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Dynamics OF Mechanical Systems: 436-354 MECHANICS 3
Dynamics OF Mechanical Systems: 436-354 MECHANICS 3
UNIT 2
DYNAMICS
OF
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
J. M. KRODKIEWSKI
2008
1
2
ISBN 0-7325-1536-X
I MODELLING 8
1 MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS BY MEANS OF EULER
EQUATIONS 10
1.1 CONSTRAINTS - CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS. 10
1.1.1 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.2 Classification of mechanical systems. . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2 MOBILITY - GENERALIZED COORDINATES. . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3 NUMBER OF DEGREE OF FREEDOM - DRIVING FORCES. . . . 16
1.4 EQUATIONS OF MOTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 PROBLEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
II ANALYSIS. 149
4 ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS AND THEIR STABILITY. 151
4.1 ANALYTICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS OF MOTION. . . . . 151
4.2 STATE - SPACE FORMULATION OF EQUATIONS OF MOTION. 152
4.3 EQUATIONS OF PERTURBATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.4 DEFINITIONS OF STABILITY IN LAPUNOVS SENSE. . . . . . . 154
4.5 CRITERIA OF STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM POSITION. . . . . 157
4.6 PROBLEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
INTRODUCTION.
The purpose of this text is to provide the students with the theoretical back-
ground of the three dimensional mechanics of rigid body and its applications to engi-
neering problems existing in mechanical systems. As most of the engineering subjects
this part of mechanics is presented in three parts: Modelling, Analysis and Experi-
mental Investigations (see Fig. 1).
MATHEMATICS
ANALYTICAL NUMERICAL
O A ANALYSIS ANALYSIS COMPUTATIONAL
N MECHANICS
F
A
L SOLUTION
THEORY
Y OF
M S
STABILITY ANALYSIS STABILITY
I
A S
C DESIGN
SOLUTION OF THE DYNAMIC PROBLEM
TECHNOLOGY
H E I
X N
I P V
E ASSESSEMENT OF ASSUMPTIONS
E S
N R
I T
M I
E E G EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
N A
T
S T
A I
L O MACHINE DYNAMIC PROBLEM
N
Figure 1
8
9
INTRODUCTION.
In many applications we deal with a number of rigid bodies connected to each
other in some manner.. These connections, called constrains, impose additional con-
ditions on the relative motion of one body with respect to another. Such a constrained
set of rigid bodies forms a mechanical system.
This part is concerned with creation of mathematical models of mechanical
systems.
Chapter 1
MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS BY MEANS OF
EULER EQUATIONS
zj
z
zi
Oj
y
xj
x yj
i
zi
yi
Oi
xi
yi
xi
Figure 1
CONSTRAINTS - CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS. 11
z
zi zj
M zij j
R zij i
Oj yi
Oi
yj
yi M xij
R xij
xi x
xj
Figure 2
If the body is connected to another, the six coordinates are not independent
and we can produce a number of analytical relationships between them. These an-
alytical relationships are called constraint equations. For example, if the two bodies
i and j are connected as shown in Fig. 2, one may produce the following constraint
equations
xi = 0
zi = 0
z = x
y = 0 (1.1)
c = 6 NCE (1.2)
Figures 3 to 6 provide more examples of possible constraints, their constraint equa-
tions and class. Figures 2 to 6 show the scalar components of the resultant force Rij
and moment Mij of interaction between those two bodies. By inspection of those
diagrams one can notice that their number r is
z
zi zj
M zij j
R zij i
Oj yi
Oi
R yij yj
yi =a M xij
xi x R xij
xj
zi zj
z
j
R zij
O i Oj R yij yi
xj y
x yi
R xij i
xi
zi zj
z
yj j
R zij
OOii Oj yi
y
x i yj
xj R xij
xi
zj
z
zi j
R zij
Oj
Oi y
xj x zi yi
xi
yi yj
xi
zj
z
zi j
a
Rzij
Oj yi
Oi y
xj x zi yi
xi
yi xi yj
xi A R yij
i
R xij
Figure 7
zi = a (1.4)
xi j,iyi (x , y , z , x , y , z ) a = 0
yi + j,ixi (x , y , z , x , y , z ) a = 0 (1.6)
p = p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 + p5 (1.7)
Unconnected bodies of the mechanical system would have 6n degree of freedom.
Since each constraint of class c takes away from the system considered 6 c degree
of freedom, the number of degree of freedom which is left after imposition of the p
constraints is
z2
q5
q3 z1
Z r2
x1 o2
x2
r q4
r1
q2 y2
O ro
X q1
o1
y1
Y
Figure 8
MO = 6 2 4 1 3 1 = 5
The above assumption requires introduction of L independent forces which assure the
assumed motion along the L coordinates. These unknown forces are called driving
forces. In the considered case, each position vector can be expressed by M generalized
coordinates and time t.
r = r(q1 , q2 , qM , t) (1.11)
X
5
T NU = M + L + pi (6 i)
i=1
= MO + 5p1 + 4p2 + 3p3 + 2p4 + 1p5 (1.12)
T NU = 6n 5p1 4p2 3p3 2p4 1p5 + 5p1 + 4p2 + 3p3 + 2p4 + 1p5
= 6n (1.13)
On the other hand, we may produce n free body diagrams for each body separately.
An example of such a free body diagram ,corresponding to body 1 (see Fig. 8), is
given in Fig. 9.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION. 18
R 12z
z1 y1
R 12y
1
G
R 10z R 12x
M 10z R G vG
10y
M 10y
m1g x1
Figure 9
Always we are able to produce for each body involved six equations having
the following form
1.5 PROBLEMS.
Problem 1
Z z1 z2
A
y1
a
y2
G
1
Md 2
Figure 10
A uniform and rigid rod 2 of length l and mass m is hinged at A to the link 1
as shown in the figure 10. The link 1, which can be considered as massless is driven
by a motor. Its driving moment depend on angular speed of the link 1 and can be
approximated by the following function
Md = Mo M (1.17)
Derive equations of motion of the system and solve them for the following initial
conditions
(0) = 0, (0) = 0, (0) = 0 (1.18)
PROBLEMS. 20
Solution.
KINEMATIC ANALYSIS.
O
y1
X x1
Z z1 z2
j1 a A
y1
rG
- k2 l l
2
y2
G
1 2
Figure 11
The system considered has two degrees of freedom. Its instantaneous position
can be uniquely determined by two independent coordinates and ( see Fig. 11).
Angular velocity of the system of coordinates x1 y1 z1
1 = k1 (1.19)
2 = 1 + 21 = k1 + i2 (1.20)
2x2 = 2 i2 = k1 i2 + i2 i2 =
2y2 = 2 j2 = k1 j2 + i2 j2 = sin
2z2 = 2 k2 = k1 k2 + i2 k2 = cos (1.21)
rG = j1 a k2 ( 12 l) (1.22)
PROBLEMS. 21
rGx2 = rG i2 = j1 i2 a k2 i2 ( 12 l) = 0
rGy2 = rG j2 = j1 j2 a k2 j2 ( 12 l) = a cos
rGz2 = rG k2 = j1 k2 a k2 k2 ( 12 l) = a sin 12 l (1.23)
vG = rG = r0G + 2 rG
i2 j2 k2
= j2 (a sin ) + k2 (a cos ) + sin cos
0 a cos a sin 1 l
2
= i2 (a 2l sin ) + j2 ( 2l ) + k2 (0) (1.24)
vGx2 = a 2l sin
vGy2 = 2l
vGz2 = 0 (1.25)
KINETIC ANALYSIS.
Since,
Ix2 = Iy2 = I = ml2 /12 and Iz2 = 0 (1.28)
the last three equations may be rewritten in form 1.29
I( x2 y2 z2 ) = M2x2
I( y2 + x2 z2 ) = M2y2
0 = M2z2 (1.29)
Components of the resultant force and the resultant moment can be obtained
from the free body diagram of the body 2 shown in Fig. 12
z2
MA z
2
R Az
2
MA y
A 2
R Ax R Ay
2 2
M A x=0
2
G y2
mg
Figure 12
The link 1 (see Fig. 13) is considered as massless (I1z = 0), therefore the component
of resultant moment along axis z1 M1z1 must be equal to zero (see free body diagram
in Fig. 1d).
M1z1 = Md MAz2 cos MAy2 sin + RAx2 a = 0 (1.36)
The last equation yields an expression for MAy2 .
Upon introducing Eqs. 1.30, 1.35 and 1.37 into Eq. 1.34 one can obtain
Z z1 z2 R A x
2
A MA =0
x 2
O
y1
R Ay R Az
2
MA y 2
2 MA z
Md 2
y2
MCz=0 R Cz
1 1
C
R Cy M Cy
R Cx 1 1
MCx1
1 1
Figure 13
Introduction of Eqs. 1.21 and 1.25 into Eqs. 1.26 and 1.29 yields
Introduction of Eqs. 1.40, 1.41 and 1.17 into Eqs. 1.38 and 1.39 yields the wanted
equations of motion in the following form.
Since the above equations do not depend on it is easy to lower their order by
introduction of and instead of and respectively.
Solution of equations 1.43 yields motion of the system. The equations 1.43 were
numerically integrated for m = 5kg, a = 0.2m, l = 0.4m, Mo = 1Nm and M =
0.2Nms. The time diagrams of the angular displacement of the arm 2 and the
centrifuge angular velocity is shown in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 respectively. The system
tends to an equilibrium position ( o = 0.75rad and o = 5rad/s). This equilibrium
position can be alternatively obtained by solution of Eq. 1.43 for = o =constant
and = o =constant.
(Mo Mo ) = 0
2
(I + m(l/2) ) 2o sin o cos o ma(l/2) 2o cos o + mg(l/2) sin o = 0
(1.44)
1.6
1.2
0.8
[rad]
0.4
0.0
-0.4
0.0 4 8 12 16 20
t[sec]
Figure 14
10
8.0
6.0
[rad/s]
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0 4 8 12 16 20
t[sec]
Figure 15
PROBLEMS. 25
Problem 2
z1 r z2
G 3
y2 b
y1
B
2
l
1
A
Figure 16
Solution.
x1 X
Y
y1
t
O
3 Z z1 r z2
2
G
y2 b
y1
B3 mg
B
l
A
1
Figure 17
It is easy to notice that the point B3 which belong to the link 3 is motionless
with respect to the inertial frame XY Z. Hence, motion of the link 3 may be con-
sidered as the rotational one about point B (see Fig. 17). Because z2 is the axis of
symmetry of this link, the modified Eulers equation can be applied.
.
I 2x2 + (Iz2 I)2y2 z2 + Iz2 2y2 = Mx2
.
I 2y2 (Iz2 I)2x2 z2 Iz2 2x2 = My2
. .
Iz2 (2z2 + ) = Mz2 (1.45)
In the case considered the relative angular velocity of the body 3 with respect to the
rotating system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is
= k2 (1.46)
Angular velocity of the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is
2 = 1 + 21 = k1 + i1 = i2 + j2 sin + k2 cos (1.47)
Moments of inertia of the body 3 about axis x2 z2 y2 are
mr2
Iz2 =
2
r2 1
I = Ix2 = Iy2 = IG + ml2 = m( + b2 ) + ml2
4 12
r2 1
= m( + b2 + l2 ) (1.48)
4 12
PROBLEMS. 27
z1 z1
z2
y2
M32y2 G
M32z2
R 32y2 R32z
2
y1 B3 R32x2 M32x2 x1
mg B x2
l
Figure 18
z1 z1
z2
y2 M21z1 M21z1
R 21z1
y1 M21y1 R 21y1 M32x2 R32x2 R 21x1 x1
B B x2
R 32y2
R32z
2
M32z2 M32y2
Figure 19
PROBLEMS. 28
Components of the resultant moment due to external forces acting on the link 3,
according to the free body diagram shown in Fig. 18 are
The free body diagram of the link 2, shown in Fig. 19, yields the following relation-
ships.
M32x2 = 0
M32y2 = M21y1 cos + M21z1 sin
M32z2 = M21y1 sin + M21z1 cos (1.50)
Introduction of Eqs. 1.47, 1.48 and 1.51 into the Eulers equation 1.45 yields
In the case of given and the equation 1.52 allow to obtain motion as a function
of time. It is called equation of motion. The particular solution of Eq. 1.52 which
corresponds to = = 0 determines equilibrium position o .
Equations 1.53 and 1.54 determine the interaction moments (M21y1 , M21z1 ) between
the link 2 and 1 as functions of time. Then, the equations 1.50 allow the interaction
moments (M32y1 , M32z1 ) between link 3 and 2 to be determined. Moments M21z1
and M32z1 are the driving moments which one has to apply to the link 1 and 3 to
keep them going with the assumed velocities and respectively.
PROBLEMS. 29
Problem 3
y
A A
G a G
2 R
3
Figure 20
To test the gyroscope which is commonly used for the stabilization of the
operating theatre of a hospital ship, it was mounted on a rigid foundation as shown
in Fig. 20. The gyroscope 1 rotates with a constant rotating speed relative to
the housing 2, and the housing 2 is driven by the electric motor 3. Determine the
reaction at bearing A if the motor turns the housing 2 with the constant angular
speed . The centre of gravity the gyroscope are at their axes of rotation as shown
in the Fig. 20. The housing 2 may be considered as massless.
Given are:
= 1000rad/s,
= 1rad/s,
a = 1m,
b = 2m,
R = 0.8m
Iz = 100kgm2 , Ix = Iy = 70kgm2 principal moments of inertia of the
gyroscope about axes through its centre of gravity,
= 45o .
PROBLEMS. 30
Problem 4
C
1
A
2 21 l
Figure 21
Problem 5
y1
Z, z1
Y
X x1
z2
z1
Z, z1
A
y1 x1
A
a l
G
1
2 x2
Figure 22
Fig. 22 shows a mechanical system. Its link 1 is free to rotate about the
vertical axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Moment of inertia of the
link 1 about axis Z is I1Z . The link 2 of the system is hinged to the link 1 at the
point A as shown in Fig. 22. Distance between the point A and axis of rotation
Z is a. Distance between the centre of gravity G and the point A is equal to l.
Axes x2 , y2 , z2 are principal axis of inertia of the link 2 and the principal moments of
inertia about these axes are respectively I2x2 , I2y2 , I2z2 . Mass of the link 2 is equal to
m. Derive equations of motion of the system assuming that the angles and are
the generalized coordinates.
PROBLEMS. 32
Problem 6
Z
z
3 c
1 y
2 A
d
G
B Y
v 4
a
b l
Figure 23
The anti-pollution bus 3, shown in Fig. 23, moves in the vertical plane Y Z of
the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The rear wheels 2 of the bus 3 are driven
with the constant linear velocity v by the flywheel 1. When this bus is moving over
the hump 4 its angular velocity about axis x is
v sin
=
l cos( )
The angular velocity of the gyroscope 1 about axis z is variable. At the position
its magnitude is equal to and its time derivative is . Mass of the gyroscope is
m and its principal moments of inertia about system of coordinates xyz through its
centre of gravity are Ix = Iy = I and Iz respectively.
