%silltr

BASIC
NEUMATICS

Indianapolis,
IN 46556
Rev.0100
Copyright1997

Pori # SttlCT-Pl-IX

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 TAgLE oF cot{tENts

Mainlinefiller 29
l INTRODUCTION 1
Air Dislribution 29
Whatcan Pneumatics do? 1
30
DeadEnd Line
Propertiesot Compr6ss6dAir 2 RingMain JU

2 THEBASICPNEUMATIC SYSTEM SecondaryLines 21

the air Productionand dislributionsvstem e AutomalicDrains ?1

The Air Consumption Syslem 4

SizingCompressedAir Mains
Materialslor Piping 35
3 COMPRESSED AIRTHEORY 6 StandardGas PiPe(SGP) .tc
Units 6 Table4.21 PipeSizeSpcificalion ?F

Pressur I StainlesssteelPipes
CopperTube AE
Prooertiesof Gases 10
RubberTube('Air Hose") 36
lsothermicchange(Boyle'sLaw) 10 Plastictubing 36
lsobaricchange 11
CharlesLaw 11 5 AIRTBEATMENT 38
Lawof Gay Lussac 11 Fillering 38
lsochoricchange 11 StandardFilter 38
Adiabatic(lsentropic)change 12 Air Ouality 40
StandardVolume 12 '
Filteringlevels 40
Flow 12 PressureFlegulation 42
Bernoulli'sEquation 12
StandardBegulator 42
Air Humidity 12
PilotOperatedRegulator M
Relativehumidity 13
Filter-Regulator 45
Pressurand Flow 15
Characteristics 45
Useof the diagram: 16
Formulae: 16 Sizingol Regulatorsand Filters 46
CompressodAir Lubrication 46
4 AIRCOMPRESSION ANDDISTRIBUTIONI9 Proportional Lubricators 46
Compressors 19 F.R.LUnits 48
ReciprocatingCompressors 19 Sizand lnstallation rt8
SinglestagePistonCompressor 19
Two stagePistonCompressor 19 6 ACTUATORS 49
Diaphragmcompressor 20 LinarCylinders 49
Rotarycompressors 21 SingleActingCylinder 49
Rotaryslidingvanecompressor 21 DoubleActingCylinder 49
Screwcompressor 21 CylinderConstruction 50
Compressorrating 21 Cushioning 9U
VolumetricEtficiency 22 SpecialCylinderOptions 51
Thermaland OverallEfficiency 22 DoubleRod 51
CompressorAccessories 23 Non BotalingBod 51
Air receiver 23 Twin Rod 52
Sizinga receiver 23 FlatCylinder 52
lnletfilter 23 TandemCylinder 52
Air Dehydralion 24 MultiPositionCylinder 53
Altercoolers 24 CylinderMounting 54
Air cooled 24 FloatingJoints 54
Watercooled 24 BucklingStrength 55
Air dryers 26 CylinderSizing 55

Absorption(deliquescent)
Drying 26 CylinderForce 55
Adsorption(dEsiccanl)Drying 27 ThoreticalForce J5
Hetrigerantdrying 28 BequkedForce 57

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 TABLE oF Co TENTS

Load Fatio 58 Non-RetumValves 88

SpeedControl 59 SpeedConlrollers 88
Air Flowand Consumption 60 ShutlleValve 88
RotaryActuators 63 QuickExhauslValves 90
Rackand PinionType 63 8 BAS|CCIBCUITS 91
VaneType RotaryActuators: 63 lntroduction 91
SizingRotaryActuato|s 63 ol
FlowAmplilication
Torqueand Inertia 63
SignalInversion 91
SpcialActuators 66 Selec{ion o,
LockingCylinder 66 MemoryFunction 92
Rodlessrylinders 66
Wilh magneticcoupling,unguided Timetunctions 93
66
Guidedtypes,with magneticcoupling 67 Delayedswitchingon 94
Guided,with mechanicalcoupling 67 Delayedswitchingotf 94
SlideUnits 68 Pulseon switchingon 94
HollowRod Cylinder 68 Pulseon releasinga valve 95
linearRotatingCylinder 69 CylinderControl 96
Air Chuck(GrippeO 69 ManualControl 96
SingleActingCylinder 96
7 DIRECTIONAL CONTROLVALVES 70 DirectOperationand SpedControl 96
ValveFunctions 70 IntedockAND Function 97
Symbol 70 InverseODeration: NOT Function 97
Portldentification 71 DoubleactingCylinder 98
Monostableand bistable 71 Direct Control 98
ValveTypes 71 Holdingthe end positions 98
PoppetValves 72 DetectingCylinderPositions 99
AutomaticFetum oo
SlidingValvss 73
SpoolValves 73 RepsatingStrokes 101
Elastomerseal 73 Squenc Control 101
MetalSeal 74 Howto describea sequnoe 101
PlaneSlid6Valve 74 Nomenclature 101
RotaryValves 75 Sequenceof lwo Cylinders 102
ValveOperation 76 SinglCycle/ RpeatingCycle 103
Mechanicaloperation 76 OpposingCommands 104
Carewhen usingRollerLevers 78 Elimination with a Pulse 104
ManualOperation 76 Clamping:PressureControl 104
Air Operation. T7 CascadeSystem 105
PilotedOperation. 78 APPENDIX 108
SolenoidOperation 79 Symbols 108
DirectPiping 80 Air TratmentEquipment 108
Manifolds 80 Actuators 109
Sub Bass 81 Valves 109
MultipleSub Bases 81 Circuits 111
GangedSub Bases 81 BasicRules 111
ValveSizing 82 RestPosition 111
Indicationsfor Flowcapacity 82 CircuitLayout 112
Orificesin seriesconnection 83 Nomenclature 113
Flow capacity of lubes 84 SampleDiagrams 115
Valveswith Cylinders 85
AuxiliaryValves 88

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 P N E U T , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

INTRODUCTION
A fluidpowersystemis one thal transmitsand controlsenergythroughthe useof pressurizedliquidor gas'
In Pneumatics.this mediais air.This of coursecomesfromthe atmosphereand is reducedin volumeby
compression, its pressure.Compressedair is mainlyusedto do workby actingon a pistonor
thus incrasing
vane-- producingsomeusefulmotiontor instance.
Whilemanytacetsof industryusecompressedair,the generalfieldof IndustrialPneumaticsis considered
here.
The corect use ol pnumatic controlrequiresan adeguateknowledgeof pneumaticcomponentsand their
functionlo ensuretheirintegralionintoan etficienlworkingsysiem.lt is alwaysthe rsponsibilityof lh
dsignerto certifysafetyin all conditions-- includinga failedcondition.As with any otheronergysource,
compressedair can causeharmif not properlyapplied.
Althoughelectroniccontrolusinga programmable sequenceror olherlogiccontrollermay be currenlly
speciliedit is stillnecessarylo knowthe basicfunctionof lhE pneumaticcomponents.
This bookdealswiththe t9chnologyof the componentsin controlsystems,describingtypesand design
teaturesof air treatmontequipment,actuatorsand vafues,methodsof inlerconneclion
and introducesthe
basicpneumatic circuits.

W H A T C A N P N E U M A T I C SD O ?
The applications tor compressedair are limitless,lrom the optician'sgentleuseof low pressureair to test
fluidpressurein the humaneyeball,the multiplicityol linearand rotarymotionson roboticprocessmachines,
Ij to the hightorcesrequiredtor pneumaticpressesand concretebreakingpneumaticdrills.
'
The shortlist belowseNesonlyto indicatethvrsatility and varietyof pneumaticcontrolat work,in a
continuously expandingindustry.
. Operationof systemvalvesfor air,wateror chemicals
. Operationof heavy or hot doors
. Unloadingof hopprsin building,steelmaking,miningand chemicalindustries
. Rammingand tampingin concreteand asphaltlaying
. Littingand movingin slab moldingmachines
. Cropsprayingand operationot othertractorequipment
. Spraypainting
. Holdingand movingin woodworkingandfumituremaking
. Holdingin jigs and fixturesin assemblymachineryand machinetools
. Holdingtor gluing,heatsEalingor weldingplastics
. Holdingtor brazingor wolding
. Formingoperationsof bending,drawingand flattening
. Spotweldingmachines
. Riveting
. Oprationof guillotineblades
. Bottlingand fillingmachines
. Woodworkingmachinerydrivesand teeds
. Tstrigs
. Machinetool,workor toolfeeding
. Componentand materialconvevortransfer

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. Pnumalicrobots
. Autogauging
. Air separationand vacuumlifiingot thin sheots
. Dentaldrills
. and so muchmore...newapplicationsars developeddaily

PROPERTIES OF COMPRESSED AIR

Someimportant
reasons
torthewideuseofcompressed
ahinindustry
arai
Avallablllty
Mostfacto.iesand industrialplantshavea compressodair supplyin workingareas,and portable
compressorscan servemorremolesituations.
Storag6
It is easilystoredin largevolumesif required.
Slmpllclty ot Deslgn and Control
Pneumaticcomponentsare of simpledesignand are easilyfittedto provideextensiveautomated
systemswithcomparatively
simplecontrol.
Cholce of Movement
ll offersboth linearmovementand angularrotationwith simpleand continuouslyvariabloperational
sDeeds.
Economy
Installationis of relativelylow cost due to modestcomponentcost.Thereis also a low maintenance
cosl due to long life withoutservice.
Rellablllty
Pneumaliccomponentshavsa longworkinglife resultingin highsystemreliability.
Reslstanceto Envlronment
It is largelyunatfctedin the hightemperature,
dustyand corrosiveatmospheresin whichother
systemsmay fail.
Environmentally Clean
It is cleanandwithproperexhaustairtratTent
canbeinstalled
to cleanroomstandards.
Satety
It is nota fire hazardin highriskareas,andthe systemis unattectedby ovedoadas ackratorssimply
stallor slip.Pneumatic actuatorsdo notproduceheat-- oth6rthanfriction.

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 P N E U l , t A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

SYSTEM
2 T H E B A S I CP N E U M A T I C
Pneumaticcylinders!rotaryactuatorsand air motorsprovidethe forceand movemenlof moslpneumatic
controlsystems,to hold,move,form,and procssmatetial.
To operateand controltheseacluators,olher pneumaticcomponents are requiredi.e. air serviceunilslo
prparlhcompressedair and valvesto controllhe pressur,tlowand directionof movementof lhe
actualors.
A basicpneumaticsystem,shownin tig 2.1, consislsof two mainsections:
. The Air Productionand DistribulionSystem
. The Air ConsumingSystem

Fig. 2.1 ThBasicPnumatic

System.
Thcomponentpartsand theirmaintunctionsare:

NN D D I S T R I B U T I OS
H E A I B P R O D U C T I OA NY S T E M
O corpr"""o,
pressureis compressedand delivredat a higherpressureto the
Air takenin at atmospheric
pneumaticsystem.lt thustransformsmechanicalnergyintopneumaticenergy.

Electrlc Motor
Suppliesthe mechanicalpowerto the comprossor.lt transformselectricalenergyinto mchanical
nrgy.

@ PressureSwltch
Controls thepressur
theelectricmotorbysensing pressure
in thetank.lt is setto a maximum at
whichit stopsthemotor,anda minimum pressure
atwhichit restarts it.

@ checkvalve
Letsthe compressedair fromthcompressorintoth6 tankand preventsit leakingbackwhenthe
compressoris stopped.

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 P N E U U A T t cT c H N o L o c Y

@ranr
Storsthe comprssd air. lts size is dofindby the capacityof the compressor.The
largerthe volume,th longerthinterualsbetweencomprssorruns.Mostsystems
shouldbe designedtor a 50o/o dutycycle,providingat least2x syslemdemandin storage.

@ Prcssure
cauge
Indicatesthe TEnkPressure.

@ AutoDrain
Drainsall the walercondensingin the tankwithoutsupervision.

@ s"hty v"tr"
Blowscompressedair otf if thpressurein the tank shouldriseabovethe allowed pressure.
@ Retrlgerated
Alr Dryer
Coolsthe compressedair to a tew degreesabovefreezingpointand condensesmostof the air
humidity.This avoidshavingwaterin the downstrcamsystem.This devicemusl be prcededby an
aftercooler(notshownin the simpledrawing)and not directlyinline withthe compressoror it will be
over-taxd.ldeally,inletair temperatureshouldbe ambientor roomtemperature.

@ unerlner
Beingin the mainpipe,this filtermusl havea minimalpressuredropand the capabilityof oil mist
rmoval.lt helpsto keepthe linetreefrom dust,watr,and oil.

THE AIR CONSUMPTION

SYSTEM
(D lttt"t*ott
Forconsumption, airis takenofftromthetopof themainpipeto allowoccasionalcudensateto slayin
thmainpipe.Whnit reachs a lowpointa watertake-oftfrombeneaththepipewillllowintoan
Automatic Drainandthecondensate willbe removed.Normally therewouldbea unionin thepipeanda
shut-offvalvto allowmaintenance to the.dorvnstream
componanlsr
@ luto o."tn
Everydescendingtube shouldhavea drainat its lowestpoint. The mostetlicientmethod
is an Auto Drain,whichpreventswaterfrom remainingin the lube shouldmanualdraining
be neglected.Directlyabovthe Auto Drainis an expansionchamb6r,allowinglhe air to
cool (throughxpansion)and removemorentrainedliquid.

0 alr ServlceUnlt
Conditionsthe compressedair to providecleanair at optimumpressure,and occasionallyadds
lubricantto xtendthe life of thosepneumaticsystemcomponentsthat nedlubrication.

@ Dlrectlonalvalve
Altematelypressurizesand exhauststhe cylinderconnectionsto controlthe directionof movemem.
Shownas an indiMdualdevice,thermay b6 a numberof directionalvalvesgroupedon a manifold.

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 PitEUrrartcTEcHNoLocY

6 Adu"to,
Transformsthe potentialnergyof the compressedair intomechanicalwork.Shownis a linearcylinder,
it can alsobe a rolaryactualoror an air tooletc.

@ SpeedGontrollers
Allowan easyand steplessspeedadiustmentot the actuatormovement.

We will discussthesecomponenisin moredeiailin sections4 to 7, aftera lookat the theoryof

compressed whathappensin a pneumaticsystem.
air.This is a musttor understanding

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 P EU ATIc TEcH OLOGV

3 C O M P R E S S EADI R T H E O R Y
JNITS
The Intemational Syslemof Unilshasbeenin acceptanceworldwidesince1960,but the USA,UK, and
Japanstillusethe lmperialSystemlo a greatextent.
ll is exirmelyimportanlthat,in thisvershrinkingworld,all measuremntsystemsbecomecleady
underslood.The delinitivestudyot pneumaticson an inlernational scalerequiresfamiliarityand competence
witheitherset of units;thereforethis documentwill employbothEnglishand Sl units.

Quantity Symbol SI Unlt Ngme Remarks

1 . B A s I cU N I T s :
Mass m kg kilogram
kngth m meter
Time 5 second
Temperature,absolute T K Kelvin 0"C= 273.16
K
(Celsius)
TemDeraturc L E 'c DegreeCelsius
2, CoMPoSEDUNrrs:
Radius m meter
Angle a,F,1-6,e.p I Radian(n/m)
Area, Section A,S m2 squaremeter
Volume v mt cubic meter
Speed(velocity) v m s'' meterper second
Angular Speed a) s' radiansper second
Accleration m s-2 nreterper sec.per sec.
Inertia J m2 kg kilogram per squaremtr
Force F N Newton = kg ' rn's'2
Weight G N Earth acceleration 9.80665m's-2
Impulse Ns NewtonSecond
Work w J Joule= Newton meter = kg . m2's-2
Potentialenergy E,W J Joule
Kinetic energy E,W t' Joule 0.5-m-i
Torque M J Joule
Power P w Watt = J's-l
3. RELATTDTo CoMPnDSSED ArR
Pressurc p Pa Pascal =N m''
Standardvolume vn In3n Standad Cubic Meter at0 =0'Candp
=760 nm Hg
Volume flow o tn-n s' Std. cubic meters/ sc
Energy,Work E,W N'm Joule Pa.m3= N.m
Power P w Watt p'O=N'm.s-r=W
Table3.1 Sl Unitsusedin oneumatics

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 P EU ATIc TEcHI{oIoGY

To namunitsby powersof ln,smallerandlargerthantheabovebasicunits,a numbero( prctixeshave

bnagreeduponandarelistedbelow.

Powet Preflx Svmbol Pourer Preflx Svmbol

10-1 deci d 101 Deka da
1O-2 centi c fi2 Heclo h
iO-3 milli m 103 Kilo k
10-6 micro ], tO6 Mega M
torpowersof ten
Table3.2Prefixes

This ladsus to a kPa (kilo-pascalor 1/100b ol a BAR)and an MPa (1,OOO,OO0

pascalsor 10 BAF).
Practicewiththeseprefixesand pay attentionto whatthsymbolrepresentsin termsof powersof ten. Pay
specialattentionto the difterencebetweenM and m,
Convertinglrom onstandad of unitsto anotheris welldocumnted. Convertingis easiestwh6ndealing
withan answer--- 6.9.whendea,ingwith a mathematical formula,use one standardonly (tor all terms)and
thenconvertthe answer, Be awarethat formulaemay changewhenexpressedin difierentunitsor standards.
The tablesfollowingshowa comparisonbetweenthe MetricSl unitsand the lmperialunits.

Magnitude Metric Unit (m) Enelish(e) Facaorm +e Fsctor e +m

Mass kg pound 2,?05 0.4535
s ounce 0.o3s27 ?,8.3527
L:ngth m foot 3.281 0.3048
m yard l.094 0.914
mm inch 0.03937 25.4
TemDeraturc l.8oC+32 ('F-32)/1.8
Area. Section n' sq. ft. 10.76 0.0929
cm2 so.inch 0.155 6.45t6
Volume n' cu. yard 1.308 0.76/.5
m' cu. inch 0.06102 16.388
dm3 cu. fl- 0.03531 2832
VolumeFlow n'/min scfm 35.31 0.02832
dm3Jmin ffmin) scfm 0.0353r 28.32
Force N ooundforce (lbf,) 0.2u8 4.448/.
Pressure bar lbf./sq.inch(psi) 14.5 0.06895
Table 3.3aConversionof Units

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 PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLocY

llrlric lo Englilh Engli$ to fil.lrlc

(Mulridy By-To obrain (itulriply - By-To Obtain-)
- -)
Lqrgnl lorNr L.n!tl Toqoc
0.0391 mNs N.n 0.73?5 It. b mls 2.51 pm n. b r.659 N.m
Fn It. lb 0.13811 kg' m
hln 0.0394 in kg.m 1ag li. h in 25.,4 mm
cm 0,3937 in in 2.!A cm
m 32E,|0 n Prrt|0fa Ir 0.046 tn Praatur!
mm(H,O) 0,00142 Pll in{Hp) 2.s357r 10' kg/cm,
Arr mn(Hg) 0.0197 Psl Aru h(HS) 0.0s5t8 xgl',rr,
md 0.616 h' bn 0.0t97 Pri in 645.16 mrf psi 6 897 kPa
0,1550 h' kPs 0,145 id 6.,1516 qe psi 0.06697 bar
crrf Prt
mt 10.765 ir bar la.5o Pg tf 0.0929 l|t, psi 0.07G1 kgy'cm'l
kg/cm? la.4a Pii
aln '|4,7 psi Volum0 En.tty
Volumr
mmt 6.10x 105 inr inr t6387 mm3 ft.h t.366 N.m
cm'(cc) 0.0610 in' Enrgy in' 16.387 cm! (cc) fi.lb 1.356 J
35.320 ff N.m 0.7375 fi.lb - lf 0.0283 mt kwr 3,6 MJ
L 0.0353 lf J 0.7375 ll.lb It3 26.329
L o.fi12 gal (U.s.) MJ 0.n7E rwh gal(U,S.) 3.785 L Powra
f.br's t.356 W
W.ighr Pouar W!lehl hp 0.7157 kW
g O.005il oz w 0.7375 ll.lUg ot 28,3i8
k9 2.2046 b kw l.3al np b 0.4536 k9 Tlmparaluat
qC- 5A"F'32)
Fo.c. T!npar.hr! Forca
gl 2.iDs r 'loi lbf 'F-(1.8r"C)+32 bt 453.6 sl Flov..b
kgf 2.2016 lbf bt 0,4536 kE SCFMx 2E.57- Nltnin
N 0.2248 lbl Flo{ r.b bl ia.4lEa N
Numint0.035.SCFli
Ke!
Fm = micron(miclongb4 gf= gram- forcr pri I pounds p|squarshdl SCFi = Sd. cllitic feet per
mm- millitnoto, kgl-tilogratn.brcs kPa. klopascls rnirute
am r conlimeter atn . qtrnospher.3
lbfepound-krcr J - iruL B.aic FgnnlLr
mils-0,001 ilch N.m-nanlon-Ddtr MJ. firegajoulo Orda ciEumle.anoa. |!O - 2fi
h-hch k9.m.lilog.t|t|.m.br W-wa[ - Ord. a'r8. d.
n - foot lt.lb.loqt.pound lW. kibwn Fotce=Prg9qjrxAfea
cr - culic cgntmater mm (HrO). rnllorb( *abr t!'\lh. bloratt-hour C.ylir{trVolurre(md eide)-
L = titsr collmn hp. horsaporver (pislonaraa . t9d cross-rc1ion
gal (U.S,). U.S.gallon h (Hp) . inche! rabr coltm ' dogff8 C|rtglade a|oa) r d()Ie
nm (Hg) - nilllnote. mcrcuy 'F - d.gre Fahmh.il Cflinder Volume(headend) -
9 r gram
kg - kilogl8m colurm ! - lgcon(b tigton a.ga x *.!ko
oz. ouhoo in (Hg). ind|ge tne|trty Nunin - Nofiul lit l! F9r Tor$re - h.co t prpodd/hr
h-pdd colu|m ninub dlr.rc ftgrn $haft

Table3.3b Conversionof Units

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 P N E u r i t a r t cT E c H N o L o c Y

P R E S S UR E
ll shouldbnotedthatthe Sl unitof pressureis th pascal (Pa)
I Pa= I N/m2(Newtonpersquaremerer)
This unil is extremelysmalland so, to avoidhugenumbersin practice,an agreementhas been madeto
use lhe bar as a unitot 100,000Pa.
100,000Pa = 100 kPa = 1 lxr
It correspondswithsutticientaccuracyfor practicalpurposeswiththe old metricunit kgf/cm".Moreprecise
equivalentsare I STDatm =14.696psi =1.01925bar =i.03329 kgrt/cm'?.
ln Englishunitspressureis expressedin psl (almostnevrretenedlo as p.s.i.as one wouldexpect),or
poundsprsquarelnch,also relatinga torceto an area.

Physlca iloteorology Pneumatlca

500 kPa
i p
t
45r
I
:
!
irn,

Atmospheric
II
200 kPa Pressu16 l'' I

100kPa
1050mbar Standard
30 in Hg

14.696psi Vacuum
Flg. 3.4 the varioussystemsof prcssureindication
A pressurein the contextof pneumaticsis assumedas bver-pressurei.e. aboveatmosphericpressure
'and is commonlyreferredto as gaugo (also geg)pressure(GA or pslg).
A pre*surecan also be exprssedas absolutpressure (ABS or psla) i.e, a pre*surerelativeto a tull
vacuum. In vacuumtechnologya pressurebelowatmosphric i.e. under prcssu]a is usd.
The variouswaysof indicatingpressurearillustratedin fig 3,4, usinga standardatmosphric
pressureof
1013m/baras a reterence.Notethat this is not 1 bar, althoughfor normalpneumaticcalculationsthe
dilferencecan be ignored.

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 PNEU ATIC TECHNOLOGY

F n o p e n n e so F G A s E s
t S o T H E R M I CC H A N G E( B O Y L E ' SL A W )
the pressureof a givenmassof gas is inverselyproportional
"...withconstanttemperature, to its voltlme",
or: P' Y= constant

v=1i p=1

p1xVl = p2xV2 = p3xV3

Fig. 3.5 illustration
of Boyle'sLaw
lf volumeV.= 1 m3ata standard absolutepressureot 101325Pa is compressedat constanltemperature
to a volumeV = 0.5 m"then:

p , . v . ,= P",V"P"=#
i.e. p"=
to1325m.i.n3

witha gaugepressure
o3n3
TheratioV1^r'2is the"Compression

' { =
of 4 bar,
Ratio"cr
202650Pa

\2
aill=l3 =
1013
a.gs
u
Thetablebelowshowsthe pressureratiofor pressuresfrom 1 to
10 barabs.
p 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10
cr 0.987 1.987 2.974 3.961 4.918 5.935 6.922 7.908 8.895 9.882
Notethe differencebetweenrducinga volumeot atmospheric air to halt,1:2.026and the pressureratioat
a gaugepressureof 1 bar (2 sps),1:1.987!Butthis is theory;- no adiustmentis madetor practicewhenw
simplyuse gaugepressurin bar +11
lf volumeV, = 1 ff at a standardabsolutepressureof 14.7psi.is compressed
at constanttemprature
lo a
volumeV, = 0.5ft" then:
o1.lA
P,.V, = P"'V" P"=-t

. LA7pd(L fr
i.e. p, = - = 29.4 Psla

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 PNEU ATIc TEcHtIoLoGY

Calculalingthe compressionratioin lmprialor Englishunitsis donein the sameway, p, convertedto

absolulepressure(add 14.7psi) dividedby 14.7psi (oneatmosphere).

