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Chemistry Review
Unit I: Matter and Energy

The Periodic Table

Groups of the Period Table

Group 1a: Alkali Metals- Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium, Francium

Group 2a: Alkaline Earth Metals- Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium. Barium,
Radium

Group 3-12: Transition Metals

Group 13: Boron Family- Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, Thallium

Group 14: Carbon Family- Carbon, Silicon, Germanium, Tin, Lead

Group 15: Nitrogen Family- Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth

Group 16: Oxygen Family- Oxygen, Sulfur, Selenium, Tellurium, Polonium

Group 17: Fluorine Family/Halogens- Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Astatine

Group 18: Noble Gases/Inert Gas Group- Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon

Classifying The Elements

I. Demitri Mendeleev (1869)- Russian Scientist

Concluded that physical and chemical properties of elements appear in regular intervals when
listed by increasing atomic mass.

Not current classification

II. Henry Mosely (1913)- English Scientist

Used x-rays to identify atomic mass.

He concluded that physical & chemical properties of elements were listed by increasing atomic
number.

Modern classification system

Basic Units of Measurement

Length- Measure distance between two points

a. Basic unit: Meter. Instrument: Meterstick

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b. 1 km= 1,000m 1m=100cm 1cm= 10 mm

Mass- Measures the quantity of matter

a. Basic unit: Gram. Instrument: Triple Beam Balance

b. 1 kg=1,000g 1g=1,000 mg

Volume- Measures amount of space occupied by an object

a. Basic unit: Liter Instrument: Graduated Cylinder

b. 1L=1,000mL 1mL= 1cm^3

c. Volume is represented by Length, Width and Height (V=LWH, for Regular Shape)

d. Vo=Vwto-Vw -Volume for irregular solid; Vw= Initial level of water, Vwto- Final level of
water

Temperature- Measures "hotness" or "coldness:

a. Basic Unit- Degrees Celsius with Thermometer

b. Freezing point H2O- 0C

c. Boiling Point H2O- 100C

d. International Scale (SI) Temperature- Measured with Kelvin Scale (Based off of
absolute zero) - 0C= 273K, 0K=-273C

Time - Measures duration

a. Basic Unit: Second with Clock

b. 60 Sec= 1 min 60 min=1 hour

Significant Figures

A. All numbers that are actually read plus one estimated guess.

I. Initial zeros are never significant. 0.0203: Only 3 significant figures

II. All whole numbers are always significant. 2039- 4 significant figures

II. Zeros are significant if they are between whole numbers. 2004- 4 significant figures

IV. Zero is significant if it's to the right of the whole number and to the right of the decimal point.
0.09036- 4 significant figures

V. Final zeros are ambiguous

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VI. For addition and subtraction, the answer can contain as many decimal places as the least
accurate value.

VII. For multiplication and division, the answer can only contain as many significant digits as
the least accurate value.

What is Chemistry?
I. It is the study of:

The composition, structure and properties of matter.

The changes which matter undergoes.

And the energy which occupies these changes.

II. Matter

Anything that has mass and volume

Divided into two classes: Mixtures and Substances

III. Substances

All homogeneous matter

a. Fixed composition

b. Always made of the same amount of matter

2 Types of Substances: Elements and Compounds

I. Elements

Contain all atoms of a single type

Cannot be decomposed

Common elements: Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon, Hydrogen

2. Compounds

Contains more than 1 type of element

Chemically combined in fixed ratio

Can be decomposed chemically but not physically

Binary Compounds- 2 Elements, like NaCl

Ternary Compounds- 3 Elements, like KNO3

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III. Mixtures

Consists of 2 more elements that differ in property and composition

Substances are physically mixed

The composition/ratio of substances vary

Can be separated physically

2 Types: Homogenous and Heterogenous

a. Homogenous- Uniformly mixed throughout the mixture

aa. Also called Solutions

i. Dissolved particles in solution (Na in H2O)

ii. Aqueous solution dissolved in water

bb. Distillation - A method used to separate parts of a homogenous mixture based

on their boiling points.

b. Heterogenous- Multiple components that are randomly distributed.

aa. Filtration is a method of using a filter to physically separate the mixture

i. Material collected ia s filtrate, material left behind is the residue.

bb. Chromatography- Separates part of the mixture physically as they have a

different rate of moving up filter paper.

Properties
Physical Properties

I. A quality of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the substance's
composition.

II. Examples: Color, solubility, odor, hardness, density, melting point, boiling point, luster
(senses).

Chemical Properties

I. The ability of a substance to undergo a chemical reaction & to form a new substance

II. A substance must undergo a chemical change to observe a chemical property

III. Examples: Rust, burn, rot, decompose, ferment, explode, corrode.

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Metallic Properties

I. Luster, good conductors of heat & electricity, malleable (hammer into shapes), ductile (ability
to be drawn into wires), hard.

Non-Metallic Properties

I. Dull, brittle, soft (if solid), poor conductors of heat & electricity, no free electrons.

Metalloids/Semi-Metal Properties

I. Properties of both metals & non metals

II. Shiny, but brittle, like Silicon

Physical vs. Chemical Changes

I. A physical changes in form, but does not become something new

II. Dissolving, Melting, Boiling, Freezing, Cutting

III. A chemical change forms a new substance, energy always accompanies a chemical changes

Matter-Continued

I. Solids

Matter is arranged in a regular, rigid pattern

Definite shape and volume

Crystalline structure- crystals arranged in a repeated geometric pattern (Like ice, strong
intermolecular attraction)

II. Liquids

Particles not held as tightly together

Able to move past one another (flow)

Definite volume, no definite shape

III. Gases

Minimal attractive holding particles together

No definite shape or volume (takes shape and volume of container)

IV. Psuedosolids

Lacks crystalline structure

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Supercooled liquids-molecules move over one another in time