1. Determine interaction forces between the gyroscope 1 and the bus at the
constraints A and B as a function of .
2. Prove that the angular velocity of the bus is determined by the above
formula.
PROBLEMS. 33
Problem 7
z L S
G
x Y
Z
y y F
a b
z L O x
A G B
R
1 4
2 3
Figure 24
The arm 1 of the crane shown in Fig. 24 rotates with the angular velocity
about the inertial axis Z. In the same time the carriage 2 moves along the arm 1
and its relative motion is determined by the position vectors S and L. The electrical
motor 4 drives the drum 3. The driving force produced by this motor is F. The drum
may be considered as a symmetric rigid body of mass m and the principal moments
of inertia along the system of coordinates xyz are respectively Ix = Iy = I. Iz .
Produce:
1. equation of motion of the drum
2. expressions for the interaction forces between the drum and the carriage
Given are: S, L(t), (t), m, I, , F, a, R, a, b
PROBLEMS. 34
Problem 8
z1 z2
2
1 G2
A
X
l
x1
Figure 25
The massless link 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 25 can rotate
about the horizontal axis Y of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z only. Its
motion is determined by the following function
= a sin t
The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is attached to the link 1. The link 2 possesses mass
m and its principal moments of inertia about the axes through its centre of gravity
G2 are Ix2 = Iyy2 = I and Iz2 . The relative angular velocity of the link 2 with respect
to the link 1 is determined by the following function
= 0 sin W t
Produce:
1. the expression for the interaction forces at the constraint A.
Answer: Forces and moments acting on the base.
RAx1 = a 2 lm sin t mg sin
RAy1 = 0
RAz1 = a2 2 lm cos2 t + mg sin
MAx1 = Iz2 0 a sin W t cos t
MAz1 = Iz2 (W cos W t)
2. the expression for the driving moment that must be applied the link 1
MAy1 = MAY = (I + ml2 )a 2 sin t + mgl sin
PROBLEMS. 35
Problem 9
O
z 11
Y Z
y 11
x 12 X x 11
a
z 12
G2
2
O
z 11
Md
Figure 26
The housing of the ventilator shown in Fig. 26 is fixed to its base at the
constant angle to form one rigid body 1. The instantaneous position of the body 1
with respect to the inertial system of coordinates XY Z is determined by the angular
displacement .
= A sin t (1.57)
The rotor 2 of this ventilator rotates with respect to its housing with the constant
angular velocity .
Given are:
I1 - moment of inertia of the body 1 about axis X.
Ix = Iy = I, Iz - the principal moments of inertia of the rotor 2
m - mass of the rotor 2
a, A, , , - given constant parameters
Produce the expression for the driving moment Md that must be applied to the base
1 to assure its motion according to the equation 1.57.
Answer:
Md = I1 (A 2 sin t) IA 2 sin t cos2 Iz A2 sin t sin2
Chapter 2
MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS BY MEANS OF
LAGRANGE EQUATIONS.
In the previous chapter it has been shown that dynamic problems can be solved
by decomposition of a mechanical system into individual rigid bodies and then by
application of equations of motion corresponding to each body, equations of motion
of the whole system may be formulated. Such a treatment of mechanical systems is
called Eulers approach.
Equations of motion of mechanical system, in many cases, can be formulated
without the need of decomposition of the system considered. They can be derived
from expressions for the kinetic energy function of the system, its potential energy
function and the virtual work performed by external forces acting on it. Such an
approach is called Lagranges approach.
XM
rn
drn = dqm (2.2)
m=1
qm
z2
n
q5
q3 z1
Z r2
x1 o2
x2
rn
r1 q4
q2 y2
O ro
X q1
o1
y1
Y
Figure 1
XM
rn
rn = qm (2.4)
m=1
qm
q2
x
rn
O
o
q1
X
Y
y
Figure 2
q2
q2
rn q
Z
q1 1
rn q
q2 2
x rn
rn
O
o
q1
X q1
Y
y
Figure 3
VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENT. 39
q
2
q2
Z
rn
q = rn
x
rn q2 2
O
o
q1 (t)
X
Y
y
Figure 4
VIRTUAL WORK - GENERALIZED FORCE 40
Fn
Z
Fn
z2
n
q5
q3 Fn Y z1
Fn X
Z r2
x1 o2
x2
rn
r1 q4
rn
Z
q2 rn y2
Y
O ro
X q1 rn
o1 X
y1 Y
Figure 5
Wn = Fn rn (2.8)
X
N X
N
W = Wn = Fn rn (2.9)
n=1 n=1
XM
rn
rn = qm (2.11)
m=1
qm
the expression for the virtual work 2.9 may by rewritten in form
X
N X
M
rn
W = Fn ( qm )
n=1 m=1
qm
X
N X
M
rn
= Fn qm
n=1 m=1
qm
XM X N
rn
= Fn qm
m=1 n=1
qm
XM X N
rn
= qm ( Fn )
m=1 n=1
qm
XM X N
rn
= ( Fn )qm (2.12)
m=1 n=1
qm
P
DEFINITION: The expression N rn
n=1 Fn qm ( in the equation 2.12 it is inside
the bracket ) is called generalized force.
The generalised force is usually denoted by Qm .
PN rn
Qm = n=1 Fn qm
(2.13)
Decomposition of the force Fn and the position vector rn along axes of the system of
coordinates XY Z yields
rn = IrnX + JrnY + KrnZ (2.14)
Fn = IFnX + JFnY + KFnZ (2.15)
Introducing Eqs. 2.14) and 2.15 into Eq. 2.13 one may obtain
PN rnX
Qm = n=1 (FnX qm + FnY rnY
qm
+ FnZ rnZ
qm
) (2.16)
As can be seen from the above expression, the generalized force is a scalar magnitude.
The product Qm qm represents the virtual work done by all forces acting on the system
on displacements corresponding to qm 6= 0 on assumption that all the others virtual
displacements are equal to 0.)
IMPRESSED AND CONSTRAINT FORCES. 42
O Y
ri ri Fij
X
rj
rij i
rij
j
Figure 6
Let us calculate the virtual work produced by the interaction forces between
particles which belong to the same link. Particle i (see Fig. 6) interacts with all the
other particles the body is made of. Therefore the virtual work done by forces acting
on the particle i is
XN
Wi = Fij ri (2.17)
j=1
The virtual work done by forces acting on all N particles the body is made of can be
expressed by the following formula.
X
N X
N
W = Fij ri (2.18)
i=1 j=1
IMPRESSED AND CONSTRAINT FORCES. 43
To show that the virtual work W is equal to 0, let us consider the virtual work done
by interaction forces between the particle i and the particle j.
Since rij has a constant length, the vector rij is always perpendicular to the vector
Fij . Hence, because the expression 2.18 is assembled of terms 2.19, one may conclude
that
W = 0 (2.20)
2.The virtual force produced by the interaction forces between individual
links.
RAi
rAij
rA
j
j
rA
i
A
Z
rA
R Aj
O Y
X
Figure 7
Now let us calculate the virtual work performed by constraint forces between
two links i and j shown in Fig. 7. If friction between those two links is neglected,
direction of a constraint force RiA , representing reaction of the link j on the link i,
is always perpendicular to the slide i. Let riA be virtual displacement of the link i
at point of application A of the force RiA . Hence the virtual work performed by this
force is
W i = RiA riA (2.21)
Similarly, the virtual work performed by RjA is
W = W i + W j
= RiA riA + RjA rjA
= RiA (riA rjA )
= RiA rij
A (2.23)
W = 0 (2.24)
j i
A rAj
Z
rA R Aj
O Y
X
Figure 8
When rheonomic system is considered, some of its links has motion assumed to
be known. Let us assume that link i has motion determined by an explicit function of
time (see Fig. 8). Because the virtual displacements are calculated under assumption
that motion given by explicit functions of time is ceased, the virtual displacement of
the point of application of reaction RjA is always tangential to the slide i. Hence the
virtual work performed by that reaction must be equal to zero.
j i
z A F di
F dj
Z z
rA j=
rA rA
i
O Y
X
Figure 9
Let us assume that the relative motion between the link i and the link j along
the axis z is by assumption known. Hence we have to apply to the link i and the link
j two driving forces Fid and Fjd (see Fig 9). The virtual work produced by these two
forces is
W = Fid riA + Fjd rjA (2.26)
Since the virtual displacements correspond to the frozen links,
Therefore
W = Fid + Fjd riA = 0 riA = 0
The above results can be obtained for any possible constraints.
PRINCIPLES OF THE VIRTUAL WORK. 46
n mn
Rn
Fn
Z rn
O Y
X
Figure 10
Rn + Fn = 0 n = 1, 2, ......N (2.28)
In the above equation Rn is resultant of all constraint forces acting on a particle
n, Fn stands for resultant of all impressed forces acting on a particle n and N is
number of particles the system is made up. Multiplying the above equation by virtual
displacement of the particle n one may obtain expression for virtual work.
Wn = Rn rn + Fn rn = 0 (2.29)
Hence, virtual work performed by all forces acting on the system must be 0 as well.
X
N X
N
W = Rn rn + Fn rn = 0 (2.30)
n=1 n=1
But, the virtual work performed the constraint forces is equal to zero
X
N
Rn rn = 0 (2.31)
n=1
X
N
W = Fn rn = 0 (2.32)
n=1
VIRTUAL WORK PERFORMED BY GRAVITY FORCES. 47
X
M
W = Qm qm = 0 (2.33)
m=1
Qm = 0 m = 1, 2, ......M (2.34)
Upon solving the above equations with respect to M unknown generalized coordinates
qm one may always obtain all possible systems equilibrium positions.
2.4.2 Principle of virtual work for a system in motion.
If a mechanical system is not stationary, each of its particles has to be obey to
Newtons law.
mn rn = Rn + Fn n = 1, 2, N (2.35)
Repetition of consideration carried out in the previous paragraph lead to equation
X
N
W = (Fn mn rn ) rn = 0 (2.36)
n=1
n mn
G Gn
rn
rG
Z G
O Y
X
Figure 11
Let us calculate the virtual work performed by gravity forces acting on a link
of a mechanical system. According to the above formula, the virtual work performed
by the gravity forces acting on all particles the body is made of, may be adopted in
the following form.
X N
WG = Gn rn (2.37)
n=1
PM rn
Taking into consideration that rn = m=1 qm qm
X
N XM
rn
WG = Gn qm
n=1 m=1
qm
X
N X
M
rn
= Gn qm
n=1 m=1
qm
XM X N
rn
= Gn qm (2.38)
m=1 n=1
qm
On the other hand, the virtual displacement of the centre of gravity of the body
considered is
X
M
rG
rG = qm (2.39)
m=1
qm
Implementation to the above formula definition of position of the centre of gravity
yields
XM
1 X
N
rG = ( rn mn )qm (2.40)
m=1
qm m n=1
VIRTUAL WORK PERFORMED BY GRAVITY FORCES. 49
Since, qm does not depends on index of summation n, the formula 2.40 may be
transformed as follow
XM X N
rn
rG m = mn qm (2.41)
m=1 n=1
qm
After multiplication of both sides of the above equation by Kg one can obtain
X
M X
N
rn
G rG = Gn qm (2.42)
m=1 n=1
qm
Since right hand sides of equations 2.42 and 2.38 are the same, their left hand sides
mast be equal. Hence
WG = G rG (2.43)
PROBLEMS 50
2.6 PROBLEMS
Problem 10
2l
l
2l
k
C1 C2
B C
Figure 12
Two thin and uniform bars, each of mass m and length 2l, are hinged at A
and supported at B and C as shown in Fig. 12. The centres of gravity of these bars
C1 and C2 are connected by a spring of length l and stiness k. Upon assuming that
all constraints have no friction and the whole assembly can move only in the vertical
plane, determine the stiness k to ensure an equilibrium position of the system at
= 45o . Use the principle of virtual work.
Given are:
= 45o
m = 10kg
l = 1m.
AC1 = BC1
AC2 = CC2
PROBLEMS 51
Solution.
y
A
2l
l l
2l
F1 F2
C1 C2
r1 G1 l
r2 G2
x
B C
Figure 13
Problem 11
1
2 l
A 3
l l
x
O
r
Figure 14
Three uniform and rigid bars 1, 2, and 3 (see Fig. 14), are hinged together at
point A. Each of them has the same length l and mass m. The bar 1 can slide along
a vertical axis y. The bars 2 and 3 are resting on a cylinder of radius r. Find the
angle when the system is in an equilibrium. Use the principle of virtual work.
PROBLEMS 53
Solution.
C1 l
l/2 r1
A
l G l
C2 1 C3
r2 r3 x
O G3
G2
Figure 15
The system has one degree of freedom and can be considered as the gener-
alized coordinate. Impressed forces G1 , G2 and G3 are shown in Fig. 15.
G1 = G2 = G3 = jmg (2.55)
W = r1 G1 + r2 G2 + r3 G3
cos cos
= (mg(r 2 ) 2mg(r 2 + (l/2) sin )) = 0 (2.62)
sin sin
PROBLEMS 54
The above equation can be solved numerically and its roots represents the equilibrium
positions of the system considered.
PROBLEMS 55
Problem 12
x
O
l1
l2
P
B
y
Figure 16
Two uniform bars of the length l1, l2 and mass m1 , m2 respectively are joint
together to form a double pendulum in the vertical plane. There is force P applied
at the point B. Determine the system equilibrium position.
PROBLEMS 56
Solution.
x
0
_l1 r
C1
2
C1
l_2
G1
2
A r
C2
q1
C2
q2 r
B
P
G2
B
y
Figure 17
The system has two degree of freedom. Its position can be uniquely determined
by two generalized coordinates q1 and q2 (see Fig. 17). There are three impressed
forces acting on the system.