P(pslq) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
cf 1.68 2.36 3.04 3.72 4.4 5.08 5.76 6.44 7.12 7.80

On lholher handit wouldbe wrongto use Boyle'sLaw in pneumatics.In the caseof toolsas well as
cylindersthe changeis neverlsothermicbut alwaysAdiabaticchange.(Seefunherbelowand pg. 58 - 61

I S O B A R I CC H A N G E
Charles Law

'...at constantprossure, givn

a massol gas increasesin volume bv# of its volumelor everydegree
Celsiusrisein temperature-- --l- 191gysrvoprisein temoerature.
459f,

Law ot Gay Luaaac

v1 T1
Y/7= constant,so
w=E and w=+
1: W = 100m3,I1 =9.9, 72=2O.C,W=?
Exampfe
We haveto use the absolutetemperaturesin K, thus
100
;;;=
ztr
v2
:;;,
.tJ
W=
'-:::::
1 n n . ? q -?
273
= 107.326m'
i _>-T

Exampfe2: !4 = 100ff, f 1 = 40"F,T2= AO"F,VZ= ?

Wehaveto usethabsolute tompratures
in H (Rankine),
thus
1oo- v2
vz= 19!Ij!2Z=1ssrt"
4997 539? 4997

I S O C H O F I CC H A N G E
'at constantvolume,the pressureis proportional
to the temperatur"
('lsochoric"comestromth Greekwordsropo Osad"chora'),for
space,fieldetc. , and roo- , "iso' = equal)
P1.P2 T2
so TT:T,Z ano P=nT1
->T
Wheref is the absolutetemprature
in K (Kelvin)or R (Rankine).

The previousrelationships
are combindto providethe generalgas equation:
p't v1 pzw

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 P EUHATIC TECHNOLOGY

\ basistor calculalionto designor selctpneumaticequipment

This law providssone of the mainthofetical
twhen temperature changeshaveto be considered.

( I S E N T R O P l C )C H A N G E
ADTABATTC
The previousLawsassumea slowchange,so onlythe two considered
magniludesare changing.h praciice,for example-- whenair flowsintoa
cylinder,this is nol the caseand 'adiabaticchang'occurs.ThenBoyle's
Law ' p.Vis constant" changesto p. lA= constant.
It wouldtake too muchtimeto go intograterdtail,the diagram
illustratesthe ditferenceclearlyenough:wsee that thereis a lossof
volumewhenpressurebuildsup quickly.We will meetthis law againwhen
discussingthe air consumption of cylinders.

S T A N D A R DV O L U M E
Dueto thesemutualrlationships betweenvolume,pressureand temperature, it is necessaryto reterall
daia on air volumeto a standardized the
volume, standard cubic meter (m"r), Delined as the air quantityof
1.293kg massal a temperatureof ooC and an absolute pressure ol 760 mm Hg (101325 Pa)-- or the
standardcubic foot (scf) is
which on cubicfoot of air at sea lvel pressure
(absolute of 14.7psi) havinga
temperatureof 680Fand a relativehumidityof 360/o.

FLOW
The basicunitfor volumetlow "O' is the NormalCubicMeterper second(m"%).In pneumaticpractice
volumsare expressedin termsof litrsper minute(l / min)or normalcubicdecimetersper minute(dm?min).
l The usualnon-metricunittor volumetlowis the "standardcubicfoot p6r minute",(sclm).
)
Bernoulll's Equatlon
Bernoullistates:
'lf a liquidof specific
aravityflowshorizontalty
througha tubwithvaryingdiameters,the totalenergyat
point1 and 2 is the same'

or,pt + | p. v't2= Fe+ L

2 P'v2z
The relationshipbetweenpressure,the velocity
ol the air, andthe densityot the air (p) appliesto
gases if the flow speeddoes not xced3a)0m/s --> -----+
v1
approx.(1083tusec).Velocity(tysec)can be
calculated: Flg. 3.6 illustralionof Bemoulli'sLaw
v= 0.054Q/D'?(O is cfm, D is i.d. in inches)
of this equationare the venturitube
Applications
and tlowcompensalion in pressureregulators.

AIR HUMIDITY
Atmosphericair alwayscontainsa percentageof watervapor.The amountof moisturepresentwill depend
on the atmospherichumidityand temprature.
Whenatmospheric air coolsit will reacha certainpointat whichit is saturaledwith moisture,this is known
\as the dew polnt. lf the air coolsfurtherit can no longerreiainall lhe moistureand thsu|plusis expelledas
Tminiaturedropletsto torm a condensate.

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 P N E U I I A T IT
cEcHNoToGv

The actualquantityol waterlhat can be rtaineddependsentirelyon temperalufe;1mt of comprssd

air
is only capableof holdingthe samequantityof watervaporas 1m3of almosphericair.
The tablebelowshowsthe numberof gramsof waterper cubicmeter(andcubicteet)tor a wide
lemperalurerangetrom-40'C to +40"Cand from--400Fto 200 oF.The boldline refersto atmosphericair with
fhe volumeat the lemperaturein question.The thin line givesthe amountof waterpet StandardCubic .
dimension.All air consumptionis normallyexprssedin standardvolume;this makescalculationunnecessary.
Forthe lemperaturerangeof pneumalicapplications the tablebelowgivesthexactvalues.The upprhalt
refersto temperatures abovelrezing,the lowerto belowfreezing.The upperrowsshowthe contentof a
slandardcubicmeter,the loweronesthe volumeat thgiventemperature.

Temperature oC 0 5 l0 l5 20 25 30 35 40
g/m'n *(Standard) 4.98 6.99 9.86 t3.76 18.99 25.94 35.12 4 7 . 1 9 OJ.UJ
3
g/m (Atrnospheric) 4.98 6.E6 9.5t 13.04 17.69 23.76 3t.64 4 1 . 8 3 5 4 . 1 1
Temperrture oC 0 -5 -10 -t5 -20 -25 -30 -35 40
g/m'n (Standard) 4.98 3.36 2.28 1.52 1.00 0.u 0.4 0.25 0.15
g/m (Atmospheric) 4.98 l.6l 1.08 0.7 0.45 o.29 0.18

TempersturoF 32 40 60 60 100 120 140 160 lm

giftr *(Srandard) .137 .188 .4 .78 1.48 2.65 4.53 7.44 I l.8l
gifC (Ahospheric) .185 - 3t J .71 t.z9 2.2? 3.67 5.82 8.94
Temprature"F 32 30 20 l0 0 -10 -20 -30 40
s/fC (Shndard) .t37 ItA .083 .053 .033 .020 .ot2 .007 .004
g/ft' (Atmospheric) .r37 .177 .085 .056 .036 .023 .014 .009 .005

Tabla 3.7 WaterSaturationof Air (DewPoint)

The term g/tf standardrfersto a volumeat gzoF.At BooFit.svolumeis extendedto l+ (80-32) or l.i tf
459?
Consequently to haveone standardcubicloot at 80oF,1.1tf of atmosphericair at 800Fare requiredwith all its
watercontent;so that makes1.1 x 0.71= 78 gramsol water.
Relative humtdlty

With the exceptionof extremeweatherconditions,such as a suddentemperaturedrop, atrnosphericair is

neversaturated.The ratioof the actualwatercontenlandthat of the dew pointis calledrelativehumidity,and
is indicatedas a percentage.
actual water content
Relatlvehumldlty (r.h.) =
saturatlonqu.ntlty (dewpoint) 1ovh
Erample 1: Temperature25oG,r.h.65"/0.Howmuchwateris crntainedin 1 m3?
Dewpoint2soo= 24glm".0.65= 15.6g/mt
Whenair is compressed,its capacityfor holdingmoisturein vaporform is onlythat of its reduced
volume. Hence,unlessthe temperaturerisessubstantially,
waterwill condenseout.
Erample 2: 1o m3 ol almosphericair at 15oc and 65yor.h. is compresssdto 6 bar gaugepressure.The
temperatureis allowedto riseto 25oC. How muchwaterwill condenseout?
FromTable3.7:At 1soo,10 m3of air canholda maximumof 13.04g/m..10m"= 130.4g

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 P NE U A T I c T E c H t t o L o G Y

r.h.the air will conlain130.4g '0.65= 84.9g {a)

At 650/o
The reducedvolumeol compressedair at 6 bar pressurcan be calculated:
p; '10m3= 1.44
pl'v1 = pzvz = v1 = v2 = +H# mc

FromTable3.7 1.44m3ofair at 25oCcanholda maximum of 23'76g '1'44 = 34.2g (b)

Condensationequalsthe totalamountof waterin the air (a) minusthe volumethat ihe compressedair
can absorb hEnce84.9- U.2 = 50'6 I of waterwill condenseoul'
(b),
Thiscondensatemuslbe rmovedbeforethe compressedair is distributed, to avoidharmfuletfectein lhe
lineand the pneumaticcomponents.
Example3: Temperalure800F,r.h.65%. Howmuchwateris conlainedin I ff?
Dewpoint80"F= 0.71g/ ff. 0.65- o.aog/ff

Observethat the metric chart dimenslonswould exhlbll ldentical relationshipswhen convertedto

lmperialunlts.
g HzO/m 3
500

't5

t0

0.1
0
Flg. 3.8 Dewpointsfor tempraturesfrom-0 to aboul+80"C
Thboldcurveshowslhe saturationpointsot a cubicmeterat the relatedtemperature,
the thin curveat
standardvolume.

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 P N E U I , | A T ITc E c H N o L o G Y

P R E S S U R EA N D F L O W
The mostimportantrelatlonshlptor pnGumatics
is that btwenpressurand flow.
THEYARENOTTHESAME.DO NOTTHINKTHEYARE INTERCHANGEABLE TEFMS..,e.g.a 'Iow
conlrolis nol a regulalor(repeatas rquiroduntilretained),lt is the relationshiobetweentlow and pressure
that we will nowconsider.
ll thereis no tlow,the pressurein an entiresystemis the sameat everypoint,but whenthereis flowfrom
one Pointto another,thpressurein the latterwill alwaysbe lowrthatat the first.This differenceis calld
pressuredrop.ll dspendson threevalues:
. initialpressure
. volumeof f low
. llow resistanceof the connection
The flow resistancefor air has no unit;in electricityits equivalentis Ohm (Q). In pneumatics,th6 opposile
of resislanceis used,the equivalenlflow section(S, kv or C" factor)-- a conductancevalue.The equivalent
tlowsectionS is expressedin mm' and representsthe areaof an oriticein a thin plate(diaphragm)which
crsatesthe samerelationshipb6tw6enpressuresand flow as th6 lementdetinedby it. Valveshave
complicatedoriticshapes,thereforelhe flow ratethroughlhe deviceis measuredfirst,and thenthe device
may be assignedthe corresponding equivalentflowsection.An easyapproximation wouldbe that:
C, ol 1= 18Smm',e.g.equivalent orificeof 18 mm' equalstheflowof aC, i.
This relationshipis by dotinitionthe sameas in electricity,wherefuoltagedropequalscurrenttimes
resistance".This can be transformedfor pneumaticsto "pressuredropequalsflowdividedby FlowSection",
only,whilethe electricunitsare dkectlyproportional, lhe relationshiplor air is very complexand neversimply
proportional.In electricity,a cunntot 1 A (oneAmpere)creates,overa rosistorof I Ohm,a voltagedropof 1
Volt. Regardlessif this dropis trom 100to 99 or from 4 to 3 volts,the pressuredropoverthe sameobiectand
withthe samestandardvolumeflow varieswiththe initialpressureand alsowiththe temperature.Reason:the
compressibilityof the air.
For definingone ot the four interrelated
data,mentionedpreviously,fromthe oth6rthra6,we requirea
diagram.
10

Sonic Flow

(jn (s..4r/ ,nin) _ O (dmgn/min)

betwnpressureand flowfor an oriticewith an equivalntFlow
Flg, 3.9 Diagramshowingth relationship
Sectionof 1 mm"

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 PNEU ATIC TECHNOLOGY

The trianglein the lowerrightcornermarksthe rangof "sonicflowspeed".Whenthe airrlowreachesa

speedcloseto lhe spedof sound'flowcan no longerincrease-- whatverthe ditferenceof pressure
betweeninputand outputmightbe. As you can se,all the curvesdropverticallyinsidethis triangle.This
meansthat the flowno longerdependson the pressuredrop,but onlyon the inputpressure.
lJse of the diagram:
The pressurescaleat the lettside indicatesbothinputand outputpressure.At the firstverticallineon the
lett,whichrepresentsa zgroflow,inputand outpulpressuresarethe same.The variouscurves,lor inpul
pressureslrom 1 to 10 bar,indicatehowthe outpulpressuredecreaseswithincreasingflow'

Example1:lnputpressure6 bar,pressuredrop 1 bar = outputpressure5 bar.We followthe curve"6'to the

pointwhereit cutsthe horizontallinemarked'$. Fromtherewe go verticallydownto the Flowscale
(dottedline)and tindabout55 ymin.The 9.44 l/minwrittenbelowthat lineis the exactvalue,calculated
'StandardVolume
withthe formulafurtherbelow.Theseinputand outputpressuresdefinethe so-call6d
FlowOn",a figuretoundin valvecataloguesfor a quickcomparisonot the flowcapacityot valves.
The VolumeFlowof 9.44 l/minappliesto an element(Valve,fining,tubetc.)withan equivalentorifice"S"
of 1 mm'. lf an lementhasfor examplean "S' ot 4,5 mm',the flowwouldbe 4.5 timeshigher,in this case4.5
. 54.44limin= 245 Umln

Example2: Givenan elementwilh an 'S'ol 12 mm",a workingpressureof 7 barand an air consumptionot

600ymin.Whatoutputpressure
willresult?

A flowof 600l/minthroughan"y ot 12mm"corresponds witha llowof ff = 50 l/minthroughan

quivalentsectionof 1 mm'?.Weneedthisconversion fortheuseof thediagramof lig.3.9.Wenow
followthecurvestarting withth6verticallinetor 50l/min.A horizontal
ai 7 baruntilit intersects line
towardstheDressure scaleindicatesabout6.3bar.

Formu tae:

Whenit is requiredto havea morexactvaluethanthat whichcan be estimatedfromthe diagram,the flow

can be calculatedwith one of the two followingformulae.
A glanceat the diagramof fig. 3.9 makesit clear,thattheremustbe ditferntlormulaelor the sonicflow
rangeand the "subsonic"flowcondition.The transientfromsubsonicto sonicflow is reached,whnthe
pressurcratioof the absoluteinputand outsutpressuresis lssor equalto 1.896:
Sonic tlow: pl + 1,013<1.896. (pA+1.013)
Subsonlcflow: pl + 1.013> 1.896. (pa +1.013)
The Volumeflow Olor subsonicfloweouals:
' (pl -pa) (vmin)
Q = x2.2 .5.{(pa + 1.013)
andfor sonicflow:
O= 11,1.S.(p1 + 1.013)(Umin)

'
Soundis, after all, vibrating air molerules.Thus the "speedof sound" (sonic condition, Mach #) is the trminalvelocity
I for air movemenl For comprcssedair to !!99 therc mustbe a prcssuredrop -- andmaximumflow occursat a certain %
pressuredrop. Therc can be a greaterpressuredrop (up to 100%)but maximumflow (for whatevrsizeorifice) occursat
46% of pr

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 P EUTATtcTEcHNoLocY

whersS inmm'and p inbar;22.aisa constant

withtheouarion
ffi , whichis litersper60 seconds andper
torce(delinedbytherulingpressure).
Notethata pneumalic systsmcannev6roperat undersonicflowconditions,
satislactorily as a supply
pressureof,forexample, 6 barwouldgiveuslessthan2.7barforwork.
Erample3:Wcatculate thflow,assumed in example 2, withaninputpressure of 7 bar,a totalequivalnt
flowsectionof 12mm2forvalvsandtubesandthecalculated working pressure ot 6.3bar:
't2
Q = 22.2. . !7.313'0.7 = 602.74Umln.
Thisshowsthattheaccuracy forpractical
of thediagramis sufficient pneumatic
us.

tn Imperlal unlts
The formulafor subsonicflow: e = 224lc."

And lor sonicflorir: Q=0.486C, (p2+14.7)

t,. P
ro!
=
at)

n
e =
' r9
.|l

Downstreamprasauro(wrtical [nes) in psig

Flg. 3.10Air tlowcurvesfor a deMcehavinga C, of 1.0 (derivdfrom the abovetwo tormulae)

Flowat a certainpressuredropcan be derivdfrom Fig.3.10.
Selectlh pl (upstreampressur)lrom the diagonallineand tollowstraightacrossto the verticalaxis-- this
is the maximumflowat that pressure.Nowselcta pressuredroptromitherthe bottomnumbers
(downstram pressure)or from the numberson thouterarc of the gfaph(Ap in psi). Next,lollovvthe curveol
the selec{edpl untilit intersectsyourp2 or Ap slectionand thenfollowstraightacrossfrom that pointto the
verticalaxisto find tlowin sctm.

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 P N E U T , | A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

The resultsare linear,.g.il the devicein applicationhasa C, ot 2.0 multiplyyour resultlrom tig' 3' 10 by 2, C,
of 0.5 multiplyby one half,etc.
Observthatcriticalllow occursat a cgrlainpressuredrop- to discoverthis for yourselffind 100psig on the
diagonalcriticalflowline.Dropstraightdownto the p2 horizontalaxisand notethat p2 is approximately 46
psia.This confirmsthat a pressuredropot (approximatelyl 46%producesmaximumflow.Therecan be a
greaterdropin pressurebut tlow wlll not Increase.
Obsorvethat useof Fig.3.10 requitesa knownpressuredrop.In realworldapplications (withso many
variables)this knowledgeis difficultto comeby, so lhe cautiousindividualwill relyon a safe estimateof whata
desirdpressuredrop;ught to be. Predictinga system'sactual pressur drop is very The NFPA
difficult.
(NationalFluidPowerAssociation, a U.S.standardsgroup)recommends a maximum pressure dropof 15%.

Example1:Howmanysctmwill flowthrougha valvewitha C, of 1.0 givena supplypressureot 80 psig and a

20 psi pressuredrop?
Fromthe chartFig.3.10find 80 psigon the criticalflowline.Next,lind 60 psig (80 psigminusa 20 psi
axis at the bottom.Movingverticallyfromthe 60 psigtind the
pre*suredrop)on the horizontral
of the 80 psigcurve(fromthe criticalllow line)and movestraightacrossto the verticalaxis
intersection
wherethe answerot approximately 38 scfmwill be tound,

Example2: A flowof 40 sctmis requiredfor an applicationand supplyis 60 psig.WhatsizeC" mustall

comDonents exceed?
Fromthe chartFig.3.10findlh scfmot a C" ot l.0. It the applicationflowsto atmosphere(e.9.a
"blow-off)the criticalflowsc{mwill be used;if the applicationinvolvosotherdevices(e.9,cylindersor
actuators)usethe ruleof thumb157opressuredrop.Observethatat 60 psigsupplya q of 1.0orifice
will flowapproximately 36 scfm.Witha 15"/.pressuredrop (p2is 51 psig)the llow is approximately 24
sctm-- andthusa C" of morelhan 1.66will provide40 scfm(1.66x 24 = 40).

on C" pleasereterto pages84 and tollowingdealingwilh sizingof componentsand

For moreinformation
sy$ems.

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 P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c Y

COMPRESSORS
engrgyof an eleclricor combustionmotorinlo the potnlialenergy
convrtsthe mechanical
A comprssor
of comoressedair.
Air compressors and Rotary.
lall intotwo maincategories:Reciprocating
The principaltypesot compressors withinthesecatgoriesare shownin fig 4.1.

Compressors
Displacement

usedfor PneumalicSystems
Fig. 4.1The MainCompressor'types

RECIPROCATINC
GO M P R E S S O R S
SIngle stage Plston Compressor

r pressureis
Air taknin at atmospheric
t compressedto the requiredpressurein a single
stroke.
Downwardmovmentof thpistonincreases
volumeto createa loweroressurethanthat of
the atmosphere, causingair to ent6rthe cylinder
throughthe inletvalve.
At the end of the stroke,the pistonmoves
upwards,thinletvalveclosesas the alr is
compressed, forcingthe oulletvalveto open
dischargingair intoa r6c6iv6rtank.
Thistypeot comprssor is genrallyusdin
systemsrequiringair in the 3-7 bar rang.

Flg. 4.2 SingleStagePistonCompressor

Two stage Platon Compressor
In a single-stage whenair is compressedabove6 bar,the excessiveheatcreatedgreatly
compressor,
reducesthefficiency.Becauseof this,pistoncompressorsusedin industrialcompressed
air syslemsare
usuallytwo stages,
pressureis compressedin two stagesto the finalpressure.
Air takenin at atmospheric
\
)

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 PNEU ATIc TEcH oLoGY

It the finalpressur
is 7 bar,the firststage
normallycompresses
the air to approximately
3 bar,afterwhichit is
cooled,ll is thenfed
inlo the secondslage
cylinderwhichcom-
Dressesit to 7 bar.
The compressedair
entrslhe second
stagcylinderat a
9reatlyreducdtem-
peraturafterpassing
throughlhe int6r-
cooler,thus improving
etficiencycomparedto
that ot a singlestage
unit.The final delivery Flg. 4,3 Two StagePistonCompressor
temperaturemay be in
th regionof 120"C.
Dlaphngm compressor

Diaphragmcompressorsprovidecompressed
air in the 3-5 bar rangetotallytree of oil and are
thereforewidelyusdby tood,pharmaceutical
+ Output

and similarindustries.
The diaphragmprovidesa changein chamber
volume.This allowsair intakein the downstroke
and compressionin the up stroke.
Smallertypes,witha fractionalHP electric
motorand smallreseryoirmakepossibleportable
compressoci,ideallor spraypainting,

Flg. 4.4 DiaphragmComprssor

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 P N E U M A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

I R O T A R YC O M P R E S S O R S
I
Rotaty stldlng vane comPressor
mounted
This hasan eccentrically
rotorhavinga seriesof vanessliding
in radialslols.
As the rolorrotales,cenldtugal
,orceholdsthe vanesin contaclwith
the statorwall and the space between
th6 adiacentbladesdecreasestrom
the
air inletto outlet,so compressing
air.
Lubricationand sealingis
achievedby inlectingoil intothair
streamnearthe inlet.The oil also acts
as a coolantto limitthe delivery Fig.4.5 VanCompressor
tempeture.
9crew compressor
Two meshinghelicalrotorsrotatein opposite
directions.The freespacebetweenthem
decrasesaxiallyin volumeand this (
compressesthe air trappedbetweonthe rotors
1 (figa.6.). Drive
a
'
Oil floodingprovideslubricationand sealing
betweenlhe two rotatingscrews.Oil separators
removthis oil fromthe outletair. (
Continuoushighflow ratesin xcessof 400
m"/minare obtainabletromlhesmachinesat
pressuresup to l0 bar.
Moreso thanthe VaneCompressor, thistype
of compressoroffersa continuouspulse-free
delivery. Flg 4.6 Scr6wComprossorPrinciple
The mostcommonindustrialtype of air
machine,
compressoris stillthe reciprocaling
althoughscrewand vanetypsartinding
increasingfavor.

C O M P R E S S O RR A T I N G
capacityor outputis statedas StandardVolumsFlow,givenin m3yy's
A compressor or /min,dm13/sor
litors/min. Thcapacitymay alsobdescribedas displacedvolume,or 'TheoreticallntakeVolume",a
theorticaltigure.For a pistoncompressorit is basedon:
Q (Umin)= (pistonareain dm') x (strokelengthin dm) x (# ot tirststagecylinders)x (rpm)
O (cfm)= ((pistonareain in'?)x (strokelengthin inches)x (# ol lirsi stagecylinders)x (rpm))/ 1728
I onlythe firstsiagecylindershouldbe considered.
In the caseof a two-stagecompressor,
J
The effectivedeliveryis alwayslessdueto volumetricand thermallosses.

