5 RURAL ROADS
J.K. Mohapatra and B.P. Chandrasekhar
A community without roads does not have a way out
A poor man, Juncal, Ecuador
If we get the road, we would get everything else, community
centre, employment, post-office, telephone
A young woman, Little Bay, Jamaica
Many of the poor communities are isolated by distance, bad
road conditions, lack of or broken bridges and inadequate
transport. These conditions make it difficult for people to get
their goods to market and themselves to place of work, to handle
health emergencies, to send children to school, and to obtain
public services.
Narayan et al. 2000
INTRODUCTION
R
ural Road connectivity is a key component of rural
development, since it promotes access to economic
and social services, thereby generating increased
agricultural productivity, non-agriculture employment as well
as non-agricultural productivity, which in turn expands rural
growth opportunities and real income through which poverty
can be reduced.
A study (Fan et al. 1999) carried out by the International
Food Policy Research Institute on linkages between government
expenditure and poverty in rural India has revealed that an
investment of Rs 1 crore in roads lifts 1650 poor persons
above the poverty line. Public investment on roads impacts
rural poverty through its effect on improved agricultural
productivity, higher non-farm employment opportunities and
increased rural wages. Improvement in agricultural productivity
not only reduces rural poverty directly by increasing income
of poor households, it also causes decline in poverty indirectly
by raising agricultural wages and lowering food prices (since
poor households are net buyers of foodgrains). Similarly,
increased non-farm employment and higher rural wages also
enhance incomes of the rural poor and consequently, reduce
rural poverty. This study estimated that while the productivity
effect of government spending on rural roads accounts for
24 per cent of total impact on poverty, increased non-farm
employment accounts for 55 per cent and higher rural wages
accounts for the remaining 31 per cent. Further, of the total
productivity effect on poverty, 75 per cent arises from the
direct impact of roads in increasing incomes, while the
remaining 25 per cent arises from lower food prices (15 per
cent) and increased wages (10 per cent). Similar results are
found in other developing countries. The study by the same
institute (Fan et al. 2000)) in China revealed that with every
10,000 Yuan (about $1200) spent on rural roads eleven
persons are lifted above the poverty line. Living Standard
Survey in Vietnam in 2002 showed that populations living
within 2 km of all-weather roads have lower poverty rates as
noted in the draft Vision Document for Rural Roads, 2006
(MoRD, 2006).
Statistical evidence apart, the link between poverty and lack
of accessibility is quite apparent. Nearer home, a household
survey (APERP, 1997) conducted in the state of Andhra
Pradesh indicated that the rural road improvements lead to
substantial reduction in freight charges, increase in household
income, more employment opportunities, and expansion of
cultivated land as shown in Figures 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3.
STATUS OF RURAL ROADS IN INDIA
Roads are classified under a time-honoured system into
National Highways (NHs), State Highways (SHs), Major
District Roads (MDRs), Other District Roads (ODRs), and
Village Roads (VRs), with well-recognized standards for
construction and maintenance laid out in respect of each
110 India Infrastructure Report 2007

Annual Average Income and Expenditure per Household (SGRY), scarcity relief funds, and untied funds devolved by
30000 States. Consequently, it is difficult, if not impossible, to assess
25000 the exact amount that is being spent for the maintenance
20000
and construction of ODRs and VRs. The overlapping of
Rupees

15000
responsibilities and the fragmentation of funds between
10000
agencies for maintenance and development of roads is a source
5000
0
of inefficiency and confusion. Quite often, the only point
Connected Unconnected where all these responsibilities and funds converge is at the
Annual Average Income in Rs Annual Average Expenditure in Rs
level of the local implementing officer, the Assistant Executive
Engineer, who is used by all agencies named above for
Fig. 5.1 Comparative Average Income and Expenditure of implementation. This thinly spread management structure is
Connected and Unconnected Villages inefficient; it does not ensure good monitoring or downward
accountability and unnecessarily complicates planning.
Average Goods Transportation Cost India has a rural road network of about 2.7 million km
3
developed with an investment of almost Rs 35,000 crore,
Rupees Quintal per Km

Badly Maintained estimated to have a replacement value of about Rs 180,000

Roads
2 crore. This constitutes over 80 per cent of the total road
network, however, about a million km length of the road
1 All Weather Roads
Fair-Weather does not meet the technical standards required. According to
Roads
in Good Condition government statistics, by year 2000, India had connectivity
0 to almost all villages with populations of over 1500, 86 per
cent with 1000 to 1500 inhabitants, and 43 per cent of villages
Fig.5.2 Goods Transportation Cost on Different Types of Roads with less than 1000 population (Figure 5.4).
Successive plans aimed at achieving higher road densities
Impacts of Improvement on Roads and managed to over achieve it (Table 5.1). Even though,
6%
the total length of rural roads targetted at the end of the
25% 10%
Lucknow Plan appeared to be large, it must be noted that
14% almost 100,000 km of the roads were constructed under
different employment generation schemes and poverty
alleviation programmes such as Food for Work, National Rural
24% Employment Programme and Jawahar Rojgar Yojana. The
21%

Bringing outside Teachers
Bringing outside Doctors
Purchase of more fertilizers
Fig. 5.3 Impact on Standard of Living from Improvement on Roads
Expansion of cultivated land
More seasonal work opportunities
Higher intensity of cultivation
roads were of indifferent quality constructed by unskilled
labour. The objective of these programmes was provision of
sustenance support to the rural people. The technical standards
of asset quality were not insisted upon and construction was
often restricted to earthen tracks with no provision even for

category. Generally speaking, there are clearly understood

Number of villages connected (%)

120

demarcations of responsibility in terms of governmental offices 100

expected to deal with each category. However, while the activity 80
mapping with respect to NHs and SHs is clear cut, with respect
60
to MDRs, ODRs, and VRs, these distinctions are blurred.
In many states, though PRIs are assigned responsibilities with 40

respect to ODRs and VRs, a plethora of agencies and line 20

departments undertake formation and repairs of roads. These 0
include the state governments PWD wing, the Agricultural By 1980 By 1985 By 1990 By 1995 By 2000
Produce Marketing Committees (APMCs), parallel bodies Village Population
created by multilateral agencies, Forest department, Development >1500 10001500 <1000 Total
authorities and so on.
There are several general funds that are used for roads, Fig. 5.4 Connectivity Status
apart from special schemes tied to specific road projects. Thus
roads are repaired using Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana Source: Planning Commission & MoRD (2006).

Table 5.1
Basis for assessment, assessed targets and expected densities in the Road Development Plans.
Name of the Plan Basis of fixation of targets
Nagpur Plan Length of ODRs + VRs
(194361) assessed on the basis of number of
villages with population 500 and less,
5011000, 10012000, and 20015000.
Bombay Plan Length based on the number of villages
(196181) with population less than 500,
5001000, 10002000, and 20005000
Lucknow Plan Length assessed on the basis of number
(198101) of villages and towns.
cross drainage or side drainage. Since water is the main enemy
of the sustainability of roads, roads constructed under such
employment generation schemes were often not durable.
Rural roads have suffered greatly due to lack of systematic
planning. While rural road development plans provided for
a network structure and target lengths of different types of
roads, specific connectivity requirements of individual settlements
(villages/habitation) and issues of regional imbalances were
not adequately addressed. This led to more than one connection
for the same village resulting in redundancy and development
of a large unmanageable network. While constructing rural
roads, adequate care was not taken in adopting need based
designs, parameters for pavement construction, quality
assurance, and quality control. Multiplicity of organizations
involved in the rural roads development led to uncoordinated
efforts, adhoc decisions, and a lopsided network structure.
Gaps in the Planning Process
The planning of the network structure was not taken seriously.
The structure of the network was not subjected to evaluation
through the assessment of indices concerning accessibility,
connectivity, circuitry and so on. Though the conceptual plans
and targets had been worked out, the absence of detailed work
plans resulted in a non-integrated network, with several missing
links and critical bridges. This invariably resulted in the loss
of mobility due to discontinuities in the network and forced
circuitous journeys. During the development of the roads
interfaces among the hierarchical roads were not properly
addressed, resulting in deficiency in the functionality and
efficiency of the total network.
Need for Integrated Network Development
Conceptually, traffic flows from the lower order settlements
to the higher ones in pursuit of opportunities. If planning
fails to capture this phenomenon with appropriate integration
Rural Roads 111
Targets Achievement Target density
km km (All roads)
332,335 500,802 0.32 km per sq km
651,780 912,684 0.46 km per sq km
2,189,000 2,994,000 0.82 km per sq km
of roads, the total system suffers often resulting in undesirable
ruralurban migration. Investments are concentrated only in
the higher order roads for construction and maintenance with
rural roads receiving less priority than they deserve. Rural
households are deprived of their legitimate right to basic
access. This calls for policies and programmes that aim at
developing an integrated network with due priorities and
necessary interfaces.
In the context of rural roads, a higher degree of care is
required at the planning stage to integrate connectivity needs
of scattered settlements. The construction of a road connecting
a habitation must be augmented by means of transportation,
enhanced by appropriate facility creation in health, education
and so on. The utility of the network can be best appreciated
with such integration of accessibility with social infrastructure.
Keeping this in mind, the central government constituted the
National Rural Roads Development Committee (NRRDC)
in January 2000. The report of NRRDC 2000 resulted in
the formulation of the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
(PMGSY) with an aim to provide all-weather roads to almost
all rural habitations in the country (MoRD 2000).
PRADHAN MANTRI GRAM SADAK YOJANA
Launching and Operationalization of PMGSY
Based on the recommendations of NRRDC the GOI
launched the PMGSY on 25 December 2000 under the
Ministry of Rural Development, as a 100 per cent centrally
sponsored scheme. Fifty per cent of the cess on high speed
diesel was earmarked for financing this scheme. The primary
objective of PMGSY is to provide connectivity, by way of all-
weather roads (with necessary culverts and cross drainage
structures operable throughout the year) to unconnected
habitations in the rural areas in such a way that habitations
with populations of 1000 persons and above are covered in
three years (20003) and all unconnected habitations with a
112 India Infrastructure Report 2007

Box 5.1
The Concept and Utility of Core Network

The DRRP is a compendium of the existing and proposed road network system in the district which clearly identifies the proposed
roads for connecting the yet unconnected habitations to already connected habitations or all-weather roads, in an economically
efficient way. While selecting the connectivity to the unconnected habitation by single all weather road, optimization principle is
applied through Utility Value and Road Index for linkage of the selected habitation with an already connected habitation.
The Core Network (CN) is a subset of DRRP and represents the minimum network that ensures connectivity to all the eligible
habitations through single all weather roads. This enables continuity with the nearest market centre (either existing or a potential one).
This network is the minimum network that is to be kept in good condition. It consists of identified link routes and through routes.
Link Route: Link Routes are the roads connecting a single habitation or a group of habitations to through routes or district roads
leading to market centres.
Through Route: Through routes are the roads which collect traffic from several link roads or a long chain of habitations and lead
it to marketing centres either directly or through the higher category of roads.