G1 = jm1 g = jG1
G2 = jm2 g = jG2
P = iP (2.65)
Position vectors of the points of application of the above forces as functions of the
generalized coordinates
W = G1 rC1 + G2 rC2 + P rB
rC1 rC1
= G1 ( q1 + q2 ) +
q1 q2
rC2 rC2
G2 ( q1 + q2 ) +
q1 q2
rB rB
P( q1 + q2 )
q1 q2
(i(rC1x ) + j(rC1y )) (i(rC1x ) + j(rC1y ))
= jG1 ( q1 + q2 ) +
q1 q2
(i(rC2x ) + j(rC2y )) (i(rC2x ) + j(rC2y ))
jG2 ( q1 + q2 ) +
q1 q2
(i(rBx ) + j(rBy )) (i(rBx ) + j(rBy ))
iP ( q1 + q2 )
q1 q2
(rC1y ) (rC1y )
= G1 q1 + G1 q2 +
q1 q2
(rC2y ) (rC2y )
G2 q1 + G2 q2 +
q1 q2
(rBx ) (rBx )
P q1 + P q2 (2.67)
q1 q2
The partial derivatives according to ( 2.66) are respectively
rC1y
= (l1 /2) sin q1
q1
rC1y
= 0
q2
rC2y
= l1 sin q1
q1
rC2y
= (l2 /2) sin q2
q2
rBx
= l1 cos q1
q1
rBx
= l2 cos q2 (2.68)
q2
Introduction of Eq. 2.68 into Eq. 2.67 yields
Since virtual work for system in an equilibrium has to be equal 0 and the virtual
displacements along the generalized coordinates can not be equal 0, the last equation
PROBLEMS 58
q11 = q10
q21 = q20
q12 = q10 + 180o
q22 = q20 + 180o (2.71)
where
2P
q10 = arccot
G1 + 2G2
2P
q20 = arccot (2.72)
G2
The physical interpretation of the above solutions is given in Fig. 18.
P
x x
x x
P
P
y y y y
a) b) c) d)
Problem 13
k A2 k
q2
l
k k
A1
q1 l
Figure 19
Two identical uniform rods, each of mass m and length l, are joined together
to form an inverse double pendulum (see Fig. 19). The pendulum is supported by
four springs, all of stiness k, in such way that its vertical position (q1 = 0 and q2 = 0)
is its equilibrium position. Using the principle of virtual work derive equations which
determine the other possible equilibrium positions.
Given are: l, m, k,
PROBLEMS 60
Solution
F2
A2
rF2 q2
G2 A1 F1
rG2
q1
rF1 rG1
G1
y
Figure 20
The interaction forces between the springs and the individual links of the
system shown in Fig. 20 are represented by the vectors F1 and F2 .
The vectors G1 and G2 represent the gravity forces acting on the link 1 and 2 re-
spectively.
G1 = img = iG1
G2 = img = iG2 (2.74)
The virtual work performed by all the impressed forces acting on the system is
W = F1 rF 1 + F2 rF 2 + G1 rG1 + G2 rG2 =
(ixF 1 + jyF 1 ) (ixF 1 + jyF 1 )
= jF1 q1 + q2 +
q1 q2
(ixF 2 + jyF 2 ) (ixF 2 + jyF 2 )
jF2 q1 + q2 +
q1 q2
(ixG1 + jyG1 ) (ixG1 + jyG1 )
iG1 q1 + q2 +
q1 q2
(ixG2 + jyG2 ) (ixG2 + jyG2 )
iG2 q1 + q2 (2.76)
q1 q2
Hence, simplifying the above expression one can get the following scalar expression
for the virtual work.
yF 1 yF 1 yF 2 yF 2
W = F1 q1 + q2 F2 q1 + q2 +
q1 q2 q1 q2
xG1 xG1 xG2 xG2
G1 q1 + q2 G2 q1 + q2 (2.77)
q1 q2 q1 q2
Since q1 and q2 can not be equal to zero, the virtual work become zero if
yF 1 yF 2 xG1 xG2
F1 F2 G1 G2 = 0
q1 q1 q1 q1
yF 1 yF 2 xG1 xG2
F1 F2 G1 G2 = 0 (2.79)
q2 q2 q2 q2
According to expressions 2.75 the partial derivatives are
yF 1 yF 2
= l cos q1 = l cos q1
q1 q1
xG1 1 xG2
= l sin q1 = l sin q1
q1 2 q1
yF 1 yF 2
=0 = l cos q2
q2 q2
xG1 xG2 1
=0 = l sin q2 (2.80)
q2 q2 2
PROBLEMS 62
Introduction of equations 2.73, 2.74 and 2.80 into equation 2.79 yields
1
2kl2 sin q1 cos q1 + (2kl sin q1 + 2kl sin q2 )(l cos q1 ) mgl sin q1 mgl sin q1 = 0
2
1
(2kl sin q1 + 2kl sin q2 )(l cos q2 ) mgl sin q2 = 0
2
(2.81)
or after simplification
These functions are shown in Fig. 21. Their zero point are presented in Fig. 22. The
continuous line represents zero points of the function f1 (q1 , q2 ) and the dotted one
zero points of the function f2 (q1 , q2 ). The intersection points of those two lines oers
the wanted solutions of the set of equations 2.82. The geometrical interpretation of
these solution is given in Fig. 23b),c),d) and e).
PROBLEMS 63
f (q ,q )
1 1 2
20
q
1
10
0
-10
q2
-20
20 f (q ,q )
2 1 2
q
1
10
0
-10 q2
-20
Figure 21
q1
0
q2
zero points of f 1 (q 1,q 2)
zero points of f 2 (q 1,q 2)
Figure 22
PROBLEMS 64
( , )
( , )
( ,0) ( , )
( ,0) ( , )
a)
(0,0) ( 0, )
( 0, )
o o o
( 85 ,87 ) ( 40 o ,-60 )
b) c)
o
( 68 o ,-126 ) ( 153 o,-75 o)
d) e)
Figure 23
PROBLEMS 65
Problem 14
A
q Y
l
B
l
X
Figure 24
Two uniform bars, each of mass m and length l, are joint as is shown in Fig.
24 to form a planar system. The point A is stationary whereas the point B can moves
along the vertical plane which is apart from A by distance a < 2l. Find angle q which
determines the equilibrium position of the system. Use principle of the virtual work.
Answer
Solution of the followinga equation
sin q
32 sin q 12 cos q t a 2l a =0
1( l ) +2 l sin qsin2 q
PROBLEMS 66
Problem 15
l l y
l l
l
Figure 25
Five uniform and rigid bars each of mass m and length l are joined together
as shown in Fig. 25. Find equilibrium position by means of the principle of virtual
work.
PROBLEMS 67
Problem 16
x
l C
y l
B A F
G
l
Figure 26
Problem 17
l
G
l/2
Figure 27
A uniform and rigid bar of mass m and length l is supported as shown in Fig.
27. Upon neglecting friction at the supports, determine the equilibrium position by
means of principle of the virtual work.
Given are: l, c, m
Answer:
Solution of the following equation
cos3 = 2 cl
PROBLEMS 69
Problem 18
R G
mg
x
l
Figure 28
A thin and uniform bar of the length l and mass m shown in Fig. 28 is placed
into a smooth bowl of radius R. Applying the principle of the virtual work determine
the equilibrium position of the bar.
PROBLEMS 70
Problem 19
2l
2l
Figure 29
o x
A
Figure 30
Two uniform bars each of mass m and length 2l were welded together to form
the rigid body shown in Fig. 29). Two such rigid bodies were joined by means of
hinge A and suspended in the vertical plane xz as shown in Fig. 30). The general-
ized coordinates and determine uniquely position of this system. Upon taking
advantage of the principle of the virtual work, produce magnitudes of the generalized
coordinates corresponding to the system equilibrium position.
PROBLEMS 71
Problem 20
4 D
2
3 k
1
H
C
B r
G
l
L
A
X
Figure 31
Problem 21
b
O
X
B
r=0
a A 3 2
1
Figure 32
The uniform beam 1 (see Fig. 39) of mass m and length a is hinged at the
point O to the ground. Its end A is suspended on the massless rope 3. The rope is
loaded by the block 2 of mass M. By means of the virtual work principle determine
the angle which corresponds to the system equilibrium position.
PROBLEMS 73
Problem 22
1 l
1
2 2
R R
a) b)
Figure 33
The arm 1 of the balance shown in Fig. 33 can roll over the cylinder 2 without
slipping. If this balance is not loaded, its arm remains in the horizontal position as is
shown in Fig. 33a). By means of the virtual work principle determine the relationship
between the weight 3 and the angular position of the arm 1 (Fig. 33b)).
Given are:
R, l - distances shown in Fig. 33
M - mass of the unloaded arm 1
m - mass of the weight 3
Answer:
ml
= R(M+m)
PROBLEMS 74
Problem 23
O
X
1
a
3
o
90
A
z
B
a
Figure 34
Two massless rods, each of length a, were joint together at the point A to
form the rigid body 1 (see Fig. 34). This body is free to rotate about the horizontal
axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The body 2 which can be treated
as a particle of mass m can slide along the arm AB. It is supported by the spring 3
of stiness k. The uncompressed length of this spring is equal to a/2. The system
has two degrees of freedom and the two generalized coordinates and z determine
its position with respect to the inertial system of coordinates XY Z.
By means of the virtual work principle produce equations that determine the
coordinates and z corresponding to the system equilibrium position.
Answer:
a sin z cos = 0
Mg sin + ka2
kz = 0
LAGRANGES EQUATIONS OF MOTION. 75
Since the generalized coordinates qm are themselves functions of time, the first deriv-
ative of the position vector with respect to time is
rn rn rn rn
rn = q1 + ... qm + ... qM + (2.85)
q1 qm qM t
The functions qm are called generalized velocities. Since all position vectors do
rn
not depend on qm , the partial derivative qm
do not depend on qm either. Hence,
rn
( )=0 (2.86)
qm qm
Therefore, dierentiation of Eq. 2.85 with respect to qm yields
rn
= rn
qm qm
(2.87)
d rn 2 rn 2 rn 2 rn 2 rn
( )= q1 + ... qm + ... qM + (2.88)
dt qm q1 qm qm qm qM qm tqm
Now, let us dierentiated both sides of equation 2.85 with respect to qm
rn 2 rn 2 rn 2 rn 2 rn
= q1 + ... qm + ... qM + (2.89)
qm q1 qm qm qm qM qm tqm
The right hand sides of equation 2.88 and 2.89 are the same. Therefore we can
conclude that
d rn rn
( )= q
dt qm m
(2.90)
The equalities 2.87 and 2.90 are to be used in the next paragraph.
2.7.2 Lagranges equations general case.
According to the principle of the virtual work, for any particle of a holonomic system
with perfect constraints, we have.
X
N
(Fn mn rn ) rn = 0 n = 1, 2, .....N (2.91)
n=1
Since generalized coordinates are independent, the above equation has to be fulfilled
for any combination of the virtual displacements along these generalized coordinates.
In particular, it has to be fulfilled for
Hence
XN
rn
(Fn mn rn ) qm = 0 (2.95)
n=1
qm
or
X
N
rn X N
rn
mn rn = Fn (2.96)
n=1
qm n=1 qm
Right hand side of the above equation represent generalized force along m th coor-
dinate.
X N
rn
Qm = Fn (2.97)
n=1
qm
Now, let us manipulate on the left hand side of equation 2.96.
X
N
rn X N
d rn
L= mn rn = mn ( rn ) ( ) (2.98)
n=1
qm n=1 dt qm
Now, it will be shown that the first term in Eq. 2.102 may by replaced by dtd ( qm T )
and the second one by qm T where T is the kinetic energy of the system considered
X
N
mn (rn )2
T = (2.103)
n=1
2
Indeed
d X mn (rn )2
N
d
( T) = ( )
dt qm dt qm n=1 2
XN
d mn (rn )2
= ( )
n=1
dt qm 2
X
N
d (rn )2
= mn ( )
n=1
dt qm 2
XN
d 1 rn
= mn ( 2rn )
n=1
dt 2 qm
XN
d rn
= mn (rn ) (2.104)
n=1
dt qm
and
X mn (rn )2
N
T =
qm qm n=1 2
XN
mn (rn )2
=
n=1
qm 2
X
N
(rn )2
= mn
n=1
qm 2
XN
1 rn
= mn ( 2rn )
n=1
2 q m
X
N
rn
= mn (rn ) (2.105)
n=1
qm
Introduction of Eqs. 2.106 and 2.97 into Eq. 2.96 gives the following final form of
Lagranges equations.
d
( T)
dt qm
qm
T = Qm m = 1, 2, ....M (2.107)
According to the presented derivation, T refers to kinetic energy of the whole system
(links which motion is determined as explicit function of time do not have to be
included). In a general case of a system with n links, its kinetic energy is determined
by formula
X 1
n vGxi Ixi Ixiyi Ixizi xi
T = mi [vGxi , vGyi , vGzi ] vGyi + 1 [xi , yi , zi ] Iyixi Iyi Iyizi yi
2 2
i=1 vGzi Izixi Iziyi Izi zi
(2.108)
where
vGxi , vGyi , vGzi are components of absolute velocity of centre of gravity of the i th
link vGi along a body system of coordinates xi yi zi through the centre of gravity.
xi , yi , zi are components of absolute angular velocity i along the xi yi zi system
of coordinates.
[I ] matrix of inertia about the xi yi zi system of coordinates.
mi mass of the body.
If on the system considered acts a set of L impressed forces Fl , the generalized
force Qm may be obtained from the formula 2.16.
XL
rnX rnY rnZ
Qm = (FlX + FlY + FlZ ) (2.109)
l=1
qm qm qm
where
FlX , FlY , FlZ are components of l th force along an inertial system of coordinates
XY Z.
rlX , rlY , rlZ are components of the absolute position vector of a point of application
of that force along the inertial system of coordinates XY Z.
2.7.3 Lagranges equations for conservative forces.
All impressed forces can be divided into two categories: conservative forces C and
non-conservative forces F.
DEFINITION: If there exists such a function V , called potential energy func-
tion, that its partial derivatives with respect to the coordinates of the point
of application of an impressed force taken with sign - are equal to the
component of the impressed force along these coordinates, the impressed
force is called conservative.
DEFINITION: Forces for which the potential energy function does not
exists are called non-conservative.
Hence, if V is a potential energy function corresponding to a set of the conservative
LAGRANGES EQUATIONS OF MOTION. 79
forces C1 , C2 , ...Ck , ...CK , and rkX , rkY , rkZ are coordinates of point of application of
a conservative force Ck , its components are
V
CkX =
rkX
V
CkY =
rkY
V
CkZ = (2.110)
rkZ
The generalized force corresponding to all conservative forces is
X
K
rkX rkY rkZ
Qm = CkX + CkY + CkZ
k=1
qm qm qm
XK
V rkX V rkY V rkZ
=
k=1
rkX qm rkY qm rkZ qm
V (q1 , q2 , ...qm , ...qM )
= (2.111)
qm
Introduction of Eq. 2.111) into Eq. 2.107 yields
d
( T)
dt qm
qm
T + V
qm
= Qm m = 1, 2, ....M (2.112)
L=T V (2.114)
and taking into account that potential energy function does not depend on qm , the
equation 2.113 can be rewritten in form 2.115.
d
( L) L=0 m = 1, 2, ....M (2.115)
dt qm qm
If apart of conservative forces there are non-conservative forces involved, the Lagrange
equations takes form
d
( L)
dt qm
qm
L = Qm m = 1, 2, ....M (2.116)
Gi
Z rGiZ
rG i
O Y
X
Figure 35
A
s
B
rA
Z rB
O Y
X
Figure 36
Vi = mi grGiZ (2.117)
Potential energy for forces at A and B caused by a spring s of stiness ks and length
ls (see Fig. 36) is
1
Vs = ks (|rA rB | ls )2 (2.118)
2
Potential energy function for all conservative forces acting on the system is
X
I X
S
V = Vi + Vs (2.119)
i=1 s=1
PROBLEMS 81
2.8 PROBLEMS
Problem 24
A
2 l
Figure 37
An uniform and thin bar 2 of mass m and length l is hinged to link 1 which
rotates with a constant angular speed . Derive the dierential equation of motion of
link 2 by means of Lagrange equations. Assume that is the generalized coordinate.
