was intoxicating was hotly debated over the next 30 years until the ban was finally
overturned in the mid 16th century.[135] Use in religious rites among the Sufi branch of Islam led to coffee's
being put on trial in Mecca: it was accused of being a heretical substance, and its production and consumption
were briefly repressed. It was later prohibited in Ottoman Turkey under an edict by the Sultan Murad
IV.[6] Coffee, regarded as a Muslim drink, was prohibited by Ethiopian Orthodox Christians until as late as 1889;
it is now considered a national drink of Ethiopia for people of all faiths. Its early association in Europe with
rebellious political activities led to Charles II outlawing coffeehouses from January 1676 (although the uproar
created forced the monarch to back down two days before the ban was due to come into force).[114] Frederick
the Great banned it in Germany in 1777 for nationalistic and economic reasons; concerned about the money
leaving to country on the popular beverage, he sought to force the public back to consuming beer.[136] Lacking
coffee producing colonies, Germany had to import all its coffee at a great cost.[137]

A contemporary example of religious prohibition of coffee can be found in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
day Saints.[138] The organization holds that it is both physically and spiritually unhealthy to consume
coffee.[139] This comes from the Mormon doctrine of health, given in 1833 by Mormon founder Joseph Smith in
a revelation called the Word of Wisdom. It does not identify coffee by name, but includes the statement that
"hot drinks are not for the belly," which has been interpreted to forbid both coffee and tea.[139]

Quite a number of members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church also avoid caffeinated drinks. In its
teachings, the Church encourages members to avoid tea and coffee and other stimulants. Abstinence from
coffee, tobacco and alcohol by many Adventists has afforded a near unique opportunity for studies to be
conducted within that population group on the health effects of coffee drinking, free from confounding factors.
One study was able to show a weak but statistically significant association between coffee consumption and
mortality from ischemic heart disease, other cardiovascular disease, all cardiovascular diseases combined, and
all causes of death.[140]

[edit]Folklore and culture

The Oromo people would customarily plant a coffee tree on the graves of powerful sorcerers. They believed
that the first coffee bush sprang up from the tears that the god of heaven shed over the corpse of a dead
sorcerer.[141]

Johann Sebastian Bach was inspired to pen the Coffee Cantata, about dependence on the beverage.[142]

[edit]Notes

a b c
1. ^ Unofficial/semiofficial/mirror data

2. ^ FAO estimate

3. ^ Aggregate (may include official, semiofficial, or estimates)

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