Source: Ministry of Rural Development.

population of 500 persons and above by the end of the Tenth starting point of the exercise. The Core Network will be the
Plan Period (2007). In respect of the Hill States (North-East, basic instrument for prioritization of construction, upgradation,
Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttaranchal) and allocation of funds for maintenance.
and the Desert Areas (as identified in the Desert Development The concept of DRRP and CN are important to achieve
Programme) as well as the Tribal (Schedule V) areas the network efficiency (Box 5.1). A typical Block map with
objective would be to connect habitations with population DRRP and Core Network are shown in Figures 5.5 and 5.6
of 250 persons and above. respectively.
Detailed guidelines were issued to all the states for the
implementation of PMGSY, identifying state nodal agencies,
Quality Control System
Executing agencies, and Programme Implementation Units
(PIUs). Guidelines also envisaged the setting up of State Under the PMGSY, quality is sought to be ensured through
Level Standing Committees (SLSCs) for monitoring and a three-tier Quality Control System, in which the Executing
coordinating programme implementation. Guidelines were
provided for project preparation, scrutiny, tendering, execution,
District Rural Roads Plan
quality management, monitoring of the project, maintenance, Simdega Block, Simdega District, Jharkhand
as well as procedures for fund flow. N
W E
S
Katasaru
Lelong
Institutional Development under PMGSY Gondalipani
Asanbera Bhundupani Sarlonga
To ensure efficient, streamlined execution of works under Purnapani Takaba
Kuskela
Karamukh Jamadori POPTOTAL
Chiarikani Hardibera
PMGSY, a series of interventions have been made to enhance Bengarpani
Khanjaloya
Keondih
0250
251500
Ghaghari
the programme implementation capacity of the states and to Kindardega Basatpur Kobang
Bhelwadih
Pahargurda
5011000
1000 and above
Hathabari Banabira Kesalpu Pakartanr
ensure on time completion, cost management, and rigorous Kinbira
Kairbera
Paledih
Kongseri Danargurda
Kamtara
Taisera Maskera Tamara
quality control. These interventions are summarized below. Kulkera Dumardih Manesera
Biru Belkarcha
Sikiriatar Chiksura Fulwatanga Sokari
Sarkhutoli Tabhadih Ankara Arani
Sogara Barkatangar
Sewai Bandojore EhuSabera Birkera
Madhuban Khotitoli
Kochedega Hawatoli
Baghlatta Bangru Koliadamar
Sunsewai
DRRP and Core Network Birkera
Tilga Sarja
Ghosara
Bhawarpani
Kudrum

Guida Bigari Pithara Kasaidohar Barabarpani Thailkobera

Tumdegi Chotabarpani
The concept of Core Network has been operationalized for Merumloya Katukona
Tina
Kharwagartha Bindhaitoli Belgar Jogbalrai
Barkichhapa Muia
the first time, under PMGSY, in order to focus on the set of
roads considered essential to provide connectivity to all 0 1 2 4 6 8
Million less Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi

habitations of the desired size. The District Rural Road Plan

(DRRP) which inventorizes the entire Road Network is the Fig. 5.5 DRRP for a Typical Block
 Rural Roads 113

Core Network Plan the integrated development of all rural roads schemes,
Simdega Block, Simdega District, Jharkhand
including PMGSY. Funds for the PMGSY programme are
W
N
E
routed to these SRRDAs and are operated by the designated
S
Katasaru officers in each of the district PIUs, under a works accounting
Lelong
Gondalipani system specifically designed for PMGSY by the Institute of
Asanbera Bhundupani Sarlonga Public Auditors of India (IPAI).
Kuskela
Purnapani
Karamukh Takaba Jamadori POPTOTAL
Chiarikani Hardibera Khanjaloya
Bengarpani 0250
Keondih
Kindardega Basatpur
Ghaghari
Bhelwadih
251500
5011000
1000 and above
Technical Agencies
Kobang Pahargurda
Hathabari Banabira Kairbera Kesalpu Pakartanr Danargurda
Kongseri
Kinbira
Taisera Maskera
Paledih
Tamara
Kamtara Fifty State Technical Agencies (STAs), mainly National Institutes
Biru Belkarcha
Kulkera Dumardih Manesera
Sarkhutoli
Sikiriatar Chiksura Fulwatanga Sokari
Tabhadih Ankara Arani
of Technology and Government Engineering Colleges of
Barkatangar
Sogara
Sewai Bandojore
Kochedega
EhuSabera Birkera
Madhuban Khotitoli
Hawatoli
repute have been identified in consultation with the state
Baghlatta Bangru Koliadamar
Sunsewai
Birkera
Ghosara
Bhawarpani
Kudrum governments to advise and assist the Executing Agencies by
Tilga Sarja
Guida Bigari Pithara Kasaidohar Barabarpani Thailkobera scrutinizing the project proposals prepared by the state
Tumdegi Chotabarpani
Katukona Kharwagartha Bindhaitoli Belgar Jogbalrai
Merumloya
Barkichhapa Tina Muia
governments, providing requisite technical support to the state
governments, and undertaking training programmes.
Million less Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
0 1 2 4 6 8 The NRRDA has also identified seven Principal Technical
Agencies (PTAs) to act as the Regional Coordinators of the
Fig. 5.6 Core Network for the Above Block STAs as well as the extended arms of NRRDA in the pursuit
of its objectives. The PTAs oversee the activities of the STAs
Agency is primarily responsible for maintaining quality in the region, carry out random checks of the Detailed Project
through its executive engineers, at the district level, as well as Reports (DPRs) scrutinized by STAs, evaluate specifications
through an independent Quality Control Agency, whether and practices, develop course material for training programmes,
departmental or otherwise, which is responsible to the officers and act as resource institutions. The PTAs are also to assist
of the Executing Agency or the Nodal Department independent the NRRDA in quality audit of roads. The identified PTAs
of the field engineers at the state level. are the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), IIT, Mumbai,
In addition, the NRRDA engages National Quality Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bangalore,
Monitors (NQMs) to verify at random the quality of road IIT, Kharagpur, IIT Roorkee, Birla Institute of Technology,
works. The reports of the NQMs are sent to the state Pilani, and National Institute of Technology, Warangal.
government for necessary action. About 21,000 inspections
have been carried out so far, out of which about 18,000 works Rural Roads Manual
have been found satisfactory. Any infringement/deficiency,
detected by the NQMs, is rectified before the State Authorities The original manual, called Manual on Route Location,
can make further payments. Design, Construction and Maintenance of Rural Roads was
brought out by the Indian Roads Congress as a publication
in 1979 (IRC: SP:201979). Following the launch of the
Online Management & Monitoring System PMGSY, the Ministry of Rural Development constituted
A web-based Online Management & Monitoring System three Committees in January 2001 to go into various aspects
(OMMS) is being used for the PMGSY. The website can be of rural road construction and the manuals on these different
accessed at www.omms.nic.in. A new website has also been aspects brought out by the committees were combined into
developed by the Rural Connectivity Division containing a separate Rural Roads Manual and published as an IRC
details of the PMGSY Schemes, Guidelines, Agencies involved, publication (IRC:SP: 202002) in supercession of the earlier
role and responsibilities, progress, and so on and can be manual (MORD 2004a and 2004b). This manual is now
accessed at www.pmgsy.nic.in. the basis of all works under the PMGSY.

Streamlined Administration and Accounting Standard Bidding Documents

State Rural Roads Development Agencies (SRRDAs) have been To standardize the tendering process of the states, a Standard
set up in all states with the task of functioning as the dedicated Bidding Document has been prepared which is used by all
agency of the state nodal department for rural roads to ensure states for procurements of works under PMGSY.
114 India Infrastructure Report 2007

Book of Specifications and Standard Data Book objectives, assessment was also made for the upgradation of
the existing rural roads in all the states (Table A5.2).
In order to streamline the process of estimating and to The target for connectivity/upgradation includes new
standardize contracts, a separate Book of Specifications and connectivity to about 60,000 habitations of 1000 plus
Standard Data Book have been prepared for rural roads. State population, to 81,000 habitations of 500 plus population and
governments have been advised to publish Annual Schedule to 29,000 habitations of 250 plus population. Total cost of
of Rates for rural roads based on these documents. new connectivity is about Rs 79,000 crore. Upgradation of
about 370,000 km rural roads at a cost of Rs 53,000 crore is
Operations Manual also planned. Thus, the total envisaged cost of the PMGSY
is about Rs 132,000 crore.
The NRRDA has prepared an Operations Manual which is
utilized by all the Executing Agencies in the field in the
implementation of projects cleared under the PMGSY. This Achievements under PMGSY.
is expected to provide clear and uniform guidelines to the Proposals under PMGSY prepared by the states are being
executing agencies in the states in regard to standards, cleared in different phases since 2001. The physical and
specifications, guidelines, and prioritization criteria. financial status and achievements so far under PMGSY are
summarized in Table A5.3.
Maintenance Management While completion of over 90,000 km of roads under the
scheme may appear impressive as compared to the past record
Huge assets are being created as a result of construction of in the rural roads sector, actual achievements have fallen
new roads and upgradation of existing roads in order to far short of the targets originally envisaged. The original goal
provide full farm-to-market connectivity. Guidelines provide set under the scheme was to provide connectivity to all
for the ways and means to ensure regular and systematic unconnected habitations with a population of 1000 or more
maintenance of the assets created under PMGSY. The state by 2003 and all unconnected habitations with a population
governments are expected to take steps to build up capacity of 500 and above by the end of the 10th Plan period (by year
in the District Panchayats and devolve funds and functionaries 2007). All habitations with a population of 250 or more in
unto them to enable them to manage maintenance contracts the hill states, desert areas, and tribal areas were also targetted
for rural roads. to be covered by 2007. As against these programme targets
All PMGSY roads (including associated main rural links/ originally set, the proposals cleared so far are expected to
through routes of PMGSY link routes) are covered by 5-years provide connectivity to only 56,638 habitations. The status
maintenance contracts entered into along with the of habitation coverage so far under this scheme has been
construction contract, with the same contractor, as per the indicated in Table 5.2.
standard bidding document. Maintenance funds to service With only 15.8 per cent of habitations having been actually
the contract are to be budgeted by the state government and connected so far, it is evident that the scheme would miss the
placed at the disposal of SRRDA in a separate maintenance 10th Plan target by a huge margin. Recognizing this slippage
account. The states have also been advised to prepare the time frame for providing full connectivity to habitations
comprehensive maintenance management plans. with population above 1000 (above 500 in hill, desert and
While these interventions have brought about some degree tribal areas) has been reset under Bharat Nirman.
of professionalism in the programme management and fostered
a culture of quality in the rural roads sector, the absorption Table 5.2
capacity of the states as well contractors is still well below the Connectivity Status under PMGSY*
levels required to achieve the targets set under Bharat Nirman.
No. of
habitations
Assessment of Targets No. of covered by No. of
Population eligible projects habitations
All states have been requested to prepare DRRPs as category habitations approved connected
compendiums of all existing roads and those roads proposed
1000 and above 59,855 28,361 16,081
for connecting the unconnected target habitations, starting
500999 81,466 21,942 8602
from Block Maps and identification of the Core Network
Based on such maps which were prepared with full inventory, 250499 31,451 6335 2620
eligible habitations have been identified as per programme Total 172,772 56,638 27,303
guidelines and the length required as well as the costs at Note: *June 2006.
constant prices assessed (Table A5.1). In tune with the Source: Ministry of Rural Development.