PROBLEMS 82
z2 Z z1
y2
y1
o l/2
Figure 38
Solution.
Angular velocity of the link 2 is a sum of the absolute angular velocity of the
link 1 and the relative velocity of the link 2 with respect to the link 1.
2 = + i2 = k1 + i2 (2.120)
Since
k1 = j2 sin + k2 cos (2.121)
the absolute angular velocity of the link 2 is
2 = i2 + j2 sin + k2 cos
Its components are
2x =
2y = sin
2z = cos (2.122)
The link 2 performs rotational motion about point O. Hence, its total kinetic energy
is.
I 0 0 2x
1
T = [ 2x , 2y , 2z ] 0 I 0 2y
2
0 0 0 2z
1 1 2
= I(22x + 22y ) = I( + 2 sin2 ) (2.123)
2 2
The potential energy function may be expressed as follow.
l
V = mgl cos (2.124)
2
PROBLEMS 83
Since all impressed forces are conservative ,motion of the system considered is gov-
erned by Lagrange equations of the following form.
d T T V
+ =0 (2.125)
dt
where
d T
= I
dt
T
= I 2 sin cos
V 1
= mgl sin (2.126)
2
Introducing Eqs. 2.126 into Eq. 2.125 one can obtained
1
I I2 sin cos + mgl sin = 0 (2.127)
2
Since I = 13 ml2 , the final form of equation of motion is
Problem 25
Figure 39
Solution.
y Y
x
O,o
t
X
Z ,z
x
O,o
R
Figure 40
Hence
v 2 = 2 R2 + 2 R2 sin2 (2.131)
All forces acting on the system considered are conservative, therefore Lagranges
equations may be taken in the following form.
d T T V
+ =0 (2.132)
dt
PROBLEMS 86
where
mv 2 1
T = = m(2 R2 + 2 R2 sin2 ) (2.133)
2 2
V = mgRcos (2.134)
Hence
T
= mR2
d T
= mR2
dt
T
= mR2 2 sin cos
V
= mgR sin (2.135)
Introduction of Eq. 2.135 into Eq. 2.132 yields equation of motion.
Since for the static equilibrium position = = 0 they, according to (2.136), have
to satisfy the following equation.
o = 0
o =
g 9.81
o = arccos 2
= arccos 2 = 66.89o
R 10 0.25
PROBLEMS 87
Problem 26
Y
1
r
2 z2
C
y2
21
Figure 41
The block rotates about the axle 1 with a constant relative angular velocity 21 . The
axle 1 is free to rotate about a horizontal axis Y which is fixed in the inertial space
XY Z. Centre of gravity C of the block 2 is on the axis of relative rotation at the
known distance r from axis Y . Use Lagranges approach to derive equation of motion
of the block 2.
PROBLEMS 88
Solution.
o1 o2
x1
1
21 t y2
x2
y1 Y
z2 z1 Z
21
X
O,o1
x1
C,o2
mg
Figure 42
T = TT + TR
Ix2 0 0 x2
1 2 1
= mv + [ x2 , y2 , z2 ] 0 Iy2 Iy2z2 y2 (2.138)
2 C 2
0 Iz2y2 Iz2 z2
The body considered rotates with respect to the system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 with
angular velocity 21
21 = k2 21 (2.140)
Hence,its absolute angular velocity is
r = k1 r (2.143)
Since the conservative forces are involved only, the following form of Lagranges equa-
tion may be used.
d T T V
+ =0 (2.148)
dt
where
T 1
= (2mr2 + 2Ix2 sin2 21 t 2Iy2z2 cos 21 t + 2Iy2 cos2 21 t)
2
= mr2 + Ix2 sin2 21 t Iy2z2 21 cos 21 t + Iy2 cos2 21 t (2.149)
d T
= mr2 + Ix2 sin2 21 t + Ix2 2 sin 21 t( 21 cos 21 t) + Iy2z2 221 sin 21 t
dt
+Iy2 cos2 21 t Iy2 2 cos 21 t( 21 sin 21 t)
= (mr2 + Ix2 sin2 21 t + Iy2 cos2 21 t)
+(Ix2 21 sin 2 21 t Iy2 21 sin 2 21 t) + Iy2z2 221 sin 21 t (2.150)
PROBLEMS 90
T
=0 (2.151)
V
= mgr sin (2.152)
Introduction of expressions. 2.149, 2.150, 2.151 and 2.152 into Eq. 2.148 yields the
equation of motion in form
(mr2 + Ix2 sin2 21 t + Iy2 cos2 21 t) + 21 sin 221 t(Ix2 Iy2 ) + mgr sin
+Iy2z2 221 sin 21 t = 0
(2.153)
PROBLEMS 91
Problem 27
y
O1
M1
a1
G1
l1
1
O2
a2 2 G2
l2
Figure 43
Solution.
y
O1
a1
l1 G1
1
rG2
O2
a2 2
G2
l2
Figure 44
The system considered has 2 degree of freedom and the angles 1 and 2 may
be considered as the generalized coordinates. Hence, Lagrange equations for this case
can be adopted in the following form.
d T T
= Q1
dt 1 1
d T T
= Q2 (2.154)
dt 2 2
The kinetic energy T is a sum of kinetic energy of the link 1 (T1 ) and kinetic energy
of the link 2 (T2 ).
1
T1 = (I1 + m1 a21 )21 (2.155)
2
1
T2 = (m2 r2G2 + I2 22 ) (2.156)
2
where
rG2 - is the absolute velocity of the centre of gravity G2 .
The position vector of centre of gravity G2 is
rG2 = i(l1 cos 1 + a2 cos 2 ) + j(l1 sin 1 + a2 sin 2 ) (2.157)
Its first derivative yields the velocity of the centre of gravity G2 .
rG2 = i(l1 1 sin 1 a2 2 sin 2 ) + j(l1 1 cos 1 + a2 2 cos 2 ) (2.158)
PROBLEMS 93
Upon introducing Eq. 2.159) into Eq. 2.156) one can obtain
1 1
T2 = m2 (l12 21 + a22 22 + 2l1 a2 1 2 cos(1 2 )) + I2 22 (2.160)
2 2
Hence the total kinetic energy is.
1
T = T1 + T2 = (I1 + m1 a21 )21
2
1 1
+ m2 (l12 21 + a22 22 + 2l1 a2 1 2 cos(1 2 )) + I2 22 (2.161)
2 2
Since the robot operates in the horizontal plane, the only non-conservative forces
acting on the system are the driving moments shown in Fig. 45.
y
O1
M1
1
M12
1 2
O2
M21
2
Figure 45
Since
M12 = M2 and M21 = M2 (2.163)
PROBLEMS 94
the expression for the virtual force takes the following form
W = (M1 + M2 )1 M2 2 (2.164)
Q1 = M1 + M2
Q2 = M2 (2.165)
PROBLEMS 95
Problem 28
y 1 y
A
R
L
= t x z
O
2
Figure 46
Link 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 46 rotates about the horizontal
axis z with the constant angular speed . The link 2 is hinged to the link 1 at point
A. The system has one degree of freedom and the generalized coordinate determines
the absolute angular position of the link 2. The link 2 comprises the massless rod
AB and a particle of mass m attached at its end B. Apply the Lagrange approach to
derive the dierential equation of the system motion.
Given are:
m - mass of the particle
L - length of the link 2
R - distance between the axis of rotation z and the hinge A
- angular speed of the link 1.
PROBLEMS 96
Problem 29
1 2 Z
Z z
O O
Y X
x
z
Y,y
O R
Figure 47
The circular slide 1 of radius R is free to rotate about the horizontal axis Y
of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Its moment of inertia about that axis is
I. The body 2, which can be considered as a particle of mass m, can move along
the slide without friction. System of coordinates xyz, shown in Fig. 47, is rigidly
attached to the slide 1.
By means of Lagrange equations derive the dierential equations of motion of the
system along the generalized coordinates and .
Answer:
I + mR2 sin2 + 2mR2 sin cos mgR sin sin = 0
mR2 mR2 2 sin cos + mgR cos cos = 0
PROBLEMS 97
Problem 30
z1 r z2
C 3
y2 b
y1
B
2
l
1
A
Figure 48
The wheel 3 of mass m (see Fig. 48)) rotates with a constant angular velocity
about axis of the body 2 system of coordinates . The massless axle BC is hinged
to the vertical shaft 1 which rotates with a constant angular velocity . The system
has one degree of freedom, therefore the angle determines uniquely its position.
Given are: , , m, b, l, r
Take advantage of Lagranges approach to produce the equation of motion of the
system.
Answer:
IBx3 + (IBz3 IBy3 ) 2 sin cos + IBz3 sin mgl sin = 0
2 2 2
where IBx3 = IBy3 = mr4 + mb 12
+ ml2 IBz3 = mr2
PROBLEMS 98
Problem 31
1
A
k 3 r k R
4 G
2
Figure 49
The link 1 of a mass m1 , shown in Fig. 49), can move along the horizontal
slide and is supported by two springs 3 each of stiness k. The ball 2 of mass m2
and a radius r is hinged to the link 1 at the point A by means of the massless and
rigid rod 4. All motion is in the vertical plane. Use Lagranges approach to derive
equations of motion of the system.
Given are:
m1 , m2 , r, R, k, I = 25 m2 r2 - moment of inertia of the ball about axes through its
centre of gravity G2 .
Answer:
(m1 + m2 )x + m2 R cos m2 R2 sin + 2kx = 0
(m2 R2 + I) + m2 Rx cos + m2 gR sin = 0
x - linear displacement of the block 1, - angular displacement of the link 2-4
PROBLEMS 99
Problem 32
O
x
E Y
B A
l C l
l l
l l
X
2 4 6 7 1 5 3
Figure 50
Fig. 50 shows a mechanical system. Link 1 of the system moves along the
vertical axis X and its motion is governed by the following equation
x = xo sint
The links 2 and 3 are hinged to the link 1 at the point D. The links 4 and 5 join the
links 2 and 3 with the collar 6 as is shown in Fig. 50. The spring 7 has a stiness k
and its length (when the spring is not compressed) is equal to 2l. The system has one
degree of freedom and its position may be determined by one generalized coordinate
. The links 4 5 and 6 are assumed to be massless. The links 2 and 3 can be treated
as thin and uniform bars each of length 2l and mass m.
Derive equations of motion of the system.
PROBLEMS 100
Problem 33
2
L 1
l G
Figure 51
Problem 34
1 Z,z 1
3 2
4
r G
5 C
a
B l
k q
A r
y1
a
Figure 52
Problem 35
l0
O q1 k1 k2
q2
l 1, m 1 l 2, m 2
Figure 53
Produce equations of motion of the system shown in Fig. 53. Each link may be
considered as a uniform rod. Their mass and length is m1 , l1 and m2 , l2 respectively.
The links can move in a vertical plane of the inertial space only. Length of the not
compressed springs is lo and their stiness is k1 and k2 . In Fig. 53, q1 and q2 stand
for the generalized coordinates. Take advantage of the Lagrange equations.
PROBLEMS 103
Problem 36
Z
1 2
O
R
o
r
Figure 54
The cylinder 2 may rolls over the stationary cylindrical surface 1 without
slipping. Taking advantage of the Lagranges equations produce equation of this
rolling motion. The angular displacement may be considered as the generalized
coordinate. R and r stand for radius of the cylindrical surface and radius of the
cylinder respectively. Axis Z is the vertical axis an inertial system of coordinates.
Mass of the cylinder 2 is m and its moment of inertia about its axis of symmetry is
I.
Answer:
(R r)2 m + rI2 + mg sin (R r) = 0
PROBLEMS 104
Problem 37
Z
z
4R
C
3
G
R
O
X
Figure 55
The semi-cylinder of mass m and radius R shown in Fig. 55 is free to roll over
the horizontal plane XY without slipping. The instantaneous angular position of this
semi-cylinder is determined by the angular displacement . Produce the equation of
oscillations of the semi-cylinder.
Answer:
R2
IG + mR2 1 + 9 16
2 8
3
cos + 4
3
m
sin 2 + 43 R mg sin = 0
2
where IG = 12 mR2 m 43 R
PROBLEMS 105
Problem 38
o1 x1
O t
Z z1 X
Y
y2
y1
B 2
G
x2 1
4
A C x1
o1 O
5
Figure 56
The slide 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig.56 rotates about the vertical
axis Y of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z with a constant angular velocity .
The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly attached to the slide 1. The two sliders
3 and 4 are massless. They are joined together by the link 2. The link 2 can be
considered as a uniform rod of mass m and length l. The system is of one degree
of freedom and the only one generalized coordinate is denoted by . The spring 5
possesses stiness k. The length of the uncompressed spring is lo . Its left hand side
end is attached to the axle of the joint A and its right hand side end is attached to
the slide 1 at the point C. Produce:
1. the kinetic energy function of the system
Answer:
T = 6 ml2 ( 2 cos2 + 2 )
1
4. the equation for the angle that defines the steady-state motion of the
system (=constant)
( 13 ml2 2 kl2 ) cos sin + 12 mgl cos + kllo sin = 0
PROBLEMS 106
Problem 39
O
q1 Y
l
a
k
A
q2 3
c
G 1
2
4
Figure 57
The angle locates the angular position of the stationary slide 4 with respect
to the vertical plane XY of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The massless
link 1 is free to move along this slide and is supported by the spring 3 of stiness k.
The length of the uncompressed spring is l. The link 2 is hinged to the link 1 at the
point A. The distance c locates the position of the centre of gravity G of the link 2.
The link 2 possesses mass m and its moment of inertia about axis through the centre
of gravity G is I. This system possesses two degrees of freedom and q1 and q2 stand
for the generalized independent coordinates.
1. Produce the kinetic energy function of the system
2. Produce the potential energy function of the system
3. Produce the equations of motion of the system (take advantage of the
Lagranges equations of motion)
4. Produce the expressions for the generalized coordinates corresponding
to the possible equilibrium positions of the system.
PROBLEMS 107
Solution
1. Since the link 1 is massless the total kinetic energy of the system is asso-
ciated with the link 2 only. The link 2 performs a general plane motion hence its
kinetic energy is.