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 P N E U u a r r cT E c H i r o L o c v

The volumeloss is inevitable,as it is not possiblto dischargeall of lhe compressedair tromthe cylinder
at the end ot lhe compressionstroke,thereis somespacelett,the secalled "deadvolume".
Thermallossoccursdue to the lact that duringcompressionthe air assumesa very hightemperature;
thereloreits volumeis increasedand decreaseswhencoolingdownto ambienttemperature(seeCharlesLaw
in section3).
Volumetrlc Et clency

.. treeair delivered
I ne ratlo: expressedas a prcentageis knownas lhe volumelricetficiency,and will vary
-Eii;;;ft;-
with lhe size,type and makeot machine,numberof stagesand ths tinal pressure.The volumetricefficiency
ot a two-siagecompressoris lesslhan that of a singlestag6typas boththfirstand secondstagecylindeis
havg dadvolums.
Thermal and Overall Etficlency

Besidethe lossesdescribedabove,thereare also thermalefiects,whichlowerthe tticiencvot the air

compr6ssion. Theselossesreducethe overalletficiencyfurtherdependingon thcompressionralioand load.
A compressorworkingat almosttull capacityaccumulatgsgreatheatandioses efficiency.In a two srage
compressor,the compressionratioper stageis lessand thair, partlycompressedin a firststagecylinder,is
cooledin an inter-coolr beforecompression to tinalpissurein a secondstagecylinder.
Example:lf the atmosphericair,takenin by a firsl stagecylinder,is compressedto a thirdof its volume,the
absolulepressural its outletis 3 bar.The heat,developedby this relativelylow compression,is
correspondingly low.The compressedair is then led to a secondstagecylinder,throughthe inter-
cooler,and then againreducedto a thirdof its volume.The linal pressureis then 9 bai abs.
The heatdevlopedby compressing the sameair volumein a singlestagedirecttytromatmospheric
pressurelo 9 bar.!.,wouldbe muchhigherand the ovrallefficiencyseverelyreduced.
The diagramin fig. 4.7
comparesthe typicaloverall
efficienciesof singlsand two
stagecomprssors with
varioustinalprssures. II
901"
Totall8O7o
For low final pressures,a Etlicienw70%
singlestagecompressoris I 6o%
better,as its purevolumtric I
efticiencyis higher.With
increasingfinal pressure
however,thermallosses FinalPressure
becomemoreand more
importantand two stagtypes, Flg. 4,7 OverallefficiencyDiagram
havinga higherthermal
etficienry, becompreterable.
The specltic energy con3umptlon is a measureof.theoveralleflicienryand can be usdto stimatethe
genoratingcost of compressedair.As an averagefigure,it can be assumedthat one kW of olectricalenergyis
neededfor the productionof 120-150ymin(= 0.12...0.15mgn/ min/ kW),tor a workingpressureof Z bar or 1
HP ot electricalenergyis neededto produce4-5 cfm at a workingpressureof 100 psi.
Exactfigureshaveto be establishedaccordingto the type and size of compressor.

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 P N E U M A T I CT E C H I { O L O G Y

roM P R E S S OARC C E S S O R I E S
AIR RECEIVER
An air r@iveris a pressurevesselot weldedstelplateconslruction, inslalledhorizontally or vertically
direc y downstream to receivihe compressodair,therebydampingthe initialpulsations
lrom the aftercooler
in lhe air llow.
Its main,unctionsatio storesutticientair to meettemporaryheavydemandsin excessof compressor
'unloading'ot lhe compressor,but il also providesadditional
capacity,and minimizefr6quent'loading'and
coolingto precipitateoil and moisturecirded ovrfromthe aftercooler,beforethe air is distributedfurther' To
this end it is an advantageto placethe air receiverin a cool location.
The vesselshouldbe fittedwitha safeg valve,pressurgauge,drain,and inspectioncoversfor checking
or cleaninginside.
Slzlng a tecelver
Air receiversare sizedaccordingto the compressoroutput,sizeof thsyslemand whlherthe demandis
rlatively
constanlor variabl.
Electrically
drivencompressors in industrialplants,supplyinga network,are normallyswilchedon and otf
btweena minimumand a maximumpressuro.Thisaontrolis called"automatic". This needsa certain
minimumreceivervolumeto avoidoverfrequentswitching.
Mobilecompressors witha combustionnginearc notstoppedwhena maximumpressureis reachd,bul
the suctionvalvesare liftedso thatlhe air can freelyflowin and out of the cylinderwithoulbeingcompressed.
The pressuredifferencebelweencompressing and runningidle is quitesmall.ln this caseonlya small
IJ receiver
is needed.
'
For induslrialplants,the rulof thumbfor the sizeof the reservoiris:
Air recelvercapaclty > comprssoroutput of compressedair pcl minute, (Not FreeAlr)
Somewouldsuggesta factorof x1.5whensizinga receivertor a largesystem,and as muchas x3 for small
comoressors.
Exampletcompressordelivery600 cfm (freeair)and an outputpressureof 100psi,Whatsize reciveris
rquired?
t P"-
v=l
p1+ 147
Where V = capacityof rceiver
Q = compressoroutpul(clm)
Pa = atmosphric
plsssurc
P1 = compressoroutsul pressure
=77lf as a minimumnumber,a prudentsuggestionmightbeginwith 120ft".
V = (600'14.7y(10O+14.7)

INLET FILTER
A typicalcityatmosphorecancontain40 millionsolidparticls,i.e.dust,dirt,pollen,etc.per m".ll this air
werocompressed wouldbe 320 millionpartsy'ms
to 7 bar,lhe concentration or 7.8 millionparts/ff, An
importantconditiontor th6 roliabilityand durabilityol a compressoris that it mustbe providedwitha suitable
. and efficientfilterto preventexcessivewearof cylinders,pistonrings,tc.whichis causedmainlyby the
I abrasiveeftectof thesimpurities.

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 PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

The lilter mustnot btoo tine as the compressoretticiencydecreasesdue to highresistanceto airflow,.and

so vrysmallparticles(2-5y) cannotbe removed.
The air intakeshouldbsitedso that,as lar as possible,cleandry air is drawnin, with intakepipingol
sufticionllylargediameterto avoidexcessivepressuredrops. Whena silenceris used,it may be arranggdto
includethe ah filter,whichwill be locatedupstramot the silencerposition,so that it is subjectdto minimum
pulsalionetfcts.

AIR DEHYDRATION
AFTERCOOLERS
Atterfinalcompression, the air will b6 hot and whgncooling,will depositwaterin considerablequantitiesin the
airlinsystem,whichshouldbe avoidBd.The mosteftectiveway to removethe maiorpartof this condensate
is to subieclthe air to aftercooling, immediatelyaftercompression.
Aflercoolersare heatexchangers,beingeitherair-cooledor watercooldunits.
Alr cooled
Consistingof a nestof tubes
throughwhichthe compressedair
flowsand over whicha lorceddratt
of cold air is passedby meansol a
fan assembly.A typicalexampleis
shownin fig.4.8.
The outlttemperatureof the
cooledcompressedair shouldbe
approximately15"C (60oF)above
the ambientcoolingair
Flg. 4.8 Principleof an Air CooledAttercooler
temperature.
Water cooled
Essentially,
a stelshellhousingtubeswith watercirculatingon onsideand air on the other,usually
arrangedso that the llow is in oppositedirectionsthroughthe cooler.The is shownin fig. 4.9

Air Input AirOutsut

CoolingWaterOUT
Fig.4.9Principle
ol a WaterCooledAftercooler
A water-cooled
aftercooler
shouldnsurethattheairdischarged 1ooo(50oF)
wouldbeapproximately
abovethetemperatureof thecoolingwater.
An automatic
drainattached to or integral
withtheaftercooler
removestheaccumulated
@ndensation.

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 PNEU ATtc TEcHt{oLoGY

shouldbeequipped
Attercoolers witha satetyvalve,pressure that
gauge,andit is recommended
themometers to monitorairandwaterlempraturs
or sensors areincluded.

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 PitEU ATlc TEcHNoLocY

AIR DRYERS
Aftercoolers
cool the air to within10-1socof the coolingmedium.The conlroland operatingelementsot
thpneumaticsystemwill normallybe al ambienttemperature(approx.20cC).This may suggestlhat no
lurthercondensatewill be precipilated,and that the remainingmoisturepassesout withthe exhaustair
releasedto almosphere.However,the tomperatureof the air leavingthe aftercoolermay be higherthanthe
sunoundinglemperalurethroughwhichthe pipelinepasses,for exampleduringnighttime.This situationcools
the compressedair turther,thus condensingmoreof the vaporintowater.
The measureemployedin lhe dryingot air is loweringthe d6w point,whichis the temperatureat whichthe
air is fullysaluratdwith moisture(i.e.100%humidity).The lowerthe dew point,the lessmoistureremainsin
the comoressedair.
Thereare threemaintypesof air dryersavailable,whichoperateon an absorption,adsorplion,or
refrigrationprocess.
Absorptlon (dellquescent) Drylng

The compressedair is forcedthrougha

dryingagentsuchas dehydratedchalkor
magnesiumchloridewhichremainsin solid
form,lithiumchlorideor calciumchloridewhich
reactswiththe moistureto form a solution
whichis drainedfromthe bottomof the vessel.
The dryingagenlmustb replenishedat
regularintervalsas the dew pointincreasesas
a functionof consumptionof the saltduring
operation,but a pressuredew pointof soc at 7
bar is possible(40 oFat 100 psi).
The mainadvantagesof this methodare
that it is of low initialand operatingcost,but
the inlettmperature mustnot exceed3OoC,
thchemicalsinvolvedare highlycorrosive
necossitaiingcarelully monitoredfiltefing to
ensurethat a fine conosivemist is not canied
ovrto the pneumaticsystem.

Flg. 4.10 Principleof the AbsorptionAir Dryer

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 PNEU$ATIC TECHNOLOGY

ldsorptlon (deslccant)Drylng
Column1 Column2
A chemicalsuchas silica
gel or aclivaledaluminain
granularform is containdin a
verticalchamberto physically
adsorbmoisturetromthe
compressedair passing
throughit. Adsorptionis a
physicalprocessof a liquid
adheringto lhe surtaceol
certainmaterials(a sponge
absorbs,retainingmoisture
intErnally-- adsorbis a
surfaceetfect).Whenthe
dryingagentbecomes
saturatedit is regenerated by
drying,heating,or, by a flow
of previouslydriedah as in fig.
4.11.
OutputDryAir
Wet comoressedair is
suppliedthrougha directional
controlvalveand passes
throughdesiccantcolumn1. Exhaust
The driedair flowslo the InputWetAir
outletport, Fig,4.11Principle AirDryer
of theAdsorption
Between10-20%of the dry
air passesthroughorifice02 and column2 in reversedirectionto re-adsorbmoisturetromthe desiccantto r-
generateit,
The dry air entersthe saturatedchamberand expands(droppingthe temperaturefurthr,makingthe dry
air ffectively
evenmoredry to facililatethe regeneratingprocess),The regenerating airllowgoesthento
exhaust.Thdirectionalcontrolvalveis switchedperiodically by a timeror a sensorto altematelyallowthe
supplyair to one columnand regsnrating the other,to providecontinuousdry air.
Extremlylow dew pointsare possiblewiththis method,for example- 40oC(whichis, oddlyenough,-40
"F).
A colorindicatormay be incorporated in the desiccantto monitorthe degreeof saturation.Microlilteringis
essentlal on the dryeroutleito preventcarryoverof adsorbentmist.Initialand operatingcostsare
comparatively high,but maintenance costst6ndto be low.

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 P E U m A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

nel gerant drylng

Thisis a mechanical
unitincorporating circuitandtwohatexchangers.
a retrigeration
Humidhightemperature DryAir OUT HotAir lN
air is Dre-cooled
in the tirsl
heatexchangerO by
translerringpartol its heatto O Heat Exchanger
the cooledoulpulair. inputair / outpulair
It is thencooledby the @ HeatExchanger
retrigeratorprincipleof heat inputair / treon
xtractionas a resultol
evaporatingFreongas in th6
@ Freoncooler
refrigeratorcircuit,in heat
exchanger@. At this time, @ Ventilator(tor 3)
moistureand oil mists
condenseand are
automatically drained. @ Freon
The cold dry air retum
pipepasseslhroughair heat @ Thermostatic
exchanger@ and gainsheat
@ Airfilter
tromthe incominghigh
temperaturG air. This @ Auto Drain
pr6v6ntsdew formingon the
dischargeoutlet,increases .i> Heat
volumeand lowersrelative Flg. 4.12 Principleof the Refrigerated
Air Dryer
humidity.
Anoutputtemperature ol 2oCis possibleby modemmethods, althoughan outputairtemperatureof SoCis
sufficienttor mostcommonapplications of compressed air.lnlettemperaturos maybe upto 60oCbutit is more
economical lo precoolto runat lowerinlettemperaturs.
As a generalrule,thecostof dryingcompressed airmaybe 10.20%of thecostof compressing air.
Thecostof notdryingcompressed airis seenin increased maintenance of all pneumatic
components usd
in lhe system,pluslhe associated increased dowhtime, farexceeding thecostsof addinga dryingsystem.

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 P EUMATICTECHNOLOGY

l V l a i nl i n e f i l t e r
A largecapacityfiltershouldbe installedafter
the air receiverlo removecontamination,oil
vaporsfromthe compressor, and watrlrom the
air. Properselectionmustbe sizedaccordingto
the systemflow.ln somcasesthereare lwo
mainlinefillers(onein reservesoryingas FillerCartridge
backupduringthe filterelementchange-- which
shouldbe a rgularlyscheduledmainlenance
item).
Bowl
Thisfiltermusthavea minimumpressure
dropandthe capabilityto removeoil vaporlrom
the compressorin orderto avoidemulsitication Glass
withcondensation (seenas a white,milkyliquid)
in the line.
It has no deflector,whichrequiresa certain
minimumpressurdropto tunctionproperlyas DrainValve
the 'StandardFiltei' discussedlaterin the
sectionon Air Treatment.A built-inor an Fi9.4.13TypicalLineFilter
attachedaulo drainwill ensurea regular
dischargeof accumulated waler.
The lilter is generallya quick-change
cartridgetype.
Notethat the propersystempositionfor this deviceis afterthe dryingsystem,notiust atterthe compressor.

[IR DISTRIBUTION
The air mainis a permanentlyinstalleddistributionsystsmcarryingthe air to the variousconsumors.
can be al thirhighestlevels- whichfosters
Typicallyinstalledat the ceilinglev6l(whereth6 temperatures
entrainedmoisture),the air maincan be a tremendoussourceof contamination processand
in the installation
duringnormaluse.
Duringthe installationprocesscars mustbe takento reducethe metalfilings,pipedope,and otherforeign
materialsthal will be generaldfromassembly.The largesizof mostair mainsmakescontamination seem
acceptable( a questionof relalivityat this point),yet whenthe contaminalion
is seenrelativeto the extremely
smalltolrances in mod6mautomationcomponents(valves,actuators,gripprs.....) the eflectcan be
disastrous.
It the air maincomesin contactwithoutsideair temperatures (connecting
two buildings,prhapsbeing
routedunderground, etc,)it will serveas a moistureproducer.
As manymainsare ironpipe,rustis the eventualby-product.Carefulxamination shouldbe madewhen
reusingolderpipesto createa new airline.ll the opportunitypresentsitselfand a new airlineis to be cr6ated,
considerthe pipingconfiguration
as well.
Thereare two mainlayoutconligurations: DEADENDLINEand RINGMAIN.Afterexamining4.14and
4.15it shouldbecomeapparentthat the Ringmainconfiguration wouldbe prelerredfor bettersupplyflow.The
pip)
additionalcost is a one-timeconcem(lorthe additional but lhe advantagescan be enjoyedeverydayot
operation.

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 P Eu Atrc TEcHNoLocy

-^ -...

.\.:..
:.._

( \ .

Flg. 4.14TypicalDeadEnd LineMains

To assistdrainage,the pipeworkshouldhavea slopeof about1 in 100 in the directionof flow and it should
be adequatelydrained.At suitableintrvalsthmaincan bbroughtbackto its originalheightby usingtwo
longsweeprightangleb6ndsand arranginga drainleg at the low point.

RINGMAIN

:
t ,
I a
i
! ....'

Flg.4.15TypicalRingMain

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 P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o G Y

In a ring mainsvstemmainair can be fdtromtwo sidesto a pointol high consumption. Thaswlll reduce
I pressur"diop. Howeverthis drivescondensatein anydirectionand sutftcientwatertake-otfpointswithAuto
Drainsshouldbe provided.lsolatingvalvescan be inslalledto dividethe air mainintosections.This limilsthe
arathat will be shul downduringperiodsof mainlenanceor repaar.

S E C O N D A R YL I NE S
Unlessan efficientaftercoolerand air dryerare installed,the compressedair distributionpipeworkacts as
a coolingsurfaceand watrand oil will accumulatethroughoutits length.
Branchlinesaretakenotf the top of the mainlo preventwaterin the mainpipelrom runningintolhem,
insteadof intodrainagetubeswhichare takentromthe bottomof the mainpipeat eachlow poinlof it. These
shouldbe trequentlydrainedor littedwithan automalicdrain.

The Waterremains The Waterrunsintolhe

Auto Drain

Fig 4.15Take-ofistor air (a) and Water(b)

Autodrainsare mor6xpensiveto inslallinitially,butthis is otfsetby the man-hourssavedin the operalion
of the manualtype. With manualdrainingneglectleadsto compoundproblemsdue to contamination of the

the tubguidesthe float,and is

inlernallyconnectedto atmo-
spherevia the lilter,a reliefvalve,
holein the springloadedpiston
and alongthe stemof the manual
operator.
The condensateaccumulates
at the bottomof the housingand Pressure
whenil riseshighenoughto lift ReliefValve
the floatfrom its seal.the Manual
prssurein the housingis Operation
transmittedto the pistonwhich
movesto the righlto openthe
drainvalveseatand expelthe
water.The floal thenlowerslo Fig. 4.17 FloatTypeAuto Drain

shutotf the air supplyto the piston.

The reliefvalvelimitsthe pressurebehindthe pislonwhenthe floatshutsthe nozzle.This pre-setvalue
ensuresa consislentpistonre-settingtim6as the capturedair bleedsotf througha tunctionalleak in th reliet
valve.

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 P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c Y

Fig4.18showsan electricallydriventype,whichperiodically
purgesthe condensateby a rotatingcam
wheeltrippinga lever-operated
poppetvalve.
It otfersthe advan-
lag6s ot beingableto
work in any orientalion
and is highlyresistant
to vibration,so lending
ilseltto use in mobile
compressors, and bus
or lruck pneumatic
systems.

Fig. 4,18 MotorizedAuto Drain

S I Z I N GC O M P R E S S E D
AIR MAINS
The cost of air mainsrepresentsa highproportionof the initialcost of a compressedair installation.A
reductionin pipediameter,althoughloweringthe investmentcost,will increasethe air pressuredrop in the
system,potentiallythe opratingcostswill riseand will exceedthe additionalcost of thlargerdiameter
piping.
Also,as laborchargesconstitutea largepartof the overallcost,and,as this costvariesvery littlebetween
pipe sizes,the cost of installingsay a 25 mm Dia borepipe is similarto that ol a 50 mm Dia pipe. Butthe flow
capacityof the 50mmDia pipewill be tourtimesthat ot 25 mm pipe.This additionalvolumemay equaltwo or
thre(or more)receivertank volumes,reducingcompressordutycycles.
In a closedloop ring mainsystem,the supplyfor any particulartake-otfpointis fed by two pipepaths.
Whendeterminingpipesize,this dualfeedshouldbe ignored,assumingthat at any time air will be supplied
throughone pipeonly.
The sizeof the air mainand branchesis determinedby thlimitationof thair velocily,normally
recommended at 6 m/s,whilesub-circuitsat a pressureof around6 bar and a few mete6 in lengthmaywork
at velocilisup to 20mls. The pressuredropfromthe compressorto the end of the branchpipe shouldnot
exceed0.3 bar.The nomogram(figa.l9) allowsus to determineth requiredpipe diameter.
Bendsand valvescauseadditionalflow resistance,whichcan be expressedas additional(equivalent) pipe
lengthsin computingthe overallpressuredrop.Table4.20Oivesthequiva6ntlengthsforthe variousfittings
commonlyused.
Example(a) To dettminethe sizeot pip6thatwill pass 16800Uminol free air with a maximumpressuredrop
of not morethan 0.3 bar in 125 m ot pipe.The 2 stagecompressorswitcheson at 8 bar and stopsat 10
bar;the avrageis 9 bar.

3o kPa pressuredropin 125 m of pipeis equivalentto =o.24 kpaI m.

ffi
Refeningto Nomogram4.19:Drawa linefrom 9 baron the pressureline through0.24 kPa/ m on the
pressuredrop lineto cul lhe referencline at X.
Join X to 0.28m3n/s and drawa lineto intecectthe pipesize linesat approximatly
61 mm.
Pipewitha minimumboreof 61 mm can bused.a 65 mm nominalborepipe (seeTable4.21)has a
boreol 68 mm and wouldsatisfythe requirements
withsomemargin.
Example(b) lf th 125 m lngthof pipe in (a) abovehas a numberof littingsin the line,e.g.,two elbows,two
90" bends,six standardteesand two gatevalves,will a largersizpipe be necessaryto limitthe
pressuredropto 30 kPa?

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 P N E U M A T I CT E C H N O I O G Y

In Table4.20,column"65 mm Dia',we findthe lollowingequivalentpipelength:

twoelbows: 2. 1.4m - 2.8m
two90obends: 2'0.8 m = 1 . 6m
six standardlees: 6 . 0.7 m = 4.2m
two gatevalves: 2 . 0.5 m = 1 . 0m
Total 9.6 m
10 m additionalpipelength-
The twelvefittingshavea flow resistanceequaltoapproximately
The "E rectiveLength"ot the pipeis thus 125+ 9.6 -135 m

and the allowed4p I r, *#P = 022 kPa/ m

r35 m

Relerringagainto nomogramin fig 4.19:The pipesize linewill now cut at almoslthe samedia;a
nominalborepipeot 65 mm,withan actualinnerdiameterot 68 mm will be satistactory.

Note:
Th6 possibilityof futureair demandsshouldbe taien intoaccountwhendeterminingthe sizeof mainsfor a
new installation.

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 P E u f r t A T t cT E c H t r t o L o c Y

2
1.5
1

2.O 0.5
1.75 o.4
1.5
0.3
6t
1.0 1.5". 40
0.9
0.8
6 o.7 , , o . 1 . .25! 35
7 0.6
..-8 0.5 0.05
9: 0.4 0.04
10 0.03
o.3 o.025
11 0.02
'12 0.25
0.015
o::.
0.01
0.15

"p
kPa/m
= bar/100m
PipeLength

Flg. 4.19 Nomogramfor Sizingthe MainsPipeDiameter

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 P N E U M A T I CT E C HN O L O G Y

Type of Flttlng Nominalplpe 6lze (m!n)

t5 20 3025 40 50 65 80 100 125
Elbow 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 l . l 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.2
90' Bend(lono) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.5
90' Elbow 1.0 1.2 1.6 1 . 8 ?.2 2.6 3.0 5.4 7.1
180' Bend 0.5 0.6 0.8 l.l t.2 t.1 2.0 4.1
GlobeValve 0.8 l.l 2.0 2.4 3.4 4.0 5.2 9.4
GateValve 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0 . 5 0.6 0.9 t.z
StandardTee 0.1 o.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.5 0;l 0.9 t.2 t.5
SideTee 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.4 1,6 2.1 2.7 4.1 6.4
Pipe
Table 4,20 Equivalent Lengthstor lhe mainfittings

Materlels for Ptplng

Standard Gas Pipe (SGP)

The air mainis usuallya steelor malleableiron pipe. This is oblainablein blackor galvanizedlorm, which
is lessliableto corrode.Thistype of pipingcan be screwedto acceptthe rangof proprietarymalleable
fittings.For over80 mm Dia,weldedflangesare oflenmoreeconomicalto installralherthancut threadsinto
largepipes.The specifications ol the CarbonSt6elStandardGas Pipe(SGP)are:

Nominal Width Outside Dia. Thicknesc Mass

B mm mm ks/m
6 l/8 10.5 2.0 0.4t9
8 v4 13.8 0.652
l0 3/8 I t.J 0.851
l5 tn 21.7 2.8 1.310
20 3t4 27.2 2.8 1.680
25 34.O 3.2 2.430
3? Iv4 3.5 3.380
40 I ltz 48.6 3.5 3.890
50 2 60.3 3.65 5.100
65 2|n 76.1 3.65 6.510
75 3 88.9 4.05 8.470
100 114.3 45 12.100

T a b l e 4 . 2 1 P i p eS i z e S p e c i t i c a t i o n
Stainless steel pipes
Thseare primarilyusedwhenvery largediametersin longstraightmainlinesare required.
Copper Tube
Wherecorrosion,heatresislanceand highrigidityarrequired,coppertubingup to a nominaldiameterof
40 mm can be used,but will be relativelycostlyovet28 mm. Dia. Compression
fittingsusedwith annealed
qualitytubingprovideeasyworkingtor installation.

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 P N E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

FlubberTube ("Air Hose")

Rubberhoseor reintotced
plasticis mostsuitable
tor airactuaiedhandloolsas it otterstlexibility
tor
treedomof movement tortheoperalor.Thedimensions of pneumatic RubberHoseare:

Nominal Width, OutsideDia. lnside Dia. Inner SectionalArea

inches Mm mm mm2
v8 9.2 3.2 8.04
v4 10.3 6.3 31.2
3/8 t8.5 9.5 70.9
tn 2t.7 t2.7 r27
5/8 74.t0 t5.9 t99
3t4 29.0 19.0 284
I 35.4 a<A
507
1u4 45.8 31.8 794
I ltz 52.1 38.1 I140
1 3t4 60.5 44.5 1560
2 66.8 50.8 2030
2lt4* 8 1 l. 57.r 25ffi
2 v2* 90.5 63.5 3170
fable 4.22 RubberhoseSpecitication.
Ctorh-wrappd
hose
*Rubberhoseis mainly
recommended
for toolsand olherapplicationswherethe tubis exposedto
mchanical
wear.
Plastic tubing
Commonlyusedfor the interconnection of pneumaticcomponents.Withinils workingtemperature
limitationsit hasobviousadvantagestor installation,allowingasycuttingto length,and rapidconnectionby
eithercompressionor quick-fitfinings.
greatertlxibilityfor tighterbendsor constanlmovementis required,a softergradenylonor polyurethane
. lf
is available,but it has lowermaximumsafeworkingpressures,Be awarethat its o.D., nofits intemal
dimension,callsout tubing.A %"tube hasa typicall.D. of only0.12S".