PMGSY under Bharat Nirman
Announced as a time bound business plan for augmenting
rural infrastructure, Bharat Nirman has rural roads as one of
the six components. The targets announced by the Finance
Minister in his budget speech on 28 February 2005 seek to
provide all-weather connectivity to all habitations having
population of 1000 or more (500 or more in hill, tribal and
desert areas) by 2009. While the primary objective of PMGSY
has been to provide last mile connectivity to all eligible
unconnected habitations, in order to ensure full farm-to-
market connectivity Bharat Nirman also includes an
upgradation component. It is estimated that under Bharat
Nirman 66,802 habitations would be provided new
connectivity with a road length of 146,185 km. Besides, 194
thousand km of existing through routes of the Core Network
would be upgraded/renewed. The total investment on rural
connectivity under Bharat Nirman has been estimated at Rs
48 thousand crore over 20059. The year wise targets for
new connectivity and upgradation have been detailed in Table
A5.4 and Table A5.5.
Critical Evaluation of PMGSY
Evaluation by Planning Commission
An evaluation was carried out by the Planning Commission
in the year 2005 to:
1. assess the extent to which objectives of the programme
have been achieved;
2. make a qualitative assessment of the physical and financial
performance of the programme;
3. assess the impact of the programme on socio-economic
conditions of the residents of villages provided with road
connectivity under the programme; and
4. identify the constraints in the implementation of the
programme and make suggestions to modify the same.
The study covered ten states in the country with fourteen
districts selected for the micro level study. Physical performance
at the state level varied from as low as 28.77 per cent to well
above 92 per cent with an average of about 60 per cent
(Planning Commission, 2005). Similarly the achievements
in the selected districts varied from 78 per cent to about 98
per cent. In many cases the performance at district level was
found to be generally above the state performance. The
evaluation revealed that cost of construction per km varied
from state to state as well as among the districts. Financial
performance at the state level exhibited similar trends with
fund utilization varying from 33.89 per cent to over 90 per
cent in different states.
The evaluation study noted that the 3 Tier Quality Control
System prescribed by PMGSY yielded good results and the
quality of roads constructed was generally rated as Very Good.
Rural Roads 115
The reasons for shortfall in targets as identified by the
evaluation team included procedural impediments, new work
practices that consumed more time, non availability of land,
local panchayats not being taken into confidence, scarcity of
skilled labourers, and prolonged monsoons in certain states. In
order to achieve targets the study suggested augmentation
of resources, provision of cash compensation for acquisition
of land, speedier identification of unconnected habitations,
periodic updation of on-line information, realistic fixation
of upgradation target, complete involvement of Panchayat
institutions, enhancement of time limit for completing projects,
adoption of centralized tendering system, meticulous project
preparation, avoidance of multiple agencies, deployment of
exclusive staff for PMGSY, utilization local labour, efforts for
lowering of construction costs and constitution of a state level
vigilance committee.
In short, programme evaluation revealed that PMGSY
has succeeded in providing connectivity to most deserving
habitations, although the pace of implementation in some states
is rather slow. The selection strategy was found to be okay and
quality was found to be generally good. PMGSY has improved
the accessibility of beneficiary villagers and resulted in higher
incomes. Notwithstanding the fact that there are certain
measures required to be taken for meeting its objective, the
critical evaluation complimented the efforts that have gone
into and hoped for better performance in future.
Performance Audit by C&AG
A performance audit of the programme was conducted by
the Comptroller and Auditor General between JanuaryJune,
2005, covering the period during 20005 (C&AG 2006).
The services of CRRI New Delhi were commissioned for
technical inspection of more than fifty roads for assessing the
quality of the roads constructed under PMGSY (MoRD 2004).
The audit also covered the effectiveness of operationalization
and utility of OMMS and focused on the deficiencies, problems
of software, validation checks, security features, and lack of
utilization of OMMS for monitoring the programme.
While the objective of the PMGSY at the time of its launch
was to provide connectivity to all 1000+ habitations, only
about 24 per cent of the target set was achieved during the
first five years of the programme. The database used at the
time of launch appears to be inadequate for setting the targets
and also the guidelines were not firmed up properly. In the
absence of clarity in the guidelines, bias towards upgradation
was noticed in the project proposals of the first two phases.
The estimated fund requirement of Rs 58,200 crore was
also found to be unrealistic in the light of the fact that the
revised estimate for achieving the same objective was found
to be more than Rs 130,000 crore. Adequate measures have
not been taken for the mobilization of funds, in tune with the
targets set, which can be seen from the fact that only Rs 12,290
116 India Infrastructure Report 2007
crore were mobilized up to March 2005. Discrepancies in
non-utilization of funds in some states revealed spends in
purposes beyond those specified in the guidelines.
Efforts were not made to ensure integration of other
related on-going schemes in securing programme objectives.
Abandoning of works sanctioned and incompleteness of
connectivity came to light during the performance audit in
almost fourteen states.
Completion was found to have overshot by large margins,
time limits set in the guidelines, providing evidence of
inadequate project management. The audit noticed poor
competition among tenderers in more than ten states. The
absorption capacities of states and PIUs were not adequately
understood for the implementation of the programme. The
performance audit also noticed certain deficiencies in the
quality monitoring mechanism and quality of the final
product. Even though OMMS is a step in the right direction,
its utilization as a monitoring tool is not achieved and several
deficiencies in the system management were noticed.
Based on the deficiencies noticed in the evaluation process,
CAG made the following recommendations:
1. There is a need for firming up of targets on realistic database.
2. The ministry should also firm up the targets on the basis
of funds that can be actually provided and utilized.
3. The ministry in coordination with the state government
should ensure that the guidelines are scrupulously followed.
4. States should be advised to support the project proposals
with correct and relevant documents proving the availability
of land free of all encumbrances.
5. The states should be advised to take prompt action against
the contractors in case of failure to honour to time or
quality commitments.
6. The independent quality assurance should be reinforced by
involving independent research and educational institutions.
7. Ministry should issue detailed directives for greater attention
to project preparation and exercise periodical checks.
8. Ministry should persuade the states to make suitable
provisions for maintenance.
9. All efforts must be made to correct the deficiencies in the
OMMS to create an additional tool for monitoring and
management.
Audit examination revealed that the performance of the
programme could have improved if
1. The magnitude of the programme and the capacity of the
states had been assessed realistically, funds of the required
magnitude provided and frequent revision of guidelines
and the data on unconnected eligible habitations to be
covered under the programme avoided;
2. The DRRP and the CN were complete and based on
reliable data;
3. OMMS were introduced promptly along with the
programme after ensuring and obtaining satisfactory proof
of the reliability of all the features and facilities in the
software including validation checks and after imparting
effective training to the users; and
4. It was ensured through focused monitoring that there were
no deviations from sanctioned specifications to prevent
sub standard quality of work.
Impact Assessment of PMGSY on Rural Economy
Ministry of Rural Development commissioned a series of
quick assessments of socio-economic impact of PMGSY in
Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram,
Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West
Bengal. These studies were conducted by independent
agencies during January to February, 2004 (MoRD 2004).
Major findings of these studies are as follows.
Impact on agriculture
Construction of the PMGSY roads has substantially benefitted
farmers. Prior to the construction of the PMGSY roads,
farmers found it difficult to sell agricultural goods in bigger
markets located far away from their villages.
PMGSY road connectivity has led to a better transport
systems during all seasons. Farmers mentioned that the
problem of not being able to access the markets during
monsoon has been solved by the construction of roads. This
impact has been greatly felt in the states of West Bengal,
Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Assam and so on.
The PMGSY roads have made it easier to transport
agricultural inputs to villages which has led some farmers to
switch from food crops to cash crops (such as ginger, jute,
sugarcane, sunflower).
An increase in the number of families rearing goats/sheep
for commercial purposes was mentioned by beneficiaries in
the states of Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
Many families have bought cycles after the construction
of the road to be able to carry dairy products for sale to
nearby towns.
Employment generation
After the construction of PMGSY roads, an improvement
in the employment situation in terms of more job opportunities,
avenues for self-employment, and so on were observed. On-
farm employment opportunities also increased due to shift
from grains to cash crops and also multiple cropping
particularly in the state of Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh,
and Mizoram.
More people are going to nearby towns and villages for
odd jobs like selling woods, vegetables, dairy products and locally
made items like pickles, papad and so on due to expansion
of local industries, which in turn has generated employment
opportunities.

Cottage industry
Beneficiaries reported that the pottery and brick making
industry of Orissa has benefited from the PMGSY roads.
Cottage industries of Tamil Nadu, Handloom industry of
West Bengal, and agro industry in Assam also benefitted from
road connectivity.
Health
There has been an overall improvement in access to health
facilities like PHCs, sub-centres, and district hospitals in the
states of West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu,
Himachal Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. Positive impact was
observed on accessibility to preventive and curative health care
facilities; better management of infectious diseases, and
attending to emergencies and increase in frequency of visits
by health workers.
Improvement in antenatal and post-natal care was observed
by beneficiaries, thereby decreasing obstetrics emergencies,
in the states of Mizoram, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu,
Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. Road connectivity and an
improved transport system enabled families to opt for
institutional deliveries in hospitals outside the village.
Decrease in infant and child mortality especially in the states
of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal was reported.
Education
With the construction of PMGSY roads, there has been
an improvement in the accessibility to education facilities.
This has resulted in increased school enrolment and school
attendance in all the states, especially, in the number of
girls going to schools in Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal. Most parents mentioned
that they were now more confident about sending their
daughters to schools unescorted. Moreover, regular attendance
of the teachers throughout the year is observed and
greater willingness is evident among parents to send
boys and girls for higher studies and college education outside
their villages.
Governance and public services
The road connectivity has increased the frequency of visits
by government officials and grass root level functionaries like
health workers/Auxilliary Nurse and Midwives (ANMs),
Village Level Workers (VLWs) and Village Anganwadi Worker
(VAWs) in Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and
West Bengal. There has been an improvement in accessibility
to banks, the Post and Telegraph offices, and quicker access
to the police.
Rural Roads 117
Transport services
The benefits of rural connectivity have been felt most keenly in
Mizoram and Rajasthan where PMGSY roads have made it
easier for the beneficiaries to cope with the difficult terrain.
There has been an increase in ownership of bicycles and two
wheelers especially in the states of Assam, Rajasthan, West Bengal,
and Tamil Nadu. Also, there has been an improvement in the
public as well as the private transport systems in all the states.
Quality of life
An immediate and direct impact of providing rural road
connectivity was observed in the quality of life as cooking
gas became available in villages. The states of Mizoram, Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal reported conversion of kuchcha houses
to pucca houses. The connectivity led to sudden escalation
of prices of land adjacent to the PMGSY roads. This also led
to an increase in the sale of land for commercial purposes.
Poverty alleviation
The roads, directly or indirectly have provided opportunities
for on-farm and offfarm employments as well as self-
employment. With the improvement in on-farm and non-farm
employment opportunities, beneficiaries in all the states
reported increase in their average household income, thus,
reduction in poverty.
Distributional and equity issues
Though it has been revealed through several impact studies
that rural roads have multidimensional beneficial impacts
on the rural community, these benefits may not be equitably
distributed. Well-off households with better resource
endowments, capabilities, and skill sets generally derive more
benefits from the improved access as compared to poor
households. This calls for prior indepth analysis of the potential
input from the major stakeholders with a view to devising
appropriate mitigation measures to make this scheme inclusive
in terms of its benefits.
Though rural roads provide accessibility, the assurance
on transport availability and affordability must be looked into.
For instance, a rural road serving as a means of transportation
may permit people to use their own mode of transport, but
unless public or intermediate public transportation is available,
the benefit of the rural road will not reach all. Further, even
when public transport service is available, the affordability
to use the services may once again put the very poor at
a disadvantage.
In short, roads are clearly a critically enabling condition
for improvement of living conditions and quality of life in
rural areas. Distribution of economic benefits can now be
118 India Infrastructure Report 2007

ensured to all sections through the creation of complementary
activities for broadening livelihood opportunities to
economically weak sections of the rural society.
Cost Trends under PMGSY
Cost of road construction is mainly determined by the type
of terrain, soil condition, projected traffic, availability of
construction materials, rainfall, and other environmental
factors. As such, cost of construction under PMGSY varies
widely across states and even within a state and across districts.
Cost of construction also depends on the choice of technology
used and labourmachine mix.
In a labour-surplus economy like India, it is, therefore,
not only necessary to design the rural roads on the basis of
meticulous field investigations; it is also equally important
to adopt the optimal technology for construction.
Under PMGSY, executing agencies are required to prepare
DPRs, which are then scrutinized and vetted by the designated
STAs (reputed engineering colleges). While this institutional
development in project planning and preparation is a marked
improvement over the previous practice, approving projects
on the basis of line-estimates, the extent to which it has
succeeded in optimizing the cost of construction is yet to be
investigated in detail. Currently, cost varies from Rs 1516
lakh per unit length to as high as Rs 4550 lakh per unit
length in different states (Table A5.6). Probable reasons for
cost variation include topography of the local area, distance
from the availability of construction material, earthwork
required and so on (Box 5.2).

Box 5.2
Why Cost varies across Regions

A typical rural road consists of compacted sub-grade, granular sub-base, base-course with graded aggregate and thin bituminous
surface course in the form of pre-mix concrete with a seal coat. In order to ensure the serviceability of the road through out the year
with safety, necessary cross drainage (CD) structures, side drains, road signs, and other road furniture should be an integral part of the
rural road.
The detailed analysis of cost variation of rural roads was carried out at IIT, Roorkee covering 480 roads in 50 districts of Bihar,
Uttaranchal, and Uttar Pradesh. The analysis decomposed the cost of construction into cost towards site clearance, retaining walls, CD
structures, earthwork, sub-base, base-course, and surface course. The average cost of different components per km of the sample
analysed is presented in the table below.

Table B5.2.1
Average Cost Variation of Rural Roads in Bihar, UP, and Uttaranchal
Cost per km of (in Rs lakh)
No. Av. Transp-
Name of Avg. No. Dist. of ortation
of the roads of CD Const- Site Retaining CD Earth quarry Cost/
State analyzed structure ruction clearing wall structure work Sub-base Base Surface (km) km
Bihar 44 3 20.7 .06 0 1.05 1.83 5.56 7.97 3.79 108 7.61
U.P. 382 3 19.2 .04 0.01 1.34 1.90 6.71 5.84 2.86 145 6.02
Uttaranchal 54 8 26.6 2.47 2.76 3.54 1.59 4.77 6.01 3.88 37 4.76

The analysis clearly brought out that:

1. Total cost of construction is 33 per cent higher in hill areas than in plain areas.
2. On an average, the number of cross drainage structures required per km of road in plain area is 3, whereas in the hilly region this
requirement is 8. This explains the higher cost of CD works in Uttaranchal (Rs 6.3 lakh) as compared to the cost of these works
in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (Rs 1.05 lakh and Rs 1.35 lakh respectively)
3. The cost of site clearance is a significant component of the total cost in hilly areas (Rs 2.47 lakh in Uttaranchal), whereas it is
negligible in plain areas (Rs 40006000 per km in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh).
4. The haulage cost for bringing construction material is more in the state of Bihar (Rs 7.61 lakh) followed by Uttar Pradesh (Rs
6.02 lakh) compared to Uttaranchal (Rs 4.76 lakh). This explains higher cost of construction in Bihar as compared to Uttar
Pradesh even though the regional and climatic conditions are similar.
The analysis also revealed that even within a state, cost variation can be significant across the districts owing to the site specific
conditions. The findings of the study warrant greater attention to detailed site investigations and technology option study at the
time of preparing of DPR.