1 2 1 2
T = mvG + I q2 (2.166)
2 2
where vG stands for the absolute linear velocity of the centre of gravity G of
the link 2 and q2 is its absolute angular velocity.
The velocity vG can be produced by dierentiation of the following absolute position
vector
rG = I(q1 cos + a sin + c cos q2 ) + J(q1 sin a cos + c sin q2 ) (2.167)
Hence the wanted velocity is
vG = rG = I(q1 cos cq22 sin q2 ) + J(q1 sin + cq22 cos q2 ) (2.168)
Introduction of the expression 2.167 and 2.168 into 2.168 yields the wanted kinetic
energy function
1 1
T = m (q1 cos cq22 sin q2 )2 + (q1 sin a cos + c sin q2 )2 + I q22 =
2 2
1 2 1 2 2 1 2
= mq + mcq1 q2 sin( q2 ) + mc q2 + I q2 (2.169)
2 1 2 2
2. The potential energy function due to gravitation is
Vg = mgrGX = mg(q1 cos + a sin + c cos q2 ) (2.170)
The potential energy of the spring is
1
Vs = kq12 (2.171)
2
Therefore the potential energy function is
1
V = Vg + Vs = mg(q1 cos + a sin + c cos q2 ) kq12 (2.172)
2
3. Since the system is of two degree of freedom and the generalized coordinates
are q1 and q2 and all the impressed forces are conservative one can take advantage of
the following Lagranges equations
d T T V
+ = 0
dt q1 q1 q1
d T T V
+ = 0 (2.173)
dt q2 q2 q2
According to 2.169 and 2.172 the equations of motion are
mq1 + mc sin( q2 )q2 mc cos( q2 )q22 mg cos + kq1 = 0
(2.174)
(I + mc2 )q2 + mc sin( q2 )q1 mc cos( q2 )q12 +
+ mc cos( q2 )q1 q2 mgc sin q2 = 0
PROBLEMS 108
4. The above set of equations allows the equilibrium position of the system to
be determined. If q1 and q2 are constant
mg cos + kq1 = 0
mgc sin q2 = 0 (2.175)
Hence
mg cos
q1 = q2 = 0 (2.176)
k
Chapter 3
MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF COLLISIONS.
a a2
2
b UF
2
y2 c 2
z2 F
G2 G2
G2
Z Z 2 Z a s
a rG2 = rG2
rG2 a rC2G2 s
vG2 C C vG2
C
Y a Y
rC1G1
Y s2
O vG1 O x2 y1 O
ra z1 a s
G1 G rG1 = rG1 G1
1 1 1 1
X X F X
G1
s1
UF s
1 vG1
a1
x1
a
t=t a t <t<t s t=t s
Figure 1
P = UF hG = UMG (3.1)
Introduction of Eqs. 3.4 and 3.5 into Eqs. 3.2 and 3.3 produces six scalar equations.
s a
m1 (vG1x vG1x ) = UF
s a
m1 (vG1y vG1y ) = 0
s a
m1 (vG1z vG1z ) = 0 (3.6)
s
I1x I1xy I1xz 1x a1x 0
I1yx I1y I1yz s1y a1y = rC1G1z UF (3.7)
I1zx I1zy I1z s1z a1z rC1G1y UF
Similar set of equation may be obtained for body 2.
s a
m2 (vG2x vG2x ) = UF
s a
m2 (vG2y vG2y ) = 0
s a
m2 (vG2z vG2z ) = 0 (3.8)
s
I2x I2xy I2xz 2x a2x 0
I2yx I2y I2yz s2y a2y = rC2G2z UF (3.9)
I2zx I2zy I2z s2z a2z rC2G2y UF
So far we have produced 12 equations with 13 unknown.
For perfectly elastic bodies there is no dissipation of energy during the contact
time t. Hence the additional equation may be derived from principle of conservation
of energy. Since position of the two bodies at ta and ts has not been changed,
COLLISION OF TWO UNCONSTRAINED BODIES. 111
according to this principle, kinetic energy of the two bodies at instant ta and ts must
be the same.
Ta = Ts (3.10)
It is easy to show (proof is enclosed in Appendix 3), that the equation 3.10 is equiv-
alent to
vs vC2x
s
C1x
a a
=1 (3.11)
vC1x vC2x
s s a a
where vC1x vC2x , vC1x vC2x are normal components of relative velocity of body 1
and 2 at contact point C at the instant of separation and approach respectively (see
Fig. 2).
s
vC2 y2
a
z2 vC1
G2 a a
2 vC1x- vC2x
s s
vC1 - vC2 C
a a
s vC1 - vC2
s s vC1 x2
vC1x - vC2x
z1 G1 y1
1
a
vC2
x1
Figure 2
On the other hand if the bodies involved in the collision are perfectly plastic
they stick to each other and travel after the collision together. Hence their relative
s s
velocity of separation is equal to zero (vC1x = vC2x ). Therefore
s s
vC1x vC2x
a a
=0 (3.12)
vC1x vC2x
e elastic materials
real materials
plastic materials
0
1 a a
|vC1x- vC2x |
Figure 3
Figure 4
rG
rC
G1
C v
2
1
Figure 5
s
Iix Iixy Iixz ix aix UMGix
Iiyx Iiy Iiyz siy aiy = UMGiy (3.20)
Iizx Iizy Iiz siz aiz UMGiz
where
i = 1, 2, ....n
UF i , UMG i are resultant impulse and angular impulse of all impulses acting on i th
body respectively.
The lacking equation is oered by Newtons hypothesis
s s
vC1x vC2x
a a
=e 0<e<1 (3.21)
vC1x vC2x
y1
UOy
UOx
O
rG y2
G1 rC
x1
UC C x2 UC
2
1
Figure 6
The system has three degree of freedom hence its position can determined by
three independent coordinates , x2 and y2 (see Fig. 6). At the instant of approach
where
m1 mass of the pendulum
IO moment of inertia of the pendulum about point O
UC -Impulse at contact point C
UOx1 , UOy1 Components of impulse at constraint O
Impulse momentum principle applied to the bullet yields
s a
m2 (v2y2 v2y2 ) = 0 (3.26)
s a
m2 (v2x2 v2x2 ) = UC (3.27)
where
m2 mass of the bullet
Newtons hypothesis for the case considered can be written as follows
s s
vC1x1 vC2x2
a a
=e (3.28)
vC1x1 vC2x2
CENTRE OF PERCUSSION. 116
s a a
Since vG1y1 = 0 and vG1y1 = 0, equation 3.23 yields UOy1 = 0. Since v2y2 = 0,
s
according to 3.26 the component y of the bullet velocity of separation v2y2 = 0.
Taking into consideration that
vG1x1 = s rG
s
a
vG1x1 =0
s1 = s
a1 = 0
v2s = xs2
v2a = v
s
vC1x1 = s rC
s
vC2x2 = xs2
a
vC1x1 =0
a
vC2x2 = v
the equations 3.24, 3.25, 3.27 and 3.28 take form
m1 (s rG ) = UC + UOx (3.29)
IO (s ) = UC rC (3.30)
m2 (xs2 v) = UC (3.31)
s rC xs2
e = (3.32)
v
The above equations are linear with respect to unknown s , xs2 , UOx , and UC . Their
solution is
m2 vrC (1 + e)
s = (3.33)
IOx + m2 rC2
v(m2 rC2 eIO )
xs2 = (3.34)
IOx + m2 rC2
m2 vIO (1 + e)
UC = (3.35)
IOx + m2 rC2
m2 v(1 + e)
UOx = (m1 rC rG IO ) (3.36)
IOx + m2 rC2
The last equation allows to find position of the point of contact C having such a
peculiarity that any impact at that point produce no impulse at O. Indeed, for
IOx
rC = (3.37)
m1 rG
UOx is always zero. Point of contact, fulfilling the formula 3.37 is called centre of
percussion.
Motion of the system after the instance of separation will be controlled by
CENTRE OF PERCUSSION. 117
o = a = 0
o = s
x2o = xa2
x2o = xs2
y2o = y2a = 0
y2o = y2s = 0
PROBLEMS 118
3.4 PROBLEMS
Problem 40
2
1
L l
Figure 7
Solution.
2
z z 1
U U
C
L l
a=
x x
UA A
Figure 8
I(s ) = U l (3.38)
m(v s 0) = U (3.39)
Is I = mlv s (3.41)
I s I = ml2 (e + s ) (3.43)
Problem 41
v C
Figure 9
Two thin uniform bars, each of mass m and length l, are connected by a
pin joint to form a double pendulum. Initially the bars are hanging vertically and
are motionless. Then, a particle of mass mo traveling horizontally with a constant
velocity v strikes the joint between the bars. Upon assumption that the collision is
plastic one ( the coecient of restitution e = 0) solve this problem for the angular
velocity of each bar immediately after the impact.
PROBLEMS 122
Solution.
3
l
1
2
v C x
4
Figure 10
1 y 2
U x
Figure 11
y UO
O
3
3
l
U3 x
Figure 12
U4 x
C
4
l/2
G
4
Figure 13
y 2
U U3 x
C U4
Figure 14
PROBLEMS 124
and second, reflected the angular impulse - momentum principle about the centre of
gravity G.
ml2 s l
( 4 0) = U4 ( ) (3.54)
12 2
Since the link 2 is considered as massless, it has to fulfill equilibrium conditions ( Fig.
14.)
U = U3 + U4 (3.55)
So far, we have produce 6 independent equations 3.50 to 3.55 with 6 unknown (U ,
U3 , U4 , s3 , s4 , vC1x
s
). Since this is a set of linear equations, it can be easily solved
for the unknown angular velocities s3 and 24 .
v
s3 = 7m
1(1 + 12m o
)
3v
s4 = 7m (3.56)
1(1 + 12m o
)
PROBLEMS 125
Problem 42
rG
G rC
2 1
Figure 15
Solution
y2
Uoy 2
Uox 2
O
rG
y1
x2 G
U x1 U
C
2 1
Figure 16
IO s2 = UrC (3.57)
Since the collision is plastic, from Newtons hypothesis one can see that the velocity
s
of separation of the bullet v1x1 is
s
v1x1 = s2 rC (3.58)
The momentum impulse principle applied to the bullet can be written as follows
m( s2 rC v) = U (3.59)
Implementation of Eq. 3.59 into 3.57 allows the velocity of the bullet to be expressed
as function of angular velocity of separation.
IO s2 = mrC ( s2 rC v) (3.60)
Hence
Io + mrC2 s
v= 2 (3.61)
mrC
Principle of energy conservation
1
IO ( s2 )2 = Mg(rG rG cos) (3.62)
2
PROBLEMS 127
Upon introducing Eq. 3.63 into Eq. 3.61 one may obtain
s
2
Io + mrC 2MgrG (1 cos )
v= (3.64)
mrC Io
PROBLEMS 128
Problem 43
yp
xp
h
v
C
Figure 17
A football of mass m and principal moments of inertia Ixp , Iyp , Izp falls down
vertically and hits the ground at the angle with velocity v and the angular velocity
= 0. Find the equations of motion of the ball after the impact. Dimensions h and
r locate the position of the centre of gravity G at the instant of impact.
Answer:
PROBLEMS 129
Problem 44
y
a
m b
v
G x
Figure 18
Problem 45
l
2
b
A
Figure 19
Problem 46
p 1
v
2
=45o
C
3
k
Figure 20
Problem 47
R O
G
r r
2 3
1 G
C
Figure 21
The pendulum, shown in Fig. 21, is assembled of the ball 1 of radius r and the
massless and rigid rod 2. Mass of the pendulum is m and its moment of inertia about
its centre of gravity is G is I. The pendulum was release from position determined
by angle with initial velocity equal to zero to collide the vertical wall 3. Determine
the angular velocity of separation of the pendulum, impulse of force at the point of
collision C and impulse of force at the constraint O.
PROBLEMS 133
Problem 48
3 1
R
G
Figure 22
The cylinder 1 of mass m and radius R rolls without slipping over the hori-
zontal floor 2 to eventually collide with the wall 3 (see Fig. 22). The angular velocity
of approach of the cylinder is . Produce expression for the angular velocity of the
cylinder and the linear velocity of its centre of gravity G at the time of separation if
the coecient of restitution is e.
Answer:
s s
vGx1 = Re sin vGy1 = R cos s =
PROBLEMS 134
Problem 49
yp
xp
v
G
b
a
zp
c G
Figure 23
Problem 50
v1
1 2
G1
v2 G2
C
Figure 24
The ship 1 and 2 are traveling with constant velocities v1 and v2 to collide
each other at point C as shown in Fig. 24. Upon assuming that the coecient of
restitution is equal to 0, produce equations of motion of these ships after collision
and formulate the initial conditions. Friction between water and the ships can be
neglected.
Given are:
m1 , m2 - mass of the ship 1 and 2 respectively
I1 , I2 - moment of inertia of the ship 1 and 2 about the vertical axis through
their centers of gravity G1 , G2 respectively
v1 , v2 - velocity of the ship 1 and 2 respectively
e = 0 - coecient of restitution
a - the distance shown in Fig. 24
PROBLEMS 136
Problem 51
1 A
h
2
G C
O
a
b
H
Figure 25
The tennis racket 2 (see Fig. 25rotates about the point O with the constant
angular velocity . The tennis ball 1, that can be considered as a particle of mass
m, is released from the position A with the initial velocity equal to zero. The ball
collides with the racket at the point C. At the instant of approach the racket makes
angle with horizon. The coecient of restitution is e. After the collision the ball
hits the ground at the point B.
Given are:
m - mass of the ball 1
M, I - mass and the moment of inertia of the racket 2 about its centre of
gravity G respectively
e - coecient of restitution
h, H, a, b - given distances
- angular position of the racket at the instance of approach
- angular velocity of the racket at the instance of approach.
Produce the expression for the horizontal distance L between the point C and the
point B.