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 P N E U l , t a T l cT E c H N o L o G Y

Flttlngs ln Systems
pneumatic
In systems, byvariousmethods
areconnected
componenls

The INSERTtype providesa reliable

retainingforceinsideand oulsideof the
tub.The sleevepressesthe tubewhen
screwingin thcap nut. The tube (inserl)
enteringintothe tube reducesits inner
diameterand thus represenlsa
considerabl extraflow resistance.
Insertsleevesare not reusable.

Fig. 4.23 Exampleof an lnsertFitling.

The PUSH- lN connectionhasa large

retainingforceand the useof a special
profilesealensurespositivesealingfor
pressureand vacuum.Thereis no additional
as the connectionhasthe
flow restriction,
sameinnerflowsectionas the inner
diameterof thfittingtube.
Reusablelor hundrdsof inserlions.

Flg.424 Exampleof a Push-inFitting,elbowtype

The SELF-SEALING fittinghas a builtin

mechanismso that air doesnot exhaust
atterremovalof the tube and is also
applicablefor copperfree applications.
a. lf no tube is pushdin, a check
valveshutsotf the fitting.
b Whena tube is inserted,it opens
lhe air flow by pushingth6 chec*valve Flg. 4.25 Exampleof a Self-SealFitting.
from its seat.

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 P E U r r A T t cT E c H a { o L o c Y

5 AIRTREATMENT
As describedpreviously,all atmospheric air carriesbothdustand moislure.Aftercompression, moisture
condenssout in the aftercoolerand receiverbut therewill always bo some that will be caried over.
Moreovertineparticlesof carbonizedoil, pipescaleand otherforeignmatter,suchas wornsealingmaterial,
tormgummysubstances. All of this is likelyto haveinjuriouseffectson pneumaticequipmentby increased
sealand componentwear,seal expansion,corrosionand stickingvalves.
To removBthesecontaminants, the air shouldbe furthercleaned(tiltered)as nearas possibleto the point
ol use. Air also
treatment includes Pressure Begulationand occasionallyLubrication'

FILTERING
S T A N D A R DF I L T E R
The standardtilteris a combinedwaterseparatorand lilter. It the air has not beende-hydraled
beforehand,a considerable quantityof waterwill be collectedand the lilter will holdbacksolidimpuritiessuch
as dustand rustoarticles,

CleanAir
PilotValve

Baffle Plate
DrainValve

QuietZone
Bowl

BowlGuard

-.'i\-
.7
DrainValve
Symbol SymbolFilter/Separator
Filter/Separator with Auto Drain
Fig. 5.1 TypicalFilter/Water
Separatorand an AutomaticDrainas option
The waterseparationoccursmainlyby a rapidrotationof the air,causedby the detlector at the inlet. The
heavierparticlesot did, walerand oil arelhrownoutwardsto impaclon the wall of the ftlterbowlbetore
runningdownto collectat the bottom.The liquidcanthenbe drainedoff througha manualdraincock or an
automaticdrain.The baffle plate createsa quietzonebeneaththswidingair, prventing the separatedliquid
frombeingre-entrained intothe air stream.

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 P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c v

The filterelementremoveslhe tinerparticlesof dust,rust scaleand carbonizedoil as the air flowsthrough

to the oullel. The standardelementwill removoall contamination Darticlesdownto 5 micronsin size. Some
elomentscan be easilyrmoved,cleanedand re-useda numberof timsbetoreneedingto be rplaced
becauseof excessivepressuredrop.
The bowlis normallymadefrom polycarbonate.For satetya metalbowlguardmustprotectit. For
chemicallyhazardousenvironmenlsspecialbowl materialsmustbe used.Wherethe bowlis exposedto heat,
sparkselc, a metalbowlshouldbe used.
lf the condensateaccumulatesat a highrateit is desirableto provideautomaticdraining.
The righthandside of Fig.5.1 showsa floattype of autodrainunitbuilt-infor standard,ilter.

Micro Filters or Coalescrs

Wherecontamination
by oil vaporis undesirable,
a micro-tilteris used.Being
a Durefilterit is not
equippedwith a detlector FiltringTissue
ptate.
0.3 pm
The alr tlows from the
inlet to the center of th
fllter cartridge then out-
wards through the outlet.
Dustis trappedwithin
the microfilterelement,the
oil vaporand watermistis
convrtedintoliquidby a
coalescingactionwithin
the lilter material,torming
dropson the filtercartridge
lo collecl at th bottomof
the bowl.

Sub-microFiltfrs
A sub-microfilterwill
removevirtuallyall oil and
waterand alsoline
Particlesdownto 0.01of a
micron,to provide
maximumprotectionfor pnumaticprecisionmeasuringdevices,electrostatic spraypainting,cleaningand
dryingot electronicassembliesetc -- the principleof operationis the sameas a microlilter,but its fifur
elementhas additionallayerswitha higherliltrationefficiency.

Filter Selection
The sizeof air filterlhat is requhdtor a particularapplicationis dependenton two factorsi
a) The maximumflow of compressedair usedby the pneumaticequipment.
b) The maximumacceptablepressuredropfor the application.
Manufacturers provideflowpressurediagramsto enablecorrectsizingto be done.

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 PNEU$ATIC TECHNOIOGY

, lt shouldbe notedthat usinga standardfiltertor the applicationmightnot separateas etficientlybecauseof

I a lowerflowvelocity.

A ! FO U A L I T Y
:ILTEBINGLEVELS
Fig5.3 illustratesditferentlevelsof purityfor variousapplications.
Air froma compressorpassesthroughan aftercoolerwithan autodrainto removecondonsate.As the air
coolslurtherin the air receiver,an autodrain,installedon the bottomremovesmoreoondensale.Additional
drainsmay be tittedto all low pointson the pipeline.
The svslemdividesintothreemainparts:
Branches(1 and 2)
provideair directlrom the
air receiver.Branches(3 -
6) useair conditionedby a
retrigeratedtype ot dryer.
Branch7 incorporates an Refdgerated
additionaldryerot the AirDryer
adsorptiontype.
Standardfiltersin sub Compressor
branchesI and 2.
equippedwithautodrains
removecondensate: sub- 3
branch2 beinghigher
buritybecauseof th
microtilter. Subbranches a MicroFilter 4
-
3 5, use refrigerated dry b Sub-microFilter
air.Thus.branch3
requiresno autodrain, c OdorRemovalFilter 5
branch4 needsno pre d AdsorbtionAir
lihe ng and branch5
givesan improvedlevelot 6
air purityusinga micro
filterand sub microfilter,
the moisturehavingbeen 7
removedby a refrigerated
typeof air dry6r.

Flg. 5.3 SchematicDelinitionof 7 Degreesof Filtration

an odor rmovalfilter.An adsorptiontypedryereliminatesall risk of
Sub branch6 incorporates
at lowlempratures
condensation in sub branch7.
Typical applicationsare listed in Table 5.4.

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 P N E U M A t I cT E C H N O L O G Y

Number Removalof: Application Typical Examples

Dustpanicles>5F Liquid oil
>99%Sarurated humidity
46%.
Dustpanicles>0.31rOil misr
>99.9%
Saturated
humidity99%.
Humidityto an aunospheric
dewpointof -l7'C
Funherasin (l ).
Dustpanicles>0.3uOil mist
>99.9%Humidityup to an
atmosphericdew pointof
-t7"c.
Wheresomesolid impurities,
humidityandoil canbe
acceDted.
Wberetheremovalof dustand
oil dominaaes,bui a cenain
amountof condensation canbe
risked.
Wherethercmovalof humidily
is imperativebut tracesof fine
dustandoil areacceDtable.
Whereno hurnidity,fine dust
andoil vaporareacceptable.
Workshopair for clamping,
blowing,simplepneumatic
drives.
Generalindustrialequipment
pneumaticconirolsanddrives
Seallessmetallicjoints, air
toolsandair motors.
Similarto (l) but asthe air is
dry additionally generalspray
Daintins.
Processcontrol,measuring
equipment,high qualityspray
painting,coolingof foundry
andinjectionmoldingdies.

Dust particles>0.01U Where purc air, practically free Pneumaticprecisionmeasuring

Oil mist >99.9999%Humidity
as(4).
as(5) with additionalodor
removal.
all impuritiesasin (6) but with Whereevery risk of
an atmosphericdew point
below-30" C.
from anyimpurityis required. devices,electrostaticspray
painting, cleaningand drying
of electronicassemblies.
Whereabsolutelypurc air, as Pharmacy,food industdesfor
in (5), but odor freeair is packaging,air transportand
reouircd. brewing.Breathineair.
Drying electroniccomponenb
condensation duringexpansion Storageof pharmaceutical s
and at low temperaturesmust Marine measuringequipment
be avoided.
Air transportof powder.

of the sevenqualitiesof air

Table 5.4 Definitionand typicalapplications

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 P N E U T / t A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

b n e s s u n eR E G U L A T T o N
Regulationo{ pressureis necessarybecausa at pressures rapidwearwilltakeplacewilh
aboveoptimum,
littleor noincreasein output.Airpressure
thatis too lowis because
uneconomical it resultsin poorefficiency.

S T A N D A R DR E G U L A T O R
Pressureregulatorshavea pislonor AdiustingKnob
diaphragmto balancelhe outputpressure
againstan adiustablespringforce.
Adjusling
Spindle
The secondarypressureis set by lhe
adiuslingscrewloadinglhe settingspringto SettingSpring
holdthe mainvalveopen,allowingllow from
the primarypressurepl inlelportlo the
secondarypressurepz outlotport.Thenthe Diaphragm
pressurein the circuilconnectedto the outlel
risesand actson the diaphragm,creatinga PI p2
littingforceagainstthe springload.
Whenconsumption starts,pAwill initially alve Spring
dropand the spring,momentarily stronger Fig 5.5. Principleot the PressureRegulator
than the liftinglorce {rom p2 on th
diaphragm,opensthe valve.
lf the consumptionratedrops,p2 willslightlyincrease,this increasesthe forceon the diaphragmagainst
the springforce-- diaphragmand valvewillthen lift unlillhe springforceis equaledagain.The airflowthrough
the valvewill be reduceduntilit matchesth6 consumplionrateand the outputpressureis maintained.
lf the consumptionrateincreases,p2 will slightlydecrease.This decreasesthe forceon lhe diaphragm
againstthe springtorce,diaphragmand valvedropuntilthe springforceis equaledagain.This increaseslhe
airflowlhroughthe valveto matchthe consumptionrate.
Withoul air consumF
tion the valvis closed.lf
the secondarypressur
risesabovethe set valu
by virtueot:
. re-settingthe
regulatorto a loweroutlet
pressure,or Believing
. an eliemal rverse
thrustfroman actualor,
the diaphragmwill liftto
openthrelievingseatso P1
thal excessoressurecan
be bledoff throughthe
vent holein the rigulator a b
body.
DoNOTrelyonthis Fig. 5.6 RelievingFunction
orificeas anexhaust
flow
I Path.

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 P N E U M A T I cT E C H I t o L o G Y

Wilh vryhighllow ratesthe valveis wide

open.The springis thertoreelongatedand lhus
weakerand the equilibriumbetweenp2 on th
diaphragmareaand the springoccursat a lower
level.This problemcan be corrctdby creatinga
thirdchamberwitha conneclionlo lhe outout
channel.In thischanneltheflowvelocityis high.
As xplainedin section3, the staticpressureis
then low (Bemoulli).As pOis nowat a lowerstatic
pressure,the balanceagainstlhe weakened p1
springal highflow ratesis compensated.
The etfectcan be improvedby insertinga tube
in the connection,cut at an anglewiththe opening
orientedtowardsthe outlet(fig 5.8). Fig. 5.7 Principleof a FlowCompensated
Regulator
Thereis stillan inconvenience in the regulator
of fig. 5.7: if the inletpressurepl increases,a
higherlorce is actingon the bottomof the valve,
tryingto closeit. That meansthat an increasing
inputpressuredecreasesthe outputpressurand
vice ve6a. A valvehavingequalsurfaceareasfor
bothinputand outputpressurein bothdirections
can eliminatethis.This is realizedin the regulator
of fig. 5.8

The mostimportanlparlsar:
(O Adiustingspindle

@ SettingSpring

O RelievingSeat

@ Diaphragm

@ FlowComoensation
Chamoer
(D FlowCompensation
ConnectionTube

O vatve

@ O-Ringlor PressurCompensation

0 ValveSpring

@ O-Ringfor FtowCompensation Flg. 5.8 FullycompensatedPressure

Regulator

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 PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

I L O T O P E R A T E DR E G U L A T O R
The piloloperatedregulatoroftersgreateraccuracyof pressureregulationacrossa largetlow rang6'
Thisaccuracyis obtainedby replacingthe seningspringot a standardregulatorwith pilotpressurelrom a
smallpilotregufdorsit6don the unit.
The pilotregulatoron top ol the unitsuppliesor exhaustspilotair onlyduringcorrectionsof the oulput
pressure.Thisenablesthe regulatorto achievevery highllow ratesbut ke6psthe settingspringlenglhto a
minimum.

SettingSpring

PressureRelief
PilolDiaphragm

PilotValve

Diaphragm

P1

MainValve

MainValve
MainSecondary
Pressure
Reliel

Flg 5.9 PilotPressureRegulator

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 P N E U M A T T cT E c H N o L o c y

F I L T E F . R E GU L A T O R
Air filleringand pressureregulationis combindin the
singleliltrregulatorto providea compactspacsavingunit.
Charccterlstlcs

A regulatorsizeis selectedto give the flow requiredby the

applicationwitha minimumol prssurevarialionacrossthe
tlow rangeot the unit.
Manufacture6providegraphicalinlormationregardingthe
tlow characteristics
ol theirquipment.
Thmostimportantis
the Flow/ pA diagram.lt showshow pA decreaseswith
increasingflow.(Fig.5.11).The curvehasthreedistinct
portions:
1. the inrush,witha smallgap on the valvethat doesnot
yel allowrealregulation
2. the regulationrangeand
3, the saturationrange;lhe valveis wideopenand further
rgulationis impossible
p 2 ^
(bar)o

(bar)

6 0 2000 4000 6000

> O (l/min) Fig 5.10 Typical Filter Regularor
Flg.5.11 TypicalFloWPressure
Chancteristics:
a: Regulator,b: Filter

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 P N E U M A T T CT E C I I N O L O G Y

S I Z I N GO F B E G U L A T O R SA N D F I L T E F S
I
FRLelementshaveto be sizedin accordancewiththe requiredflowcapacity.For Regulalols,lhe average
volumellowshouldbe theonein the middleot the regulating range(ll in ti9.5.11a).Thesizeof lhe tilteris
definedby the pressuredrop,For a'StandardFilter/Separator " (nota Line Filte0,a minimumpressuredrop
With maximumflow,AAp (allowableor desirabledeltap)
of about0,2 bar is requiredto nsurefunctioning.
shouldhoweverbkeptbelow1 bar.
The sizeis theretoredetinedby the requiredflow,not by the connectionsizeof the component.Modular
systemsgivethe capabilitylo adaptthe connectionthreadto lhe availablelube size.

} O M P B E S S E DA I R L U B R I C A T I O N
Lubricationis no longera necessityfor the majorityof modernPneumaliccomponentsare availablepre-
lubricatedfor life.
of modemhighcycling
of thesecomponentsare tullyup to the requirements
The life and performance
processmachinery.
The advantagesol "non-lube'systemsinclude:-
oil levels.
a) Savingsin the cost ol lubricationequipment,lubricatingoil and maintaining
b) Cleanermorehygienicsystems;of particularimportancein foodand pharmaceutical
induslries.
c) Oilfree atmosphere, for a healthier,saferworkingenvironmenl.
To 6nsurethey are continuallylubricated,a certainquantityof
Certainequipmentstillr6quireslubrication.
is
oil added to the compressedair by means of a lubricalor.
' R O P O R T I O N A LL U B R I C A T O R S
ln a (proportional)lubricatora pressuredropbotweeninletand outlet,directlyproportional
to lhe flow rate,
is crealedand littsoil fromthe bowlintothe sightfeed dome.
a greatlyincreasedflow ratewouldcreatean excessivepressuredropand
With a tixedsizeot restriction,
producean air/oilmixturethat had too muchoil,{loodingthe pneumaticsystem.
Converselya decreasedflow ratemaynol createsufficientprssuredropresultingin a mi)durewhichis too
lean.
crosssectionslo producea conitant
To overcomethis problem,lubricatorsmusthaveself-adiusting
mixture.
Air enleringa lubricator(as shownin Fig 5.12)followstwo paths:it llowsovrthe dampervaneto the
outletand also entersthe lubricatorbowlvia a checkvalve,
Wh6nlhereis no flow,the samepressureexistsabovethe surfaceot the oil in thbowl,in the oil tubeand
the sighlteeddome. Consequntlythereis no movementof oil.
Whenair llowsthroughthe unit,lhe dampervanerstrictorcausesa prgssuredropbtweenthe inletand
outlet. The higherthe flow,the greaterthe pressuredrop.
Sincethe sightleed domeis connectedby the capillaryholeto the low-pressure
zonimmediately
afterthe
dampervane, the pressurein the domeis lowerthan that in the bowl.
This pressureditferenceforcesoil up the tube,throughthe oil checkvalveandJlowregulatorintothe
dome.
Once in the dome,the oil seepsthroughthe capillaryholeinlo the mainair streamin the areaof the
highestair velocity.The oil is brokenup into minusculeparticles,atomizedand mixedhomogeneously withthe
air by the turbulencein the vortexcreatedby the dampervane.

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 P EU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

FletlllPlug
SightFeedDome Capillary
Connction
Oil Thronb

CheckValv
DamoerVane

Oil Tube

BowlGuard

SinteredBronze
Oil Filler

Fig 5.12 Proportional

Lubricator
The dampervaneis madelrom a flexiblematerialto allowit to bendas flow increases,wideningthe tlow
path,to proportionally
adjustthe pressuredropand thus maintaina constantmixturethroughout.
The oil throttleallowsadjustmntof the quantityot oil tor a givenpressuredrop. The oil checkvalve
retainsthe oil in the upperpart ot thtubewhenthe air flowtmporarily stops.
The air checkvalveallowsthe unitto be refilledunderpressure,whileworkcan normallygo on.
The conectoil feed ratedependson operatingc-onditions;
but a gneralgude is to allowone or two drops
per cycleof th6 machine.
A pure(no-additives)
minoraloil of 32 cnti-stokes
viscosityis recommended (lSO standardVG32).Some
oil companieshavea specialoil tor compressedair lubrication,with a highcapacityto absorbmoislurewithout
lossof lubricatingproperties.

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 P N E U I , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

I' F . R . L . Lub.lcator
UNITS
Modulartilter,pressureregulatorand lubricator
elementscan be combinedintoa serviceunitby
joiningwithspacersand clamps.Mounting
bracketsand olheraccessories can be easilyfitted
in morerecenldesigns.

SlZE AND INSTALLATION

The combinalionunitmuslagainbe sizedfor
the maximumtlow rateof the system.
Manulaclurerswillgenerallyprovidethis
information.
Mostsystemsrequirean approvedshul-otfor
lockoul valve.ln addition,thereare doviceslhat Flg. 5.13 TypicalFBL Unitin a modular
allowan EmergencyStoptunctionand a slowslart design
option,whereair is introducedto lhe systmat a
reducedrate.
Forconectplacementand operalionof thesedevicesconsultthe manufacturers' instruclions.For
maintenance threshouldbe a way to stopair flowatterthe F.R.L.unitand belorethe unit,isolatingthe F.R.L.
for repair.In mostcases,the EmergencySlopshouldbe downslreamo{ the F.R.L,to preventbacKlowing
(reverseflow)the filter(whichcouldcauseelementcollapse),the regulator(diaphragmcouldbe damaged),
andthe lubricator(drivingoil mistinsidethe tilterelement).

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 PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLocY

6 ACTUATORS
Theworkdoneby pneumatic actuatorscanbelinearor rotary.Linearmovement by piston
is obtained
reciprocating
rylinders, rotary
motionwilhan angleupto 270' by vane or rackandpiniontypeactuatorsand
continuousrotation
by airmotors.

I N E A RC Y L I N D E R S
Pneumaticcylindersof varyingdesignsare the mostcommonpowercomponentsusedin pneumatic
automation.Thereare lwo basictypesfromwhichspecialconslructions are derived:
. Singl-acting
cylinderswithone air inltto producea powrstrokein one direction
. Double-aciing
cylinderswilh two air inletsto produceextendingand relractingpowerstrokes

I N G L E A C T I N GC Y L I N D E F
A singleactingcylinderdevelopsthrustin one directiononly.The pistonrod is retumedby a fittedspringor
by externalforcefromthe loador spring.
It maybe a 'push'or 'pull"type(lig6.1)
SinteredBronzeFiller Stoo Spring

Fig. 6,1 TypicalSingleActingCylinder,SpringRetractedor'Push" type

Singleactingcylindersare usedlor clamping,marking,eiectingetc. Theyhavea somewhatlowerair
consumption comparedwiththe equivalentsizeot doubleactingcylinder.Howeverthereis a reductionin
thrustdue to the opposingspringforce,and so a largerboremay be required.Alsoaccommodating the
springresultsin a longeroveralllengthand limitedstrokelength.

O U B L E A C T I N GC Y L I N D E R
Withthis actuator,thtustis developedin bothelitendingand retractingdirectionsas air pressureis applied
alternatelyto oppositesidesof a piston. The thrustavailableon the retractingstrokois reduceddue to the
smallerettectivepislonarea,but is onlya considerationif the cylinderis to 'pull' the sameload in both
dirctions.
Rod Seal/ Rod ISOSymbol:

Fig. 6.2 DoubleActingCylinder

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 P EU ATtc TEcHNoLocy

Cyllnder Constructlon

The conslructionol a doubleactingcylindris shown. The barrelis normallymadeot samlesstubewhich

may be hardcoatedand super-finished on ths innerworkingsurfaclo minimizewearand friction.The end
caps maybe aluminumalloyor malleableironcastingsheldin placeby tie rods,or in the caseot smalle!'
cylinders,fil intothe barreltube by screwlhreador be crimpedon. Aluminum,brass,bronzeor stainlesssteel
may be us6dtor the cylinderbodyfor aggressiveor unsafeenvironments.

Frontor RodCover Seal Guiding Backor

Cylinder PislonMagnetic or Wear Head
Barrelor Seal Ring Ring Cover
Tube
ScraperRing/
Bod-Seal

Blind
Rod End
End

PistonRod

t 1
L (
Tie Rod
ISO Symbol CushionSeal Cushion Tie Rod Nut
Barrel
Flg. 6.3 the componentpartsof a doubleactingcylinderwithair cushioning
Varioustypesof sealsensurethat the cylinderis airtight.
Cushlont ng
Pneumaticcylindersare capableot very highspedand considerable shockforcscan be dvlopdon
the end of the stroke.Smallercylindersotlenhavefixedcushioning,i..rubberbufters,to absorbthe shock
and preventinternaldamageto the cylinder.Oh largercylinders,the impactetfectcan babsorbdby an air
cushionthat deceleratesthe pistonoverthe lastportionof the stroke. This cushiontrapssomeof the
exhaustingair nearthe end of the strokebeforeallowingit to bleedoft moreslowlythroughan adjustable
nedlevalve(fi9.6.4).

Fig. 6.4 Principleof the Air Cushion

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 PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

1 The normalescapeof the exhaustingairto the outletportis closedoft as the cushionpistonentersthe

fcushion seal,so thattheair canonlyescapethroughme adjuslable Port.Thetrappedair is
restriction
compressed to a relativelyhighpressure,whichbrakesthe inertiaof the piston.
Whenthe pislonreverses,lhe cushionsealacts as a checkvalveto allowairflowto the piston.lt howover
of the piston.The cushioningstrokeshouldthereforebe as
restrictsthe air flowand delaysthe acceleration
shorlas possible.
To decelerateheavyloadsor highpistonspeeds,an extemalshockabsorberis required.It the piston
speedexceedsabout5OOmrn/san externalmechanicalstop mustbprovided,whichis alsothe casewith
built-incushioning.

S P E C I A LC Y L I N O E RO P T I O N S
,ouble Rod

ISOSymbol
Fig. 6.5 Principleof lhe doublerod
A doublrod makesa cylinderstrongeragainstside load,as it hastwo bearingsat the widestdistance
possible.Thistypeof cylinderis ottenmountedwiththe rodstixedand the cylinderitselfmovingto displacea
oart.
ton Botatlng Rod
The pistonrod of a standardcylinderrotatesslightlyas thereis no guideto prevontthis.Thereforeit is not
possibleto directlymounta tool,e.g.a cuningblade.
Forlhis kindof application,whreno
considerable torqueis exercisdon the tool,a
cylindGrwithnon-rotating rod can be used.The
suppliersspecitythe maximumallowabletorque.
As tig. 6.6 shows,lwo flat planson the rod and
a fittingguidepreventthe rotation.
It showsalso howa torquecrealesa high
forceon the edgesof the rod profile,whichwill
damageit in the longrun.