ALTERNATIVES TO REDUCE COST OF
RURAL ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Moderation of Geometric Standards
Based on the recommendations of NRRDC, the widths of
formation and pavement have been fixed at 7.5 m and 3.75
m respectively, though, the Rural Roads Manual permit 6 m
and 3 m roadway and carriageway when the expected traffic
is 100 motorized vehicles. However, most states are adopting
the higher widths, regardless of the traffic volume, resulting
in higher cost of construction. Therefore, it is necessary to
estimate the base year traffic realistically for adopting lower
geometrics to reduce the cost. Association of American State
Highway and Transport Officials (AASHTO), USA has suggested
lower geometric standards for very low volume roads.
Need-based Stage Construction
Under PMGSY, all roads are built with full provisions including
the base and surface courses at one go. However, in many parts
of the country on the new roads, connecting the habitations of
lower population by link roads, the traffic expected definitely
is less and a good gravel surfaced road with necessary drainage
and protection systems in place can serve the rural population
effectively. As and when the traffic builds up over time the roads
can be strengthened through the provision of base and surface
courses. This results in almost 40 per cent cost reduction in
the initial stage, enabling larger coverage in a given budget.
However, keeping in view the difficulties in the
maintenance of gravel roads as well as the dust problem, efforts
should be made to develop appropriate sealing techniques
for the gravel surfaces borrowing experiences from abroad as
well as R&D efforts in our country.
Use of Locally Available Material
The situation in many states indicates non-availability of
materials of requisite standards in nearby areas. Material haulage
is resulting in very high cost. If the available technologies are
exploited, it is possible to reduce the cost of long haulages by
utilizing locally available materials, including the marginal
aggregates and industrial waste material.
One of the proven technologies for the use of local soil
and marginal aggregates is stabilization. The stabilization process
could be mechanical or chemical. Several types of stabilizing
agents have proved to suit different conditions of soil and
environment. Noteworthy among them are stabilization with
lime or cement or a combination of lime and cement. In
addition to these standard technologies, other types of
technologies which are also being tried include the use of
rice husk ash, phosphogypsum, and sodium chloride.
Rural Roads 119
A major constraint in the use of local material lies in the
procedures adopted by the field agencies and lack of awareness
and exposure. It is possible to popularize the use of stabilization
techniques through appropriate training and capacity building
of the field engineers. The reluctance of the field agencies to
deviate from the conventional methods and to try out innovative
technologies also calls for attitudinal changes through HRD
interventions.
In addition to the stabilization techniques, there is a large
array of technologies to promote the use of industrial waste/
by products in road building. Use of the industrial waste
materialsfly ash, steel and copper slag, and marble dust
has already been field tested (Box 5.3).
In addition, techniques suitable for conditions of low
bearing capacity soils, marshy lands, location with drainage
problems are also available. Research studies indicate that
natural geo-textiles such as coir have huge potential for
application on rural roads in areas where subgrade is of poor
quality. Based on the experiences of the use of Jute Geo Textiles
(JGT), Ministry of Rural Development in collaboration with
Jute Manufactures Development Council is implementing a
pilot project to test the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of
different types of JGT under different soil and environmental
conditions (Box 5.4).
Similar experimentation through pilot project for the other
technologies will be tried in the construction of rural roads under
PMGSY, so as to enable standardization and popularization of
cost effective solutions.
Recently, a number of environment friendly enzymes have
come into the markets such as fuzibeton, terrazyme, and
earthzyme which are expected to provide excellent riding
surfaces when mixed with in-situ or suitable borrowed soil.
This technology is designed to eliminate the use of aggregates.
As such, these materials can also be tried out in the rural
roads construction once their efficacy is proved in the local
conditions through pilot projects.
Some field studies have shown that life cycle cost of cement
concrete roads under certain circumstances would be much
less than conventional bituminous construction. This may
be due to avoidance of huge routine maintenance and periodical
maintenance costs in the conventional construction. Cost-
effectiveness of cement concrete roads in rural areas should,
therefore, be field-tested for life-cycle cost through a pilot
project under PMGSY.
MAINTENANCE OF RURAL ROADS
Rural roads need to be maintained at a minimum level of
acceptable serviceability. Lack of adequate and timely
maintenance is bound to accelerate the process of deterioration
of the roads, which in turn results in loss of time, agriculture
output, access, and eventually the asset itself. Further,
120 India Infrastructure Report 2007

Box 5.3
Use of locally available materials
Anil Kumar Sagar

FLY ASH FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION WORKS

Coal is the most easily available fuel for power generation in India. Huge quantities of fly ash are produced as waste by-product of coal
combustion. The present annual generation of fly ash is estimated to be about 140 million tonnes. The physical and chemical properties
of fly ash depend upon the type of coal, its grinding and combustion techniques, collection, and disposal systems. Fly ash reacts with
lime in presence of moisture to form cementitious compounds. This is known as pozzolanic activity. The pozzolanic property of fly ash
enables it to be used as an alternate binder in place of cement. While coarser fly ash can be used as fill material, the finer ash can be
used for replacement of sand and cement in road construction works. Use of fly ash for rural road work has been covered in IRC:SP:20
2002 and Rural Road Manual (MoRD, 2004b and Vittal, 2000).
Sub-base course can be constructed using pond ash or bottom ash replacing conventionally used moorum. Laboratory and field
studies conducted in India and abroad have established that fly ash can be adopted for stabilization of sub-base/base. Fly ashes are
cohesionless materials, and therefore non-plastic in nature while soil particles are generally cohesive. Mixing of soil and ash in suitable
proportions improves the gradation and plasticity characteristics of the mix, thereby improving the strength. Addition of small amounts
of lime greatly improves the strength characteristics of fly ash stabilized layers. 3 to 5 per cent of lime is used depending upon the
quality of lime. The use of stabilized fly ash sub-base/base courses would be particularly attractive in locations where fly ash is easily
available and supply of aggregate is expensive. The proportion 1:2:9 of lime, fly ash and moorum or sand has been found to provide
the best performance.
Fly ash can be utilized for constructing semi-rigid pavements in the form of lime-fly ash concrete, dry lean fly ash concrete.
Pavements constructed using these mixes possess higher flexural strength than flexible pavements and hence they are classified as semi-
rigid pavements. Fly ash can be used for construction of rigid pavements also by using cement-fly ash concrete, high performance
concrete, roller compacted concrete and so on.
Fly ash can be used in place of soil to construct road embankments. Typically in developed urban and industrial areas, natural
borrow sources are scarce, and as a result borrow soil is very expensive. Environmental degradation caused due to use of top soil for
embankment construction is also very high. Fly ash can provide an economical and suitable alternative material to earth for construction
of embankments.
Coal ash can be used for construction of embankments of rural road projects near thermal power plants. The notification issued by
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India dated August 27, 2003 has made usage of coal ash compulsory in all
projects being undertaken within 100 km radius of the thermal power plant. The notification states that, No agency, person or
organisation shall, within a radius of 100 km of a thermal power plant undertake construction or approve design for construction of
roads or flyover embankments in contravention of the guidelines/specifications issued by the Indian Road Congress (IRC) as contained
in the specification No. SP:58 of 2001 (Kumar et al. 2005).
Various demonstration projects involving use of fly ash have been undertaken. One such project was the construction of Salarpur
Dadupur rural link road using fly ash. The project was taken up by the CRRI in collaboration with NTPC Ltd under the Canadian
International Development Agency (CIDA) initiative. The site is situated at a distance of 5 km from National Capital Power Station
(NCPS), Dadri in U.P. Salarpur and Dadupur villages are part of a same panchayat and have a combined population of about 2000
persons. The length of the Salarpur-Dadupur link road is about 1.4 km. In this project bottom ash was used as embankment fill
material and fly ash collected in dry form was used for stabilization and as admixture in roller compacted concrete. The embankment
was constructed using bottom ash as core material with soil cover of 30 cm thickness. Fly ash stabilized using cement (8 per cent
cement and 92 per cent fly ash) was used for laying base course (compacted thickness of 10 cm). Fly ash and cement were mixed in a
concrete mixer and water required to bring moisture content to Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) was added during mixing. The
mix was manually laid to conform to grade and camber. Compaction was carried out using static roller. The stabilised layer was cured
for seven days by sprinkling water at frequent intervals before placing the subsequent layer. A total quantity of about 5000 tonnes of
ash was used for both fill and pavement works in this project. Keeping in view the fact that the link road is located in a remote area and
only light traffic is expected to ply on the road, the pavement is providing satisfactory service. The construction work was taken up in
March 2002 and completed in about 60 days. The total construction cost of the road was Rs 13.51 lakh. Since disposal of fly ash is a
problem for thermal power plants, it has also been argued that fly ash be provided at a negative cost to the TPP. In such cases, fly ash
is provided free of cost to the road manufacturer and the cost of transportation of fly ash to the site is borne by the thermal power plant.

IRON AND STEEL SLAG FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION

Steel making is a strategic requirement of the economy of developing nation like India. Many steel plants have been set up in our
country. However, production of iron and steel is associated with the generation of waste materials like slag. Normally, production of
 Rural Roads 121

one tonne of steel results in generation of one tonne of solid waste. Big steel plants in India generate about 29 million tonnes of waste
material annually. In addition, there are several medium and small plants all over the country. Slag reduces the porosity and permeability
of soil, thus increasing the water logging problem. It causes respiratory ailment among nearby residents, contaminates ground water,
and adversely affects the landscape of the area. Slag can be used as pavement material in a variety of forms. It can be used as a base or
sub-base material either in bound or unbound condition. It meets all the requirements set forth by the MoRTH. As per IRC:372001,
Rs 5 lakh per km can be saved by using slag as road material (Kumar et al. 2002).
It is evident that steel plant by-products, either as such or in suitable combination, can be used in sub-base or base course layer of
a road pavement. In order to compare the structural performance of these materials test sections were constructed using slags at
Rourkela in 19967. Post construction performance monitoring showed that the test sections are comparable to control sections
constructed using conventional materials.

MARBLE DUST
Widely found in Rajasthan, it is a waste material of marble industry. It has been shown that the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the
sub-soil may be increased by upto 40 per cent to 50 per cent by mixing 15 per cent to 25 per cent of marble dust depending upon the
nature of soil. Thus the cost of construction may be reduced considerably.

PHOSPHOGYPSUM
It is a by-product of phosphoric acid based fertilizer plants. It can be used to stabilize black cotton soils as it reduces the shrinkage and swelling
of black cotton soil. The fertilizer plant of Indogulf Corporation located at Dalhej, Gujarat has demonstrated usage of this technology. The
cost of road after phosphogypsum stabilization is about 25 per cent less than the normal construction cost (Misra et al. 2004).

MUNICIPAL WASTES IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION

It is estimated that the average daily refuse generation in a metropolitan city like Delhi is approximately about 4000 tonnes. Disposal
of this large quantity of wastes need careful planning. Presently, municipal corporations dispose these solid wastes mainly through
sanitary land fill method and composting. While organic wastes are used for composting to yield manure, inorganic wastes are difficult
to dispose.
Under the aegis of Ministry of Environment and Forests, a project was taken up at CRRI to use inorganic part of the processed
wastes in road construction. A small length of the road in north Delhi was identified for construction as test section. Soil samples were
collected from subgrade and borrow areas to study their strength and geotechnical characteristics in order to design suitable pavement
cross sections using inorganic part of the municipal wastes in appropriate layers of the proposed test section. The processed waste not
being a suitable material in itself, additives like local soil, cement, lime, fly ash were used in different proportions in sub-base/base
course construction. Pavement specifications were developed for construction of test section at the identified site. The construction
work was completed satisfactorily in May 1996.
Waste plastic has also been used in the construction of rural roads. A pilot road namely Saint Tirisulam road at Saint Thomas
Mount Panchayat Union in Kancheepuram district, Tamil Nadu was laid by the joint effort of Government of Tamil Nadu and
Government of India. The technical support was provided by CRRI, IIT Chennai, and Theyagarajar College, Madurai. The road was
laid using waste plastic mixed bituminous mix. This road had better resistance to raveling and offered more resistance to stripping and
formation of pot holes. The aggregates coated with plastics and binders presented better resistance to water.