Answer:
q
vX gH
L = vY g 1 + 1 + v2
X
where
s s s s
vX = vx1 cos vy1 sin vY = vx1 sin + vy1 cos
s 1
mb2
s
vx1 = mb2 2gh cos Io + e + b (1 + e) vy1 = 2gh sin
1+ Io
PROBLEMS 137
Problem 52
1 r position 1
2
position 2 a
C
position 3 b
Figure 26
Problem 53
b1 a1
b1 a1
G1
1
2
v1
C
a2
v2 G2
a2
b2 b2
Figure 27
The two cars shown in Fig. 27, 1 and 2, collide each other at the point of
collision C. Their masses are m1 and m2 respectively. The moments of inertia of
the cars about the axes through the centre of gravity G1 and G2 are I1 and I2 . At
the instant of approach the linear velocity of their centers of gravity were v1 and v2
respectively and their angular velocities were equal to zero. Upon assuming that the
coecient of restitution is equal to zero, produce:
1. the equations which allow the kinematic parameters of separation to be determined
Answer:
Solution of the following set of equations
s
m1 (vG1x1 v1 sin ) = U
s
m1 (vG1y1 v1 cos ) = 0
I1 (s1 0) = U(b1 cos a1 sin )
s
m2 (vG2x2 0) = U
s
m2 (vG2y2 v2 ) = 0
I2 (s2 0) = 0
s
vG1x1 s1 (+b1 cos a1 sin ) vG2x2
s
=0
2. the expression for the energy dissipated during the collision
1Answer
E = 2 m1 v12 + 12 m2 v22
1 s 2 s 2 1 s 2 1
s 2 s 2 1 s 2
2 m1 (vG1x1 ) + vG1y1 + 2 I1 (1 ) + 2 m2 (vG2x2 ) + vG2y2 + 2 I2 ( 2 )
PROBLEMS 139
Problem 54
1 3 2
G1 C G3
v a G2
A
Figure 28
The two cars shown in Fig.28, 1 and 2, collide with each other at the point of
collision C. At the instant of approach the car 1 was translating with velocity v. The
second car at the instant of approach was stationary. The passenger 3 of the second
car is modeled as a rigid body hinged to the car at the point A. Its mass is m3 and
its moment of inertia about the center of gravity G3 is I. The distance a determines
the position of the center of gravity G3 at the instant of approach. The mass of the
car 1 is m1 and the mass of the car 2 without the passenger is m2 .
Assuming that the coecient of restitution is equal to e, produce:
1. the relative angular velocity of the passenger 3 at the instant of separation
2. the expression for the energy dissipated during the collision
PROBLEMS 140
Answer:
Question 1
y1 UA
y2
1 2
UAy
G1 C1 C2 G2 x2
v x1 UAx
A
UC UC
K L N M
U UL UN UM
3
y3
G3
x3
a
A UAx
UAy
Figure 29
The relative angular velocity of the passenger s3 is the solulution of the fol-
lowing set of equations
s
m1 (vG1x1 v) = UC
s
m2 (vG2x2 0) = +UC + UAx
s
m3 (vG2x2 s3 a 0) = UAx
I( s3 0) = aUAx
vs vs
e = G1x1v0G2x2
Question 2
T = T a T s = 12 m1 v 2 ( 12 m1 (vG1x1
s
)2 + 12 m2 (vG2x2
s
)2 + 12 m3 (vG2x2
s
s3 a)2 + 12 I ( s3 )2 )
PROBLEMS 141
Problem 55
1 2 3
Figure 30
The carriage 1 (see Fig.30) ) moves with a constant velocity v to collide with
the two stationary carriages 2 and 3. The carriages 2 and 3 are unconstrained (there
is a negligible gap between them). Mass of each carriage is identical and it is equal
to m. The coecient of restitution e is the same for each point of collision.
1. Produce the equations for the velocity of separation of individual car-
riages and the impulses between the carriages.
2. Solve the equations for the coecient of restitution e = 1 and e < 1
3. Produce the expression for the energy lost due to the collision if e < 1.
PROBLEMS 142
Solution.
Collision 1.
1 v1a1=v y2 2 3
y1 v2a1=0
x1 x2
U11 U11
C1 C2
Figure 31
At the time of approach ta1 the carriage 1 collides with the carriage 2 at the
point of collision C1 (see Fig. 31). Since the carriage 2 and 3 are unconstrained (there
is a gap between them) and during the collision carriages 1 and 2 are stationary, the
impulse at the point C2 is equal to zero. Hence one can write the following equations
reflecting the linear impulse-linear momentum principle applied to the carriage 1 and
the carriage 2.
m(v1s1 v) = U11 (3.65)
m(v2s1 0) = +U11 (3.66)
The Newtons hypothesis yields
(1 e)v
v1s1 = (3.68)
2
(1 + e)v
v2s1 = (3.69)
2
(1 + e)v
U11 = m (3.70)
2
Since the carriage 2 after collision possesses positive velocity of separation it will
collide with the carriage 3. Taking into account that the gap between the carriage
2 and 3 is negligible, one can assume that the velocity of separation v2s1 is equal to
velocity of approach v2a2 for the second collision
Collision 2
PROBLEMS 143
1 v1s1 y2 2 v3a2= 0 y 3
v2a2 3
x2 x3
U22 U22
C1 C2
Figure 32
(1 e)v2s1 (1 e) (1 + e)v (1 e2 )v
v2s2 = = = (3.75)
2 2 2 4
(1 + e)v2s1 (1 + e) (1 + e)v (1 + e)2 v
v3s2 = = = (3.76)
2 2 2 4
(1 + e)v2s1 (1 + e) (1 + e)v (1 + e)2 v
U22 = m =m =m (3.77)
2 2 2 4
According to the consideration so far after the second collision:
the first carriage possesses velocity v1s1 = (1e)v
2
2
the second carriage possesses velocity v2s2 = (1e4 )v
2v
the third carriage possesses velocity v3s2 = (1+e)4
If the coecient of restitution is equal to one (perfectly elastic collision) the situation
is clear:
the first carriage possesses velocity v1s1 = 0
the second carriage possesses velocity v2s2 = 0
the third carriage possesses velocity v3s2 = v
It means that the carriage 1 and 2 are stationary after collision and the carriage 3
moves with the velocity v. Such a behaviour of the unconstrained bodies is often
referred to as "Newtons cradle".
PROBLEMS 144
(1 e)v (1 e2 )v
v1s1 = > v2s2 =
2 4
2 > (1 + e)
Therefore immediately after the second collision mast taken place third collision be-
tween the first and second carriage.
The velocity of approach of the first carriage is
(1 e)v
v1a3 = v1s1 = (3.78)
2
and the velocity of approach of the second carriage is
(1 e2 )v
v2a3 = v2s2 = (3.79)
4
Collision 3.
1 v1a3 y2 2 v3s2 3
y1 v2a3
x1 x2
U13 U13
C1 C2
Figure 33
The free body diagram shown in Fig.33 allows the following set of equations
to be formulated.
m(v1s3 v1a3 ) = U13 (3.80)
m(v2s3 v2a3 ) = U13 (3.81)
v1s3 v2s3
e= (3.82)
v1a3 v2a3
Its solution yields the wanted velocities of separation after the collision 3.
s3 1 a3 a3 1 1 2
v1 = (1 e) v1 + (1 + e) v2 = (1 e) (1 e) + (1 + e) v (3.83)
2 4 8
s3 1 a3 a3 1 1 2
v2 = (1 + e) v1 + (1 e) v2 = (1 + e) (1 e) + (1 e) v (3.84)
2 4 8
PROBLEMS 145
Since the third carriage does not take part in this collision its velocity is
1
v3s3 = v3s2 = (1 + e)2 v (3.85)
4
The results shown below was computed for the coecient of restitution e = 0.5
After the first collision the velocities of the individual carriages are:
v1s1 = (1e)
2
v = (10.5)
2
v = 0.25v
s1 (1+e) (1+0.5)
v2 = 2 v = 2 v = 0.75v
v3s1 = 0
The energy lost due to the first collision
T = T0 T1 = 12 mv 2 12 m (0.25v)2 12 m (0.75v)2 = 12 mv 2 (1(0.25)2 (0.75)2 )
= 12 mv 2 (0.375)
After the second collision the velocities of the individual carriages are
v1s2 = v1s1 = 0.25v
2) 2)
v2s2 = (1e4
v = (10.5
4
v = 0.187 5
(1+e)2 (1+0.5) 2
v3s2 = 4 v = 4
v = 0.562 5
The energy lost due to both collisions is
T = T0 T12 = 12 mv 2 (1 (0.25)2 (0.1875)2 (0.562 5)2 )
= 12 mv 2 (0.585 94)
After the third collision the velocities of the individual carriages are
v1s3 = (1 0.5) 14 (1 0.5) + 18 (1 + 0.5)2 v = 0.203 13v
v2s3 = (1 + 0.5) 14 (1 0.5) + 18 (1 0.5)2 v = 0.234 38v
v3s3 = 14 (1 + 0.5)2 v = 0.562 5v
The energy lost due to all three collisions is
T = T0 T123 = 12 mv 2 (1 (0.203 13)2 (0.234 38)2 (0.562 5)2 )
= 12 mv 2 (0.587 40)
It is necessary to notice that our analysis is true for arbitrarily small gap between
the carriage 2 and 3. Therefore it is true in the extreme case of zero gap.
PROBLEMS 146
Problem 56
1 2 3
Figure 34
The carriage 1 (see Fig.34) ) moves with a constant velocity v to collide with
the two stationary carriages 2 and 3. The carriages 2 and 3 are constrained by means
of a hinge. Mass of each carriage is identical and it is equal to m. The coecient of
restitution at the point of collision is e.
1. Produce the equations for the velocity of separation of individual car-
riages and the impulses between the carriages.
2. Solve the equations
3. Produce the expression for the energy lost due to the collision for e = 1,
e = 0.5 and e = 0.
PROBLEMS 147
Solution
1 2 3
v1a=v y2 v2a= v3a =0 y
y1 3
x1 x2 x3
U1 U1 U2 U2
C1 C2
Figure 35
If the carriges 2 and 3 are constrained the collision at the point C1 causes the
inpulse U1 at the point of collision and the impulse U2 at the constrain C2 . Therefore
one may produce the following three equations reflected the linear impulse linear
momentum principle.
m(v1s v1a ) = U1
m(v2s v2a ) = +U1 U2 (3.86)
m(v3s v3a ) = +U2
In the above equations
v1a = v v2a = 0 v3a = 0 (3.87)
and due to the constraint at C2
v2s = v3s = v23
s
(3.88)
Introducing the equations 3.87 and 3.88 in equations 3.86 we have
m(v1s v) = U1
s
mv23 = +U1 U2 (3.89)
s
mv23 = +U2
The fourth equation is oered by the Newtons hypothesis
v1s v2s v1s v23
s
e= = (3.90)
v1a v2a v
Solution of the equations 3.89 and 3.90 yields
1 2e
v1s = v
3
s 1+e
v23 = v (3.91)
3
and
2(1 + e)
U1 = mv
3
1+e
U2 = mv (3.92)
3
PROBLEMS 148
149
150
INTRODUCTION.
This part provides bases for the analytical solution and analysis of the math-
ematical model developed in the previous part. It allows to predict motion of the
mechanical system if the forces acting on the system are known. If the motion of
the system can be assumed known, analysis of the mathematical model yields driving
forces which are necessary to maintain the assumed motion. The stability analysis
provides informations about feasibility of the solution obtained.
Chapter 4
ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS AND THEIR STABILITY.
qn = xn (4.6)
qn = xN +n (4.7)
qn = xn (4.8)
xn = xN+n (4.9)
The equations 4.9 and 4.10 form one set of dierential equation of first order, which
may be written in the following form.
where
K = 2N (4.12)
The coordinates xk are called state - space coordinates and the vector
xk k = 1, 2, ..K (4.16)
is a particular solution of the set of equations 4.11
xk k = 1, 2, ..K (4.18)
xk = xk + xk k = 1, 2, ..K (4.20)
xk
xk
x ok x~k x k
~x ok
t
Figure 1
The right hand side of equation 4.21 may be developed into Taylors series in a vicinity
of the nominal motion xk
Since the perturbations xi are small, h which contains term of second order and
higher may be neglected. Introduction of Eq. 4.24 into Eq. 4.23 yields equations of
perturbations.
X
i=K
fk
xk = (x1 , x2 , .., xK , t) xi (4.25)
i=1
xi
X
i=K
xk = Ak,i xi k = 1, 2, ....., K (4.27)
i=1
From Eq. 4.27 one can see that perturbations are determined by a set of linear
dierential equations of first order.
~
x x
x2 =q
x2(t)
x2(to )
x1(to ) x1(t)
to t>to t
x1 =q
Figure 2
~
x x
x2 =q
lim || x(t)||=0
|| x(t o )||= x1(to ) + x2(to ) <
2 2
t
x2(t)
x2(to )
x1(to ) x1(t)
to t>to t
x1 =q
Figure 3
x2(t)
x2(to )
x1(to ) x1(t)
to t>to t
x1 =q
Figure 4
CRITERIA OF STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM POSITION. 157
The following criteria, which permit any equilibrium position {qno } to be classified as
stable or unstable, are formulated in terms of roots ri .
STATEMENT: If all roots of the characteristic equation 4.31 has negative
real part, the nominal motion {qno } is asymptotically stable.
STATEMENT: If at least one of roots of the characteristic equation 4.31
has positive real part, the nominal motion is unstable.
STATEMENT: If one root of the characteristic equation 4.31 has real part
equal 0 and all the other have negative real part, the nominal motion is
stable.
STATEMENT: If more then one root of the characteristic equation 4.31
has real part equal to 0 and all other have negative real part, stability of the
nominal motion can not be determined in terms of roots of characteristic
equation only.
PROBLEMS. 158
4.6 PROBLEMS.
Problem 57
q = x1
q = x2 (4.33)
Introduction of the above notations into the equation 4.32 results in the following
state-space equation of motion of the system considered.
x1 = x2 = f1
x2 = (1 + cos2 x1 )x2 + 2 x1 x31 = f2 (4.34)
For x1 = 0, and x2 = 0 the above equations yields equations which allow the equilib-
rium positions of the system to be determined.
0 = x2
0 = (1 + cos2 x1 )x2 + 2 x1 x31 (4.35)
x11 = 0
x12 = 0 (4.36)
x21 =
x22 = 0 (4.37)
x31 =
x32 = 0 (4.38)
Since both roots have negative real parts this equilibrium position is stable.
Stability analysis of solution 4.38
For x11 = and x12 = 0 the above partial derivatives have the following
magnitudes
A111 = 0 A112 = 1 A121 = 22 A122 = 2 (4.46)
Therefore the characteristic equation is
r 1
= 0
2 2 2 r
r2 + 2r + 2 2 = 0 (4.47)
5.1 MODELLING
5.1.1 Description of the centrifuge.
Figure 1
To separate heavier fractions from lighter ones, the fluid containing them is subjected
to high acceleration. The high acceleration is produced by installations called cen-
trifuges. The kinematic scheme of a centrifuge is shown in Fig. 1. Container with
the fluid is attached to the whirling arm 2 which is hinged to the rotating with high
speed column 1. Due to centrifugal acceleration the heavier fractions concentrates at
the bottom of the container whereas the lighter ones are still inside the fluid.