Like glass and some plastics

Phase Changes

All phase changes are accompanied with either a loss or gain of energy

An element, compound or mixture can exist as a solid, liquid or gas

I. Endothermic Reactions

Phase change that requires the gain of heat

Melting/Fusion- Solid becomes liquid

Evaporation/Boiling/Vaporization- Liquid becomes gas

Sublimation- Solid turns into gas directly (Substances that sublime have high vapor pressure
and low intermolecular forces of attraction)

II. Exothermic Reactions

All of these changes require the loss or release of energy/heat

Freezing/Solidification-Liquid becomes solid

Condensation- Gaseous substance becomes liquid

Deposition- Gaseous substance turns directly into a solid

Main Types of Energy

I. Kinetic (Ke)- Energy of Motion

II. Potential (Pe) Stored Energy

III. Chemical Energy (Ce)- Energy associated with a chemical change

A.Ke=1/2mv^2

B.Pe=ugh (mass x distance from the ground x gravity)

IV.Heat Energy

A.Amount of energy transferred from one substance to another

B.Can be measured using a calorimeter

C. Calories (cal) or Joules (J) measure heat gain or loss

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D.To convert from cal or J to Cal or KJ, divide by zero

Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy is neither created nor destroyed

Energy can be transferred from one substance to another

Or energy can be transferred into a new form of energy

The total abound of energy will remain the same

Example: Gas burns in engine (Chemical to heat), Car moves (Mechanical to kinetic)

Thermometry

Temperature- The measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance

Heat- Flows spontaneously from a hot body to a cold body

Body heat to chair, boiling water to hand, burned hand to icepack

Temperature Scales

Degree Celsius- Most commonly used, 2 fixed points (0 which is melting/freezing of water,
and 100, which is boiling/condensation point of water) Values increase by 1

Kelvin- Contains theoretically the lowest possible temperature, has never been exactly
reached, absence of all kinetic energy

K=C+273, C=K-273

Measurement of Heat Energy

The amount of heat given off or absorbed in a

reaction can be calculated by:

Q=MCT

--Q=Heat (Joules or calories)

--M=Mass of substance

--C=Specific heat capacity of substance (J/GC)

--T=Temperature Final-Temperature Initial

Q=MCT is used only when there is a change in temperature

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Specific Heat Capacity- Amount of heat needed to raise 1g of a substance by 1C (Water=4.18

J/GC)

Heat of Fusion

The amount of heat needed to melt 1g of a substance

Q=MHf is used when calculating how much heat is absorbed when a substance melts

Remember:

Heat absorbed during melting goes into raising the potential energy of the Substance

Kinetic energy is constant (constant temperature therefore you cannot use Q=MCT

The value for heat of fusion is 334 J/G

Heat of Vaporization

The amount of heat needed to vaporize/boil 1g of a substance

Q=MHv is used to calculate how much energy is absorbed when a substance vaporizes

The heat of vaporization of water is 2260 J/G

Mole Concept-Avogadros Number

Based off of the atomic mass of Carbon

1 Gram of Hydrogen=1 Mole/ 6.02x10^23 amu/particles

12 Grams of Carbon= 1 Mole/ 6.02x10^23 amu/particles

24 Grams of Magnesium= 1 Mole/ 6.02x10^23 amu/particles

Example: Magnesium Nitrate Mg(NO3)2

Mg (1)(24)=24g

N (2)(14)=28g Mg(NO3)2 = 148g = 6.02x1023 Particles

O (6)(16)=96g 24+28+96=148

Atoms and molecules are too small to count, so we count them in liege quantities

The number of atoms of carbon present in 12 grams

The mass of one mole of a substance can be found by determining its gram-formula mass

To convert grams to moles, use formula found in reference table

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Given Mass/Gram-Formula Mass

Gas-Mole Concept

1 Mole of any gas at STP= 22.4L

1 Mole of H2(g) =22.4 L, 1 mole of Cl2(g)=22.4L

Diatomic molecules that exist in nature=

I2, Br2, Cl2, F2, O2, N2, H2

I BRought CLay For Our New House

Monoatomic Molecules - Noble Gases- He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe

To solve moles for gases- Moles=Given Liters/Liters Per Mole (22.4 L)

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Percent Composition
The percent by mass of each element in the compound.
The percent composition of a compound consists of a percent value for each different element
in the compound
K2CrO4
K= 40.3%
Cr=26.8%
O=32.9%
The percents MUST total 100%
The percent by mass of an element in a compound is the number of grams of the element
divided by the mass in grams of the compound, multiplied by 100%
I. K (39)(2)=78g. Cr (1)(52)=52g. O (4)16) = 64 - Configure Gram-Mass Formula
78+52+64=194g
II. Use proportion 78/194 = 40.3% 52/194=26.8% 64/194= 32.9%

Gas Laws, Matter

Kinetic Molecular Theory for Ideal Gases
Studies of gas behavior have led to a model referred to as the ideal gas model-based off of
several assumptions
A gas is composed of individual particles which are in a constant, straight line motion
Gas particles are separated great distances relative to their size. The volume of gas particles are
not considered.
Gas participles are considered as having no attraction to each other.
The collision theory states that a reaction is most likely to occur if the reactant particles collide
with proper energy and orientation (Sufficient amount of energy and proper angle & geometry)
Deviations from the Gas Laws
The ideal gas model does not exactly represent real gases under all conditions
Hydrogen and Helium are the two most ideal gases- no real gas follows the ideal model under
all conditions of temperature and pressure
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Deviations occur because model is not perfect

This is because gas particles have volume and exert some attraction for each other
These factors because significant under conditions of high temperature and low pressure and
decreased velocity due to increased molecular mass
Conditions of high temperature and low pressure are ideal
Gas
The space between molecules in a gaseous phase is about 1,000 times greater than in liquid or
solid phase.
Molecules possess greater kinetic energy and have overcome the attractive forces that hold
them together.
The density of a gas is lower as compared to solid or liquid
*In the gas phase, molecules vibrate, rotate and translate. This allows them to fill the volume of
the container in which they are held
High Temperature/Lower Volume= Increased collision, smaller particles move faster.
High Temperature/Low Pressure= ideal
High Pressure/Low Temperature=real
Gas Laws
I. Boyles Law
Temperature=Constant
P1V1=P2V2
V2=P1V1/P2 PV=Constant
As Volume increases, Pressure decreases (Inverse Proportions)
II. Charles Law
Pressure=Constant
V1/T1=V2/T2
V2=V1/T1
As temperature increases, volume increases
Directly proportional
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III. Gay Lussacs Law