USE OF DHANDLA IN CENTRAL RAJASTHAN

Due to non-availability of hard stone within economical distances in desert areas, particularly in Central Rajasthan, road construction
has been posing serious problems, especially in rural areas. It is a common observation in desert areas that on account of the non-
cohesive nature of desert sand sub-grade, the sub-base material has the tendency to sink into the subgrade resulting in deformations
of various shapes and sizes. These deformations are subsequently reflected in the road surface causing either immobility or hampering
the vehicular traffic. It is, therefore, considered an essential pre-requisite to provide adequate support to the pavement for better
performance. This could be achieved either by stabilizing the desert sand sub grade with additives or by providing additional
thickness in the sub-base. Such treatments would result in increased cost of road construction. The Central and Western parts of
Rajasthan have, at present, quite thin density of population where the rate of growth in the volume of traffic on rural roads is not
expected to rise at a fast rate in the near future. It is quite imperative, therefore, to utilize the locally available road materials to the
maximum possible extent.
A calcareous material locally known as Dhandla is found in abundance under an overburden of 1.5 to 2.5 metres. Dhandla, being
quite soft, gets completely crushed under the road roller. It has been found that the bearing capacity of Dhandla was considerably
improved when compacted manually and could be effectively used in the lower layer of low-volume roads. Test tracks have been laid
using Dhandla. It is seen that substantial economy can be achieved by using this low grade material for road construction.
122 India Infrastructure Report 2007

Box 5.4
Pilot Project on Application of Jute Geo-Textile in Rural Roads

Jute Geo-Textile (JGT) is a natural technical textile laid in or on soil to improve its engineering properties. JGT is made out of yarn
obtained from the jute plant. It has high moisture absorption capacity, excellent drapability, and high initial tensile strength. It is
environment friendly, biodegradable, easily available, and economical. Use of JGT leads to natural consolidation of sub-grade
soil and has a potential to enhance the CBR value of the sub-grade by 1.5 to 3 times. Use of JGT dates back to as early as in
1920s when it was tried in some sections of a road at Dundee in Scotland. It was also used in a major road in Calcutta by the
British in 1934.
The NRRDA has taken up a pilot project in collaboration with the Jute Manufacturers Development Council (JMDC) to
demonstrate the potential benefits of the use of JGT in construction of rural roads. This pilot project aims at standardization of
different types of JGT. Under the pilot project, ten roads have been selected in Assam, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Orissa
covering a length of 47.84 km (Table B5.4.1). Central Road Research Institute has been engaged as a technical consultant for this
project for project preparation, quality control, monitoring, and performance evaluation.

Table B5.4.1
Details of Jute Geo-Textile Pilot Projects
State Name of the Road Road Conventional Cost with
Length Cost JGT
(km) (Rs lakh) (Rs lakh)
Orissa Jaipur-Mahananagal 5.50 289 246
Orissa MDR14 to Chatumary 4.00 183 162
Madhya Pradesh Berasia to Semrakalan Approach road 5.10 141 140
Madhya Pradesh Ghelawan village to PMGSY Road 3.14 89.5 74
Chhattisgarh Kodavabani to Khursi 4.80 173 159
Chhattisgarh Khairjhiti to Ghirghoisa Road 5.50 189 171
West Bengal Notuk to Dingal 4.80 243 188
West Bengal Nandanpur to Marokhana High School 6.20 321 303
Assam Rampur Satra to Dumdumla 4.20 190 157
Assam UT Road to Jarabari/Barnagaon 4.60 205 193
Total Cost 47.84 2023 1783
Average Cost/km 42 37

The detailed projects reports indicate that use of JGT would reduce the total cost of construction by Rs 2.40 crore and the average
cost by Rs 5 lakh per km. All the projects are now in progress. CRRI would monitor performance of the roads upto 18 months after
completion of each road.

Source: National Rural Roads Development Agency.

rehabilitation cost is high with increase in the vehicle operating
costs. In case of loss of asset there may be isolation.
Regular maintenance of rural roads is a critical pre-
condition for sustaining the positive impacts that roads bring
to rural communities. Routine minor maintenance is often
neglected not only because of lack of funds, but also because
there is little political capital, or mileage in maintaining roads
regularly as the outcome is not highly visible. Instead, politicians
prefer to authorize major rehabilitation or reconstruction
after the road has deteriorated considerably. Though this is a
universal phenomenon, it is time this issue of sustainable rural
roads maintenance is taken seriously.
The maintenance strategies adopted in PMGSY require
that the maintenance cost be borne by the respective state
governments. This strategy assures maintenance of the road
in the initial five years of construction. The problem of
maintenance beyond that is still unresolved. The concept of
projectized maintenance cost may be thought of and the options
of mobilizing funds for maintenance need to be studied, in
order to keep up the sustainability of the rural roads.

Strategies adopted in different countries enable us to
identify the main requirements for ensuring sustainable rural
roads maintenance as summarized below:
1. Policy decision on maintenance and commitment of the
government for the preservation of rural road assets
deviating from the bias towards new construction. There
is an urgent need to projectize the cost of maintenance at
the time of planning the new construction itself, in order
to achieve sustainability.
2. Development of Technical Standards for design and
construction along with a streamlined Quality Assurance
System as these have a bearing on subsequent
maintenance.
3. Adopting suitable Maintenance Management System for
planning, implementation for optimal use of constrained
resources, with clear policy of prioritization and supported
by well-defined documentation of database.
4. Institutional arrangements with clearly identified functions
and functionaries.
5. A dependable funding mechanism for maintenance.
6. Capacity building for the institutions as well as contractors
with necessary training for improvement of technical skills
and adoption of innovative methods of executing the
maintenance operations, in tune with the present day
technology.
7. Involvement of local governments and community at the
appropriate levels for undertaking maintenance of rural
roads with a systematically designed awareness programme
bringing out the consequences of inadequate and deferred
maintenance.
8. Need based Research and Development (R&D) efforts.
Estimation of Fund Requirements for Maintenance
Annual routine maintenance for rural roads is estimated to
be around Rs 20,000 per km/year on an average and periodic
renewal may cost about Rs 4 lakh for a 5 year cycle amounting
Table 5.3
Alternate Maintenance Strategies for Rural Roads
Budget Maintenance Strategy
Full Requirement Carry out full length Routine Maintenance/
Renewals in rural Core Network (CN).
50% of Full Carry out Routine Maintenance over full
Requirement length of rural CN. Carry out Renewals of
rural Through Routes.
25% of Full Carry out only Routine Maintenance for
Requirement full length of rural CN.
Less than 25% of Carry out routine maintenance of Rural
Full Requirement Through Routes in CN as per
prioritization based on PCI and AADT
Rural Roads 123
to about Rs 80,000 per year (at current prices). As such, the
annual requirement per km of the rural roads maintenance
covering routine and periodic maintenance is Rs 1 lakh per
km per year. Based on the length of the rural roads, particularly
of the CN, estimation of fund requirement can be worked
out for budgeting purposes. However, with the availability
of full or partial budget, the maintenance strategy that may
be adopted is presented below.
Organizational Shortcomings
As multiple agencies are involved in the construction and
maintenance of rural roads, there is dilution of responsibility
and lack of accountability for maintenance. Further, there
is virtual absence of an institutionalized mechanism for
inventorization and pavement condition survey. There is no
planning and management system for rural roads for
identification and prioritization of the required maintenance
interventions.
The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), particularly the
District Panchayats are expected to ultimately take over the
responsibility of rural roads, particularly for maintenance.
However, in most states, hardly any progress is noticeable
with regard to transfer of funds, functions, and functionaries
to the District Panchayats. As a result, it has not so far been
possible to put in place a decentralized community participation
mechanism to ensure proper upkeep and maintenance of
rural roads.
Currently, the work of maintenance is being undertaken
both departmentally and through contractors. However, a
very large percentage of the available funds is spent on salaries
and wages leaving grossly insufficient amounts for non-wage
maintenance components. Though financial audit of public
expenditure on maintenance is undertaken by the C&AG
in the states, there is no formal arrangement in place for
technical audit processes to enhance focus on asset
management. As a large part of rural roads network is with
the state governments and ultimately maintenance of PMGSY
roads would also rest with state governments, there is a need
to reevaluate and relook at the maintenance of rural road
network (Box 5.5).
ROLE OF PANCHAYATI RAJ INSTITUTIONS
Keeping in view the Indian conditions a decentralized
maintenance model has been suggested by Sikdar (2006) (Box
5.6). This model defines the extent of responsibility at each
level, suggests how exactly each level would carry out its
mandated responsibilities and what kind of technical,
financial, and organizational support would be required for
building the capacity at each level. The model needs to be
piloted to evolve a workable system of decentralized
maintenance of rural roads through the empowerment of the
124 India Infrastructure Report 2007

Box 5.5
Relook at Maintenance of Rural Roads
Anil Kumar Sagar

MAINTENANCE STRATEGY
The basic elements of the strategy based on the maintenance needs are as follows:

Road Vision
The state governments should formulate a long term vision covering all aspects of maintenance, the funds available through PMGSY
and other poverty alleviation and employment generation programmes.

Norms for Maintenance

A study should be undertaken to determine the quantum of funds required for maintenance works. This would include routine and
periodic maintenance for earth, WBM, black-top roads in different traffic, and climatic conditions prevailing in various states. Minimum
essential requirements and those considered desirable for better level of service should be spelt out including allowances for emergency
works and special repairs. Not all roads are maintainable. It is necessary to identify the maintainable part of the road network and
preserve the assets by setting up an appropriate maintenance regime. Maintainable roads may be defined as all roads with drainage and
gravel surface that are in a reasonable condition, so that routine maintenance is possible without need for extensive rehabilitation.

Fund Allocation
A dedicated fund for maintenance of roads like the one in Uttar Pradesh needs to be set up in all states. The state governments should
realize that a decision to construct a road implies that it will be maintained subsequently. The source of these funds could be cess on
petrol and diesel, additional cess on agricultural produce, additional royalty on mining and quarries, road maintenance fee in the form
of annual road tax on vehicles, and surcharge on insurance premium for vehicles. The fund should be managed in a transparent
manner and systems and procedures need to be established to ensure accountability.

Core Network
The State PWDs should identify the core roads for each district. It would be appropriate to give priority of maintenance to roads in
the core network. The states should formulate a five year plan for removing the basic deficiencies in the core road network in the first
instance and other roads subsequently.

Improved Monitoring
A system of performance evaluation should be introduced. Some of the performance indicators that can be considered for the purpose
are percentage of maintenance expenditure to required expenditure as per norms, percentage of core road network actually subjected
to periodic maintenance, and percentage of core road network in poor condition. A few African countries which had set up dedicated
road funds for maintenance are regularly monitoring improvements in road condition. Performance audits should relate financial
flows and physical performance indicators to the condition of roads.

Creation of Maintenance Management System

A simple but rational maintenance management system for rural roads should be developed. The system should help in providing
network condition, road inventory, and need based priorities based on deterioration prediction models, annual maintenance plans for
a given budget, multi year road work programming, and impact on deterioration of roads for which funds are not allocated. A survey
should be conducted to establish a pavement condition index (PCI) of village roads as a tool for prioritization. A further sub-prioritisation
needs to be done on the basis of annual average daily traffic (AADT). For roads that cannot be maintained, a systematic approach to
appraisal is needed to determine whether they should be rehabilitated or upgraded. Such an approach should take account of the life
cycle costs of the road, its function and benefits and availability of resources.

Ensuring quality
One of the factors leading to high levels of maintenance is lack of compaction of earthwork, sub-base and base courses, and poor
attention to drainage works during construction of rural roads. Low crust thickness in some cases also contributes to early deterioration.

Review gang labour system

In some countries, a system of mobile gangs and reorganization of maintenance operations for improved efficiency of the existing
gangs either as a patrol gang system or area wide system has been introduced. A strategy for redeployment of existing gang labour into
labour cooperatives and outsourcing of maintenance work to medium and small contractors need to be looked into.
 Rural Roads 125

Responsibility of PRIs
PRIs could be made responsible for maintenance of some non-core village roads and gang labour transferred to them. Some functions,
functionaries and funds (3 Fs) need to be transferred to PRIs. Experience of road maintenance in some of the South American
countries where such strategies have been successful can serve as reference. A summary of contracting the work of routine maintenance
to community based micro enterprises in Peru is given in the following section.

Drainage
Provision of adequate drainage is a critical requirement. A drainage audit must be undertaken for all existing rural roads and deficiencies
in this respect removed in a time bound manner. Initial design for new roads should take into account such requirements in any case.

Maintenance of WBM roads

A good length of rural roads has Water Bound Macadam (WBM) surface. Their maintenance is a major problem. Generally, these
roads deteriorate very fast under the traffic and often develop poor riding surface. A thin gravel surfacing is found to be effective in
Andhra Pradesh for the repair of these roads.