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 P N E U $ A T r cT E c H N o L o c Y

Twln Rod

Thistype o, cylindgrhas a highlateralload resistanceand highnon-rotatingaccuracy.Thesecompactdual

rod cylindersare of highprecisionand idealfor pickand placeoperations.Do not assumethatthe dual
cylindersqualthetheoreticalforceof ong largercylinder'stheoreticalforce,,9.two 25 mm.boresin a dual
rod cylinderproducehalfthe torceol one 50 mm borecylinder(provethisto yourselt).
Sectlon A-A
Symbol;
Unofficial:

rso:
-'-+i
A
Fig. 6,7 Twin RodCylinder
FIet Cylinder
A cylindernormallyhas squarecoversand,generally,a roundcylinder.By stretchingthe pistonto a
relativelylong rectangularshapewith roundends,it achievesthe sameforceas a conventionalcylinder.The
advantage,of course,is the savingin spaceachievedif they are to be stackedtogethr.Suitablefor mostnon
rotatingapplications.

SectlonA-A

rsosymbor,Fll

Flg. 6.8 Principleof a FlatCylinder

Tandem Cylinder

A tandemcylinderis two doubleactingcylindersioinedtogetherwith a commonpistonrodto form a single

unit.

ISO Symbol:

Fig. 6.9 Principleof the TandemCylinder

By simultaneouslypressurizingbothcylinderchambersthe outputforceis almostdoublethal of a standard
cylinderof the samediameter.lt oflersa higherlorce froma givendiameterol cylinder,theretoreit can be
usedwhreingtallation spaceis restricted.

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 PNEU ATIc TEcHNOLOGV

Multl Posltlon Cyllnder

The two end positionsot a standardcylinderprovidetwo fixedpositions.lf morethantwo positionsare

requird,a combinalionof two doubleactingcylindersmaybe usod.
Thereare hvoprinciples:
Forthreepositions,the assmblyon the lett is required;it enablesusersto tix the cylinder.lt is very
suilabletor verticalmovements, e.g. in handlingdevices.
The secondis to mounttwo independent cylinderstogetherbackto back.This allowsfour ditferent
positions,butthe cylindercannotbe tixed.A combination wilh threecylindersof diflerentstrokelength
gives8 posilions,one withlour 16,but a ratherexolicstructureis requiredand the movement,when
cylindersrun in oppositedirections,is very unstable.

Stroke Lengths Positions

100 200 300
4 4 4

ISO Symbols:

Fig. 6.10Thiee andfourpoiitioncylinder

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 P N E U i t a t t cT E c H N o L o G Y

CYLTNDER
MOUNTING
To ensurethal cylindersare correcllymounted,manutaclurers
oftera selectionot mountingsto meetall
requirementsincludingpivotingmovementusingswiveltype mountings.

BearClvis

Flg. 6.11The variousmethodsof CylinderMounting

Floatlng Joints

To accommodate

3(
unavoidable
"misalignment'betweenthe
cylinderrod movementand the
drivenobiect,a lloatingioint must
be fittedto the pistonrod end. Flg 6.12"Floatingjoinf
The investmntin thes
deviceswill insurlongercylinder
life and morereliableoperation--
lar exceedingthe cost of the
deviceitselt.

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 P N E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

f,uckllng Sttength

.h
Whenan excesslhrustis applied 2f\
lo a cylinderthe bucklingslrenglh

,M
mustbo takenintoconsideralion. This
excessthrustcan manifestitselfwhen
lhereis -:
1 -: CompressingStrss.

's
2 -: lf lhe stressedpart,i.e.a
cylinder, is longandslender.
The bucklingstrengthdepends
greatlyuponthe mountingmethod.

'&
Thereare four maincases:
1. Rigidlyfixedon onesideand
looseat the oppositeend.

M
2. Pivotingon bothends.
3. Rigidlyfixedon one side,
pivoiingon the other.
Fig.6.13 Thefourmounting
4. Rigidlytix6dat bothends.
The above-mentioned conditionsapplyif a cylinderliftsor pushesa load;it is lhen sub.iected
lo
compressing stress.lf a certainspecifiedstrokelengthis exceeded,the cylindercan "brakout'sidewaysand
seizethus renderingthe cylinderuseless.To avoidunnecessarylossof timeand money,checkwiththe
lengthlable"in the supplier'scatalogue.Thgeneralruleof thumbis if the strokeof cylindersabove
mm boreis threetimesthe diameleror, in the caseof smallercylinders,the strokeis tive timesthe bore
the cylinderis pushinga load.

Y L I N D E RS I Z I N G
Y L I N D E RF O R C E
heoretlcel Force
Linearcylindershavethe followingstandarddiametersas rcommended
in ISO:
8, 10,12, 16,20,25,32,40,50,63,80,100,125,140,160,200,250,320 mm
The forcedevelopedby a cylinderis a functionof the pistondiameter,the operatingair pressureand the
resistance.Forthe theoreticalforc,the thruston a stationarypislon,the frictionis neglectd.
This,
force,is calculatedusingthe tormulae:
Force(N) Pistonarea1m2)' airpressure(N/m2), or
Force(lbt.) Pistonarea(in2). airpressure
(lbf./in2)
Thustor a double acting cyllnder:

Extending FE= +
strcke: .d- A

Where(D = pislondiameter,p9 = Working(gauge)pressure)

Retractingstroke:Fg = . tB - &l . n where(d= pistonroddiamerer)

t

DO NOT COPYWTHOUT WRITTENPERMISSION

 P E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o G Y

lor a singleactlngcyllnder:

FEs= = ' d 'p - Fs (Fs = Springforceat the end of stroke)

4

It may be quickerlo use a diagramsuchas lhe one in fig. 6.14,showingthe theoreticalforcetor 10,7and 5
bar , or any similarsuppliersinformationto selecta cylindersize.

rooozj 10

-;,2.
500

z
400
300
?50
200
---,7

1 -
I 2
../
150
r25
p : (bar) lq-t- - 7. 5. 7
-.-71--Z 7-,
---------_ 15{)00

100 .z
=:v7- z.

40
30
-4i -2 5000
4m0

-.4
.44
2500
m 2000
1500
12.5
10
===-rt=='-t
-.2-_L-2.
{E
d----
- - r - /
4 .zx.
:2.
6 (mm)
Fig.6.14 TheorticalForceof pneumaticcylinders,trom 2.5 to 30 mm (leftand top scales)
and from32 to 300 mm (rightand bottomscales)for 19,.1-a"ng,5bg!.workingpressure
Example: Determinethe theoreticalsizeof a cylinderoperatingat a pressureof 6 bar that wouldgeneralea
clampingforceof 1600N.
ttf

Assumingan extendingstroke:- Fe= G'p

i
4'1600 N
Transposing: D= = 0.0583m = 58.3mm.
r'600000N/m2
A 63 mm. Dia.cylinderwouldbe selected,the largersize providingextratorceto overcomefrictional
resisiance.
By usingthe diagram,we lookfor 1600N on the ForceScaleat the rightside and find 1500as a dashedline.
We followit to the left untilwe reacha poinlbetweenlhe PressureLinesfor 5 and 7 bar and find an
intersectionbotween50 and 63 mm Dia.on the DiameterScaleon the bonom.Thereis no doubtthat
the samediameteris correctfor 1600Nas well as 1500N,

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 P N E U M A T TTcE c H No L o c Y

.lequlred Force

The requiredforcedependson lhe massol lhe load,the angleof movementor elevation,lhe triction,the
workingpressureand the ettectivepislonarea,
The loadconsistsof the Weightof the mass(Fig.6.15a), the ForceB representedby the trictionlacior
timesmass(Fig.6.15b) and the requirdacceleration (Fig.6.15c). The re-partitionof theselorcesdependg
on the angleof the cylinderaxiswith the plane
horizontal (elevation)as shownin tig' 6.15d.
F= G. (sina+

F=G F=y.G W6 --tn2. , v2

l'-;l
+
@ @ @
Fig 6.15Thecomponentforcsof the LOAD
A horizontalmovement(elevation= 0") has onlyfrictionto overcome.Frictionis definedby the friction
coetficientU,whichvariesbetweenabout0.1 to 0.4 for slidingmetalparts,and about0.005for iron,rollingon
iron(0.001for ballson the ring in a ballbearing).Thiscoetficiententersthe formulaas a cosine,whichvaries
from 1 tor horizontalto 0 for vertical.
The massreprsents a load,equalto itrsweight,whenth6 movemenlis vertical(90'elevation),The weight
is thforc6creatodby the earth'sacceleration on the mass.The earth'sacceleration equals,on a lalitudeof
450(Standardlor Europeand N. America),9.80629m.s'"or 32.17ft sec?.Witha horizontalmovementthe
weightis a zero loadas it is fullybornby the construction. The entirecylinderthrustis thenavailablefor
The loadof the massvariesthereforewiththe inclinationtrom 0 to 1000/".lts valueas a factoris
sineof the inclinationangle,0 for horizontal,1 for verlical:

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 P N E U i T A T TT cE c H N o L o c Y

LOAD RATIO

This ratiois generay referredto as "Lo' and equab . 100%

##
A cylindorshouldnot havea highrloadratiothan about85%. It an accuralespeedcontrolis requirdor
loadlorcesvarywidely,60-700/0shouldnot be exceeded-- perhapsno morethan soyoin vertical
applications.
Table6.16givsthe Load Ratiofor cylindersfrom25 to 1OOmm dia.and variouselevationsand two
trictioncoetficients
tor rolling(0.01)and slidingsteelparts(0.2).

Cyl.Dia Mass(kg) T 60" 45' 30' e

u po.2 p It 0.2 p p 0.2 tr It 0.2
0.01 0.01 0.01 0,01
25 100 4 80
50 2.2 40
25 (87.2) (s6.7) 71.5 84.9 50.9 67.4 '| 20
12.5 51.8 .+o.o 48.3 342.5 25.4 aa7 10
32 180 4.4
90 2.2 ls.s
45 (s5.6) 78.4 /oa ll 55.8 73.9 1.1 22
22.5 54.9 47.8 53 39.2 46.6 27.9 37 0.55 11
40 250 3.9 78
125 (ee.2) 2 39
oc 72.4 (86) 51.6 68.3 1 20.3
.tc 54.6 47.6 52.4 39 46.3 27.4 36.8 0.5 10.9
50 400 4 79.9
200 40
100 (87) (e6.5) 71.3 84.8 50.8 o/.J 1 20
50 EA 43.5 48.3 35.7 42.4 25.4 J5.O 0
63 650 4.1 81.8
300 1.9 37.8
150 (e4.4) 82.3 (s1.2)67.4 80.1 4A 0.9 18.9
75 47.2 41.1 45.6 33.7 40.1 24 31 .8 0.5 9.4
80 1000 3.9 74.1
500 2 ov
250 (e7.6) 85 (s4.3) 69.7 82.8 49.6 65.7 1 19.5
't25 48.8 42.5 47.1 34.8 41.4 24.8 32.8 0.5 9.8
100 'r600
4 79.9
800 2 40
400 (87) (vo.c, 71.4 84.4 50.8 67.3 1 20
200 CU 43.5 48.3 35.7 42.2 25.4 itJ.o 0.5 10
Table 6.16 LoadRatiosfor 5 barworkingpressureand trictioncoefticientsof 0.01and 0.2

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WRITTENPERMISSION
 P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c Y

'I A morepracticalhelptor findingthe correctcylinderdiameterwouldbe to knowlhe allowedloadunder

variousconditions,Therelore,table6.17showsthmassol the totalloadin kg that resultsin a LoadRatioot
85%,lt is basedon 5 barworkingprssureon the cylindrand againlhe two frictioncoefticients0,01tor
rolling(lttcolumn)and 0.2 for sliding(rightcolumn).Thesevaluesare the maximummassol the totalload.

? 60' 30" e
CYL. Dia u: 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.20.01 o.z 0.01 n t
25 2t.2 24.5 30 25 42.5 3 t . 5 2t23 106
32 39.2 45 40.5 5 4 . 8 46.2 77 58.2 3920 196
40 54.5 62.5 56.4 76.3 64.2 107 80.9 5450 272.5
50 85 97.7 88 Il9 100.2 t67.3 126.4 8500
63 135 1 5 5 t39.8 r 8 9 t59.2 265.5 200.5 13500 675
80 zl7.'l 250 225.5 305 256.7 428 323.5 21775 1 0 8 9
100 340.2 390.5 390.8 352 476.2 669.2 505.s 34020 l 7 0 l
Table.6.17Massin kg tor cylinderstrom25 to |00 mm Dia.for a LoadRattoot 85olowilh 5 bar
workingpressure.

P E E DC O N T R O L
The speedof a cylinderis delinedby the extraforcebehindthe piston,abovethe torceopposedby the
load.The loadratioshouldnvarexceed85o/o approx.The ,owerlhe loadratiothe benerthe speedcontrol,
especiallywhenthe loadis subiectto variations.A positivespeedcontrolis obtainedby throttlingthe exhaust
ot the cylinderby meansof a peed Conlrollef,whichis a combinationol a checkvalve,to allowfreeflow
towardsthe cylinder,and an adjuslablethroftle(needlevalve).An exampleol speedcontrolis shownin the
sclionon valvesin the chaptron AuxiliaryValves.To get a conslantspeed,the Load Ratioshouldbe
apprcx.75"/".
Forcis mass(Wg) timesacceleration. The unitsarefor torce:kg . m . s'"and for acceleralion:
m . s'. In
EnglishunitsW = lbs and g = 32.17tvsec".
Example:Massof the load 100 kg, workingpressure5 bar,CylinderDia 32 mm, horizontalmovementwitha
friclion coefficientot 0.2. The theoreticalforce is 401.2 N
Table6.16showsthis caseand 90 kg massa load ratiool43.9 "/..
oh.
Thusfor1ooxg:ns.s.$ = 48.8
The Forceof the load is 48.8% of 401.92N = 196 N. Witha cylinderetficiencyof 95%,95 - 48.8%=
46.2o/oof the torceis lettfor the acceleration
of the load.This is 185,7N. The acceleration
is therefore:
. . =
185.7kg m s-2/ 1OOkg 1.857m' s-2.Withoutcontrol,the pistonwouldthoretically approach2 m/s
afterone second."Theoretically"meansif threis no limiiationto the accessof compressedair behind
and no backpressurein fronl of lhe piston.
The limitationof the exhaustairflowcreatesa pnumaticload,whichis definedby the pistonspeedandth
volumtlowthroughthe restrictionof the speedcontrollr.
Any incraseof the pistonspeedincreasesth6
opposingtoroe.This limitsand stabilizesthe pistonspeed.The higherthe pneumaticpartof the toial load is,
the strongerit can stabilizethpistonspeed.
Witha loadratiool 8570and a cylinderefficiencyof 95%, 10 prcentof the torceis stabilizingthe
pneumaticload.Whenthe mechanicalloadshowsa variationof * 5olothereis a compensation of haltthe
influence.Witha load ratioof tor example50%,thesevariationswill no longerhaveany visibleetfecton the
soeeo.

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 P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c y

Nole that tor a subtlespeodcontrol,the flowcapacityof the tube has to be muchhigherthan that of the
speedcontrollersetling.With a tubewhichis too smallin diameterthe tubelor a greatpart,limitsthe flowand
changingthe needlepositionhas littleefiect.

AIR FLOWAND CONSUMPTION

Thereare two kindsof air consumptiontor a cylinderor pneumaticsystem.
The.firstis the averageconsumptionper hour,a tigureusedto calculatethe energycost as partof the total
cosl priceol a productand to estimatethe requiredcapacityof compressorand air main.
The secondis lhe peakconsumptionof a cylinderrequiredto ascertainthe conectsizeof its valveand
conneclingtubes,or lor a wholesystem,to properlysizethe F.R.L.unitand supplytubes.
The Air Consumption
ot a cylinderis definedas:
Pistonarea ' Strokelength numberof singlestrokesper minute' absolutepressurein bar,
Explanation; Whenthe pistonis againstthe cylindercovr(fig.6.18a), the volumeis zero.Whenwe pull the
rod out unlillhe pistonis on the oppositeend,the cylinderis filledwith atmosphericpressureof lOlg25
Pa- (fig.6.18b), Whenthe pressuretromthe supplyenters,the sweptvolumetimesthe gauge
pressurein bar is added,in additionto lhe atmosphericpressureof 10132Spa.

A-

dfn
a K
F-b--'tl

--+' P.19-z
l= /.- s -!-E Y = D 2 ' ! .s.PP'
nres nm2 { rft Frtn rrnqfte

Fig 6.18TheoreticalAir Consumptionol a cylinder

Withthat,the theoreticalair consumptionof a cylinderis fqrthe extndingstrokeas indicatedin fig.

6.lSandlortheretumstrokeAB.s.(p+patm).WithA=D2.n/4wegetforoutstroking

D (m) . D (m) . rd4.(p + 1.013).Stroke(m) . n (stroks/ min) . 103(l / min),or

- D(mm).D(mm).nt4. (p+ 1.013). Stroke(mm). n (srrokes

/ min). 10(t/ min).
(Wherep = th6gsugepressureandn = the numberol srhglostokes).
For lhe returnstroke,D is replacedby (D-d).
The consumption ot the tubes bet\ een valveand cylinderequals:
InnerTube Dia.(mm.).InnerTube Dia.(mm). Tube Lngth(mm). Gaugepressurein Mpa (0.1 bar)
Table6.19 givesthe thoretical
air consumptionper 1OOmm stroke,for variouscylinderdiamete6and
workingpressures:

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 P N E u f iA T t c T E c H t i l o L o cY

Working Pressurein bar

Pistondis. 3 4 5 6
20 0.124 0.155 0.186 0.217 0.248
7< 0.194 0.243 0.291 0.340 0.388
32 0.3r9 0.398 0.477 0.557 0.636
40 0.498 o.622 0.746 0.870 0.993
50 0.777 0.97t 1.165 r.359 l.t)J

63 |.235 t.542 r.850 2.158 2.465

EO t.93 2.487 2.983 3.4't9 3.975
100 3.III 3.886 4.661 5.436 6.2t1
Table6.19TheoreticalAir Consumption ot doubleactingcylindersfrom20 to 100 mm dia,
in litersper 100mm stroke

Example1. Findtheenergycostperhourof a doubleactingcylinderwithan 80 mm.dia.anda 400 mm.

strokewith t2 doublestrokesper minuteand a workingpressureof 6 bar
In table6.19we see that an 80 mm dia.cylinderconsumes3.5 liters(approx.)per 100mm strokeso:
O /100 mm stroke. 400 mm stroke. numberot strokesper min . forwardand retumstroke = 3.5 ' 4
. 24 = 336 Umin.
In the paragraph'Thermaland OverallEtliciency"in section4, we tindan electricalconsumption
ot 1
kw tor 0.12- 0.15m3/minwitha workingpressureof 7 bar.To produce1 mgn/ minwe require
I Kw of electricpower.
thereforeapproximately
We assumea currencyin whichone kW hr (kilowatl-hour)
costs5 c6nts.

Thecostofproducing flowof .| r3"hin isthen ffififW

a volume = 40cents/ hr.

0.336m3ry'min
In ourexample: . 40 cents/ hr = 13.4cents per hour.
1mg/min
The sum of all the cylinderson a machine,calculatedlhal vvay,represnts
the air consumption
as energy
cosl,
It shouldhoweverbe notedthat,
. the consumption ligursin the abovetabledo not includethe 'dead volume"at eitherend ot the
stroke,il any, northal for the connectingtubes.
. the transferof energyis notwithoutlosses(seefurtherbelow).
Forsizing the valve ot an individualcylinderwe needanotherfigure:the peaktlow. lt dpendson the
highestcylindersped.The highestsum of the peakflowsol all simultaneously movingcylindersdefinesthe
tlowon whichthe FRL unlt hasto be sized.
We may no longerneglctthe thermallosses.In the sectionon the propertyof gaseswe discussed
'adiabatid'change,whichmeansthatthereis no timeto exchangeany heat.Boyle'sLaw,
?.y= constanf is
no longerapplicable,but changesto, ?.lf = constant".The xponentK (kappa)for air is 1.4.The tableot the
compressionratiotablefrom page7 is reproducedbelowwithan additionalrowfor p.t^ = constantand one
withthe ratiolsothermic/ adiabaticcomoression,
Pabs 1 2 4 5 6 tl I 10
crisothermic 0.987 1.987 2.974 3.961 4.948 5.935 6.923 7.908 8.895 9.882
cl adiabatic 0.991 1.633 2.178 2.673 3.133 3.576 3.983 4.38 4.749 5.136
factor I 1 . 2 1 6 1.365 '1.482 1.579 1.66 1.738 1.80 1.873 1.924

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 PNEU ATIcTEcHNoLoGY

To compensate,or the phenomenarelatedto this change,withoutmakingthingstoo complicated,the

theoreticalvolumtlow has to be multipliedby a ,actor1.4,whichrepresentsa fair averagecontirmedin a
high numberot practicaltests.This tigureis lessthan in theory,but the changeis generallynot 100%
adiabalic.
Table6.20showsthe liguresof table6. 19,but withthiscorreclionfactor.

WorkinePrssure
in bsr
Piston dis. 3 4 ! 6 1

20 o.174 o.2t7 0.260 0.304 0.347

25 o.272 0.340 0.408 0.476 0.543
32 0.446 0.557 0.668 0.779 0.890
40 0.697 0.870 !.044 1.218 L391
50 t.088 1.360 1.631 r.903 2.174
63 1.729 2.t59 2.590 3.021 3.45r
EO 2.790 3.482 4.t76 4.870 5.565
100 4.355 5.440 6.525 7.6t1 8.696
Table6.20AirConsumption in litersper100
of doubleactingcylinders
strokecorrected
tor losssbyadiabalicchange

Example2:A cylinderof 63 mm dia.and 500 mm slrokeworksal 6 bar.Whichis the realair consumptionfor

15cyclespermin?

O= 1.4. (63mmr2
. nr4.500mm. sotrin.
ffiff
.16-66634;1s1
= 453.19s
Umin
By usingthe table,we find 3.021yminper 100 mm skoke.This ligurehasto be multiplidby 150,tor 5
times100mm strokeand30 timesperminute:150/min.3.021liters= 453.15l/min.

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 PTIEU ATIC TECHNOLOGY

horanvA C T U A T O R S
R A C K A N D P I N I O NT Y P E
The outputshatthas an integralpiniongeardrivenby a rackanachedto a doublepiston. Standardangles
of rotationare 90" or '180'.

Rack Pinion ISOSymbol:

Fig 6.21 Backand PinionRotaryActuator

VANETYPE BOTARYACTUATORS:
Air oressureacls on a
vane, which is attached to the Elastomer
outputshaft. A titiedrubbr Damper
, seal or lastomercoating
sealsthe vaneagainst
leakage.
A specialthre
dimensionalsealsealsthe
stopperagainstthe shaftand
the housing.The size of the
stopperdelineslhe rotalion
angleof 90, 180or 270'.
Adjustablestopsmay be
providedto adjustany angle
ot rolationof the unit.

,rOar*$ 180' 900

Fig 6,22VaneTypeRotaryActuator

I Z I N G R O T A R YA C T U A T O R S
orque and Inartia
Linearcylindershavea cushionto reducethe impactwhenlhe pistonhitsthe cover.The capacityof the
cushioningis the kineticenergyit can absorb.This6nrgyquaV! ' vZ.lt is mostimportantwhena loadis
f'
propelledwith littletrictionand highspeed.

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 P N E U M A T I Tc E c H N o L o c Y

Thesedynamicsare evenmoreimportantto understandin the caseof a rotaryacluator.A tree stopof a

rotatingmasswithoutcushioningor overloadingrisksbreakingthe pinionor vane,The allowableenergy
publishedby the manutacturer
muslbe caretullyrespected.

rl 2+122
J=m.r 6 J=m. V- c J=m.
a T

I
I v
+I - I

ri
d
J' = m .
r 2
4 a
J=m. ,#,*,

' i l Ea -
!-::-!.
-'d--
mb= n,t r -
a+b
ll
2 . ^ '2
y r=m".**'o.F '
ta2+c2 +lho'oo#"
1 J = n a Ti- 1 2
i

Fig. 6.23 Formulaefor the momentol inertiaof variousbodyshapes

To definethis energywe needto knowthe inertiaof the rotatingmass.Thinkol its materialbeing
composedof extremelysmallparts;the sum of the massof eachindividualpart,multipliedby the squareot its
distancetromth6 rotationaxis givesthe tolal inertia.
The basiccaseis a cylinder,lts inertiaqualsits masstimesthe squareof the radius:
J = m. f. (kg.m2)

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 P N E U M A T I C T E C HN O L O G Y

The inertiaot morecomplicatedformshasto be calculatedwiththe helpof tormulator specificshapes'Fig.