Volume=Constant
P1/T1=P2/T2
P1T2=P2T1
P2=P1T2/T1
As pressure increases, temperature increases
Directly proportional

Gas Laws for Closed Systems

P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2 - Charles Law - Temperature always in Kevin, increased volume in an
expandable container (constant pressure)
P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2 Gay-Lussacs Law - Temperature always in Kelvin, increased pressure in a
rigid container (constant volume)
Increase in average kinetic energy causes increase in momentum, which causes an increase
in collision frequency
P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2 - Boyles Law- Temperature always in Kelvin, Increase in pressure causes
a decrease in pressure (temperature remains constant)
Increase in external pressure causes increase in external collisions, which causes an
expandable container pushed into smaller container
Phases in Detail-Gases
Molecules spread out and fill spaces- they are given due to their weak intermolecular forces of
attraction
There are large spaces between gas particles
Evaporation
Takes place at all temperatures on the liquid/vapor boundary
Vapor-A gaseous phase of a substance that is a liquid or solid at normal conditions
Once liquid particles have absorbed enough energy to overcome attractive forces, they
become vapor
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Vapor Pressure- Gas particles exert pressure on the liquid when they evaporate
In a closed system, the pressure increases
Evaporation increases with an increase in temperature
1 ATM=760 Torr=760 mm Hg, are also values of standard pressure
Normal Boiling Point= When the vapor pressure=atmosphere pressure.
When a substance boils, evaporation occurs throughout the liquid
Also measures the strength of intermolecular forces
*If Vapor Pressure is high, attraction between molecules is weak
*If Vapor Pressure is low, attraction between is strong

History of the Atom

I. John Daltons Atomic Theory (1803)
All matter is made up of tiny, indestructible particles called atoms
All atoms of a given element have identical physical & chemical properties
Atoms are neither created nor destroyed (Law of conservation of mass)
Atoms of different elements form compounds in while number ratios
Some of these postulates now have exceptions:
Atoms can be broken apart in nuclear reactions
Atoms of a given element can have different physical and chemical properties (isotopes)
II. J.J. Thomsons Plum-Pudding Model (1897)
His model portrays the atom as a big ball of positive charge that contains small particles of
negative charge embedded in it.
Discovered the charge of an electron by observing cathode rays in a cathode ray tube
From his observation, he concluded that cathode rays are streams of negatively charged
particles with mass
Another scientist, Millikan, was able to determine the mass of an electron based upon
Thomsons work (1909).
III. Rutherfords Model (1909)
Made two key observations based on his gold foil experiment
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He disproved Thomsons model

He bombarded a thin piece of gold foil with positively charged alpha (positive charge) particles
(much smaller than the atom)
Proved the nucleus to be positive
Observations:
I. Almost all the alpha particles passed through foil without deflection
II. Small percent slightly deflected
III. Some were largely deflected
IV. A few even reflected back in the direction from where they had came
Conclusion: (1911): Atom is mostly empty space and all of the positive charge in an atom is
concentrated in a small, dense core (nucleus).
This area is positive, since positively charged particles were deflected from it (repelled)
Atomic Mass= Sum of protons and neutrons
Atomic Number= Number of protons
Number of protons=Number of electrons
Last level= Valence electrons
IV. Bohr Planetary Model (1913)
Model displayed electrons traveling in orbits around the nucleus
Electrons are only found in orbitals (principle energy levels) not in between
The principle energy levels (PEL) approximates how far the electrons are from the PEL uncles
PEL Shell Max # Of Electrons 2(N)2 N=PEL
1 K 2
2 L 8
3 M 18
4 N 32
5 O 50
6 P 72
7 Q 98
The electrons distance from the nucleus is related to their specific amount of energy (quanta)
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As you move away from the nucleus, the energy in each PEL Increases.
Like climbing stairs, further you go=more energy
Ground State-When electrons are in lowest energy level
Quantum Leap- When electrons jump between energy levels
2 electrons can only absorb a fixed amount of energy (quanta) to move to higher level
Electrons can only jump to levels that arent completely filled with electrons
Heat, light and electricity are all stimuli that can excite an electron
Excited State- Electrons are in higher energy levels. Acquired when an electron absorbs energy
and becomes unstable. Electrons quickly return to ground state, emitting the same amount of
energy absorbed, usually in some form of light.
Every element gives off a unique pattern of colors (line spectrum) which can be used to
identify the element
Planck s constant, h = 6.63 10-34 J s

Electron Configuration
An electron configuration tells you how many electrons there are in each energy level
1 Mg (2-8-2) has 2 electrons in PEL 1, and 8 electrons in PEL 2
The amount of numbers in each electron configuration tells you how many electron levels are occupied
with electrons
2n2 - energy levels for max (for max)
2-8-2- Ground State, 2-7-3- Excited State
Last=Valence Electrons
Valence Electrons
The electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom (last # in the electron configuration)
2-8-3 has 3 valence electrons
Valence electrons can determine the chemical properties of an element
The Kernel
Includes the nucleus and all non-valence electrons
Quantum Numbers