Financing of Road Maintenance

Some states have created a State Road Fund that is used for maintenance of roads. A part of this fund is also used for maintenance of
rural roads. Such funds are also used in African countries like Ghana and Zambia. However, the criteria for utilization of these funds
are not very clear. There is a need to support the management committee of the fund by a lean but strong professional cell for effective
administration of the fund and strengthening the operation process and putting in place scientific principles of prioritization of
maintenance treatments based on regular condition survey of roads. The current system of monitoring of physical and financial targets
does not give a clue to the improvements achieved in condition of roads. Despite the creation of a dedicated fund for road maintenance,
the amounts available for maintenance from all sources continue to be inadequate. There is a shortfall of over 60 per cent in availability
of funds compared to needs. Practically, no funds are allocated for maintenance of roads constructed by departments other than the
state PWD. A detailed estimate of funds required for maintenance of rural roads on realistic basis is needed with clear break up for
routine and periodic maintenance for earth, water-bound macadam, black-top roads in different traffic and climatic conditions prevailing
in different parts of the country. The norms should consider the frequency of various maintenance tasks required. Minimum essential
requirements and those considered desirable for better level of service should be spelt out including allowance for emergency works
and special repairs. To begin with the MoRTH report on norms for maintenance can serve as a starting point (MoRTH 2000).

Renewal Cycle for Rural Road Maintenance

A disturbing feature in the maintenance policy laid down by the state governments relates to the renewal cycle provided for rural roads.
In UP, a period of 8 year cycle has been indicated for rural roads. Technically, it is well known that not only traffic but also environment
plays a key role in the life of the top wearing coat with bituminous binder (because of oxidation effect of bitumen) and that is why, the
Road Maintenance Manual of UP provides for a renewal cycle of 4 years. The inadequacy of funds alone does not appear to be a sound
logic in giving a go by to the norms laid down as a result of experience and experimentation on the ground (Gupta 2003). The expert
committee set up under the chairmanship of the Director General (Road Development) and Special Secretary to the Government of
India recommended norms for maintenance which are as follows:

Table B5.5.1
Maintenance Norms for Rural Roads
Category SD-I PC MSS SDBC MR-I
of Roads Traffic Group Rainfall SD-II 20mm 20mm 25mm
ODR/VR 150450 Less than 3000 mm 5 5
(Plains) More than 3000 mm 4 4
0150 Less than 3000 mm 5 5 5
More than 3000 mm 4 4 4
SD = Surface Dressing; PC=Premix Carpet; MSS=Mix Seal Surface; SDBC=Semi-Dense Bituminous Carpet; MR=Metal Renewal.
Source: (MoRTH 2000).

The cycle recommended by the Expert Committee of the MoRTH is ideal and could be the target to be achieved at least in respect of
the core rural roads network.
126 India Infrastructure Report 2007

In absence of a proper road inventory and condition survey, it is not possible to make a precise estimate of the maintenance funds
required annually in respect of rural roads. There is no organized data base for roadsinventory, condition, and traffic counts which
can help in formulation of need based maintenance plan. The budget grants for maintenance are usually distributed in a lump sum
manner assigned to road length. Only financial monitoring of expenditure against allotment is carried out. Maintenance works are not
subject to strict budgetary discipline. The system of performance budget whereby details of physical achievements against prespecified
targets (activity and work-wise) does not exist in many states. Maharashtra has developed suitable formats for performance budgeting
and can serve as a good reference.

Rural Road Co-operative for Maintenancethe Finnish experience

The Government of Finland has promoted rural road maintenance using road cooperatives. A road cooperative is a rural road maintenance
organisation whereby a road is maintained by the people living along it. The Finnish Government has provided a legal framework
which stipulates the right-of-way, cooperative ownership, and the formula for distribution of maintenance costs amongst the road
users and property holders along the road. Participation in the road cooperative is compulsory for property owners who use the road.
The cost of road maintenance is shared amongst the members of the cooperative depending on the benefits to each member in the
form of the size of the holding and the created traffic. Each cooperative holds an annual general meeting to decide the fees, to accept
new members and to audit the previous years accounts. (Isotalo 1992)

Routine Maintenance by Community Based Micro-enterprises in Peru

In Peru, the Rural Roads Project (RRP) has set up a cost-effective routine maintenance system based on contracting out labour-
intensive maintenance works to micro-enterprises, local cooperatives, and other community based organizations. The composition of
the micro-enterprises varies according to the length of the road. Their average size is about thirteen people and the average length of
the roads covered under a contract is about 34.6 km. Typically, micro-enterprises are made up of eleven to twenty people living close
to the road. Priority is given to unemployed people who have previous experience in construction works.
The micro-enterprises are engaged through performance based contracts with Peru Roads Department (PCR) and paid on a
monthly basis. Micro-enterprise members designate their president and executive council, and determine how the monthly payment
is allocated to the various uses (wages, tools, rentals, transportation, savings, and other investments). On an average, wages account for
89 per cent of the expenditure.
Micro-enterprises carry out simple works, continuously throughout the year, to clean the ditches and culverts, control vegetation,
filling potholes and ruts, maintaining the surface camber, remove small landslides and undertake other emergency works. They have
also demonstrated capacity to build retaining walls and small bridges and handle El Nino emergency works under the guidance of
PCR. The micro enterprise is a cost effective way of keeping the roads rehabilitated in good condition. The programme generates
direct employment for its members. The micro-enterprise becomes a focal point for community work and communal activities to
ensure continuous support from the community.

Lessons for India

Using community based micro-enterprises has important lessons for India that has a very high percentage of unskilled labourers living
in rural areas. The study highlights the active involvement of people in maintaining their own roads. Importance of group work can
also not be neglected. It has been shown by people organized into groups that they can face the harshest of situations.
MoRD has started an ambitious programme Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) wherein people in villages are organized
into groups for self employment. These groups can provide a good beginning for taking up road maintenance works in rural areas.
Since rural roads carry low volume traffic, the requirements for routine road maintenance will be minimal as compared to periodic
maintenance or rehabilitation. The Government also provides funds to generate employment in rural areas by schemes such as Sampoorna
Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY), National Food for Work Program (NFFWP), and National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(NREGS). However, under the present guidelines, funds available under these schemes cannot be spent for maintenance of existing
assets. Moreover, the schemes stipulate formation of proper estimates before taking up any work. However, funds for routine maintenance
should not wait for preparation of estimates. Under routine maintenance, funds should be given on a normative basis. Formation of
estimates would delay maintenance works and defeat its very purpose. The guidelines under these schemes can be suitably modified so
that groups of people can work for routine road maintenance. This would have the dual benefit of providing employment as well as
ensuring adequate maintenance of roads.
Typically, a village is connected by one road. In such cases, one group in the village may be given the task for maintaining that
road. However, in villages with multiple connectivity, more than one group may be formed for routine maintenance works. A group
should consist of eleven to twenty men who should be given preliminary training for taking up road maintenance works. The training
can be given by existing state PWD engineers or master trainers specially trained for this purpose. Funds for training can be provided
through the SGSY scheme.
 Rural Roads 127

As in Peru, the state PWD department may also enter into a contract
State PWD with these groups so that the groups are ensured a steady source of income
NREGs SGSY and middlemen are eliminated. Depending on their performance, the groups
should also be given incentives so that their needs for other equipment are
also taken care of. After gaining enough experience in routine maintenance,
these people may also be considered for taking up periodic maintenance,
GROUP
obviously, under strict control of the state PWD. The above scheme would
have the benefits of routine road maintenance, employment in rural areas,
poverty reduction, no extra requirement of funds for maintenance, feeling
of ownership amongst the rural masses, a step towards decentralization
Routine Roads Maintenance keeping in spirit of the 73rd amendment, creation of workforce for
maintenance in all rural areas, effective planning for road maintenance,
Fig. B5.5.1 Model for Rural Road Maintenance and control on routine maintenance (Figure B5.5.1).

Note: Views expressed here are of the author of the box.

Box 5.6
A Proposed Model of Community Participation in Rural Road Maintenance

Ensuring sustainability of rural roads requires (i) rigorous planning and design, (ii) an effective delivery system, (iii) mobilization of
adequate resources, and (iv) appropriate technology and mechanism for the maintenance interventions. The three-tier Panchayati Raj
System (PRIs), which has come into existence by virtue of the 73rd Amendment of the constitution, offers an excellent opportunity to
institutionalize a hierarchical, decentralized system of maintenance with more technical and complex operations assigned to the district
level and the most routine and low technology operations to be tackled by the village panchayats through the maintenance gangs
(MGs). The model envisages formation of MGs with four or five able-bodied villagers to be selected from the village itself and
imparted training on simple maintenance activities. The suggested model of allocation of maintenance responsibility is as follows:

Table B5.6.1
Model of Allocation of Maintenance Responsibility
Admn./Orgn Extent of Road Responsibility
Unit Length, km.
District 5001000 Planning and assessment of maintenance needs regularly; rehabilitation and renewal
works periodically every 57 years.
Block (Inter- 50100 Procurement of materials and equipment/implements & distribution to central
mediate panchayat) village gang (CVG).
Central village 810 Collection of materials and equipment/implements from Block HQ and storing for
gang (for a group distribution to MG.
of villages)
Maintenance 12 Execution of routine maintenance by the MG of the village.
gang of village

Each MG would be made responsible for maintaining 12 km of road located very close to the village. The intermediate panchayat
level set up will have the responsibility to procure and store materials (aggregates and cold bituminous emulsion) and implements
required for maintenance which will be distributed to the central village gangs (CVGs) for further distribution to the MGs of the
villages. Normal agricultural/household implements used by villagers would actually be utilized for carrying out maintenance works.
A specially made push-cart will be used by the MG for transporting materials and implements to the sites for maintenance works. A
manually operated pug-mill fitted to the push-cart will be used for mixing the aggregates and bitumen for producing the cold mix to
be used in maintenance of bituminous layer. A calibrated small metal container of known volume can be used for batching of the mix
and a normal rammer will be used for manual compaction of the repaired shoulder, side slope, side drain, or location of the crack
128 India Infrastructure Report 2007

repaired. The proposed framework envisages availability of engineers at the district level to assess the maintenance needs and current
pavement conditions every 6 months in rotation and to pass on the status report to the intermediate panchayat for onward transmission
to the village panchayats. The district level maintenance unit will have facilities for periodic maintenance and renewal interventions
based on pavement condition evaluation. Fair and equitable distribution of funds and material resources for operationalising this
arrangement will be ensured by the functionaries at the district and the intermediate level.
The proposed model allocates responsibility to the three-tiers of the panchayats commensurate with the capacity available at each
level. The model also envisages competition among the panchayats and MGs to increase effective community participation in maintenance
of rural roads through the PRIs.

Source: Sikdar (2006).

Box 5.7
Citizen Monitoring of Rural Roads

Citizens and taxpayers, being the ultimate users, have a right to demand good quality roads. However, this right cannot be divorced
from their duty to exercise due diligence and vigilance in order to ensure proper utilization of funds spent and to ensure that the
quality of the assets created meet the prescribed standards. It is, therefore, necessary to evolve and institutionalize a system of monitoring
the quality of road works by the citizens. For this purpose, however, the essential requisite and features of successful citizen participation
need to be demonstrated and validated experimentally. In this context, a pilot project has been taken up, under PMGSY, in collaboration
with Public Affairs Centre, Bangalore, to demonstrate the utility of involving the citizens in monitoring of road construction.
Under the pilot project, sixteen rural road projects will be identified in four districts in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (two districts in
each state). Each of the identified roads will be citizen monitored in sections up to 50 per cent of their length. Each critical stage of road
construction will be monitored by the citizen volunteers with appropriate quality checks. In each road, the citizen monitors will act as
relay teams handing over responsibility to the next monitoring team after construction of a section of the road is completed and monitored.
For each road project three to four citizens will be chosen to act as the core group of monitors. The monitors could be Civil Engineering
students from the nearby colleges, volunteers from civil society organizations, citizen associations, Gram Panchayats, Mahila Mandals, and
so on. However, they must have minimum requisite literacy/education and should have commitment and enthusiasm to perform the
required tasks. These citizen monitors will be imparted basic training at convenient field locations by the experts with the help of a simple
booklet detailing their tasks relating to monitoring and quality control. They would also be provided with a basic field kit of testing devices.
A package of simple physical tests for monitoring and quality assurance of rural road projects will be designed under the guidance
of eminent domain experts specifying the devices and testing modalities. In-house and on-site training would be provided to the
citizen monitors for carrying out these field tests. Greater participation of rural citizens will be secured by treating the citizen monitors
as focal points of the local groups. The citizen monitors are expected to assume leadership role and train others from the village to
participate in the monitoring process.
Four road experts would be identified for each state, to provide peer guidance and to assist the citizen monitors. The experts will
also carryout certain tests which are beyond the competence of the citizen monitors and which require more sophisticated testing
devices not included in the standard tool kits. Each expert would undertake ten to fifteen field inspections during the pilot phase. The
duration of the pilot phase is expected to be six months. All the processes involved in this exercise would be fully documented for
experience sharing and for developing a replicable model for citizen monitoring of infrastructure projects on a wider scale.