6.23showsthe formulaelor a numberof basicshapes.
A rotatingconstruction hasto be splitup intobasicelementsand the parlialinertiatoialed.For examplea
chuckon an arm as in fig. 6.23k is addedto the ineriiaof the arm by multiplyingits masswilh the squareol
the distanceof its centerof gravitytromthe rotationaxis.
Wheneverpossible,rotatingmasseshaveto be stoppedagainsta mechanicalstop,prferably a shock
absorber.lt shouldbe placedas far fromthe axisas possibleas in tig. 6.24a.Any closerto the centerwould
createa reaclion,seefig. 6.24b.lf an xternalstopon the arm itsellis not possible,it can be donewitha
stopperleveron the oppositeend of the shaft.This is subiectto highreactionforcesand shouldbe doneonly
withthe consenlof the supplier,

StopperLeveron
souareShaftEnd

c
ShockAbsorbers

Stops
Fig. 624 Stoppinga rotatingarm
The inertiator rotatingobiectsis whatlhe movingmassis to a linearmovement.The energyis dofinedby
its speed.For a rotation,the speedis definedby the ?ngular Speedaf. lt is expressedin radiansper second.
Fig.6.25illustratestheseexpressions.

o-- | rao
' = 7o
1 rad:o= 57.3'

of angularspeed
Fig. 6.25 Definitions
As for the cushioningcapacitytor linearmovements,
tor the maximumallowedenergyto be stoppedby a
rotaryactuatorwe haveto considerthe tinalspeed.An accelerationby compressedair, if not limitedby a
stabilizingback-pressure,may be consideredto be almostconstant.The movementstartsat zeroand
reachesaboutdoublethe averagespeed(Strokepertime)at the end of stroke.

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 P N E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

Fortastpneumatic
movemenls, haveto bebasedontwicetheaveragespedasfig.6.26
calculations
Low Speed .- FinalSpeed
Hlgh Speed
- AverageSpeed

Flg. 6.26Averageand tinalspeed

S P E C I A LA C T U A T O R S
L O C K I N GC Y L I N D E R
A cylindercan be fitted
witha lockingheadin placeof
the standardend cover.
It will holdthe pistonrod in
any position.The locking
actionis mechanical,so
ensuringthe pislonrod is
securelyheld,evenin the
caseof pressurebreakdown.
Fig. 6.27TypicalLockingCylinder

R O D L E S SC Y L I N D E R S
With magnetlc coupllng, ungulded

MagneticRingswith lron Discs

oppositopolarity StainlssSteel

fig 6.28.TypicalRodlessCylinderwith magnticcouplingbetweenpistonand caniage

A conventionalcylinderof say 500 mm.strokemay havean overalloulstrokeddimensionof 11OOmm. A
rodlesscylinderof the samestrokecan be installedin a muchshorterspaceot approximately
600 mm. ll has
particularadvantageswhenvery longstrokesare required.
The magneticretainingforcelimitsthe forceavailabletroma magnetically couplodtype of rodlesscylinder.
It equalsthat of a normalrodcylinder,up to 7 bar workingpressure,but withdynamicshocksa separationof
the caniagefromthe pislonis possible.Verticalmovementsare therefornot recommended, unlessa saletv
marginspecifiedby the supplieris obseNd.

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 PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

I Whenthe couplingbetweenthe carriageand

the loadcannotbe donein the centerlineol the
cylinder,but at a cerlaindistance(X in fig.6.29),
the allowabletorcedecreasesdrastically.The
data,spocifiedby lhe supplierhasto be
respecledto avoiddamageto the cylinder. Fig 6.29 SideLoadX reducesthe allowable
load

Gulded types, wlth magnetlc coupllng

Dependingon the kindof guideused,lhe problemof sideloadcan be solvedor madeworse.Withball

bearingsfor the guide,a side loadcan be considerable and alsothe slrokelength.Precisionguideshowever
haveso littletolerancethat the slightstdetormationincreasestriction.Forthesetypes,the strokelenglhis a
maintactorfor the allowabletorce.Suppliersgivedatator any possiblemounlingorientationand side load.
Fig.6.30showsa guiddrodlesscylinderwithmagneticcouplingbehveenpistonand carriage'

Fig. 5.30 Rodlesscylinderwithguides,ShockAbsorbersand cylinderswitches

It is rcommended that the carriageis deceleratedsoftlywithshockabsorberson bothends;in fig. 6.30
theyare builtin. A rail holdsadjustableswitches,operatedby a magnetbuill-into the carriage.
Guided, with mechanlcal coupllng
Carrier CoveringStrip

Cushioning
Tube SealBelt

Piston
Cushioning
Seal
Fig.5.31RodlessCylinderwith mechanicalcoupling
For littingor movingheavierloads,a "slottedcylinder"typeexcludesthe riskot disconnection
of the carrier
fromthe pistonunderdynamicshocks,but it is nottotallyleakfree unlikethe magneticallycoupledtype.

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 P r { E UA T r cT E c H N o L o c Y

SLIDE UNlTS
The slideunitis a precisionlinearactuatorof compactdimensions,whichcan be usedon robotic
manutacluring
and assemblymachines.

, f f i " 8 Fig. 6.32TypicalSlideUnit

Preciselymachinedwork mountingsurfacesand parallelpistonguiderodsensureaccuratestraight-line
movementwhenbuiltin as part of the construction
of a transterand positionmachine.
In one position,the bodycan be tixedand the rodswith end barscan move(b). Upsidedown,the end bars
touchthe mountingsurfaceand lhe bodycan move(c). In bothcases,the valvecan be connectedto the fixed
part,eitherby the portsA and B, or Al and Bl in fig. 6.32a.

HOLLOW ROD CYLINDER

This actuatoris speciticallydesignedfor .pickand place.applications.
The hollowrod
providesa direclcon- Vacuum
nectionbetwena Connection
vacuumsourceand a (stationary)
vacuumpad,attached
to the rodsworking
end.The connecting
tube at the rearof the
cylinderremainsstatic,
whilethe rod extends Fig. 6.33 HollowRodGylinderwith a non movingvacuumconnection
and retracts,

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 P N E U U A T t cT E c H N o L o G Y

|'rne
l n R o r A T r N cc Y L T N D E R
A so-calledrotatingcylinderis an assemblyot a linearcylinderwitha rotaryactuator.A rotatingarm can be
attachedto the shattand be equippedwitha gripperor vacuumpad to pickup wolk piecesand deposilthem
in anotherlocationafterrotatingthe arm.Thisgivesa "pickand place"uni or materials handling.

Fig. 6.34TypicalRotatingCylinder

\ I R C H U C K( G R I P P E B )
An actuatordesignedto Opened MainPiston
gripcomponentsin robotic
typeapplications.
I The typeshownhas
two opposingpistons,to
openand closthe iaws.

SecondaryPiston SpeedControlScrew
Fig.6.35TypicalPneumaticFulcrumTypeGripper

of the lasttwo elements:

Fig.6.36showsthreetypicalapplications

Flg. 6,36Typical
Applications
of the
RotatingCylinder
andAir Gripper

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 P N E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

7 D I R E C T I O N A LC O N T R O LV A L V E S

V A L V EF U N C T I O N S
A directionalcontrolvalvedeterminesthe tlowot air betwenits portsby opening,closingor changingils
internalconnections. The valvesare describedin termsot: lhe numberof ports,the numberof switching
positions,its normal( not operated) positionand the methodot operation.The firsttwo pointsare normally
expressedin the trms5/2, 312,2!2elc.The tirstfigurerelateslo thnumberol ports(excludingpilotports)
and the secondto the numberol gosilions.
The mainIunctionsand are:
Symbol Principal Construclion Function Application

2y2oN/oFF Air motors and

withoulexhaust. pneumatictools

3/2 Normally Singleacting

closed (NC), cylinders(push
pressurizing
or type),pneumaric
exhaustingthe signals
outDutA
3/2Normally Singleacting
open(NOl cylinders(pull
prcssurizing
or type),inverse
exhausting
the pneumaticsignals
outDutA
4/2 Switching
betweenoutput Doubleacting
A andB, with cylinders
comrnonexhaust

4 2 5/2: Switching
betweenoutput Doubleacting
A andB, with cylinders
sePaBte...
exhausts.
5/3,Opencenter: Double acting
As 5/2 but with cylinders,with the
oulputs possibilityto de-
exhaustedin pressurizethe
mid-oosition cvlinder
5/3 Closed Double acting
centenAs 512 cylinden,with
but with rnid- stopping
positionfully possibility
5 1 3 shutoff

5/3 Pressurized Specialappli-

center: cations,i.e.
Locking Cylinder

Table 7.1 ValveSymbols,Principles,descriptionand mainapplications

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 P N E U M A T IT
c E c HN o L o G Y

PORTlDENTIFICATION
The denominations of the variousporlsare not uniform;thereis moretraditionthan respecledslandard.
Originally,the codespreviouslyusedlhe olderhydraulicequipmenthavebeenadapted.'P" for the supply
portcomesfrom"pump",lh hydraulicsourceot fluidnergy
The outletof a 2/2 or 3/2 valvehas alwaysben"A",the s6cond,antivalentoutputporl "8".
The exhausthas initiallybeen"R" from Return(to the oil tank).The secondexhaustport in 5,/2valveswas
thnnamedS, or the former"R1"and the lattr"R2".
The pilolport initiatingthe powerconnectionto portA hasoriginallybeencoded"Z (thetwo elitreme
bners in lhe alphabetbelongstogether)and the other.y'.

Afler20 yearsbargainingaboulpneumaticand hydraulicsymbols,one ot the ISO workgroupshadthe

idealhat porlsshouldhavenumbersinsteadof letters,delayingthe terminationof the standardISO 1219by
anolher6 years.Supplyshouldbe "1",the outputs2'and "4', the pilotportconnecting"l"with 2" is then"12"
etc.Table7.2 showsthe tour mainsetsof port identifications
in use.Preterredare now the numbers.
Supply NCoutput NOoutput Exhaustof exhaustof Pilottor NC Pilotfor NO
NC NO
P A B R s z Y
P A B R1 R2 z Y
P A B EA EB PA PB
1 2 4 3 5 12 14
Table 7.2 Typicalportidentitications

M O N O S T A B L EA N D B I S T A B L E
Springreturnedvalvesare monostable.
They havea definedprefenedpositionto whichthey automatically
retum.
A bistablevalvehas no preferredpositionand remainsin eitherpositionuntilone of its two impulsesignals
are operated.

VALVE TYPES
The two principalmthodsof construction.are
Poppetand Slidewitheitherelastic.ormetalseals,Fig.7.3
relatesto the variouscombinations.

Directional
Control
Valves

MetalSeal

Flg. 7,3 The varioustypesof valvesand sealingmethods

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 P N E U M A T T CT E C H N O I O G Y

P O P P E TV A L V E S
Flowthrougha poppetvalveis controlledby a discor pluglittingat rightanglesto a seat,withan elastic
seal.
Poppetvalvescan be two or threeporl valves,f or a lour or five portvalvetwo or morepoppelvalveshave

Fig. 7.4 The maintypesot poppets

In a) the inlelpressuretendsto liftthe sealott its seat requiringa sutficientforce(spring)to keepthe valve
closed.In b) the inletpressuroassistslhe returnspringholdingthe valveclosed,butthe operatinglorcevaries
thereforewithditferntpressures.Thesetactorslimitthesedesignsto valveswith l/8" portsor smaller.

A
P F
a ISO Svmbol
operatedpopptvalv
Fig.7.5.Mechanically
Fig7.5 a) showsa NC 3/2 poppelvalveas shownin fig.7.4 b.
ln its non-operaled position(a),theoutletexhauslsthroughthe plunger.Whenoperated(b) the exhaust
porl closesand the airflow'sfromthe supplyport P to the outletA.
Design7.2 c) is a balancedpoppetvalve.The inletpressureacts on equalopposingpistonareas.

NC NO

ISOSymbol

Fig 7.6 Balancad3/2 PoppetValve

Thisfeatureallowsvalvesto be connectedup normallyclosed(NC)or normallyopen (NO).
Normallyopenvalvescan be usedto loweror retumsingleactingcylindrsand are morecommonlyused
in satetyor sequencecircuits.

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 P E U M A T T Tc E c H N o ! o c Y

S L I D I N GV A L V E S
Spool,rotaryand planeslidevalvesusea slidingactionto opnand closeports.
Spool Valves
A cylindricalspoolslideslongitudinally
in the valvebodywilh the air tlowingat rightanglesto the spool
movemenl.Spoolshaveequalsealingareasand are pressurebalanced.
Elastomet seal
Commonspooland seal anangemnlsare shownin tig. 7.7 and7,8.In fig 7.7 O-ringsare tittedin grooves
on the spooland movein a metalsleeve.Two of themare crossingoutputports,whichare lhereforedividedin
a greatnumberol smallhol6sin the sleeve.

Flg.7,7SpoolValvewithO-Ringsonthespool,crossing thecylinderports
Thevalvein fig.7.8hassealsfittedin thevalvebody,whichar6keptin position
by meansof sectional
spacers

Flg. 7.8 SpoolValvewith sealsin the housing

Fig 7.9 sho|s a spoolwith oval rings.Nongof th6m haveto crossa porti butlust to open or closeits own
seat.Thisdsignprovidesa leakagefree sealwith minimumfrictionandthereforean xtremelylong life.

Flg. 7.9 Valvewithoval ringspool

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 P N E U M A T t Tc E c H N o L o G Y

Itetal Seal
Lappedand matchedmetalspooland sleevvalvshavevery low trictionalresistance,rapidcyclingand
exceptionallylongworkinglife. But 6venwitha minimalclearanceol 0.003mm,a smallinternalleakagerate
of aboutone l/minoccurs.Thishas no consequence as longas the cylinderhasnot to be heldin a positionby
a 5/3 valvewithclosedcenlertor sometime.

EBPEA EBPEA
Flg. 7.10 Principleof the seallessSpooland SleeveValve
,lane Slide Valve

Flowthroughthe portsis controlledby the positionof a slidemadeol metal,nylonor otherplastic.The

slideis movedby an elastomersealed,air operatdspool.

Flg. 7.11 5/2 PlaneSlideValve

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 P N E U t r t A T t cT E c H oLocY

notary Valves
A mlalporleddiscis manually theportsin thevalvebody.Pressure
rotatedto interconnect imbalance is
employedlo forcethediscagainstits matingsurfaceto minimize
leakage.Thepressure supplyis abovethe
disc.

tffi P F
ISO Symbol

t-vt
A B A B
rT--r]

PEX PEX

ffi
A E T

t--l
IT TI
PEX PEX

Fig 7.12 Sectionthrougha RotaryDiscValveand a discfor a 4/3 tunctionwith closedcenter

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 P N E U U A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

I
U A L V EO P E R A T I O N
MECHANICAO
L PERATION

A n n
e
A t-l
On an automatedmachine,
!ol/
mechanically operaledvalvescan -e+ tldt
detectmovingmachineparlsto l:Ez
:
=r :E
:
providesignalstor the automatic
conlrolof lhe workingcycle. Plunger StraighlBoller Square Roller RollerLever
The maindirectmechanical Operators
Fig 7.13The mainMchanical
operators
areshownin 1i9.7.13
Cate when using Roller Levers

Specialcaremustbe takenwhenusingcamsto operaterollerlevervalves.Fig.7.14 illustratesthis:the

utilizedportionof the rollerstotaltravelshouldnot go to the end ot stroke.The slopeot a cam shouldhavean
angleof about30"; steeperslopeswill producemechanicalstresseson the levr.

PT: Pre-travel
OT.: Over Travel
TT.:Total
W FollerStroke to
beutilized
Fig. 7.14Carewith RollerLeversand Cams
Thone way roller (or idle rturnroller)will only operatewhenthe controlcam strikesthe actuatorwhen
movingin one direction.In the reversedireclionthe rollercollapseswithoutoperatingthe valve.

U I A N U A LO P E B A T I O N
Manualoperationis generally l-r-\ TfI
obtainedby attachingan operator lry E] ,ffi'
head,suitabletor manualcontrol, '
Flush Baised Mushroom
ontoa mechanicallyoperated
valve. Flg. 7.15The mainmonostableManualOperators
Manuallyoperated,monostable(springretumed)valvesare generallyusedtor starting,sloppingand
otherwisecontrollinga pneumaticcontrolunit.
For manyapplicalionsit is
Im \ m
moreconvnient if the valve l--r \ \ t-,
marntains ftsposi on. Fig.7.t6 E 1+r -1
showsthe moreimoortanltvoes
: :
ol bistablemanualoperators
RotatingKnob Toggle Key
Flg. 7.16BistableManualOperators

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 P NE U I I I A T I Tc E c H N o L o G Y

AIR OPERATION.
Directionalcontrolvalves,usedas "PowerValves",shouldbe locatedas closeas possibleto ils aclualor
and be swiichedby remolecontrolwith a pneumaticsignal.
A monostsbleair operatedvalveis switchedby air pressureactingdirectlyon one side ot the spoolor on
a pislonand returnedto ils normalpositionby springtorce.The springis normallya mechanicalspring,but is
can also be an "air spring"by applyingsupplypressureto the spoolend,oppositeto the pilol port,or a
combinationof both.In the lattercase,the pilotside requirsa biggeretfectivearea,whichis providedby a
piston.

Air connection
for Pistonwith twice the ara
spnngassistanc of th spoolal sping side
Fig.7.17 A2 Ait operatedValve,with ah assistedspringretum
Air assistedspringretumgivesmoreconstantswitchingcharacteristics,
and higherreliability.
In fig 7.18an ak springis providedthroughan internalpassagefrom the supplyportto act on the smaller
diameterpislon.Pressureappliedthroughthe pilol portontothe largerdiameterpistonactuatesthe valve.
This methodof returninglhe spoolis oftenusedin miniaturevalvesas it requiresvery littlespace
A ISOSymbol
r
I I
ri I
ir t4
!
I

Flg 7.18Ah operated3/2 Valvewith air springreturn

The air-operated
valvesdiscussedso far havebeensinglepilotor monostabletyps,but the more
commonair operatedvalvefor cylindercontrolhasa doublepilotand is designedto restin eitherposition
(bisiable).

PA

EAPEB

NFPA labels

EB
Fig. 7.19 Bistable,air operatd5,/2Valve

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 P N E u l t A T t cT E c H N o L o G Y

In tig,7.19,a shortpressure pulsehaslastbeenappliedto the pilotport"P8",shiftinglhe spoolto ihe dghl

I andconnecting thesupplyport"P'lo thecylinderport'8". Port"A' is exhausted through'EA".Thevalvewill
'memoryfunction''
remainin this operatedpositionuntila countersignalis received.This is referredto as a
Bistablevalvesholdlheir operatedpositionsbecauseol lriction,but shouldbe installedwiththe spool
the positions
horizontal,especiallyif the valveis subiectedto vibration.In the caseot metalsealconstruction,
are lockedby a delenl.
Plloted Operation.
A directoperationoccurswhena force,appliedto a pushbutton,rolleror plunger,movesthe spoolor
poppetdirectly.Withindirect,or "piloted"operation,the externaloperaloracts on a smallpilotvalvewhichin
tum switchesthe mainvalvepneumalically.

JIS labls:

Fig 7.20 IndireclMechanicalOperation

Fig.7.20a showsa 5/2 Valvewilh indhector ?iloted" nchanicaloperationin its normalposition.Th
magnitieddetailsin b and c showthe pilotpartin normal(b) and in operatedposition(c).

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 P EU ATIc TEcHNoLocY

S O L E N O I DO P E R A T I O N
Electropneumatically and electronicallycontrolledsyslemsare discussdin a laterbookin this seriesand
it is sufficienlat this stageonly to considerthe electricaloperationof directionalcontrolvalves.
In smallsizesolenoidvalves,an ironarmaluremovesinsidean airtighttube.The armatureis finedwith an
elastomerpoppeland is liftedtroma supplyseat in the bodyby the magnetictorce ol the energizedcoil. Fig
7.21a.

P R

ISO Symbol
--=
D t:-_
FlgT,21 a:2J2,b: 3/2 directsolenoid,springretum,poppettypevalve.
A 3/2 valvehas also an exhaustseaton top and the armaturean elastomerpoppetin its top end (Fi9.7.21
b)
Directlyoperated5/2 solenoidvalvesrelyon the electromagneticforceof the solenoidto movethe spool
(1i97.221.
lt can only be a seallesslappedspooland sleevetype withoutfriction.

Flg. ?.22 Directsolenoidoperated512Valvewithspringretum

To limitthe sizeof th6 solenoid,largerand elastomersealedvalveshaveindirect(piloted)solenoid
ooration.

R2
JIS Symbol
Fi$.7.23 5/2 monostableSolenoidValvwithelastomercoatedspool

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 P N E U M A T I CT E C H I I O L O G Y

it will retum,by meansof springs,whenbolh solenoids

, The 5/3 valvehas a third(center)positionto which
rarede-energized.(lig
7.241

JIS Symbol
Fig Z.24.Pilotoperated 5/3 Solenoid Valve with closed center and spring centeringvalve mounting

I R E C TP I P I N G
The mostcommonmethodof connectionto a valveis to screwfittingsdirectlyintothe threadedportsof a
so-calledbodyportedvalve.This methodrequiresone fittingfor eachcylinder,piloland supplyportand one
silencertor eachexhaustporl,All the valvesshownpreviouslyare body-portedtypes,exceptfig. 7,22' whicn
is sub basemounted,.

ANIFOLDS
Manifoldshavecommonsupplyand exhaust Cylinder Ports
channElsior a givennumberof bodyported AandB
valves.The outputrs separatelyto
are conncted
eachvalve,
Fig.7.25showsa manitoldwithtourvalvesof
Common
difterenltunctions:a 5,/3.a bistableand two mono-
Supply
stabletypesof the sameseries.
A manifoldshouldbe orderedlo accommodate
the requirodnumberof valves,extnsionis not
possible,but usinga blankingkit can sealspare Common
positions. Exhaustsfor
With5 or morevalvesit is recommended that A andB Ports
'
air is suppliedand silencersmountedat bothends, Fig.7.25TypicalManifold

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 P N E u t , A ' I cT E c H N o L o G Y

SUB BASES
Valveswithall of theirportson one lace are designedto be gasketmounledon a sub base,to whichall lhe
externalconnectionsare made.Thisallowsquickremovaland replacemenlof a valvewilhoutdisturbingthe
lubing.Generally,a basemountedvalvehas a slightlybetterflow capacitythan a body-portedvalveof the
sametype.Fig.7,22showsa typicalbasemountedvalve.

M U L T I P L ES U B B A S E S
In a similarway to lhe manifold,
multiplesub basessupplyand
exhausta numberol valvesthrough
commonchannels.Alsothe cylinder
portsare providedin the sub base.
Multiplesub basesalso haveto
be orderedlor the reouirednumber
of valvesand are ableto be blanked
otf in the sameway as manifolds.
Fig.7.26showsa manitoldwith
lour basemounttypes3ii2Solenoid
Valves,The commonexhaustports ValveOulputs
are to be equippedwilh Silencers, . (A Porrs)
prelerablyon bothendsto avoid
back-pressure. This is not only Fig. 7.26 MultipleSub Basewithtour 3/2 Valves
recommended tor soundelimination
but also tor dust protection,

G A N G E DS U B B A S E S
GangedSub Basesare assemblies
ol individualbass,whichallowany
reasonablenumberto be assemblsd
intoone unit.This systemhasth
advantageof allowingextensionor
reductionof the unit if the systemis
altered,withoutdisturbingthe existing
comoonents. Thereis stillthe oDtionto
blankotf positions,il required.
Fig.7.27showsa typicala$sembly,
equippdwilh one monostableand two
bistablesolenoidvalvesand a blanking
plate.The individualsub basesare
holdtogetherwithclamps.Other
constructionsmayalso haveboltsor tie
rodsfor the purpose.O Rings,inserted
in groovesaroundthe channels,
providea leakagetreeconnectionof Fig. 7.27 GangedSub Basewiththreevalvesand one
supplyand exhaustchannelsfrom end blankedoosition.
to end.