Schrdinger- Mathematically treated the electron as a wave

The 4 quantum numbers in Schrdingers equation are used in describing electron behavior
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N,L,M,S
Principle Quantum Number- N
Second quantum number indicated by L describes sublevels. Each energy level (N) has n
sublevels.
Level Sublevel
1 1 s
2 1,2 s,p
3 1,2,3 s,p,d
4 1,2,3,4 s,p,d,f
The third quantum number m represents the number of orbitals in a sublevel
Sublevels- only 1 orbital m=0
Sublevels- 3 orbitals (x,y,z) m=01
Sublevels- 5 orbitals m=012
Sublevels 7 orbitals m=012
Only 2e- in each orbital
Spin Quantum Number- Describes the spin of an atom (Pauli) clockwise
Paulis Exclusion Principle- No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of 4 quantum
numbers
Examples:
I. Hydrogen- 1s1
II. He 1s2
III. Lithium - 1s22s1
IV. Carbon 1s22s22s2
V. Neon 1s22s22p6
VI.Magnesium - 1s22s22p63s2
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Bonding
Ionic Bonding
Compounds composed of cations and anions are called ionic compounds
Characterized by the transfer of electrons- Representative unit is the formula unit
Composed of metal cations and nonmetal anions.
Cation- Ion with positive charge
Anion- Ion with negative charge
Anions and cations have opposite charges and attract one another with electrostatic forces
Properties:
I. Solid at room temperature
II. Have high melting points
III. Conduct an electric current when
Dissolved/melted in water
Use brackets diagram to illustrate electron
transfer based off of oxidation numbers and
Valence electrons - to satisfy the octet rule (to obtain 8 valence electrons to achieve stability-like
the noble gases)
Example: Calcium and Chlorine (Metal and nonmetal)
Calciums electron configuration: 2-8-8-2
Chlorines electron configuration: 2-8-7
You need to remove 2 electrons from calcium to achieve 8 valence electrons
*Use Lewis Electron Dot Diagram* - Depicts valence electrons
And 2 electrons must be given to chlorine (Cl is diatomic), so one electron goes to each chlorine.
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Covalent Bonding
Characterized by the share of electrons (like a tug-of-war between elements) to achieve
electron configuration of noble gases
Representative unit is a molecule
Nonpolar and Polar
Nonpolar: Bonding electrons are shared equally (Like N2, O2, Cl2, H2)
Polar: Bonding electrons shared unequally
Polar Molecule*: Asymmetrical molecule, one side is more negative than the other is
positive. (AKA, a dipole)
Nonpolar Molecule*: Symmetrical molecule, charges are balanced
The more electronegative atom attracts electrons more strongly and gains a slightly
negative charge. The less electronegative atom has a slightly positive charge
Use difference of electronegativity to determine most probably type of bond
Electronegativity Difference Most Probable Bond Example
0.0-0.4 Nonpolar Covalent H-H (H2) (0.0)
0.4-1.0 Moderately Covalent H-CL (HCl) (0.9)
1.0-2.0 Very Polar Covalent H-F (HF) (1.9)
2.0 Ionic Na+Cl- (2.1)
Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to attract electrons when the atom is in a compound
Single Covalent Bond: Bond formed when when two atoms share a pair of electrons (Like
H:H)-Depicts the sharing of two electrons
Double Covalent Bond: A bond in which two atoms hare two pairs of electrons (like O::O),
Oxygen has 6 valence electrons, and needs 8 to follow octet rule, so oxygen shares two with
oxygen)
Triple Covalent Bond: A bond formed by sharing three pairs of electrons (like N:::N), Nitrogen
has 5 valence electrons, and needs 3 more to follow octet rule- so, Nitrogen must share 3 with
Nitrogen)
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Network Solids/Crystals: Solids in which all of the atoms are covalently bonded to each other-
VERY high melting point. Examples are Diamonds, Silicon Carbide, Silicon Dioxide
Properties:
I. Low melting/boiling points
II.Tend to be soft, tend to be liquids, gases or soft solids
III. Poor conductors of heat and electricity
IV.Are molecules
V. Are brittle
VI. Nonmetallic
Coordinate Covalent Bonds: A covalent bond in which one atom contributes both bonding
electrons. (Can depict in structural formula by drawing an arrow that points from the atom
donating the pair of electrons to the atom receiving them) (like CO)

Metallic Bonding
Can be described as a sea of electrons
The valence electrons are mobile and can drift freely from one part of the metal to another
Metallic bonds consist of the attraction of the free-floating valence electrons for the positively
charged metal ions. These bonds are the forces of attraction that hold metals together (Cu
would be considered a metallic bond)
Sea of electrons explains physical properties of metals:
Excellent conductors of heat and electricity
Malleable (Can be hammered and shaped)
Ductile (Can be made into wires)
Metal atoms are arranged in very compact and orderly patterns
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Hydrogen Bonding
Attractive forces in which a hydrogen covalently bonded to a very electronegative element
(Fluorine is most electronegative, oxygen is second most electronegative) is also weakly
bonded to an unshared electron pair of an electronegative atom.
Like OH, HF, NH (Hydrogen with Oxygen, Fluorine or Nitrogen)
For a Hydrogen bond to form, there must be a covalent bond present
Strongest of intermolecular forces
Extremely important of determining the properties of water and biological molecules, such as
proteins
Van der Waals Forces
The two weakest attractions between molecules- named after Dutch chemist Johannes van der
Waals (1837-1923).
Van der Waals forces consist of dipole interactions and dispersion forces
Dipole interactions occur when polar molecules are attracted to one another-The electrical
attraction involved occurs between the oppositely charged region of polar molecules (Like
NaCl(Aq), Na+ will attach to O- and Cl- will attach to H+ (negative goes to positive, positive
goes to negative)
Dispersion forces are the weakest of all molecular interactions and are caused by the motion of
electrons.
Caused by the electron motion on one molecule affecting the electron motion on the other
through electrical forces (electrons are negative..when an electron moves, it will repel another
electron)
Trends in Periodic Table
I. Atomic Radii
Trend in Period
Decrease left to right
Increase # of protons, increase attraction. For valence electrons= smaller radius
Trend in Group
Increase Top to bottom
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Inner electrons shield valence electrons