PRIs for which resources available under SGSY and NREGS
can be pooled as suggested in Box 5.5.
Since construction and maintenance of rural roads is
almost exclusively funded through public expenditure, it is
the tax payers money that needs to be accounted for. Besides,
the ultimate recipients of the service, the road users, should
be made aware of the investment made in the creation of the
assets and they should also be entitled to assess the cost
effectiveness and quality of the assets created for their benefit.
Institutionalization of a system of social audit by the citizens
and the road users is, therefore, essential, even though
monitoring road construction and maintenance involves a
high degree of technical proficiency and competence. In this
connection, it may be worthwhile to mention that under
PMGSY, states have been advised to fix citizen information
boards displaying physical and financial details of the project,
quantity of materials to be used and persons responsible for
construction and supervision. This is a measure to enhance
the level of transparency in programme implementation.
Further a pilot project has been initiated through the Public
Affairs Centre, Bangalore, to involve the citizens in monitoring
road quality (Box 5.7).

WAY FORWARD
The debate is whether one ought to centralize or decentral-
ize rural road development and maintenance. Protagonists
of centralization assert that roads have certain special char-
acteristics that make them different from other dispersed
rural infrastructure. First, good roads require a reasonably
high and uniform standard of construction and repair and
second, roads are not necessarily used by the local residents
alone. In the pursuit of standardization and adherence to
norms, centralization can also be carried to extremes, put-
ting wide powers in the hands of a few, totally eliminating
scope for community participation and flexibility for local
initiatives and innovations. PMGSY is a CSS and capital is
provided by the central government to the state governments
to build the road network as per the central government
norms. The key issue remains of maintenance of this network
as it is handed over to the state government after construct-
ing the road. State governments are obliged to provide from
their budgets for its maintenance.
Ensuring Community Participation
Intensive community participation is being widely recognized
as a major requirement for ensuring long term sustainability
of investment on rural infrastructure. Participatory planning
and management facilitates assessment of the needs of the
rural households in order to create integrated utilities for them.
Such an approach also provides opportunities to the community
to reinforce their identity as a key stakeholder and to exercise
their choices and rights freely. This promotes a sense of
ownership of the assets created and provides incentive for
their participation in construction and subsequently, in the
management of the assets.
While designing systems for community participation
and management, however, there is an important concern
which needs to be properly addressed. When community
management entails cash or labour contributions, the
burden generally falls disproportionately on the poor
households, since they may be forced to contribute free
labour time leaving less time for them to engage in their
primary productive tasks. This might adversely affect their
ability to meet subsistence needs and food security. They
may also be forced to contribute towards maintenance of
infrastructure assets, which they rarely use. What we should
really aim at in the involvement of the community is the
assessment of needs and decisions regarding maintenance and
management. This will ensure that community participation
is inclusive and pro-poor, since the poor will develop a stake
in using and maintaining the appropriate roads which serve
their needs.
Rural Roads 129
Promoting use of Labour Intensive Technology
While the poor households face fundamental deficiencies in
their assets to capture benefits of the opportunities that a rural
road may bring, one aspect of the rural road development,
which benefits the poor directly, is the opportunity that
construction and maintenance of these roads offer for
employment when labour intensive methods are used.
Experience from Asian and African countries reveals that the
principal gains for the poor from rural road programmes is
through employment generated during the construction.
Although employment on road construction is temporary in
nature, this provides an opportunity for the workers to
accumulate savings which can provide the necessary start up
capital to invest in alternative livelihoods to cross the threshold
of poverty. Labour intensive, intermediate technologies are
expected to generate five to six times more jobs in construction
of rural roads as compared to the highly equipment oriented
methods used for the highways. Furthermore, adoption of
labour intensive construction methods need not affect the
quality of works adversely, contrary to the popular belief.
It has been successfully demonstrated in Cambodia and
Peoples Republic of China that the quality of works, using
labour intensive methods, can be atleast as good as that of
the contractors using heavy machineries. There is, therefore,
a need to incentivize and promote use of labour intensive
techniques for rural road programmes with a focus on poverty
reduction.
Decentralization of Maintenance
Rural roads, by their very nature, are small in size and are
dispersed over a wide geographical area. Construction and
maintenance of rural roads are, therefore, not easily amenable
to centralized supervision and monitoring. Efficiency
considerations weigh in favour of a decentralized system for
maintenance and management of rural roads. Case studies
of different developing countries have shown that regular
maintenance of rural roads is a critical pre-condition for
sustaining the positive impact which these assets generate for
the rural community. Ensuring adequate and timely
maintenance, both routine and periodic, however, requires not
only adequate availability of funds, but also major institutional
reform. This is because the institutional responsibility for
rural roads is often not very clearly established. In many states
there appears to be lack of clarity, at least in practice at the
field level, over who is responsible for maintaining which
roads and also over the sources of funding their maintenance
requirements. In the absence of proper institutional systems,
very often there is no transparency and objectivity with regard
to prioritization and selection of roads, maintenance
130 India Infrastructure Report 2007
and rehabilitation. The ability to get a road included in the
annual maintenance programme or a rehabilitation scheme,
consequently, tends to depend heavily on the political strength
and influence that the beneficiary community can exert.
Poorer and more backward areas and communities are likely
to suffer under such a regime since they are less likely to have
the capacity and the power to lobby effectively for better roads.
There is a clear case, therefore, to move towards an efficient
system of decentralized maintenance of the rural roads by
empowering the PRIs. It is hoped that a clear road map for this
purpose would be set out at least in the 11th Five Year Plan.
Cost Benefit Framework for Investment on Rural Roads
It is a common perception that all-weather roads should be
necessarily black topped. Black topping, no doubt, provides
better riding quality and stability to the surface as well as
pavement structure. It prevents water percolation and arrests
the dust problem. However, black topping of fully constructed
crust becomes necessary only on the roads carrying high traffic
volumes. Investment of this type on roads connecting smaller
habitations with low traffic volumes can be rarely justified
on economic considerations. This calls for need based road
construction keeping in view the expected economic returns
from the investment. While the rural roads Manual treats
gravel road with necessary cross drainage and protection work
as an all-weather road, almost all the roads under PMGSY
are currently being black topped irrespective of the projected
traffic. Indeed a whole range of proven, cost effective pavement
options are now available as alternatives to bitumen surface
for low volume rural roads. Most of these paving options
require relatively smaller capital investments and optimize
use of local materials and use intermediate labour based
technology. A policy and institutional framework needs to
be developed to mainstream these alternatives for rural roads.
Providing all weather connectivity helps in promoting
economic growth and alleviates poverty. The PMGSY has
accelerated works in connecting habitations all over the
country and its impact on rural economy is perceptible not
only in economic life of people but in social life as well. There
is no clear policy on maintenance of these newly created assets,
though all PMGSY roads are covered by five years maintenance
contracts entered into along with the construction contract,
with the same contractor. But as funds are to be provided
through the state budget, there are no earmarked funds for
the maintenance of rural roads.
There is little doubt that rural roads are vital to agro-
based industry and rural development, to create jobs, and to
make the countrys growth more broad based. As all-weather
road network through PMGSY is expanding we are witnessing
social and economic change beyond our expectations. Though
a watertight system to maintain this vast network is not in
place, it is unlikely that village community would let it fall
into disuse.
 Rural Roads 131

ANNEXE
Table A5.1
Length and Cost of Rural Roads required for New Connectivity under PMGSY
Cost for
Eligible Unconnected Habitations connectivity
No. of 1000+ 500999 250499 Total length under
S. Name Unconnected Length Length Length to be PMGSY
No. of State habitations No. (km) No. (km) No. (km) covered (km) (Rs million)
1 Andhra Pradesh 2679 167 668 417 1668 396 990 3326 4520
2 Arunachal Pradesh 2654 43 303 105 854 267 1954 3111 8390
3 Assam 15,786 6149 7900 4196 6671 2799 4416 18,987 51,950
4 Bihar 24,321 11,717 26,687 6203 6664 0 0 33,351 66,470
5 Chhattisgarh 24,202 2604 12,213 6313 14,709 3644 10,634 37,556 76,700
6 Goa 55 0 0 20 40 35 50 90 100
7 Gujarat 8127 472 1038 2288 4027 1493 2387 7452 10,210
8 Haryana 23 0 0 2 26 0 0 26 60
9 Himachal Pradesh 11,340 262 1734 853 3389 2379 7709 12832 34,900
10 Jammu & Kashmir 3946 785 3454 942 2722 1065 2236 8412 27,720
11 Jharkhand 21,036 2622 5298 4178 8943 3896 7204 21445 36,420
12 Karnataka 4608 156 103 118 397 602 1367 1867 2250
13 Kerala 440 117 116 303 323 18 21 460 950
14 Madhya Pradesh 34,771 5804 25,131 10,645 31,403 2043 3730 60,264 121,990
15 Maharashtra 6892 203 633 794 1961 754 1774 4368 7680
16 Manipur 1142 71 355 187 633 340 1143 2131 5170
17 Meghalaya 2752 9 31 150 553 597 2078 2662 6930
18 Mizoram 392 47 236 114 948 124 837 2021 5910
19 Nagaland 127 21 280 32 478 41 231 989 2490
20 Orissa 28,299 3850 7946 6738 13,652 3805 7776 29,374 69,620
21 Punjab 920 103 205 433 774 0 0 979 1610
22 Rajasthan 20,729 2906 7063 6073 19,468 2036 5417 31,948 40,630
23 Sikkim 410 16 78 138 541 164 488 1107 3280
24 Tamil Nadu 5318 577 1426 1825 3552 238 281 5259 7870
25 Tripura 3803 203 260 706 1205 1182 1516 2981 9610
26 Uttaranchal 8654 171 1299 667 4251 1767 4880 10,430 22,990
27 Uttar Pradesh 61,554 8839 16,300 15,358 22,300 87 125 38,725 87,560
28 West Bengal 35,667 11,941 13,192 11,668 9803 1679 657 23,652 70,200
Total 330,647 59,855 133,949 81,466 161,955 31,451 69,901 365,805 784,180
Source: www.pmgsy.org
132 India Infrastructure Report 2007

Table A5.2
Length and Cost of Rural Roads Required for Upgradation under PMGSY
Length of Core Network (Rural Roads) Length of Estimated
Through roads Link roads Total upgradation cost
S.No. State (km) (km) (km)to be covered (km) (Rs Million)
1 Andhra Pradesh 8576 57,495 66,071 17,201 25,820
2 Arunachal Pradesh 2750 9154 11,904 4123 7260
3 Assam 10,551 16,632 27,183 13,046 33,400
4 Bihar 12,746 38,898 51,644 18,581 27,770
5 Chhattisgarh 12,536 29,040 41,576 16,892 27,850
6 Goa 71 788 859 190 190
7 Gujarat 2982 40,668 43,650 9082 9720
8 Haryana 6567 6387 12,954 7525 13,150
9 Himachal Pradesh 5894 23,577 29,471 9431 16,600
10 Jammu & Kashmir 3585 15,238 18,822 5870 11,400
11 Jharkhand 7978 29,677 37,654 12,429 17,280
12 Karnataka 8141 58,539 66,679 16,921 18,720
13 Kerala 305 15,734 16,039 2665 4190
14 Madhya Pradesh 25,330 79,380 104,710 37,237 57,420
15 Maharashtra 8905 72,130 81,035 19,724 27,650
16 Manipur 1343 7284 8627 2435 3750
17 Meghalaya 2312 7120 9432 3380 6020
18 Mizoram 1117 2396 3513 1476 2650
19 Nagaland 805 6003 6807 1705 2510
20 Orissa 19,138 61,257 80,395 28,327 43,480
21 Punjab 7484 17,751 25,235 10,147 12,500
22 Rajasthan 14,821 75,304 90,125 26,117 27,750
23 Sikkim 485 2408 2893 846 1150
24 Tamil Nadu 14,317 52,561 66,878 22,201 30,190
25 Tripura 1637 4704 6341 2343 4760
26 Uttaranchal 4321 17,124 21,446 6890 12,100
27 Uttar Pradesh 40,363 111,404 151,767 57,074 99,720
28 West Bengal 13,410 36,991 50,400 18,958 45,330
Total 238,470 895,642 1,134,112 372,816 590,330
Source: www.pmgsy.org
 Rural Roads 133