MODELLING 162
O
y1
X x1
Z z1 z2
j1 a A
l
y1
rG
- k2 l
y2
G
1 2
Figure 2
M = Mo + M (5.1)
1 = k1 (5.2)
2 = 1 + 21 = k1 + i2 (5.3)
2x2 = 2 i2 = k1 i2 + i2 i2 =
2y2 = 2 j2 = k1 j2 + i2 j2 = sin
2z2 = 2 k2 = k1 k2 + i2 k2 = cos (5.4)
rG = j1 ak2 l (5.5)
rGx2 = rG i2 = j1 i2 a k2 i2 l = 0
rGy2 = rG j2 = j1 j2 a k2 j2 l = a cos
rGz2 = rG k2 = j1 k2 a k2 k2 l = a sin l (5.6)
vG = rG = r0G + 2 rG
i2 j2 k2
= j2 (a sin ) + k2 (a cos ) + sin cos
0 a cos a sin l
= i2 (a l sin ) + j2 l + k2 (0) (5.7)
vGx2 = a l sin
vGy2 = l
vGz2 = 0 (5.8)
KINETICS.
Kinetic energy function T is assembled of kinetic energy of the link 1 (T1 ) and kinetic
energy of the link 2 (T2 ).
T = T1 + T2 (5.10)
where
T1 = 0.5I1 2 (5.11)
I2x 0 0 2x2
T2 2
= 0.5m(vGx2 2
+ vGy2 2
+ vGz2 ) + 0.5[ 2x2 , 2y2 , 2z2 ] 0 I2y 0 2y2
0 0 I2z 2z2
2
= 0.5m(a2 2 + l2 2 sin2 + 2al2 sin + l2 )
2
+0.5(I2x + I2y sin2 + I2z 2 cos2 ) (5.12)
There is only one conservative force G. The corresponding potential energy function
is
W = M (5.14)
Q = M
Q = 0 (5.15)
Introduction of Eqs. 5.12, 5.13, 5.15 and 5.1 into Eq. 5.9 yields the following equation
of motion.
5.2 ANALYSIS
5.2.1 Space state formulation of equations of motion.
Since the equations of motion do not depend on , it is easy to lower the order of the
first equation. Upon introducing
= (5.17)
the equations 5.16 can be rewritten in the following form
= (5.19)
=
1
= (B sin cos + C cos + Mo M)
A
1
= (E 2 sin cos + F 2 cos + G sin ) (5.20)
D
where
= s = constant
= s = constant (5.22)
s = 0
Mo M s = 0
E2s sin s cos s + F 2s cos s + G sin s = 0 (5.23)
Solutions of the above equations for dierent magnitude of s are presented in Fig.
3 The following set of data was adopted for numerical computation.
I1 = 2.5 [kgm2 ]
m = 8 [kg]
I2x = 2 [kgm2 ]
I2y = 2 [kgm2 ]
I2z = 0.2 [kgm2 ]
a = 0.3 [m]
ANALYSIS 166
l = 0.5 [m]
10
s 5
rad/s
s1 s2 s3 s4
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1
s rad
Figure 3
s1 s2 s4
s3
Figure 4
From Fig. 3 one can see that for 0 < s < 5.1[rad/s] there exists two equilib-
rium position. For s > 5.1[rad/s] there exists four possible equilibrium position. The
four equilibrium positions s1 , s2 , s3 and s4 which correspond to s = 7[rad/s]
are presented in Fig. 4. Not all of them have to be stable. Hence, stability analysis
is required to distinguish between stable and unstable equilibrium positions.
5.2.3 Equations of perturbation - stability of the equilibrium positions.
The already found particular solution forms the nominal motion.
= s = s = s = 0 (5.24)
Equations of motion 5.20 may by rewritten as follow.
= 1 (, , )
= 2 (, , )
= 3 (, , ) (5.25)
ANALYSIS 167
where
1 =
1
2 = (B sin cos + C cos + Mo M)
A
1
3 = (E 2 sin cos + F 2 cos + G sin ) (5.26)
D
Equation of perturbations has the following form.
A11 A12 A13
= A21 A22 A23 (5.27)
A31 A32 A33
where
1
A11 = ( s , s , s ) = 0
1
A12 = ( , s , s ) = 0
s
1
A13 = ( , s , s ) = 1
s
2
A21 = ( s , s , s )
(2(I2y + ml2 ) sin s cos s + 2mal cos s 2I2z sin s cos s )(Mo M s )
=
A( s )2
Since according to Eq. 5.23 Mo Ms = 0
A21 = 0
2 M
A22 = ( s , s , s ) =
A( s )
2 B sin s cos s s + C cos s s
A23 = ( s , s , s ) =
A( s )
3 E s cos s E 2s sin2 s F 2s sin s + G cos s
2 2
A31 = ( s , s , s ) =
D
3 2E s sin s cos s + 2F s cos s
A32 = ( s , s , s ) =
D
3
A33 = ( , s , s ) = 0 (5.28)
s
The characteristic equation is
A11 r A A
12 13
A21 A r A =0 (5.29)
22 23
A31 A32 A33 r
If all roots of the above equation have negative real parts, solution s , s , s is con-
sidered as stable. Application of this criterion to the system considered leads to
conclusion that only solution shown in Fig. 5 are stable.
ANALYSIS 168
10
s
rad/s 5
s2 s4
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1
s rad
Figure 5
For s = 7[s1 ] there exists two stable equilibrium positions. They are s =
7[s ], s2 = 1.25[rad] and s = 7[s1 ], s4 = 1.399[rad]. Roots of the equation
1
respectively. Their real parts proves stability of the equilibrium positions. Their imag-
inary conjugated parts represents frequencies of the decaying oscillations in vicinity
of the equilibrium positions ( see Fig. 6 and 7).
Which stable position the system finally obtains depend on initial conditions.
Numerical simulation carried out for Mo = 50[Nm] and M = Mo /7[Nms], indicates
that for initial conditions
the system tends to equilibrium position s2 = 1.25[rad] (see Fig. 6). But, for
initial conditions
(0) = 0 (0) = 0 (0) = 0 (5.32)
the system tends to position s4 = 1.399[rad] (see Fig. 7).
ANALYSIS 169
6
rad
4
rad/s
2
-2
0 10 20 30 40
time s
Figure 6
6
rad
4 rad/s
0
0 10 20 30 40
time s
Figure 7
Part III
EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATIONS.
170
171
INTRODUCTION.
The results obtained by modeling and analyzing a dynamic problem corre-
spond strictly to the physical model we have created. Assumptions adopted for the
physical model always simplify the problem considered. Hence, the obtained results
(e.g.. dynamic behavior of the physical model) are dierent then a true dynamic
behavior of the real object. Experimental investigation allows to assess these dier-
ences. If they are negligible from practical point of view, one can adopt the developed
mathematical model as well as the methods used for its solution for further design.
If experimental investigation shows unacceptable dierences the physical model or
methods of its analysis must be improved.
If the object is still on design stage, experimental investigation can be car-
ried out on especially design models supplied with measuring equipment (laboratory
installations). Models for experimental investigation should possesses all features of
the real object which has an qualitative influence on the problem considered. Results
of the experimental investigation can not be transfer directly to the real object, but
form a base for verification of mathematical model and methods used for its analysis.
After verification the mathematical model can be used for qualitative description of
the problem existing in the real object.
In some cases it is possible to design model which reflect the dynamic prob-
lem both qualitatively and quantitatively. Theory of dynamic similarity permits the
scaling factors between the real object and the model to be calculated. Upon using
these scaling factors, experimental results can be transfer to the real object without
any mathematical model.
The following chapters provide examples of modeling analysis and experimen-
tal investigation of two dynamic problems.
Chapter 6
INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF A GYROSTABILIZER
ON MOTION OF A SHIP.
Z y2
z1
z2
2 Y y1
3
1
X
O
x1 x2
Figure 1
Housing 2 of the gyroscope 3 is free to rotate about axis x1 as shown in Fig. 1. The
gyroscope 3, driven by a motor, rotates with respect to the housing about axis z2 .
Such device attenuates greatly the rolling motion of the ship 1. caused by impacts of
waves and blows of wind. Fig. 2 shows the stabilizer installed on the board of a ship.
MODELLING. 173
Figure 2
6.2 MODELLING.
6.2.1 Physical model.
The physical model of the system considered is shown in Fig. 3. In this figure XY Z
are axis of the inertial system of coordinates. System of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly
attached to the ship whereas x2 y2 z2 makes body 2 ( housing) system of coordinates.
Axis x2 y2 z2 are principal axis of the body 2 through centre of rotation O.
z1 Z
z2 z1
y2 Mb
y1 3 2 1
o
G3 Mr = -G 1 h
G2 a3
O X
a2
G1 H1
a1
x1
h
G1
Figure 3
The ship 1 is considered as a rigid body which is free to rotate about axis Y .
Its angular position is determined by the angle . All linear displacements as well as
MODELLING. 174
pitching and yawing of the ship are neglected. Moment of inertia of the ship about
its axis of rotation will be denoted by I1y and its centre of gravity is determined by
the distance a1 . Due to the gravity force G1 and the buoyancy force H1 there exists
the righting moment which in this physical model is denoted by Mr .
Housing 2 can to rotate about axis x2 and the angle uniquely determines
its relative angular position with respect to the ship. Its principal moments of inertia
along axes x2 y2 z2 will be denoted by I2x , I2y , I2z respectively. Centre of gravity G2 is
determined by distance a2 and its mass will be denoted by m2 . Between the housing
and the ship there is a brake installed. It produces the braking moment about the
axis of relative rotation x2 . This braking moment is denoted in Fig. 3by Mb .
The gyroscope 3 rotates with the constant angular speed about axis z2
relatively to its housing. Axis z2 is an axis of symmetry of the gyroscope. The
principal moments of inertia of the gyroscope are denoted by I3 = I3x = I3y , I3z
and its mass by m3 . The centre of gravity of the gyroscope G3 is determined by the
distance a3
If one adopts the above assumptions, the system can be considered as system
of two degree of freedom. The two generalized coordinates are denoted by and .
6.2.2 Mathematical model.
Kinematics.
Angular velocity of the ship 1. along body 1 system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 .
1 = j1 (6.1)
z1
z2
y
2
R 32y2 R 32z2
y1 M32y2 M32z2 z2
G3 o2
a3 R 32z2
M32z2 3
o1
G3
M32x2
R 32x2
x
2
Figure 4
The free body diagram of the gyroscope 3 is shown in Fig. 4. The origin o2 is
chosen as the point of reduction of the interaction forces (M32 and R32 ) between
the gyroscope and its housing. The component M32z2 stands for the driving moment
that has to apply to the gyroscope to keep it going with the assumed velocity . The
gyroscope performs rotational motion about point O and its axis of relative rotation
is axis of symmetry. Hence, the modified Eulers equations may be used.
Introduction of Eq. 6.2 into Eqs. 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8 yields.
z1 z2
y2 R 21z2
R 21y2
M21z2
M21y2
Mb
R 23y2 R 23z2
y1 2
M23y2
o M23z2
G2
a2
Figure 5
The free body diagram of the housing is shown in Fig. 5. The housing is interacting
with both the gyroscope 3 and the ship body 1. M23 and R23 represent the moment
and force due to interaction with the gyroscope whereas M21 and R21 stand for the
moment and force due to interaction with the ship. Mb represents the breaking
moment produced by a break installed between the body of ship and the housing.
The housing performs rotational motion about the point O. Hence Euler equations
may be used.
Introducing Eq. 6.2 into Eqs. 6.12, 6.13 and 6.14 one can obtain
z1
Z
z2 z1
y2
M12y2 M12z2
y1 2 1
Y o
Mr Mr = -G 1 h
O X
G1 H1
a1
x1
h
G1
Figure 6
The ship performs rotational motion about axis y1 , which is fixed in the inertial space.
Hence its motion may be described by Newtons generalized equation.
Equations of motion.
Taking into consideration, that
[I1y + (I2y + I3 ) cos2 + (I2z + I3z ) sin2 ] + (I2z I2y + I3z I3 ) sin 2
6.3 ANALYSIS.
For analysis of the mathematical model derived in the previous section, it is assumed
that the righting moment may by approximated by function
and the breaking moment is considered as a linear function of the angular displace-
ment and its first derivative
Mb = k c (6.25)
Introducing the above relationships into equations 6.23, the equations of motion take
the following form
[I1y + (I2y + I3 ) cos2 + (I2z + I3z ) sin2 ] + (I2z I2y + I3z I3 ) sin 2
o = 0 o = .1 o = 0 o = 0 (6.27)
ANALYSIS. 179
0.4m
110m
4m
15m
Figure 7 Parameters of the ship and gyroscope., I3 = 0.1 106 kgm2 , I3z = .05
106 kgm2 , I2x = 0.2 106 kgm2 , I2y = 0.1 106 kgm2 , I2z = 0.2 106 kgm2 , I1y =
198.5 106 kgm2 , m1 = 5.1 106 kg, Mro = 9. 106 Nm, m2 a2 + m3 a3 = 1. 103 Nm,
k = 1. 104 Nm/rad, c = 1. 106 Nms/rad, = 300 rad/s
0.5
0
&
-0.5
[rad]
-1.0
-1.5
0 50 100 150 200
time [s]
0.5
0
&
-0.5
[rad]
-1.0
-1.5
0 50 100 150 200
time [s]
Solution of equations with the above initial conditions for stationary gyroscope ( =
0) is presented in Fig. 8. The ship, in this case, performs an oscillatory motion with
period T 30s whereas the housing is motionless with respect to the ship.
Solution of the equations 6.26 with the same initial conditions for the gyroscope
rotating with angular velocity = 300rad/s is presented in Fig. 9 In this case
the energy of the impact is adopted not only by the ship, but by the housing with
gyroscope as well. Due to large relative motion of the housing the energy is dissipated
by the brake. It results in three times smaller swing of the ship and fast return to its
equilibrium position.
S
B
10
H 11
7
A
1 6
2 8
3
A
5
1
4
Figure 10
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS. 181
Frame 1, which represents the ship, is free to rotate about the horizontal axis
with respect to the motionless base 4. Housing 2 of the gyroscope 3 is free to rotate
with respect to the frame 1. the hydraulic damper 8 produces a damping moment
which depend on relative motion of the housing with respect to the frame 1. The
gyroscope 3 is driven by electric motor 5 with a constant speed. Protractors 6 and
7 allows to measure the angular position of the ship and housing . They are used
for scaling of transducers A and B. The transducers A and B produce the analog
signals which are proportional to the angular displacements and . These signals,
in a digitized form, are send to a memory of the computer 11.
The laboratory installation was design to fulfil some of the adopted assump-
tions. Similarly to the physical model the body which represents the ship may only
rotates about one axis Y. Of course, those assumption can not be evaluated by means
of the following experimental investigation.
6.4.2 Mathematical model of the laboratory installation.
In the case of laboratory installation the righting moment Mr is produced by gravity
forces and friction which is here approximated by a linear damping with coecient
c . Hence
Mr = m1 a1 gsin c (6.28)
Assume that the real friction produced by the break is a linear friction with coecient
c .