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 PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

V
t
A L V ES I Z I N G
I N D I C A T I O N SF O F F L O W C A P A C ] T Y
Portdimensionsdo not indicatethe flowcapacityof the valve.The selectionot the valvesizewill depend
on the requiredtlowrale and permissiblepressuredropacrosslhe valve'
The manutacturers provideintormationon lhe flowcapacityof valves.Flowcapacilyis usuallyindicatedas
the so called"standardtlow" On in litersof lree air per minuteal an inletpressureot 6 bar and an outlet
pressureof 5 bar,or witha flowfactor,Cv or kv, or wilhthg equivalentFlowSection"S".Thesefactorsrequire
lormulaeor diagramsto definethe tlowundervariouspressureconditions.
The Cv faclor of 1 is a llow capacityof one US Gallonol waterper minute,witha pressuredropof 1 psi.
The kv factor of 1 is a llow capacityof one literol walerper minutewitha pressuredropol 1 bar.
The equivalentFlow Section "S" of a valveis the flow sectionin mm2ol an orilicein a diaphragm,
creatingthe samrelationship btweenpressureand flow.
All threemethodsrequirea formulalo calculatethe airtlowundergivenpressureconditions.Theyare as
tollows:

C=400'Cv' r_.013)

Q=21.94'kv

LtJ
Q = 2 2 . 2 ' s' .vt (sD- z + r u J . s , | . A' p. '. 1 l\; t; -n-! + e
t-=---:-=-;;-- |

ol flowand S =EquivalentFlowSectionin mm2

WhereCv, kv =Coefficients
Q = Flowratestandardliters/min
p2 = Outletpressureneededlo moveload(bar)
Ap or EAp = Permissiblepressuredrop(bar)
0 = Air temperaturein *C

Withthis,the dimensionof 'a" O *

To lind the llow capacily,theseformulaeare transtormedas follows:

v
Cv=
4 0 0 . J F 2 + 1 . 0 1 3 ). A p

k v =
2 7 . 9 4 . 4 @ 2 + l - 0 1 3 ). A p

S =
222. l@2 + r-013). Ap

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 P E U M A T I cT E c H i I o L o G Y

1 C v = l kv= rs =
The normalflow Ontor othervarioustlow capacityunitsis: 981.5 68.85 54.44
The Relationshio
betweentheseunitsis as tollows: 1 14.3 18
o.o7 1 1.26
0.055 o.794 1
Note:The outcomeof this calculationgivesin fact not the flow capacityof the valve,as we simplystated
above,but tor the assemblyof lhe valveand the connectingtubesand tilling.To get as muchtlow
capacity,thal of the valvehas to be higher.Howmuchhigher?
Orlllces In series connectlon

Beforewe can determinelhe sizesot valveand tubing,we haveto lookat how pressuredropsovera
numberot subsequentorificesin series.The formulafor the resulting"S" is:

s total= l t 1
s12*sl*"'sn,
To avoidunnecessarilydealingwithsuchtormulaewe looktor a thumbrule.Fig.7.28.1and Fig.7.28.2
showthe relationship
betweena numberof orificesin.seriesconnoctionand the resultingflow.

C"=l C'=l C;l C,=l C;l C;l C"=t

Flg.7.28.1In Seriescircuit,all deviceshavinga C" of 1 and the resultingimpacton the circuit,sovsrallC,

\i_
--+
c,=1.4

=.x-
-..>---.> ><+<_= _><_><_#
C,=1.4 C,=1.73 c"=1.73 C"=1.73 C"=2 C"=2 C,=2 Q,=2

C,-=t G".v"=1'0 C,*=1.0 C"-=1.0

c,=1 C,=3 c,=4

C-"=r C*"=0.9g C"*=o.06 C,"r.=0.84 C",l/|=0.89 C*=0.82

Flg. 7.28.2Orificesin seriesconnectionand resultingllow
Retumingto our topic,we can say that it is mostobviousto haveaboutthsameflow capacityfor th
valve and the connectingtube withits fittings.We considerthesepartsas two equalflow capacitiesin series
connectionand lo havethe calculatedtlowthroughbothparts,the requiredsectionhasto bmultipliedwith
1.4(\E ).
NOTEthat eventhoughthe C, is largrit reduces(whenaddedin series)the systemC, -- a chainis only
as strongas its weakestlink.The smallestoriticedeterminesthe llow for the circuit.

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 P E U T , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

llow clplcrrY oF TuBEs

Stillunknownis the tlowcapacityof tubesand tittings.The formula,or the equivalentsectionot a tubeis:
r=
Lrr
S = s . .fr- where c is the tube cotlicient(se below),d the Pipe lD and L th tube length in mm.
I L

a = 2.669' Q . d0.155 whreq is thetubecoetlicient

in
fr
ct is 1.6tor gas pipeand 2.0 tor Plastic,Rubberand CopperTubes.The two formulaecan be unitedto
a2.655
S = q , 2.669.:--lf
vL
that wilh very shorttubesit is no longervaluable.For
This tormulahas,however,lhe inconvenience
example:a tube8x6 mm with0.1 m lengthwouldhavean S ot 65 mmz.This is impossible, as the effective
areaof the innertube diamtris only28.26mm2.Thereforethe aboveformulafor Stotalhasto be appliedfor
correction.
Youcan by-passall thesecalculalionsby readingthe equivalentSectionof nylontubes,normallyusedfor
pneumatics,
fromthe diagram7,29.

'i: L

! \
; \ *

20

10

0
0.02 0.05 0.1 o.2 0.5 5 1 0
ube Lengthin m
Fig. 7,29tho equivalentFlowSectionS in mm2of the cunenttubesizesand length

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 P N E U T T A T TT Ec c H N o L o c Y

The FlowSectionol littingshas to be specifiedin the catalogues.The totalof a tublengthwith ils two
tittingscan be calculatedwilh the tormulaabove.To reducethe needot its use to exceptions,you can tind the
sctionsfor the mostcurrenttubeassemblisin table7.30.

Tube Material Lenqth Fittinss Total

Dia, l m 0.5 m Inserrype O n e ' lo uch 0.5 m tube+
(mm) straisbt elbow sraight elbow 2 stn. fittinss
4x2.5 N,U 1.86 3.87 1.6 1.6 1.48
5.6 4.2 3.r8
6x4 N,U 6.12 7.78 6 6 3.72
l3.l t.4 5.96
8x5 U 10.65 13.41 ll (9.5)l l 6.73
l8 t4.9 9.23
8x6 N t6.& 20.28 l7 (t2) l 6 10.00
26.1 2t.6 r3.65
l0 x 6.5 U 20.19 24.50 35 (24r30 r2.70
29.5 25 15.88
l0 x 7.5 N 28.U 33.38 30 (23)26 19.97
41.5 35.2 22.t7
12x8 U 33.18 39.16 J) (24)30 20.92
46.1 39.7 25.05
12x9 N 43.79 5r.00 45 (27135 ?9.45
50.2
58.3 32.06
Table 7.30 EquivalentFlowSectionof currenltubeconnections
Table7.30showsthflow capacityol currenttubesand fittings,basedon so called"push-in"or'On6
Touch"littings$tg.4.22),havingthe sameinnerdiametras the tube.Insertfittings(fig.4.21)reducethe flow
considerablyrespeciallyin smallersizes,and shouldbe avoidedfor pneumatics.
Valves wlth Cylinders
We now retumto the cylinderconsumption.
This is firstof all thp6akflow,dependingon speed.
Secondwe haveto definethe allowablepressuredrop,a maiorligurein calculatingthe valvesize.An
assumptionol aveEge velocitymay be made,sincemaximumtlow is achievedat a pressuredropof
approximately -- lor our purposes23"/.is the maximumallowablepressuredrop (halfof 46%)-- the
46010
NFPAstatesa 157omaximumpressuredrop is d6sir6d.
The actualsizeol the valvehasto be muchhigherlhan the theoreticalvalue,to compensatefor the
additionalpressuredropin the connectingtubesand fittings,as discussedabove. But if thmaximumflow is
determined(limited)by the finingsand tubingpart of the circuit-- changingthe valvefor a largerflow
capabilitywill not havean etfect. E.g.il lhe valvehasa C" of 2 and thtubingand fittingscollectivelyhavea
C, of 1 -- the systemwill not be improvedby a valvewitha C" 4); noie Fig.7 28.2.
To makethingseasy,all the calculationsmentionedbeforcon lhis subject,table7.31,givesyou the
requiredequivalentsectionS tor the valvand tor the selectionot a suitabletubeand fittingsassemblylrom
table7.30.Th6 tableis basedon a supplypressure6 bar (approx.90 psig)and a pressuredropof 1 bar (15
psig)beforethe cylindr.lt includesalsoth6 lossby adiabaticpressurechangeand thtemperalure
coetficientfor 20'G. Usuallythis will sufficefor mostrealworldapplications.

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 P N E U T / | A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

Averageplston speed ln mm/s

dla.mm 50 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 750 1000
8,10 0.1 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.75 1
12,16 0.12 0.23 0.36 0.46 0.6 0.72 1 1.8 2.4
20 o.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.6 3 4
25 0.35 0.67 I 1.3 2 2.7 3.4 5 6.7
32 0.55 1.r 2.2 2.4 3.7 4.4 c.c 8.5 11
't.7 2.6 3.4 4.3 5 6.8 8.5 12.8 17
40 0.85
50 1.4 2.7 4 5.4 6.8 8.1 10.8 13.5 20.3 27
63 2.'l 4.2 A E 8.4 10.5 12.6 16.8 21
80 3.4 6.8 10.2 13.6 1 7 20.4 27.2
100 5.4 10.8 16.2 21.6 27
125 a.4 16.8 za.z
140 10.6 21.'l
160 13.8 27.6
EqulvalentFlow Sectlon in mmZ
Table 7.31EguiyalentSectionS in mm2for the valveand the tubing,lor 6 barworkingpressureand a
pressuredropol 1 bar (OnConditions)
Allhoughthe assumedpressureof 6 bar and a dropof 1 bar are a quitenormalcase (the Q^is basedon
the sameassumption),thermightbe otherpressureconditions.Thenthe figuresfrom table7.31 rquirea
conection.The diagram7.32givsthe percentageol the tiguresin table7.31for any practicallypossibleinput
pressuresand pressuredrop.
ct
1.8

1.6

1.4

P12
1.2 3

0.8

0.6 7
I
o
'10
0.4
1.25 1.5
?p in bar
Fig. 7.32CorrectionFactor"cf'for the Sectionsgivenin Table7.31,for otherpressureconditions

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 PNEU ATtcTEcHNoLocY

The figuresbelowthe boldlineare values,whichar6 in gneralnot coveredwith 5/2 valves.Wherethese

sizesare not available,two High Flow3/2 vatveswill do the iob.
Example1
An 80 mm Dia cylinderwitha strokelengthof 400 mm has an averageworkingpressureol 6 bar.The
maximumallowablepressuredrop is 1 bar. lf a cylinderspeedot 500 mm/secis required,what is the
minimumCv of the valve?
We find in Diagram7.31 an equivalentsectionof 34 mmz.To obtainthe Cv factorwe haveto dividethis
numberby 18:34 /18 = 1,89.
A Tubsizeof 12 x 9 mm.with"OneTouchFittings'is requiredto get this speed.
Example2
A 50 mm Diacylinderhas to run witha speedof 400 mm/s,with an availablesupplypressureol 7 bar
and an allowablepressuredropof 2.5 bar.That meansthatthe cylindersize is basedon an eflective
pistonpressureof 4,5 bar.
Table7.31givesan S of 10.8mm2.This figureneedscorrectionfor a supplypressureof 7 bar and a ?
ot 2.5 bar.We followthe line? bar fromthe rightto the lftuntilit interects the verticalline of 2.5 bar p. We
find a "cf of 0.66.The requiredS ot the valveand the.tubeconnectionis therefore10.8. 0.66= 7.128mm2.
Selecta valveof this size or bigger.A tube of 8x5 or 8x6 mm Dia is suitable.

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 PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

I
A U X I L I A R YV A L V E S
N O N . B E T U F NV A L V E S
A non-returnvalveallowstreeaidlowin one directionand sealsil otf in lhe opposite.Thesevalvesare
also referredto as checkvalves.Non-retumvalvesare incorporaledin speedcontrollersand self-sealtittings
etc.

ISOSymbol

Flg 7.33 Gheckvalve

b
I
p e e oc o N T R o L L E B s
I A "speedcontrolle/'consistsof a checkvalvand a variablethrottlein one housing.lt is also correctly
calleda Flow Control (baseduponits symbol).Manytimesmanufacturers will cali devicsspeedcontrols
and,in fact,theyare reallyneedlevalves,veriiywiththe symboltobe certain.
Keepin mindthat flow controlscan onlyslowdowna cylinder;they posea restrictonin bolhdirectionsof
air flowand thereloreslowthe responseof the cylinderon boththe extendas well as the retraclstroke.In
mostcasesflowcontrolsshouldbe usedto meterthe exhaustflowot a cylinder.Thiswill providebetter
conlroland a smoothercylinderstroke.
Fig.7.32showsa typicalexamplewiththe flow indicated.In a), air flowslreelyto the cylinder,in b) it flows
backto the exhaustDortof lhe valvewitha restrictedtlow.

ISO Symbol

Fig 7.34TypicalSpeedController/ FlowControl

S H U T T L EV A L V E
This is a three-portedvalvewithlwo signalpressureinletsand onoutlet.The outletis connectedto eithr
signalinput.lf only one inpulis prssurized,
the shuttlepreventsthe signalpressuretrom escapingthrough
the exhaustedsignalporton lhe oppositeside.(Fig7.35)

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 P E U A T T cT E c H N o L o G Y

ISOSymbol

Fig. 7.35ShunleValve

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 P N E U i , A T I CT E C H T { O L O G Y

U I C K E X H A U S TV A L V E S
Thiscomponentpermilsa maximumoutstrokingpistonspeedby exhaustingthe cylinderdirectlyat its porl
witha grealllow capacity,insteadof throughlhe tube and valve.
The rubberdiscclosesoff the exhaustporton the bottomas the supplyair tlowsto the cylinder.Whenthe
direclionalcontrolvalve,connecledto the inletporton top is reversed,the supplytube is exhaustdand the
opensthe wideexhaustport.
discliftedby the cylinderpressure.lt thencloseslhe inletportand automatically

CYL

ISOSymbol

Fig 7,36.QuickExhaustValve;a: Connection,b: Withoutpressureor cylinderunderpressure,

c: tlowto cylindr,d: exhausting
With miniaturecylinders,it happensquiteeasilythal the volumeof the tube betlveenvalveand cylinderis
as big or evenbiggerlhan that of lhe cylinder.ln thal case,lhe air in the tube is onlycompressedand
decompressed, but nevercompletelyevacuatedand moisturecan condensatein the tubesand disturbnormal
operation.lf a shortertube is not possible,a quickexhauslvalvecan be usedto solvethe problem.

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 P N E U M A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

I B A S I CC I R C U I T S
NTRODUCTION
BasicCircuitsare asssmbliesol valveslo pertormcertaintunctions.There area limitdnumberot
elementarytunclionsof whicheventhe mostsophisticated circuitsare composed.
Theselunctionscan havethe abilityto:
. Control a cylinder,or
. Operateanothervalve
- for remolecontrolfroma Panel,
- to changeone valvefunctionintoanother,
- for safetyinterlocksetc.
The lattertypeof lunctionis also relerredlo as a "logicalfunclion".Thereare four basiclogicalfunctions:
.tdenttty ("YES")
. Negatlonor Inversion ("NOT')
. AND
.OR
We will not dealwith logicalmethodsot switchinghere,but we will usethe lermsas theyclearlydescribe
functionsin a singleword.

: L E M E N T A R YF U N C T I O N S
FLOW AMPLIFICATION
A largecylinderneedsa largeAir Flow.One
can avoidhavingto manuallyoperatea large
valvewithsutficientflowcapacityby usinga
largeair operatedvalveand operatingit witha
smallermanuallyoporatedvalve.Thistunctionis
called"FlowAmplification". This is oflen
combinedwith remotecontrol:the largevalveis
clossto the cylinderbut the smallone can be
Fig, 8.1 Flowamplification
or indirectcontrolof
builtintoa panelfor easyaccess.

S l G N A LI N V E R S I O N
The methodas shownin fig. 8.1 cen alsobe
usedto changethe functionot a valvefrom
normallyopento normallyclosedor vic6versa.
It valve@ in tig. 8.2 is operated,the
pressureon the outputof valve@ disappeaF
and reappearswhenO is released.
Fig.8.2 Signallnversion:
it valve@ is operated,
thepressureontheoutputof valve@ disappears
andre-appears when@ is releasd

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 PNEUl|ATtc TEc HNOLOGY

SELECTION
Selectionis achievedby convertingfrom a 3l2 to a 5/2 function.
The initiatingvalveO is a small3/2
manuallyoperatodvalve,thindirctly
opraledvalve@ is a 5/2 valveof a
sufticienttlow capacitylo actuatea doubJe
actingcylinder.UsingthislunctionFlow
Amplification is also per{ormed.
One positionof the toggleswitch"lightrs"
lhe greenindicator,the othef lights"th rd.
The samefunctionis also usedtor Flg. 8.3 Selectionbetweentwo circuitswithone
selectionbetweentwo circuits:one of the manuallyoperatedmonostable312valve
portsol th5/2 valvesuppliesfor example
an automaticcircuit,lhe other,valvesfor
manualcontrol.This makessurethat no
automaticactioncan take placeduring
manualoDeration.

M E M O R YF U N C T I O N
A regulartype of
lunctionreouirementis to
perpetuatea momentary
valveoperationby
holdingits signalon, until
anothermomentarysignal
switchesit permanently
otl.
The red indicatoris
"memorizing"that valv
@ was the last to be Flg. 8.4 Switchingtrom redto greenby trippingvalve@ and from green
operatedand the green to red with valve @
indicatorthat valveO will
give the signalto change
over.

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 P N E U $ A T t cT E c H t { o L o c Y

ME FUNCTIONS
A pneumaticdelayis basedon the time requiredto changethe pressurein a fixedvolume,by the airflow
)ughan orifice,As this is a meteringfunction,subjectto changingcondilionsin supplyair,certain
inconsistncies shouldbe sxpected.
In addilion,do not relyon Timealonetor circuitsatety-- e.g.thereneedsto be somepositiveindicationof
a partbeingpresent,a processbeingcompleted,anctso on.
lt, witha givenvolumeand
orificewe get the prssure^ime
a in fig.8.5.Eithera
volumeor a smal16r orifice
changeit to b.
In the caseof characteristic a,
timedelavto switcha valvewith
switchingpressureps will be lt,
b it will be increasedlo t2.
In praclice,the pressureot the
is connectedto the pilot
oi a spring retum valve and a
speedcontrolleris usedto varythe
orifice,ils built-incheckvalve
an unrestricted tlow in the
Fig. 8.5 The pressure/ time relationship
of compressedair,
direclionand thereforea flowinglhroughan orificeintoa volume
resttime.

ON
Thereare tourditferenttime related InitialSignaloFF .
functions:
1. The delayof switchingON a pressur a) delayedat'ON'
signal
2. The delayof swilchingOFFa prssure b) dlayedat 'OFF"
signal c) Pulseat "ON'
3. A pulsto switchON a pressuresignal
d) Pulseat "OFF'
4. A pressurepulseto switchOFF,
Fig. 8.6 The four timefunctions

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 P N E U tA r t c T E c H N o L o c Y

D E L A Y E D S I ' Y I T C H t N GO N
Fig.8.7 showshow a pressur
signalcan be delayed.The signalon
the outputport (A) of valve@ appears
E variabletimatteroperationof the
valve@. This is due to the flow
restrictionvalveand the reservoir
(whichmay be nothingmorethan a
largediametersectionof tubing).
For a veryshortdelay,the
reservoircan be omitted.

Flg. 8.7 Delayedswitchingon

D E L A Y E DS W I T C H I N GO F F
The delayedreselof a valveis
achievedin lhe sameway as btore,
but insleadof limitingthe air flow
towardsthe pilotportol valveb, its
exhaustis restrictod.
Fig.8.8 showsa delayin
switchinga signalott. Atteroperating
valve(Dthe indicatorimmediatly
goeson, bul after releasingthe
valve,the indicatorwill slay on for an
adjustableperiod.
Flg 8.8 Delayedswitchingoff

P U L S E O N S W I T C H I N GO N
lf a signalfrom a valveis passinga
normallyopenvalve,whichis operatedwith
the samesignal,therewill bno pressureat
the outputof the latlervalve,Howeverif its
operationis delayed,the pressurecan pass
untilthe operaliontakesetfectafterthe delay.
The resultis a pressurepulseof adiustable
durationon the outputof the normallyopen
valve.
In fig. 8.9, a pulseappearsat the outputot
the normallyopenvaNe@, whenthe vatue(D
is switchedon.
Fig. 8.9 Pulseon switchingon

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 P N E U M A T I C T E C H NO L O G Y

P U L S E O N F E L E A S I N GA V A L V E
,'
Whnthe pressurepulsehasto
appearatlerlhe initialsignalhas been
switchedotf,lhe pressurelo produce
it mustcomfromanolhersource.
The methodis lo simultaneously
operatea normallyopen3Y2Valve@
and pressurizea volume@ withthe
initialsignal.WhenvalveO is
released,vafue@ switchesin its
normalposition,connectingthe
volumewithils oulput.The prssure
lrom the volumewill ebb awayaftera
signal
Fig. 8.10 Pulseon a disappearing
shortperiod,adlustableby meansof
the soeedcontroller.

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 PNEU ATIc TEcHI{OLOGV

C Y L I N D E RC O N T F O L
M A N U A LC O N T R O L
Slngte Acttng Cyllnder

Ditect Operation and Speed Control

lf a singleactingcylinderis connectedto a
manuallyoprated312valve,it will extendwhen
lhe valveis oDeratedand retumuDonrelease.
This is the so-called'directcontrol.'ln the caseot
a largecylinder,tlowamplificalionas shownin fig.
8.1 is applied.
The only way to regulatethe outstrokingpiston
speedof a singleactingcylinderis to throttlethe
flow intoit. The speedol the returnstroke,by
meansof the spring,is seldomlimitedin practice.

.Fig.8.11Directcontrolot a singleactingcylinder

Control from two points: On

Function
A cylinderor a valvemay
be operatedin two ditfrent
ways,lor example,manuallyor
via a signalfrom an automatic
circuit.
lf the outputsoI two 3/2 ShuttleValve
valvesare interconnected with
a Tee, the air comingtrom one
ol the valveswill escape
throughthe exhaustof the
olher.
A shuttle valve type
applicationavoidsthis Flg. 8.12 Operationof a single
Droblem. actingcylindertromtwo points

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 P EU ATIC TECHNOLOGY

tntetlock: AND Function

ln somecasestwo conditionshaveto be fulfilledto allowa certainoperation.A typicalexamplecouldbe
thata pnumatic pressmay onD operateit a satetydooris closedand a manualvalveis operated.To control
the safetydoorit tripsa mechanicallyoperated3/2 valve,the inpulot the manuallyoperatedvalveis
connectedto its output,so thereis an openflow pathonlyif bothvalvesare operated'
In caselhe signalsfromthe h/vovalveseachhaveanolherpurpose,as illustratedin circuilb by the two
indicators,an air operaled312valvecanperformthe AND Function:One of the signalssuppliesit, lhe other
operatesit.

Fig. 8.13Satetyinterlock:AND Function

lnverseOperction:NOT Function
Mechanicallocks,stopsfor
productson a conveyorand
similarsituationsmightrequire
a cylinderto be energizedlor
locking.Unlockingoccursby
operatinga valve.For this
typs of applicationa normally
oDnvalvecan be used, lf
however,the samesignalfor
unlockingmustalsostartany
otherdevice,as symbolized
by the indicator(D in fig. 8.14,
a signalinversionhasto be
used,by operatinga separate
air operatednormallyopen
valve@, witha normally
closedvalveO.
Flg, 8.14 SignalInversion:the cylinderretractswhnvalveO is tripped

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 P E U M A T T cT E c H | t o L o G Y

Double actlng Cyllnder

Dirccl Conlrol
The only diflerencbetweenthe operationof a
doubleactingand a singleactingcylinderis that
a 5,/2valvehas to be usedinsteadof a 3/2. In its
normalposition(notopsrated),port"8" is i
connectedwiththe supplyport "P". lt hasto be i
connectedto the rod sideof the pistonif the i
cylinderis naturallyin the negativeposition.
I
For independent speedcontrolin both
directionsthe speedcontrolleris attachedto both
connections. Theirorientationis oppositeto that
of a singleactingcylinderas the exhaustingair
is throttled.This givesa morepositiveand
sleadiermovementthanthrottlingthe air supply.
Insleadof supplyingiust enoughpowrto get the
pistonmoving,an additionalloadis addedwitha
backpressure,whichincreaseswith increasing .Flg.8.15 Directcontrolof a doubleactingcylinder
speed,thus compensates variationsin the load.
Holding the end positions
In mostcases,a cylinderhas to maintain
its position,evenafterlhe operatingsignal
has disappeared. This requiresthe
"Memonf functionot fig. 8.4.A bistable
valvewill stay in positionuntilswitchedtrom
the oppositeend.
In Fig.8.16,the outgoingstrokeot a
doubleactingcylinderis initiatedwithvalve
@ and retumedwithvalve@. Valve@
maintainsits positionand thereforealsothat
of the cylinder.
Valve@ will onlyoperatewhenonryone
of the manuallyoperatedvalvesis
depressed.lf both pilotportsare
pressurizedat the sametimthe spool
maintainsits primarypositionas an equal
prcssuron an equalareacannotoverrid
the primarysignal.
In circuitryihis phsnomenonis knownas
'ovrlappingcommands'and is one of the Fig. 8.16 Maintainingthe positionsot a doubleacting
maiorproblemsin circuitdesign.

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 PNEU A'IC TECHI.IOLOGY

b e r e c r r N cC Y L T N D P
E oRs t r r o N s
^utometlc Return
Valve@ in the circuitof fig. 8.16can be replacedby a rollerleveroperatedvalve,trippedat the positive
end of the cylinderstroke.Th; cylinderthenswitchesvalveO backby itseltand thus returnsautomatically.
This is reterredto as reciprocation
of a cylinder.

I
I
I
Valve@
siluatedhere

Fig. 8.17SemiAutomaticreturnot a cylinder

A problemwill arisEil valve@ is not releasedwhenthe cylinderreachesthe end ol its stroke,th6 cylinder
doesnot retum.Valve@ is unableto switchvalve@ backas longas the opposingsignallrom valveO
valvecan only be switchedwitha pilotpressurewhenthe oppositepilotinputhas ben
remains.A bistiable
exhausted.