Table A5.3
Physical and Financial status and achievements under PMGSY
Statement showing Physical & Financial progress under PMGSY (PhasesI to VI + ADB/WB)
(Rs in crores, length in kms)
No. of road Length of % of % Exp.
Value Amount No. works road works completed % Length to amount
of released of Length completed completed road works completed Exp. released
S. proposals (up to road of road (up to (up to (up to (up to up to (up to
No. State cleared 25.05.06) works works May, 06) May, 06) May, 06) May, 06) May, 06 May, 06)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 AP 1632.95 1011.47 4580.00 13284.10 3564.00 8535.35 77.82 64.25 914.62 90.42
2 Arunachal 437.74 179.46 446.00 1786.65 337.00 1096.08 75.56 61.35 127.36 70.97
3 Assam 1601.11 721.29 1294.00 4385.87 640.00 1558.26 49.46 35.53 609.50 84.50
4 Bihar 1384.03 592.80 1297.00 5239.60 613.00 1609.76 47.26 30.72 504.84 85.16
5 Chhattisgarh 2220.21 1078.26 2094.00 10993.84 914.00 4998.56 43.65 45.47 1088.23 100.92
6 Goa 9.72 10.00 90.00 178.16 72.00 158.70 80.00 0.00 5.32 53.20
7 Gujarat 438.34 284.87 1553.00 3250.02 1139.00 2373.75 73.34 73.04 274.54 96.37
8 Haryana 258.08 201.18 111.00 1575.51 77.00 1107.85 69.37 70.32 163.38 81.21
9 HP 1353.08 482.80 1506.00 7590.09 510.00 2742.21 33.86 36.13 359.57 74.48
10 J&K 312.40 145.35 277.00 1025.81 41.00 91.30 14.80 8.90 59.71 41.08
11 Jharkhand 633.03 504.41 629.00 3362.37 439.00 2317.95 69.79 68.94 411.28 81.54
12 Karnataka 759.36 506.24 1921.00 7240.01 1518.00 5015.49 79.02 69.27 403.63 79.73
13 Kerala 196.73 121.97 443.00 837.04 192.00 345.80 43.34 41.31 75.33 61.76
14 MP 5103.92 2102.50 5562.00 26456.59 2271.00 10529.22 40.83 39.80 2066.99 98.31
15 Maharashtra 684.75 596.21 2148.00 5146.84 1508.00 3245.59 70.20 63.06 485.94 81.50
16 Manipur 273.04 104.33 849.00 1266.84 525.00 688.84 61.84 54.37 98.01 93.94
17 Meghalaya 145.72 123.17 347.00 811.43 286.00 661.91 82.42 81.57 93.40 75.83
18 Mizoram 333.23 225.50 114.00 1526.83 67.00 978.60 58.77 64.09 163.75 72.62
19 Nagaland 194.43 161.56 208.00 1996.67 173.00 1582.37 83.17 79.25 107.74 66.69
20 Orissa 2240.95 1445.56 2880.00 9514.74 1663.00 5137.43 57.74 53.99 1147.02 79.35
21 Punjab 217.90 176.30 508.00 1282.78 412.00 815.11 81.10 63.54 166.77 94.59
22 Rajasthan 4490.81 2395.60 8865.00 30877.01 4374.00 15427.75 49.34 49.97 1926.34 80.41
23 Sikkim 298.37 111.26 182.00 1912.48 59.00 1503.68 32.42 78.62 85.13 76.51
24 Tamil Nadu 724.18 491.87 2604.00 5040.68 1738.00 3121.72 66.74 61.93 366.78 74.57
25 Tripura 200.99 96.39 311.00 841.38 205.00 437.07 65.92 51.95 77.60 80.51
26 UP 2916.29 2193.87 11186.00 21227.95 7957.00 13657.31 71.13 64.34 1624.25 74.04
27 Uttaranchal 360.83 215.33 292.00 1822.86 131.00 508.36 44.86 27.89 150.53 69.91
28 West Bengal 2328.20 1203.45 1274.00 7650.14 683.00 3471.40 53.61 45.38 929.36 77.22
Grand Total 31750.39 17483.00 53571.00 178124.29 32108.00 93717.42 59.94 52.61 14486.92 82.86
Source: www.pmgsy.org
134 India Infrastructure Report 2007

Table A5.4
Bharat NirmanTargets for New Connectivity
(Length in km, Habitations in Numbers)
Sl. Name of 20056 20067 20078 20089 Total
No. the State Length Habs Length Habs Length Habs Length Habs Length Habs
1 Andhra Pradesh 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 Arunachal Pradesh 162.5 22 637.5 85 646.875 86 671.875 105 2118.75 298
3 Assam 605.852 421 2864.063 1988 3889.845 2701 5793.46 4022 13,153.22 9132
4 Bihar 1665.831 896 3928.75 2062 6121.425 3214 7230.306 3784 18,946.312 9956
5 Chhattisgarh 1501.365 478 4367.606 1310 6450.644 2007 8255.181 2514 20,574.796 6309
6 Goa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 Gujarat 402.955 230 429.723 246 438.675 251 438.675 251 1710.028 978
8 Haryana 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 Himachal Pradesh 464.583 127 795.833 209 638.542 166 479.167 123 2378.125 625
10 Jammu & Kashmir 169.972 57 1059.49 352 1781.869 593 1405.099 466 4416.43 1468
11 Jharkhand 1051.779 526 2594.39 1295 1812.298 901 2319.31 1155 7777.777 3877
12 Karnataka 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
13 Kerala 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
14 Madhya Pradesh 2602.139 768 6162.451 1760 8326.848 2399 10,470.17 2905 27,561.608 7832
15 Maharashtra 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
16 Manipur 100 11 460.714 48 464.286 48 719.048 74 1744.048 181
17 Meghalaya 123.609 35 135.971 39 140.091 40 144.211 41 543.882 155
18 Mizoram 82.746 12 274.819 39 277.884 39 306.498 43 941.947 133
19 Nagaland 93.318 9 104.529 10 109.507 10 114.485 11 421.839 40
20 Orissa 1055.95 493 1985.609 874 2524.021 1087 4427.774 1993 9993.354 4447
21 Punjab 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
22 Rajasthan 2153.615 743 3629.519 1252 3554.217 1225 2123.494 732 11,460.845 3952
23 Sikkim 75.031 22 104.042 30 108.043 31 132.053 37 419.169 120
24 Tamil Nadu 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
25 Tripura 94.774 66 261.74 183 354.701 248 447.661 313 1158.876 810
26 Uttar Pradesh 1966.416 1236 2390.632 1504 2059.213 1295 1378.701 867 7794.962 4902
27 Uttaranchal 380.609 95 422.008 106 1025.641 257 1020.299 255 2848.557 713
28 West Bengal 739.378 787 2572.767 2738 3265.307 3473 3643.359 3876 10,220.811 10,874
Total 15,492.42 7034 35,182.16 16130 43,989.93 20,071 51,520.83 23,567 14,6185.34 66,802
Source: www.pmgsy.org
 Rural Roads 135

Table A5.5
Bharat Nirman Targets for Upgradation
(Length in Kms)
Sl. Name of 20056 20067 20078 20089 Total
No. the State Length length Length Length Length
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Andhra Pradesh 1821.494 2258.652 2258.652 2258.652 8597.45
2 Arunachal Pradesh 0 0 0 0 0
3 Assam 0 2005.71 2269.808 2219.843 6495.361
4 Bihar 0 2393.617 3510.638 3390.958 9295.213
5 Chhattisgarh 0 1986.063 3240.418 3222.996 8449.477
6 Goa 190.114 190.114 190.114 190.114 760.456
7 Gujarat 0 1557.971 1557.971 1413.043 4528.985
8 Haryana 229.358 1146.789 1146.789 1238.532 3761.468
9 Himachal Pradesh 0 1515.923 1694.268 1503.185 4713.376
10 Jammu & Kashmir 0 1007.584 920.91 1007.584 2936.078
11 Jharkhand 0 2108.433 2123.494 1987.952 6219.879
12 Karnataka 2573.529 2573.529 2573.529 2573.529 10,294.116
13 Kerala 524.109 628.931 524.109 524.109 2201.258
14 Madhya Pradesh 0 5189.543 6614.379 6823.53 18,627.452
15 Maharashtra 4334.365 4334.365 4334.365 4334.365 17,337.46
16 Manipur 0 0 0 0 0
17 Meghalaya 0 587.583 587.583 665.189 1840.355
18 Mizoram 0 257.998 257.998 216.718 732.714
19 Nagaland 0 246.914 246.914 370.371 864.199
20 Orissa 0 4438.574 4663.144 5059.445 14,161.163
21 Punjab 423.729 1483.051 1483.051 1680.791 5070.622
22 Rajasthan 0 4764.543 4653.74 3656.51 13,074.793
23 Sikkim 0 196.85 137.795 98.425 433.07
24 Tamil Nadu 1297.71 2824.427 2824.427 4167.939 11,114.503
25 Tripura 0 373.737 383.838 414.141 1171.716
26 Uttar Pradesh 0 7158.962 6956.031 14,408.12 28,523.113
27 Uttaranchal 0 889.454 1283.354 1270.648 3443.456
28 West Bengal 0 2549.942 2878.965 4054.053 9482.96
Total 11,394.408 54,669.259 59,316.284 68,750.742 194,130.693
Source: www.pmgsy.org
136 India Infrastructure Report 2007

Table A5.6
Cost Trends under PMGSY
20001 20013 20034 20045 20056 20067
State NC UP NC UP NC UP NC UP NC UP NC UP
1 Andhra 6.72 7.25 14.69 11.49 10.23 15.02 15.47 0.00 18.99
Pradesh
2 Arunachal 0.00 12.88 12.29 0.00 No proposal 31.24 0.00 51.03 0.00
Pradesh
3 Assam 41.74 0.00 26.06 25.55 24.96 0.00 32.57 0.00 40.36 19.08
4 Bihar 17.82 19.49 21.52 0.00
5 Chhattisgarh 0.00 9.61 16.03 0.00 19.59 0.00 22.03 0.00 23.00 22.79
6 Goa 0.00 3.19 16.81 0.00 No proposal 25.07 0.00
7 Gujarat 11.46 8.48 11.68 8.85 13.29 0.00 17.25 0.00 17.53 10.82
8 Haryana 0.00 5.50 0.00 17.04 0.00 17.48 0.00 21.97 0.00 23.28
9 Himachal 11.22 0.00 14.19 0.00 14.30 0.00 21.39 0.00 23.03 0.00
Pradesh
10 Jammu & 18.78 23.45 24.99 0.00 30.95 24.36 34.90 0.00
Kashmir
11 Jharkhand 26.18 3.67 19.18 0.00 20.85 0.00 23.73 0.00
12 Karnataka 8.09 6.17 10.55 8.49 0.00 10.80 0.00 16.53 0.00 17.48
13 Kerala 17.58 15.41 20.55 12.53 20.97 0.00 29.40 0.00 30.41 25.26
14 Madhya 12.07 10.51 14.85 9.63 20.67 0.00 21.00 0.00 20.31 17.45 22.45 19.88
Pradesh
15 Maharashtra 0.00 8.76 16.05 11.55 18.01 11.03 19.56 11.30
16 Manipur NA 11.36 0.00 No proposal No proposal 26.08 33.25
17 Meghalaya 0.00 7.69 30.60 0.00 32.28 0.00 37.52 0.00
18 Mizoram 12.81 0.00 17.53 0.00 16.74 0.00 32.63 0.00 24.69 0.00
19 Nagaland 0.00 2.27 16.74 12.77 11.13 10.90 16.71 0.00 18.27 17.42
20 Orissa 17.17 12.69 20.70 12.98 18.39 0.00 26.40 21.29 28.42 33.11
21 Punjab 16.33 0.00 16.54 12.65 16.11 0.00 17.63 19.07
22 Rajasthan 11.62 7.68 9.06 0.00 12.37 0.00 13.28 0.00 17.01 0.00 18.81 0.00
23 Sikkim 0.00 1.21 33.03 11.31 33.32 0.00 43.67 0.00 46.09 0.00
24 Tamil Nadu 11.96 8.86 15.42 12.32 14.61 0.00 15.17 11.22 25.15 17.25
25 Tripura 0.00 5.98 25.16 0.00 48.91 0.00 55.17 0.00
26 Uttar 0.00 3.93 20.80 0.00 22.32 16.81 24.45 17.73
Pradesh
27 Uttaranchal 25.17 18.70 28.55 20.26 13.83 0.00 18.02 23.52
28 West Bengal 17.45 16.73 27.12 0.00 29.12 0.00 31.92 35.03 38.86 0.00
Source: www.pmgsy.org

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