Reduces attractive forces= Bigger radius
II. Ionic Radius
Metals lose electrons
Radius decreases in size
Metals have larger radius than its ion
Nonmetals gain electrons
Radius increases in size
Nonmetals have smaller radius than its ion
III. Electronegativity
Ability to attract electrons
Trends in period:
Increase left to right
Metals have lower electronegativity than nonmetals
Trends in group:
Decrease top to bottom
IV. Ionization Energy
Amount of energy needed to remove the most loosely bound electron from an atom
Trends in period:
Increase left to right
Strong nuclear charge- More energy needed to remove electrons
Trends in group:
Decrease from top to bottom
Electrons farther away- easier to lose, less pull from nucleus
V. Reactivity
Noble gases are unreactive- full valence shells
Groups I and II are the most reactive metals
Never found pure in nature and lose electrons easily
Group 17- most reactive nonmetals (gain electrons easily and never found pure in nature)
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VI. Metallic vs. Nonmetallic Characteristics

Metallic increases down a group, decreases down a period
Nonmetallic decreases down a group and increases across a period
Thin black line spirits metals and nonmetals
Metalloids (semimetals) have properties of metals and nonmetals
Solubility
Solvent- Substance that is present in the larger amount which does the dissolving (the solvent
dissolves)
Water is the universal solvent (dissolves most things)
Solute- Substance that is present in smaller amount which gets dissolved
I. Types
Solid solutions- mixture of 2 or more solids (Sand, metal alloy, Bronze (Zn+Cu)
Gas solutions- mixture of 2 or more gases (Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide)
Liquid solution
Solid in water (Salt water)
Gas in liquid (Carbonated dranks)
Liquid in liquid (water and juice)
Miscible- Liquids that mix in any amount (water and wine)
Immiscible- Liquids that cannot mix in any amounts (oil and water)
Aqueous
Electrolyte- Salt or ionic compounds that when dissolved in water will conduct
electricity
Non-Electrolyte- Compound when dissolved in water that wont conduct electricity
(Any covalent bond, like sugars)
II. Properties
Homogenous mixtures
Clear, do not disperse light
May have color (transition elements)
Solute will not settle out
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Will pass through a filter (filtration cannot separate)

III. Factors
Nonpolar Molecules (fats)
Solvent- Nonpolar
Nonpolar molecule is soluble
Molecules will mix together
Polar solvent (Water)
Nonpolar molecule is insoluble
No attraction between the molecules
Polar Solute
Like Alcohol
Nonpolar solvent (carbon tetrachloride) is insoluble (no attraction between molecules)
Polar Solvent (Water) is soluble (attraction between molecules)
Ionic Solute
Solvent is nonpolar: insoluble and ions formed cannot attract to anything in the solvent
Solvent is polar: soluble and ons attract to the positive and negative ends of the solvent
(H2O)
Temperature
As temperature increases:
Solids become more soluble in water and is true in most cases
Gases solubility decrease in liquid (think of soda)
Pressure
As pressure increases, gases become more soluble and has no effect on solids
To make gases soluble: High pressure and low temperature
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Formulas and Equations

Chemical Equations
A chemical equation represents the starting and ending materials as:
Reactants Products

The arrow represents yields or produces

The reactants are the starting material
Products are the ending material
Example: C+O2 CO2 Or Carbon + Oxygen yields Carbon Dioxide
Carbon and Oxygen are the reactants, Carbon Dioxide is the product
Endothermic Reaction
Energy is added for reaction to occur and is a reactant
Example: AB+Energy A + B
Example: Photosynthesis (Sunlight is added)

6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy C6H12O6 + 6O2

Since energy is absorbed in an endothermic reaction, the surrounding environment will

decrease in temperature

Exothermic Reactions

Energy is removed/released for a reaction to occur and is a product

Example: A+B Yields to AB + Energy

Example: Cellular respiration (energy is released as heat, ATP)

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Since energy is released in an exothermic reaction, the surrounding environment will increase
in temperature
Law of Conservation of Mass
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Matter (mass) is neither created nor destroyed

In a chemical equation, both sides of the arrow must have the same amount of each type of
atom
Example: H2 + O2 Yields to H2O
This equation is not balanced since there are 2 H and 2 O on the left but only 2 H and 1
O on the right
To balance: Coefficients will be added
Must be whole #s
They will apply to all elements within the formula
And can only be but before the entire formula, not in between
Subscripts may never be changed
All diatomic (HOFBrINCL) elements must be written as diatomic when they are not combined
with any other element
If polyatomic ion is present on both sides of the equation, you may treat it as one thing or
separate out the elements within it.

Example: Ca(NO3)2 : you have either 2 nitrates or 2 nitrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms

Types of Chemical Reactions

Synthesis: 2 or more reactants making only 1 product
A + B AB

2H2 + O2 2H2O

This type of bond is always exothermic due to the bond formation

Decomposition/Analysis Reaction: 1 Reactant making 2 or more products
Opposite of synthesis
AB A + B

2H2O 2H2 + O2

This type of reaction is always endothermic due to the breaking of bonds

 Smith 26

Single Replacement/Displacement: When a single element switches places with another

element in a compound

Always 2 reactants (one single element + one compound) and always 2 products (one
single element + one compound)
A + BC B + AC

Mg + 2HCl H2 + MgCl2

Double Replacement/Displacement: When 2 elements switch places with other elements

Always 2 reactants (2 compounds) and always 2 products (2 compounds)

Outer 2 pieces come together and inner 2 pieces come together

NaOH + HCl NaCl + HOH (H2O)

Identifying Reactions
Single Replacement
Not all reactants will react
To determine if a single replacement reaction will occur:
Determine if the single element on the reactant side is a metal or nonmental
Then find this element on Table J and compare it to the corresponding metal or
nonmetal of the other reactant
If the single element is higher on Table J than the metallic/nonmetallic element in
the compound then the reaction will occur
Being higher means that the element is more reactive and can therefore
replace the other
Double Displacement
3 Situations in which a double replacement reaction will occur between two aqueous ionic
compounds
1: If one of the products is insoluble (It doesnt dissolve and therefore forms a
precipitate, and the other is soluble

AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

 Smith 27

2: If one of the products is a gas and the other product is aqueous

Na2S(aq) + 2HCl(aq) H2S(g) + 2NaCl(aq)

3: If one of the products is water and the other is aqueous

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) H2O (l) + NaCl (aq)