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 P N E U M A T TTcE c H t { o L o c Y

ll the cylinderhas lo returnunconditionally

as soonas it reachesthe end of stroke,a simplesolutionwould
be lo transformthe signalof lhe manuallyoperaledvalveintoa pulse.This is a combinationot the two
elementarylunctionsot fig. 8.9 and 8.17.

I
I
I
ValveO
situaledhre

F19.8,18Automaticretumof a cylinder6venwitha remainingsignal

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 P EU ATICTECHNOLOGV

\
|}epeattng Slrotes
By sensingbothendsof the strokewith rollerleveroperatedvalvesand usingthemto switchthe main
valve@ bact-andlorth,the cylinderwill rciprocate.ln orderto stopthe motionwe applyan ANDfunctionof
fig. 8.13.Witha bistablemanuallyoperatedvalveconnectedin serieswilh the roller-operaled valvethe
cylinderwill ceas6to cycleif switchO is tumedotf, butas beforeit willalwaysreturnto the negativeposition

@
v

Fig.8.19 Repeatingstrokeas longas valve@ is operated

S E Q U E N C EC O N T R O L
H O W T O D E S C R I B EA S E O U E N C E
A few ruleshelpus in describinga cycleof movementsin an extremelyshortbut precisemanner.
Nomenclature
Eachactuatorassumesa capital lettr.
Its positionot rest,in whicha circuitdiagramis drawn,is definedas "ZroPosition".The oppositeend
posilionis the "1" posilion.
Pressursignalsto switchdirectionalcontrolvalvesare called"commands",to distinguishthemfrom other
signals,e,g.from leverrollervalves.A commandfor movinga cylinderfromthe "zero"to the "1" positionis
caltda 'posilive"command;in the caseof cylinder?', ils codeis simply'A+".Accordingly, thcommandto
refumcylinderA is ?-".
- As the restposilionis called'zero",it is logicalto codethe valvethat sensesthe rest positionof cylinder
wim 'a6". The oppositepositionis thencalled"a1".Forclarity,signalsaralwayscodedwith lowercase
-J"A"
letters.The sensedpositionis designatedby an index.

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 P N E U A T T cT E c H i r o L o c Y

In Fig.8,20thsecodesar6 reproducedin a schematicsetupfor clarity.This setupis calleda "Functional

Unif , as it provideseverythingrequiredto performa machinetunctionand to conlrolit.
Direction
+
A +
aoG
lSignals: as

Fig. 8.20 FunctionalUnitwith all codes

S E Q U E N C EO F T W O C Y L I N D E R S
Withthesecodes,we can writea sequenceof two cylinderslor examplewith:
A+, B+, A-, B-
The sequenceof evenlsnow becomespatentlyobvious.
Nowcomesthe queslionof wh6rthesecommandscomefrom.The answeris quitesimple:lrom the roller
levervalvesthat sensethe endsof the stroke.They alsoneeda cod,againquiteself-explanatory:
lhe terminalionof a command(A+, B+)will alwaysbe signaledby the roller/lver
valvewiththe same
letterand an indexnumber:"at", "bt", a Zero Command A- by ao, etc.
Withthesecodeswe can writethe solutionfor thg abovementionedsequenceas tollows:
A+ -) al .+B+-)bf-+A--+i0+B-*bO
We also neda manuallyoperatedvalvetor startingand stoppingthe sequence,it is placedin the lin6
priorto the firstcommand,A+. Shouldthe sequenceneedto conlinuethenthe startvalveshouldbe lettopen,
but it thcircuitis switchedoff in mid-cycleit will continueto operateuntilall ot the movementsin the
sequencehavebeencompletdand thenthe cyclewill cometo rest.This meansthatthe lastsignalbo has
apparedbut it is unableto passthroughthe startswitch(coded"sf). This is anotherapplicationol the
elemntary'AND" functionof fig. 8.13.The commandA+ needsbothsignals:bg and"sf. In switchingalgebra
this is writtenas a multiplicationin normalalgebra:"st . b0'.

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 PNEU ATIcTEcHNoLoGY

This may be referredlo as a "closedloop' circuit.The sequenceof signalsand commandsis lhen as

lollows:

Slgna,s

Commands

The samesequenceas in the blockdiagramaboveis drawnin Fig8,21as a pneumaticcircuitwith ISO

Symbols.As we havenowcodedthe rollerlevervalvesaccordinglo theirposition,thereis no needto draw
the circuitas a mapwiththe end-of-strokevalvestopographically shownnearthe cylinders,or indicatethem
withnumbersas in figures8.18and8.19.
The standardis to drawall the cylindersat the top, dhectlybeneaththemlheir powervalvesand below
thosethe valvesprovidingthe end of strokesignals.ln moresophisticated circuitstheremay be some
'sf in fig.
additionalvalvesin a levelbetweenthe mainand signalvalves.This is the casewiththe startvalve
8.21.
SIngle Cycle / nepeatlng Cycle
The type of valveusedfor startingthe sequencemakesthe ditferencebetweenthe two cycles:if it is a
monostablevalvand we trip it, one singlecyclewill be pertormed.In the caseof a bistablevalve,the cycle
untilwe resetit. No matterwhenwe do it, the circuitwillalwayscompletethe cycle
will repeatcontinuously
andthen slop.

) Fig. 8.21Circuitlor the sequenceA+, B+,A-, B-

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 P N E U i I A T t cT E c H N o L o G Y

O P P O S I N GC O M M A N D S
Ellmlnatlon wlth a Pulse

Clamping: Pressure Control

Shorlslrokesinglactingcylindersare oftenusedtor clamping.Althoughthycan havebuilt in switches
tor electricalcontrol,thereis no secudly,ls the parl to be machinedsutficientlyclampedto withstandthe
lorcesexeriedon it duringmachining?The only reliablesignalis one that indicatessufficientpressurebehind
lhe piston.For this a "SequenceValve"is used.lt allowsthe operatorto adjustthe minimumpressurerequired
lor secureclamping.
The pressureit hasto senseis that of the clampingcylinder,so ils pilotinputhas to be connectedwitha
Tee to the cylinderport; its outputsignalwill then startthe machiningoperation,(cylinder"8").The cylinder
haslo relurnimmediatelyaftrthe operationis tinished,i,e.the end of the stroke,valve"b1" will providethis
intormation.
Herewe face a problem:B is unableto relurnas longas the clampingcylinderA is pressurized,but also il
musl not relumand un-clampbetorethe machiningdeviceis backin the rest position.We can againusethe
basiccircuitof fig 8.9 to solvelhis problemby transforming
the remainingsignalfrom lhe sequencevalveinto
a pulse'The cycleis startedmanuallybut in practice,lheoperatorwill inserta componentfor machiningand
thnkeepthe buttondepresseduntilthe work is completed.Seelig 8.22for clarification.

Flg. 8,22Circuitfor clampingand machining,singlerycle

Thereis howeveran imperfection: if the operatorrelasesthbuttonafterthe machininghas started,the
clampwill open.We haveto preventthat.The solutionis to "memorize"the manualstartingsignalwithth
circuitof fig. 8.16.For the tunctionol valve1 in that circuitwe useda valvetor sensingthe rstpositionof
cylinderB, a valve"bo'. But that valveis operatedin the restposition,whenclampinghas beendoneand B
has to outstroke.

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 PNEUMATIC TEC'II'IOLOGY

t This meansthereis anotheropposingcommand,whichwe haveto get rid of -- by makinga pulseof ilr

t That resultsin the circuitof fig. 8.23:
A B

T--
I

Fig. 8.23Clampingand machiningwith addilionallocking

Cascade System
You mustadmitthatthe way in whichopposingcommandshavebeenliminatedin the previousexample
cannotbe lhe bestone.Theremustbe a morestraighttoMardand reliablesolution.
The trusolutionis to switchoverlappingsignalsofi, nol by timingtricks,but by switchinga selectorvalve
as in the circuitFig,8.3,The problemis to knowwher6sucha valvehasto be put in and how it is to b6
switchedand connected.
Thereis a simpleproceduretor drawingsquential circuits,called'The CascadeSystem". The cycleis
dividedintotwo or moregroups.For furtherexplanation we assumethatthereare onlytwo groups.Eachone
has a supplylinetromthe selectorvalve.
The divisionof the groups,tor examplecycle"A+, B+, B-, A-" is doneas follows:
Lookingat eachcommandfrom lettto right,we can sub-dividethe commandsintogroups,the rule being
that you mayonly have1 commandin eachgroupbe it either + or - e.g.:
A+, B+ lB-, A-.1
groupI groupll
The principleremainsthe samewith longercycles,whenit hasthreeor moregroups.lt is not necessary
thal the cyclestartswitha new group;the end-of-cycle may be in the middleof a group.The "starustop"valve
is simplyput in the lineto lhe firsl commandot the cycle.Sometimesone hasto try untilthe leastamountot
groupshasb66nfound.

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 P N E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

Furtherrulesare explainedin the followingblockdiagram:

all furth6rcommandsin groupl all turlhercommandsin groupll
tirstcommand firstcommand
in groupI in groupll

line groupI
linegroup

O FirstCylinderValveto be switchedin group t .

@ All end of strokevalvesin group l, exceptthe last in sequence.

@ All the commandsto the mainvalvesin group I are suppliedlrom " line group 1".
The valvesensingthe end ol the laststrokein groupt switchesthe selector;
@ the line of groupI is exhaustedand that of groupll pressurized,
rR\
\g/
Mainvalveof the cylindermakingthe firststrokein group ll ,

@ All end-ofstrokevalvesgivingthe commandsin groupll ,excplthe lastone,

@ All end-ofstrokevatuesgivingcommandsin groupll are suppliedfrom 'line groupll".
@ The valvesensingthe laststrokein groupllswitchesthe selectorback.
lg. 8.24 BlockDiagramof the CascadeSystem

The steps of the circuit are now quite easy. The start switch is alwaysinsertdin the line to the first
commandol the cycle.ln the exampleabove,lhe cycleendsat the end ot a group;this is not alwaysthe case
and,as mentiondabovenol necessary.
This will be demonstrated
withone xample:the givencycleis: A+, B+, A-, C+, D+, IL B- G-
lf we dividethe sequencefrcm the trontwe get the resultas belowa 3 GroupCascade:
lA+, B+,1A-, C+, D+,1D- B- C-.
lf we dividethe sequencefrcm lhe rearwe lind lhal we now haveonly2 groups,as the movementsA+,D-
,B-,C-can all be performedwiththe samegroupair:
A+,1B+, A-, G+, D+,1IL B- C..
The cascadevalvewill be switchdon with al and b6 switchedbackwith dt. The start/ stopvalvewill be
in the connectiontromcOto lhe commandinputA+,

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 P N E U I , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

Rememberthat bothrollerlevervalves,coded wilha zero index,haveto be drawnin the opelaledposition,

as youcan sein the diagramof fig. 8.25for the seguenceA+, B+, B-, A-.
A r-ll B
T-l
t#
I
r. r-1
zK 9K

Flg. 8.25 Two cylindercascade-

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 P N E U M A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

APPENDIX
SYMBOLS
T H E S Y M B O L SF O R F L U I D P O W E RS Y S T E M SA N D C O M P O N E N T S ARE
H
S T A N D A B D T Z EIDN I S O 1 2 1 9 .T H E S T A N D A R DC O M B T N E S Y D R A U L I CA N D
P N E U M A T I CC O M P O N E N T SS. Y M B O L SS H O W T H E F U N C T I O N O F A COMPONENT
B U T D O N O T I N D I C A T ET H E C O N S T R U C T I O NA. S A N E X A M P L E :A C C O R D I N GT O
I N S Y M B O LB E T W E E N
I S O , T H E R EI S N O D I F F E R E N C E A C O N V E N T IONAL
D O U B L EA C T I N GC Y L I N D E RA N D A T W I N B O D C Y L I N D E R ,A L T H O U G HS O M E
M A N U F A C T U R E RH SA V E I N T R O D U C E D T H E I RO W N S Y M B O L S F O F
CLARIFICATION.

A I R T R E A T M E N TE O U I P M E N T
The basicSymbollor Air Cleaningand Air DryingComponentsis a diamondwiththe inpuland output
drawnas a linefromthe lettand rightcorners.The specificlunctionis indicatedinsidethe diamondwith a few
furthrsymbols.The tablebelowwillxplainitself.
The basicsymbolfor pressureregulatorsis a squarewiththe inputand outputdrawnin the middleof the
leftand rieht.lide.Airflowis indicatedwithan anow,the settingspringwitha zigzag,crossedby an arrowtor
Th6 rirainsymbolsare:
adjuslirbility.
ISOSYMBOLSfor AIR TREATMENT

+
,A
\I/
Air Heat

+ +
Heater Exchanger

Multistage Lubricator
MicroFilter

Pressure -
Reoulation
-Z- E- ,--E_ A
Ll s fr-++tJ:
Basic Adiustable Pressure Regulator
I
Diftrenlial Pressure
Symbol Setting Regulator with rlief Pressure Gauge
Spring Regulator
Units

FRLUnit,
FRL Unit.detailed simplitied
)
Fig. A.1 Symbolslor Air TreatmentComponentsISO 1219

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 P N E U t r t a r l cT E c H N o L o c Y

ACTUATORS
A linearcylinderis drawnas a simplitied is madebetweenpistonandother
crosssection.Nodifference
typesof cylinders.
A rolaryactuatorhasitsownsymbol;herealso,it appliesforall kinds,withrackandpinion
or vantc.

SinglActingCylinder, SingleActingCylinder,
pushtype pulltype

t-n
t l l
T-T
DoubleActing DoubleActingCylinderwith
adjustableair

DoubleActingCylinder, RotaryActuator,
withdoubleend rod doubleActing

Flg. A-2 ISOActuatorSymbols

VALVES
The basicsymbolfor a directionalcontrolvalveis a groupof squares.The inputand exhaust(s)are drawn
on the bottom,the outputson top. Thereis one squarelor eachfunction.As valveshavetwo or moredifferent

mt \
functions,squaresare linedup horizontally,the ruleof thumbis thal eachfunctionis representedby a square:

Insidethe square,flowpathsare indicatedby anowsV \ betweenthe interconnected

ports,intemally
shut portsare shownwiththe symbolT.

Externally,on the bottomot lhe square,air supplyis shownwitn6 anAexhaustswithV.

A supplyline is drawnas a solidline,
a pilotline is dashed
exhaustlinesare dottod
Symbolslor the operatoraare drawnon the endsof the doubleor triplesquare.
The followingoperatorsymbolsare shownfor thleft-handside,exceptthe spring,whichis alwayson the
oppositeside of an operatoras it is a res6tmechanism,bul is technicallytermedas an oprator.ll operators
are placedon the righthandsidethey will be in reverse(flippedhorizontally).

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 PNEu Atlc TEcHNoLoGY

The mainopeEtorsymbolsare:

ReturnSpring(in facl not an Mechanical(plunge0: -.

operator,bul a built-inelement) M
one'wayFlollerLever: qr-
BollerLever: CE \cE
Manual general:
oPerators: Lever:
= r
i--
PushButton: Button:
Push-Pull (F-
F
Delenlfor mechanicaland manualoperators(makesa monostablevalve D&
bistable):
I ni, Operationis shownby drawingthe (dashed)signalpressurelineto
I rtreside of the squareithe directionof the signalllow can be indicatedby ---D--'
I a trianole:
I o,, oplration for pilotedoperationis shownby a rectanglewitha triangle. l-El
I Thissymbolis alwayscombinedwithanotheroperator.
II operatio
on"o solenoid piloted operation l7T1
solenoid
" m
I The table A-3 below explainsho\r,,these symbollemenlsare put togetherto lom a completevalve
symbol.

I +m f,'ffi'-ffik" s&ia fi'ffi' -d*h" s;li;l

d:?Hfl"
T\ rr\rr Al lWoR
|-f-l l-
tr, AJ LI-l
^t
\
T i \
\ \ t ry
t
/ / \ \ t /
, \ \ / / Manuallvooerated, \ \ \ / /
| . \ fT-T-|.
ffiil#,iilf';i'"";J\Jffi
Open312valve,
i ,Normally
wirhsprinsRetum
ITTFI ^ ^',

' "--t#
O --"'.-6!
Exhaust
V "='z ^na,*ry

Inpul lnput dosd, Input lnDut

dosd.
'Ouput
Mochanical conftictdto OutDut Rlum Fetum
Mchanicel connctedto gxhaustedDpnng
Operation O.rtout exhaustd Spnng Operalion Output

rr|
-
H NM o R = lT\ | M
MechanicallyOperated,
normallyclosed312
I
(non-passing)
ValvewithSpringReturn

ainsrpptv \o.,n"r.
6/
Fig. A-3 Howto combineValveSymbols

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 P E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c v

ctRcurTs
B A S I CR U L E S
A circuitdiagtamis drawnin therestpositionol thecont.olled withthesupplyunderpressure,
machine, but
in lhecaseof mixedcircuits, withoutelectrical power.Allcomponents
mustbedrawnin thepositions
resulting
fromlh6seassumptions. Flg.A- 4 illustrates
this:
fhis cylinderchamberandthe rod sideot
pistonarundsroressure:rod

Feat cylinder
chamberandthis line
Thisline is in connectionwith
are exhausted
lhe supplylhroughthe valve:
il is oressurized

In resttheE is no solenoidnergized:
operator As springdefinesposition,
inacliveandvalvepositiondefinsdby the spring thissquareis in function
Flg. A.4 BasicRulesfor composingcircuitdiagrams

REST POSITION
Mechanically operatedvalves,controllingthe restpositionsol the cylinderdrivenparts,are operatedin rest
and haveto be drawnaccordingly:withthe externalconnectionsdrawnto the squareon the operatorsid.In
a normallyclosed3/2 valv,the outputis then connectedwiththe supplyand theretoreunderpressure.
Equally,if the signallineto a monostabloair operatdvalveis underpressure,ii hasto be drawnin the
operatedposition.
Furtherrulesar6:

ruru
ManuallyoperatedValves
delent,mustcorrepond
wlthvalveposition
no pEssut pressure i/ noon,uun \ o*ur"
I I -l.
| | | \---t_ . IT ff- . .
r-l T | \ I^^,

-----6-v- HJ -I_\ ]/VV

(,
3/2,normallyclosed 3i/2,normallyopen 3il2,normally
monoslable
valvesnevet ooerated bistablevalves:both positionspossible.
Fig. A-5 Bulesconcemingvalvepositions:ManualOperation

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 P r ' I E UT , A T I C T C H N O L O G Y

operatedValves
andpneumatically
Electrically
Alr operatedvalves may be operatedIn rest

jg_ejg:s_uP_+,_

Solenoldsare never operaledIn roat

Flg.A.6Rulsfor restposilionol solenoidand air operatedvalves

operatedValves
Mechanically
No valvewlth lndex'1" ls

All valveswlth Index"0' ar

Fig. A-7 Ruleslor restpositionof mechanically

operatedvalves

C I R C U I TL A Y O U T
In a circuitdiagram,the flowof the workingenergyis drawnfromthe bottomto thtop and the sequenceof
the workingcyclelrom th6 leftto the right.Consequntly, thd air supply(FRL)Unitis situatedin the lowerleft
corner,lhe cylinderlhat pertormsthe firststrokeof the cycl,in the upperleftcomeretc.
The powervalvesare drawndirectlybelowtheircylinders;th6ytorma 'PowerUnit'thalis codedwitha
capitaffetter(seeNomenclalure). In purelypneumaticcircuits,312rollerfiever valves,controllingthe nd
posilionsof the cylinderdrivenmachinepartrs, are situatdin a lowrlevel.
Betweenpowervalvesand the powerunilsthremaybe additionalvalvesto nsurethe correclsequence
(memorylunction),and,somtimes, additionalvalvesto realizecrtaininterlocksby logicalfunctions.Th6
bloc* diagramot fig. 6 explainsthis moreetfectivelythandescriptions.

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 P r ' r E U M A T rTcE c H N o L o c Y

Firststrokeot the cycle Laststrokeof th6 cycle

LOGICLevel
Memories,
AND's,OR's,
Timingsetc.

,fsrll m tI
SIGNALINPUTLevel Codes:a9, ar ,bo ,br ,% andcl

*{I"il"ilqil
Flg, A The basiclayoutof.apneumalic.circuit
diagram.

NOMENCLATURE
Previously,pneumaticcircuitsweredrawn'topographically, withthe roller-operated valvespositionedon
top, drawnas beingoperatedby 'cams'on th6 cylinderrodends.This is the situationwe will haveon the
trainingkit whensimulatinga machinecontrol.In modemmoresophisticated circuits,this leadsto a muttitud
of crossinglines.The modemand only reasonabl methodis to linethe symbolsof theseroller-operatod
valvesup, as in Fig.A-8, and posilionthemto allowverticalsignallines,straightto theirdestination.Their
placeon thmachineis then indicatedwith a selt-explanatory code.
This selFexplanationis achievedby conslddng certainequipmntto form one functionalset.The starting
pointis the "PowerUnit"whichis codedwith a capitallefter.This can be in alphabeticalorder,in the sequence
of the workingcycle,or initialsot thoperation,{or exampbrc" fur clamping;"D" for Drillingetc.
The (mentiond) lunctional sef includesthe actuator,the powervalveand the two roller/lever
valvesthat
detectthe two end positions.
The rest positionis codedwith an indexf0', the fuorkingposition"with a "1". Notethat the restpositionis
the real positionof the movingmachinepartsand not that of the pistonrod.Only in simulationwitha training
kit do we considr'rodin" as the rest Dosition.

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 P N E U M A T I C T E C HN O L O G Y

. W6 haveto ditferentiate betweena signal,producedby lhe roller/lever valvs,and commands,signal

I pressuresthai operatelhe powervalvesilnsimplecircuits,a signalcan be a command.Thenthe codeof the
signaldelinesthe source(thenow completedactionon the machin),and the codeof thcommandtells
whichnextmovementwill be started.In morecomplicatedcircuits,a commandwill be the outpulof a valve
usedtor a logicaltunclion.
valvesoperatedin the rest positionhavean indexzero.Those
As thr6stoositionis rc', all end-of-stroke
opratd in the opposlteend (\^,ork havean index"1".Fig.A-9 showsa situationwitha littingiable
position")
movingup and downas longas the starvstopvalvis switchedon in the threeversions:as a situationsketch,
an imDression of howlhe circuit lookswhen simulated withthe trainingkil and lhe circuitdiagram'

CIRCUIT

Flg. A-9 Comparisonof a situationsketchwiththe simulationset-upand the ckcuildiagram

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 P EUxA'Ic TEcHNoLoGY

S A M P L ED I A G B A M S
We will lookat this in a samplediagram.DiagramA-10is the circuittor the sequenc:
"A+, B+, B-, A-".
ll is dividedintothe threlevels,the powersectionon top, the signalinputrson the bottomand in between
the 'signalprocssing'. This latlerterm means,thatthe signalstromthmachinenegdadditionalsignals
ancuorfogicalinterconnection lo gtthe rightsequsnce.In this case,a memoryisrequiredto be switchedby
the commands"M+"and "M-".Youwill rcognizethis valyeas the cascadevalvain tig. 8.25,whichis of
coursea memory,Logicalfunctionsare lhe seriesconnections(ANDfunctions)of lor examplthe start/stop
valvewiththe memory.The ellect is, that as longas the cylinderA is not backin its rest positionthe startis
not effective.Onlyafteroperationof the rollerlevervalvea6,the memorywill be resetintothe drawnposition
and supplyair to lhe startvalve.This allowsrepeatingcyclesby switchingthe starystopvalve"ON".Resetting
it intothe drawnrest positionwill causethe sequenceto stopaftercompletionof the runningcycle.

POWERLevel

<A-_CommandA-
I
I co'Uand-Ll

LOGICLevel
Signal
staru$op Processing

M-l - -1
Signalbl
and i--- . t
Siqnalao and
CommangEEi I CommandM+
l-
I I

SIGNALLevel
Checkingthe machine

Fig. A-10 SampleDiagram

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 P N E U M A T t cT E c x N o L o c Y

Industrialpneumaticswill continueto be a reliable,costetticient,and productivemeansto automate

machinesand processes.lt remains,aftera cenluryof applications, an eflectivewayto storeenergyand
orovroework.
orovideworK.

E ,=i,=&!i:il{:?rdtfiiei*
smarterproducts;machinesthat will, on
an elementarylevel,thinkaboutwhat
lhey'redoingand respondto ever
changingcircumstances.Pneumatic
componentswill continueto providelhe
powerto buildthe dreamsof emerging
tuturetechnologies.
The sectionof a machineshownon
the left shouldserveas a reminderthat:
1 . lherewill alwaysbe a needlo
areso manyold
automale.....there
machinesand fixturesthat can be
mademorefficientand more
productive
generalrule
2. simpleris btter.....a
o. safestis notiust th6 bestway-- it is
the ONLYway. Neverdesigna
circuit,usea product,or operatea
machinewithoutsafetyas your
primaryconc6m.

The tuturerestson the lundamentals.

To continuein this fieldot study,consultyour localSMCotficeor distributortor additionalt6rittitles,

workbooks,and courseoflerings.

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 WorldWideQS\E Support...
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