Mb = c (6.29)
Introduction of Eqs.6.28 and 6.29 into Eq. 6.23 yields
[I1y + (I2y + I3 ) cos2 + (I2z + I3z ) sin2 ] + (I2z I2y + I3z I3 ) sin 2+
H
a2
a3
lH
3
O
G3 2
G2
H
m3 g
m2 g
mH g
Figure 11
Hence
m2 a2 + m3 a3 = mH lH cot H (6.32)
In a similar manner, upon suspending a weight mS at point S, (see Fig. 10), one can
identify static moment m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3
m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 = mS lS cot S (6.33)
Hence
m1 a1 = mS lS cot S mH lH cot H (6.34)
Damping coecient and moment of inertia of the whole assembly (I1y +I2y +I3 )
about axis y1 can be obtained by analysis of the free motion of the whole assembly
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS. 183
about axis y1 for stationary gyroscope and motionless housing with respect to the
ship ( = 0, = 0, = 0, = 0).
According to Eq. 6.30 the free motion of the ship is governed by the following
equation
(I1y + I2y + I3 ) + (m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g sin + c = 0 (6.35)
The estimation of moment of inertia I1y + I2y + I3 as well as damping coecient c
may be obtained with help of the linearized equation 6.35. It is as follows.
I + k + c = 0 (6.36)
where
I = I1y + I2y + I3
k = (m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g
or
+ 2o + 2h = 0 (6.37)
whereq
= kI
c
2h = I
The moment of inertia I may be assessed from relationship between the period
of free oscillation T and the natural frequency .
r
2 I
T = = 2 (6.38)
k
The period T can be obtained from the recorded free motion of the ship. An example
of the recorded free motion of the ship ex (t) is presented in Fig. 12.
ex
ex (t) ex (t+T )
t
T
t
t+T
Figure 12
Since k has been already identified the formula 6.38 yields approximate mag-
nitude of the moment of inertia I .
T2 k T2 (m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g
I = = (6.39)
4 2 4 2
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS. 184
Hence,
ex (t) 2I
c = ln (6.41)
ex (t + T ) T
Damping coecient c and moment of inertia I = I2x + I3 of the gyroscope
and housing about axis x1 can be obtained by means of analysis of the free motion of
the gyroscope and housing about axis x1 for the stationary gyroscope and motionless
ship 1 (see Fig. 10) ( = 0, = 0, = 0, = 0). In the same manner as previously
one can obtained the following formulae for estimation of parameters I = I2x + I3
and c .
T2 k T2 (m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g
I = = (6.42)
4 2 4 2
ex (t) 2I
c = ln (6.43)
ex (t + T ) T
Magnitude of these parameters can be improved by fitting solution of the non-linear
model 6.35 into the recorded motion by means of the curve fitting technique. Com-
puted in this way parameters may be considered as the identified ones.
xo = xex (0)
xex (t) xex (0)
xo = (6.45)
t
where t is the sampling interval.
At this stage one can solve equation 6.44 for estimated magnitudes of para-
meters a, b and initial conditions 6.45. Let x(t) be this solution.
Accuracy of approximation of the recorded motion xex (t) by the solution x(t)
may by determined by error function as follow.
n=N !1/2
X
ER = (xex (tn ) x(tn ))2 (6.46)
n=1
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS. 185
Now, upon varying the parameters a and b one can minimize the error ER. Parame-
ters ai and bi for which error has the smallest magnitude can be considered as the
identified ones.
Parameters I3 and I3z may be assessed with sucient accuracy analytically
and parameter I2y may be assumed as equal to I2x . Therefore
I2x = I I3
I2y = I2x
I1y = I I2y I3 (6.47)
The gyroscope is driven by one phase AC electrical motor, hence its angular speed
may by assumed to be 3000RP M.
6.4.4 Verification of the mathematical model.
Having all parameters of the mathematical model identified, one may verify it. This
verification can be obtained by comparison of the recorded motion of the laboratory
installation with solution of its mathematical model. The necessary initial conditions
have to coincide initial condition of the recorded motion.
Chapter 7
INVESTIGATION OF AN INDICATOR OF ANGULAR
VELOCITY.
y2
Z,z1
z2 y1
1 2 3 4
Y
1 X
x1
Figure 1
7.2 MODELLING
7.2.1 Physical model.
O y1
X x1 Y
z2 Z z1 y2
3
1
O y1 2
G3
G2
l3
l2
Figure 2
The physical model of the described indicator is shown in Fig. 2. Axes XY Z forms
the inertial system of coordinates. The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly con-
nected to the platform 1 and rotates with the constant angular velocity 1 . Housing,
with all attached accessories, form the rigid body 2, and x2 y2 z2 is the body 2 sys-
tem of coordinates. The centre of gravity G2 of the body 2 is located at distance l2
from the centre of rotation C. Its angular position with respect to the platform 1 is
determined by an angle .
The gyroscope 3, together with rotor of the motor 4, is regarded as rigid body
3. Axis z2 is its axis of symmetry and the dimension l3 locates its centre of gravity G3 .
The body 3 rotates with the constant angular rate about axis z2 . Axes x2 y2 z2 are
MODELLING 188
principal axes of body 2 and 3. Moments of inertia of the two bodies are I2x2 , I2y2 , I2z2
and I3x2 = I3y2 = I3 , I3z2 respectively.
Between the housing 2 and platform 1 there exists damping which can be
approximated as viscous damping Md = c.
7.2.2 Mathematical model.
Equations of motion of the gyroscope.
O y1
M32x2 Y
X x1 x2
z2 Z z1 y2
M32y2
M32z2
y1
O
G3
l3
m3 g
Figure 3
The gyroscope 3, whose the free body diagram is shown in Fig. 3, performs rotational
motion about the origin O, and axis z2 is its axis of symmetry. Hence, the modified
Euler equations may be used to describe its motion. The gyroscope 3 rotates with the
angular velocity with respect to system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 whereas the system
of coordinates has its own angular velocity 2 .
2 = 1 + 21 = k1 1 + i2 (7.1)
2x2 = i2 2 = i2 (k1 1 + i2 ) =
2y2 = j2 2 = j2 (k1 1 + i2 ) = 1 sin
2z2 = k2 2 = k2 (k1 1 + i2 ) = 1 cos (7.2)
MODELLING 189
I x + (Iz I)y z + Iz y = Mx
I y (Iz I)x z Iz x = My
Iz ( z + ) = Mz (7.3)
yields
where
M32x2 , M32y2 , M32z2 are components of the resultant moment of reactions of the body
2 on the gyroscope 3.
O y1
M21x2 = M d
M23x2 Y
X x1 x2
z2 Z z1 y2
M21y2
M21z2
M23y2
M23z2
y1
O
G2
l2
m2 g
Figure 4
ANALYSIS 190
The housing 2 whose the physical model is shown in Fig. 4 performs rotational
motion about point O. Hence Euler unmodified equations may be used.
Ix x + (Iz Iy )y z = Mx
Iy y + (Ix Iz ) x z = My
Iz z + (Iy Ix )y x = Mz (7.5)
Upon introducing the relationship 7.2, the equations of motion takes the following
form.
the first of equation 7.4 and first of equation 7.6 yield the following equation of motion.
where
Ix = I2x2 + I3 moment of inertia of the whole assembly about axis x2
Iy = I2y2 + I3 moment of inertia of the whole assembly about axis y2
Iz = I2z2 + I3z2 moment of inertia of the whole assembly about axis z2
MG = m2 gl2 + m3 gl3 static moment with respect to point of rotation O.
7.3 ANALYSIS
7.3.1 Particular solutions. (equilibrium positions).
Let us find a particular solution which can be predicted in the following form.
= o = constant (7.9)
Hence,
I3z2 1 + MG
o = arccos , o = 0 and o = (7.11)
(Iz Iy ) 21
For the following set of numerical data
the particular solutions 7.11, representing possible equilibrium positions, are pre-
sented in Fig. 5. as a function of angular speed 1 .
3.5
2.5
2
o
1.5
[rad]
1
0.5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1 [rad/s]
Figure 5
Not all these solution are stable. To assess stability of these solutions let us
analyze motion of the system in vicinity of an equilibrium position o .
7.3.2 Stability analysis.
Motion in vicinity of the equilibrium position o always can be assumed in the fol-
lowing form.
= o + (7.12)
where ,called perturbation, is an unknown function of time. To determine this
function let us introduce 7.12 into the equation of motion 7.8.
or
+ B + C = 0 (7.16)
where
1
C= ((Iz Iy )21 cos 2 o + I3z2 1 cos o + MG cos o ) (7.17)
Ix
ANALYSIS 192
c
B= (7.18)
Ix
Solution of the equation of perturbations depends on roots of the characteristic equa-
tion associated with the equation 7.16.
r2 + Br + C = 0 (7.19)
It can be seen from Eq. 7.21 that if the real part of both roots is negative, the
perturbations decay to zero and the equilibrium considered is stable. Since Ix and c
are always positive, roots 7.20 have negative real parts if and only if
C>0 (7.22)
Hence, only those solutions 7.11 can be considered as stable which additionally fulfill
stability condition 7.22.
7.3.3 Stable and unstable equilibrium positions.
In Figures 6 to 11 the equilibrium positions which fulfil the condition 7.22 (the stable
solutions) are marked by solid line. The broken line corresponds to the unstable
equilibrium positions. Stable and unstable equilibrium positions for Iy > Iz are
shown in Fig. 6 to Fig. 8 for = 0 = 150 and = 300 rad/s respectively.
Dierent behavior may be predicted in case when Iy < Iz . From solutions
presented in Fig. 9to Fig. 11 one can see that the only possible equilibrium positions
(solid line) are o = 0, o = or both of them. It means, that for certain magnitude
of angular velocity of the platform (e.g.. 1 = 10, Fig. 9.) the housing considered
may perform oscillations about equilibrium position o = 0, as well as o = . This
oscillatory motion depends on initial conditions. Fig. 12 presents solution of equation
of motion 7.8 for two sets of initial conditions very close to each other. One of them
( in = 1, in = 0) corresponds to the point A shown in Fig. 10. The other ( in = 1.1,
in = 0) corresponds to the point B in the same figure. Despite of the fact that the
above initial conditions diers very little, the corresponding solutions (see Fig. 12)
are totally dierent. One of them tends to equilibrium position o = 0, whereas the
other tends to equilibrium position o = . In the case considered, the unstable
solution (broken line) divides all possible initial positions o corresponding to initial
velocity in = 0 into two categories. One of them produces solutions which tend
to equilibrium position o = 0. Solutions belonging to the other category of initial
conditions tend to equilibrium o = .
ANALYSIS 193
3.5
2.5
o 2
[rad] 1.5
0.5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1 [rad/s]
stable equilibrium positions unstable equilibrium positions
Figure 6 Stable and unstable solution for : = 0 and 0.6 = Iy > Iz = 0.25 kgm2
3.5
2.5
2
o
1.5
[rad]
1
0.5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1 [rad/s]
Figure 7 Stable and unstable solution for : = 150rad/s and 0.6 = Iy > Iz = 0.25
kgm2
ANALYSIS 194
3.5
2.5
o 2
[rad]
1.5
0.5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1 [rad/s]
stable equilibrium positions unstable equilibrium positions
Figure 8 Stable and unstable solution for : = 300rad/s and 0.6 = Iy > Iz = 0.25
kgm2
3.5
2.5
o 2
[rad] 1.5
0.5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1 [rad/s]
stable equilibrium positions unstable equilibrium positions
Figure 9 Stable and unstable solution for : = 0 rad/s and 0.6 = Iy < Iz = 0.8 kgm2
ANALYSIS 195
3.5
2.5
o 2
[rad] 1.5 B
1
A
0.5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1 [rad/s]
stable equilibrium positions unstable equilibrium positions
Figure 10 Stable and unstable solution for : = 150 rad/s and 0.6 = Iy < Iz = 0.8
kgm2
3.5
2.5
o 2
[rad]
1.5
0.5
1 [rad/s]
stable equilibrium positions unstable equilibrium positions
Figure 11 Stable and unstable solution for : = 300 rad/s and 0.6 = Iy < Iz = 0.8
kgm2
ANALYSIS 196
3
2
B
[rad] A
1
-1
0 25
t [s]
9
z1 1
3
4
FM
5
11
x2
2
10
8 7
6
R
Figure 13
The gyroscope 3 is driven by the electric motor 4. with a constant angular speed
. The housing 2 of the gyroscope is free to rotate about axis x2 with respect to
the frame 1, which represent the platform. The transducer 5 allows for recording
the actual relative angular position of the housing as a function of time. The frame
1 is driven by the electric motor 6 via gearbox 7. Regulator 8 permits variation of
angular speed of the frame 1. Transducer 9 allows to measure this angular speed.
The indicator of angular position 10 permits to scale the transducer 5.
7.4.2 Identification of the systems parameters.
The mathematical model of the laboratory installation has form 7.8 and it is repeated
here.
z2 Z z1
y2
3
O y1 2
G3
G2
F
l3
l2
m3 g
m2 g
Figure 14
The arrangement for identification of the static moment due to gravity forces m2 g
and m3 g is shown in Fig. 14. Its magnitude may be obtained from the following
formula.
MG = m2 l2 g + m3 l3 g = F L (7.24)
where
F - is the reading from spring balance (see Fig. 14)
L = - is the distance between point of application of the force F and point of rotation
O
where
MG
2 = (7.26)
Ix
Hence
MG MG T 2
Ix = 2 = (7.27)
4 2
where
T - is the measured period of small free oscillations of housing
MG - is the static moment measured in the previous experiment.
Moment of inertia Iy , due to symmetry of the housing, is to be assumed to
be equal to Ix .
Moment of inertia Iz is to be obtained from the equilibrium position of the
system for stationary gyroscope ( = 0) and rotating frame 1. According to equation
7.11, for the case considered, one can obtain
MG
Iz = Iy (7.28)
cos s 21
where
1 - is the angular velocity of the frame.
s - is the corresponding equilibrium position of the housing.
7.4.3 Collection of experimental data.
The transducer 9 produces 500 impulses per one revolution of the frame 1. Frequency
of these impulses can be read from the frequency meter 11 (see Fig. 13). Therefore
the angular velocity of the frame can be computed from the following formula.
2
1 = rad/s
500 f1
where
f - is the frequency measured in Hz.
For any angular velocities of the frame 1 within the range 10 < 1 <
+10 rad/s,the indicator of the angular position 10 (see Fig. 13) allows the equilibrium
position o to be assessed. This data forms so called experimental static character-
istics of the laboratory installation. The developed software permits to compute, for
the identified parameters, static characteristic of the physical model. Comparison of
the analytical and experimental static characteristic allows to assess correctness and
accuracy of the derived mathematical model as well as the applied stability analysis.