A double replacement reaction will not occur if both products are aqueous
Unknown Reactants and Products
You may have to predict the formula of an unknown reactant or product
Example : 2Na + 2H2O X + 2NaOH

To find X:
Tally the amount of atoms you have on either side of the arrow
2 Na 2
4H2
2O2
It seems that we are missing 2 H atoms
If written correctly, we can find the missing piece (H2)

2Na + 2H2O H2 + 2NaOH

If its a compound that is missing:

Write the symbols of the element
If ionic: Criss-cross charges to get exact formula
If covalent: think of what common molecule it could be
Kinetics
Studies the rates of chemical reactions and how quickly they occur
Collision Theory
For a reaction to occur, reactant particles must collide with
Enough energy (activation energy)
Correct spatial orientation
When these conditions are met, an effective collision has occurred
One that makes new products
 Smith 28

In general, as the number of effective collisions between particles increases, so does reaction
rate
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
I. Nature of the Reactants
Covalent or organic (containing C) substances react slower than ionic
Because they have more bonds that must be broken as they react
Ionic substances react more quickly
Have no true bonds
Ions held together by electrostatic force
II. Concentration (Mol/L)
Means how much stuff per Liter of space
If concentration is increased, then more collisions between particles will result
More collisions=faster reaction rate
In general: increase concentration, increase reaction rate
III. Surface Area
Exposing more of a reactants surface area will lead to faster reactions
This is because there will be more reactant particles contacting the other reactants
Surface area can be increased by breaking down a chunk of a reactant into smaller pieces or
powder
A powdered form of a substance always gives the most surface area
IV. Pressure
Only affects reactions involving gases
Increasing pressure increases the concentration of a gas
More in less space or smaller volume
This results in a faster reaction rate
(Only affects gases of different moles)
V. Temperature
Measure of the average kinetic energy of particles
Higher temperatures allow particles to move faster with more energy
 Smith 29

The faster they move, the greater the chance of them colliding
Increased collisions leads to faster reaction rate
In general, increased temperature=increased reaction rate
VI. Catalysts
Substances that increase the rate of a reaction
By providing a quicker, alternate pathway that requires lower activation energy
These substances are not changed in any way throughout the reaction
Examples: enzymes, heavy metals (Pt)
Role of Energy in the Reaction
I. Activation Energy
Needed to start a reaction
Varies based on the nature of the reactants
Energy can be absorbed (endothermic) or released (exothermic) in a chemical reaction
II. Enthalpy
Heat of the reaction (H)
This is the difference between the energy of the products and reactants
H+HP-HR
Free Element- H=0 (J) Free element has 0 heat
Heat of Formation- Amount of heat released or consumed when 1 mole of a compound is
produced from the free elements
H= HProducts -HReactants
Driving Forces- Low Enthalpy (-H), High Entropy (+ S)

Free Energy- Combined Effect

G= H-(T)(S)
-G=Decrease in free energy of the system + a favorable drive
+ G= Increase in free energy of the system + an unfavorable drive
Exothermic Reactions
Energy is released
Energy is a product
 Smith 30

Products have less energy than reactants

H is negative (This means that energy is released by the reactants, not a negative amount
of energy)
Table I
Endothermic Reactions
Energy is absorbed
Energy is a reactant
Products have more energy than reactants
H is positive (this means that the reactants have absorbed energy)

Potential Energy Diagrams

Activated Complex- Transition state where reactants either become products or reform
reactants
A catalyst increases the reaction rate by lowering activation energy
 Smith 31

Causes the activated complex and activation energies to be lower, but does not change the
head of the reaction
If the potential energy diagram is endothermic, the products will be higher than the reactants
and have more energy
If the potential energy diagram is exothermic, the products will be lower than the reactants and
will have less energy
Entropy S
Measure of randomness or disorder
As entropy increases, S becomes more +
As entropy decreases, S becomes more -
Physical Changes
Phase Changes- Endothermic processes and when a substance dissolves, entropy increases
Free elements are less stable and have more entropy than compounds
Increase T increases entropy
When 2 different gases mix, entropy increases
Spontaneous Reactions
There is a tendency in nature to favor
Exothermic Reactions
More stable with less energy
Higher entropy
Easier to be disorderly than orderly
Equilibrium
Most reactions can occur in both the forward and reverse directions
Both reactions will occur at the same rate
This means that the forward reaction (making products) is the same as the reverse
(reforming reactants)
It Does NOT mean that the concentration (amounts) of the same reactants and products are
equal
The concentration of the reactants and products are constant
 Smith 32

Equilibrium will only occur if nothing leaves the system

Example: If gas escapes or solid is formed (No equilibrium)
System must be closed
Phase Equilibrium
Occurs when a substance is changing its phase of matter
At the melting point
For a short period of time, both the solid and liquid phases of matter are in equilibrium with
each other
At the boiling point
For a short period of time, both the liquid and gas phases are in equilibrium
Solution Equilibrium
In a saturated solution, the rate of dissolving equals the rate of recrystallization
A closed soda bottle is also at equilibrium
The rate of the CO2 dissolving in the soda equals the rate of the dissolved CO2 escaping
If pressure is increased on the system, the reaction will shift left and more of the CO2 will
stay dissolved
If pressure is decreased on the system, the reaction will shift right and more of the CO2 will
escape as gas
Le Chateliers Principle
A system at equilibrium can be disturbed by placing a stress on it
Include: Change in temperature, concentration, pressure
When a system has a stress placed on it, the reaction shifts to relieve the stress and
reestablishes equilibrium
Concentration Changes:
When the concentration of either a reactant or product is
Increased
Reaction shifts Away from the substance increased
Decreased
Reaction shifts toward the substance decreased
 Smith 33

Temperature Changes
If you increase temperature, the endothermic reaction is favored and shifts away from heat
If you decrease temperature, the exothermic reaction is favored and shifts toward heat
Pressure Changes
Only affects gaseous substances
When pressure is increased, reaction shifts toward less moles
When pressure is decreased, reaction shifts toward more moles
When # of moles is the same on both sides, the pressure has no effect
To determine the # of moles, add the coefficients on the left side and the right side and
compare
Whatever you do, the reaction does the opposite
Oxidation-Reduction/Redox Reactions
A redox reaction is:
A type of chemical reaction
Both reduction and oxidation occur simultaneously due to a competition for electrons
between atoms
Reduction: Gain of Electrons (GER)
A species (element or ion) gains electrons
Plating (metal spoon plated with silver)
Oxidation: Loss of Electrons (LEO)
A species loses electrons
Corrosion (car rusting - iron is losing electrons)
LEO says GER
Oxidation Numbers
Found in the upper right hand corner of each element on the reference table (similar to charge)
Describe the number of electrons gained or lost by an atom
Rules for assigning numbers
In an uncombined element, Ox # is 0
Certain metals only have oxidation #
 Smith 34

Group 1= +1
Group 2= +2
Fluorine is always -1 in compounds
The other halogens (Cl, I, Br) are also -1, but only when they are the most electronegative
element in the compound
Hydrogen is +1 in compounds unless it is combined with a metal
If its with a metal, it is -1
Oxygen is usually -2 in compounds
There are exceptions
The sum of oxidation numbers in all compounds must equal zero
The sum of the oxidation numbers in polyatomic ions must equal the charge on the ion
Half Reactions
Oxidation and Reduction occur simultaneously
One cannot occur without the other
During redox, there is always a conservation of mass and charge
There are 2 half-reactions that occur in redo
Reduction - Where electrons gained are placed on the left hand side of the arrow (reactant)
Oxidation - Where electrons are placed on the right hand side of the arrow (product)
Electrochemical Cells
In redox reactions, there is a chemical reaction and an exchange of electrons between the
particles being oxidized and reduced
Electrochemical Cell: Involves a chemical reaction and a flow of electrons
Voltaic: Named after Alessandro Volta, and is an electrochemical cell in which a
spontaneous chemical reaction produces a flow of electrons
Electrolytic: Requires an electric current to force a non-spontaneous chemical reaction to
occur
Have two surfaces called electrodes (An Ox, Red Cat)
Electrode: Site at which redox occurs
Anode: Electrode where oxidation occurs
 Smith 35

Cathode: Electrode where reduction occurs

Spontaneous Reactions- Voltaic Cells

If a strip of zinc is placed into a solution of lead nitrate, the zinc will be oxidized and the copper ions
will be reduced
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) -> Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)
Zn(s)->Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- -> Cu(s)
In a voltaic cell, a salt bridge connects the two containers and provides a path for a flow of ions
between the beakers
In such voltaic cell, when a strip of zinc is located in one beaker and copper ions are in solution in
another beaker, the reaction can occur as if the solution were in the same beaker
When electrons are lost during oxidation at the anode, the travel through the wire to the cathode
The material being reduced gains electrons
E0 Cell= E0Reduction-E0Oxidation
Non-Spontaneous Reactions- Electrolysis
Electricity is used to force a chemical reaction
Used to obtain active elements such as sodium and chlorine by the electrolysis of fused (molten cells)
2NaCl (l) -> 2Na(s) + Cl2(aq)
Used to electroplate metals onto a surface
Have several things in common with a voltaic cell:
Both use redox reactions
The anode is the side of oxidation
The cathode is the site of reduction
The electrons flow through the wire from anode to cathode

Acids, Bases and Salts

I. Theories
I. Arrhenius (1887)
Acid - H+ is released (H2SO4, HCl)
Bases- OH- is released (NaOH, Ca(OH)2
II. Brnsted-Lowry (1923)

An acid donates a H+ (proton) and is a proton donor

A base accepts a H+ (proton) and is a proton acceptor
HF + H2O -> F- + H3O+ ---HF is acid, F is conjugate base, H2O is base, H3O is conjugate acid.
 Smith 36

Conjugate acid is what is formed after a base gains a H+ ion

Conjugate base is what remains after the acid donates its H+ ion.
Base + Acid -> Conjugate Acid + Conjugate Base
Acid becomes conjugate base
Base becomes conjugate acid
III. Lewis Theory (1923)
An acid is any substance that accepts a pair of electrons (2e-)
A base is any substance that donates a pair of electrons
BF3 + :NH3 -> H3N:BF3 : = 2 free electrons
BF3 - Lewis Acid
:NH3 - Lewis Base
H3N:BF3 - Product
Lewis - contains Bronsted and Arrhenius
Bronsted- Contains Arrhenius
Arrhenius- Does not contain Bronsted and Lewis
A substance that is an acid or base under Arrhenius theory is also an acid and base under Bronsted-
Lowry Theory-Each succeeding theory is more inclusive.
Aq solutions of acids conduct electric currents (electrolytes) (strong acid=good conductor)
Strong base=good conductor and a weak base=bad conductor
Polar covalent aids when dissolved can conduct electricity
II. Amphoteric Molecules
Amphoteric molecules are molecules that act as an acid or base depending on what it is mixed with
HCl + H2O -> H3O+ + Cl- Water acts as the base
Water is composed of both H+ and OH-
NH3 + H2O -> NH4+ + OH- Water acts as the acid
Water can ionize H2O (acid) + H2O (base) -> OH- + H3O+
[H3O]+ = [OH]- Concentration=Concentration
Keq= Concentration of Products/ Concentration of Reactants [H2O]= 55.6 Mol/L
Keq = [H3 O+][OH-] / [H2O][H2O]
Keq= [10-7][10-7] / [H2O]2
Keq= (55.6)2 = [H3O+][OH-]= [10-7][10-7]= 10-14 (Where pH comes from)
KW= Keq(55.6)2 = Constant of water
Kw=[H+][OH-]= 10-14
III. Ph Scale=Power of Hydrogen
0-14 (Measures H+ Concentration)
pH = -log(H+)
 Smith 37

7- Achieved in neutralization reaction of H+OH- (Neutralization results in production of water and salt)
H+ + OH- -> H2O Neutralization reaction
High pH- Greater # of OH- ions -> pH+pOH=14
Lower pH- Greater # of H+ ions
If -log(H+)=5, what is the pH of the base?
-log(1x10-5) = pH of 5 14-5= 9 pOH- 9
Scale based on power of 10
Ph of 1 is 10x more acidic than 3
14 is 100x more basic than 12
If pH changes from 6 to 2, what happens? 6-2=4 104= 10,000 more acidic
IV. Titrations
The process of adding measured volumes of an acid or base of known concentrations to an acid or base
of unknown concentration until neutralization occurs
Performed to determine the concentration of unknown solution
The solution of known concentration is called the standard solution
V. Titration Equation
MAVA=MBVB
MA= Molarity of acid/ H+
VA= Volume of acid
MB= Molarity of base/OH-
VB= Volume of base
In titration (neutralization), must be 1:1 ratio between H+ and OH-

Nuclear Chemistry
I. Stability of Nuclei
Ratio of protons and neutrons that determines stability
Atomic numbers greater than 83 are radioactive (Unstable isotope=radioisotope)
When an unstable nucleus decays, it emits radiation in the form of alpha/beta particles,
positrons/gamma radiation.
K-Capture Process- When nucleus captures an electron from 1st energy level, nucleus will be
unstable: there is spontaneous decay.
Alpha Particle- Helium nucleus, 2p, 2n, (+), low penetrating power
Beta Particle- Electron whose source is an atomic nucleus (-), moderate penetrating power
Positron- Identical to electron, but with positive charge
 Smith 38

Gamma- Similar to X rays, but greater energy - not deflected by electric field, high
penetrating power
II. Alpha Decay
Unstable nucleus emits alpha particle- nucleus is alpha emitter
Characteristic of heavy nuclei
As nucleus emits alpha particle, atomic # decreases by 2, and mass # decreases by 4
III. Beta Decay
Nuclear disintegration from electron- undergoes beta decay and is a beta emitter
Emission of electron during conversion of neutron to proton (1/0 n -> 1/1 p + 0/-1 e)
When a nucleus emits an electron, the charge of the nucleus increases by 1, atomic number
increases by 1
IV. Positron Emission
Production of positron during conversion of proton to a neutron
When a nucleus emits a positron, the charge of the nucleus decreases by 1, thus the atomic
number decreases by 1
V. Nuclear Equations
Mass and charge MUST balance on both sides (14/7N + 4/2He -> 17/8O + 1/1H)
of charge of reactants= 9
of mass#=18
Concept of conservation of charge and mass number is used to identify particle
VI. Transmutation
When the nucleus of one element is changed into the nucleus of another
Can be either natural or artificial
Natural: One reactant only
Artificial: Two reactants and occurs by bombarding the nucleus with high energy particles
or by colliding a nucleus with a neutron
Fission: Reaction that splits a heavy nucleus to produce lighter ones (Captures a neutron and
becomes unstable)
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Fusion: Occurs on sun, combines with light nuclei to form heavier ones (Hydrogen nuclei react
in a series to produce helium nuclei). Does not occur on Earth because of the extremely high
temperatures and pressures needed

Organic Chemistry
I. Bonding of Carbon Atoms
The ability of C to form many different compounds is based on the tendency to covalently
bond with other C atoms
One single bone = Saturated
Sharing two e- : double covalent bond - Unsaturated
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: hard carbon atoms linked in chain
Aromatic Hydrocarbon: Contains one or more benzene rings

II. Aliphatic Hydrocarbons

Alkanes: Single covalent bond- Saturated CNH2N+2
Alkenes: Double covalent bond- Unsaturated CNH2N
Alkynes: Triple covalent bond- Unsaturated CNH2N-2

II. Hydrocarbon Radical

A hydrocarbon molecule from which a hydrogen atom has been removed

-> ---> One less hydrogen= Radical (MethyL)

III. Hydrocarbons
Homologous- group of related compounds in which each member differs from the one before it
by the same unit
 Smith 40

Alkane- Release energy when burned (CH4, C2H6, C4H10) (as # of C increases, so does the
boiling point because of the amount of bonds)
Alkenes- 1 Double bond- provide chemists to make other materials- most important is ethane,
ethylene (forms plastic)
Alkyne- Unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains triple bond (Ethyne, acetylene, fuels welding
torches)
IV. Isomers
Same molecular formula, but different structural formula
MethyL propane C4H10
Butane- has 2 isomers
2,2 Di-MethyL Propane-
(3 Radicals)

V. Alkane- Paraffins
CNH2N
Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane
Ends in ANE
Single Bond

VI. Alkenes- Olefins- Ethylene Series

CNH2N
Ends in ENE
Ethene, Propene, Butene, Pentene
Double Bond

VII. Alkynes- Acetylene Series

CNH2N-2
Ends in YNE
Ethyne, Propyne, Butyne, Pentyne
 Smith 41

Triple Bond
VII. Organic Reactions
Substitution: Reactions in which a H atom of a hydrocarbon is replaced by another atom or
group (Exists only between alkanes)

Additions: Reactions in which one bond of a double bond is broken so that atoms may be
added to the hydrocarbon (Will also occur with one or two bonds breaking in a triple bond)
(second class alkenes)

Elimination- Reactions in which atoms are removed from

A hydrocarbon to create a double or triple bond

Esterification: formation of an ester by reacting an alcohol

With an organic acid and removing H2O
 Smith 42

Hydrogenation (additions): The addition of H atoms when a double or triple bond is broken

Combustion: Alkanes burn in air to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor

Cracking: Process by which complex organic molecules are broken into simpler molecules;
involves heat or heat and a catalyst
C3H8 (460C ->) C2H4 + CH4
Polymerization: Many single units (called monomers) join together to make a polymer
(breaking double and triple bonds)
 Smith 43

Saponification: The process of making a soap by hydrolysis of a fat with a strong hydroxide (3
OH group)

Fermentation: production of alcohol

C6H12O6 + Enzymes-> 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH