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Gallstone Disease PDF
Gallstone Disease PDF
65
Gallstone Disease*
DAVID Q.-H. WANG AND NEZAM H. AFDHAL
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Types of Gallstones ................................................................1100 Stones in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus ................................ 1119
Epidemiology ..........................................................................1101 Symptomatic Stones ............................................................... 1119
Risk Factors ........................................................................... 1101 Special Patient Populations ..................................................... 1119
Protective Factors................................................................... 1104 Diagnosis................................................................................1121
Composition and Abnormalities of Bile ...................................1104 US ......................................................................................... 1121
Physical Chemistry of Bile....................................................... 1104 EUS ....................................................................................... 1123
Hepatic Secretion of Biliary Lipids ........................................... 1107 Oral Cholecystography ............................................................ 1123
Pathophysiology......................................................................1109 Cholescintigraphy ................................................................... 1124
Hepatic Hypersecretion of Biliary Cholesterol ........................... 1109 ERCP ..................................................................................... 1125
Rapid Cholesterol Nucleation and Crystallization ...................... 1109 CT and Magnetic Resonance Cholangiography ........................ 1125
Imbalance of Pronucleating and Antinucleating Clinical Disorders....................................................................1126
Factors .............................................................................. 1110 Biliary Pain and Chronic Cholecystitis ...................................... 1126
Gallbladder Dysfunction .......................................................... 1111 Acute Cholecystitis ................................................................. 1127
Intestinal Factors .................................................................... 1112 Choledocholithiasis ................................................................. 1129
Growth of Gallstones .............................................................. 1112 Cholangitis ............................................................................. 1130
Genetics .................................................................................1113 Uncommon Complications ......................................................1131
Pigment Stones ......................................................................1114 Emphysematous Cholecystitis ................................................. 1131
Black Stones .......................................................................... 1117 Cholecystoenteric Fistula ........................................................ 1131
Brown Stones......................................................................... 1117 Mirizzis Syndrome ................................................................. 1132
Natural History........................................................................1118 Porcelain Gallbladder .............................................................. 1133
Asymptomatic Stones ............................................................. 1118
1100
Chapter 65 Gallstone Disease 1101
Women 65.6
Men
40
Prevalence (%)
30
20
10
0
l
nd an sia ina sh m dia sia Iran ark razi cks eru ites Italy way tina any nics hile ans
ila Jap uni Ch ade indo In us m a P h r n m a C ric
a l R n B Bl W No rge Ger isp
Th T
ng ed K De S. S.
e
a
B nit U.
U. A .H Am
S e
U U. tiv
Na
FIGURE 65-1. Prevalence rates of cholesterol gallstones by gender in 18 countries based on US surveys.
1102 Section VIII Biliary Tract
High
Intermediate
Low
No data
species of lecithins (with corresponding frequencies) in bile side chains, as well as the composition of the particular
are 16:0 to 18:2 (40% to 60%), 16:0 to 18:1 (5% to 25%), 18:0 to aqueous solution. When bile salt concentrations exceed the
18:2 (1% to 16%), and 16:0 to 20:4 (1% to 10%). Lecithins critical micellar concentration, their monomers can spontane-
are synthesized principally in the endoplasmic reticulum of ously aggregate to form simple micelles. The simple micelles
the hepatocyte from diacylglycerols through the cytidine (3 nm in diameter) are small, disk-like, and thermodynami-
diphosphate-choline pathway. The common bile salts typically cally stable aggregates that can solubilize cholesterol. They can
contain a steroid nucleus of 4 fused hydrocarbon rings with also solubilize and incorporate phospholipids to form mixed
polar hydroxyl functions and an aliphatic side chain conju- micelles that are capable of solubilizing at least triple the
gated in amide linkage with glycine or taurine. In bile, more amount of cholesterol compared with that solubilized by
than 95% of bile salts are 5,C-24 hydroxylated acidic steroids simple micelles. Mixed micelles (4 to 8 nm in diameter) are
that are amide-linked to glycine or taurine in an approximate large, thermodynamically stable aggregates composed of bile
ratio of 3 : 1. Bile salts constitute approximately two thirds of salts, phospholipids, and cholesterol. Their size depends on
the solute mass of normal human bile by weight. The hydro- the relative proportion of bile salts and phospholipids. The
philic (polar) areas of bile salts are the hydroxyl groups and mixed micelle is a lipid bilayer with the hydrophilic groups of
conjugated side chain of either glycine or taurine, and the the bile salts and phospholipids aligned on the outside of
hydrophobic (nonpolar) area is the ringed steroid nucleus. the bilayer, interfacing with the aqueous bile, and the hydro-
Because they possess both hydrophilic and hydrophobic sur- phobic groups on the inside. Therefore, cholesterol mole-
faces, bile salts are highly soluble, detergent-like, amphiphilic cules can be solubilized on the inside of the bilayer away from
molecules. Their high aqueous solubility is due to their capac- the aqueous areas on the outside. The amount of cholesterol
ity to self-assemble into micelles when a critical micellar con- that can be solubilized is dependent on the relative propor-
centration is exceeded. tions of bile salts, and the maximal solubility of cholesterol
The primary bile salts are hepatic catabolic products of occurs when the molar ratio of phospholipids to bile salts is
cholesterol and are composed of cholate (a trihydroxy bile salt) between 0.2 and 0.3. Furthermore, the solubility of cholesterol
and chenodeoxycholate (a dihydroxy bile salt) (see Chapter in mixed micelles is enhanced when the concentration of total
64). The secondary bile salts are derived from the primary lipids in bile is increased.
bile salt species by the action of intestinal bacteria in the When model and native biles are examined by quasi-elastic
ileum and colon and include deoxycholate, ursodeoxycholate, light-scattering spectroscopy and electron microscopy, it is
and lithocholate. The most important of the conversion found that, besides micelles, vesicles solubilize cholesterol in
reactions is 7-dehydroxylation of primary bile salts to bile. Biliary vesicles are unilamellar spherical structures that
produce deoxycholate from cholate and lithocholate from contain phospholipids, cholesterol, and little if any bile salts.
chenodoxycholate. Another important conversion reaction is Vesicles are substantially larger than either simple or mixed
the 7-dehydrogenation of chenodeoxycholate to form 7- micelles (40 to 100 nm in diameter) but much smaller than
oxo-lithocholate. This bile salt does not accumulate in bile liquid crystals (500 nm in diameter) that are composed of
but is metabolized by hepatic or bacterial reduction to form multilamellar spherical structures. Because vesicles are present
the tertiary bile salt chenodeoxycholate (mainly in the liver) in large quantities in hepatic bile, they could be secreted by
or its 7-epimer ursodeoxycholate (primarily by bacteria in hepatocytes. Unilamellar vesicles are often detected in freshly
the colon). collected samples of unsaturated bile and are physically indis-
Bile pigments are minor solutes and formed as a metabolic tinguishable from those identified in supersaturated bile.
product of certain porphyrins. They account for roughly 0.5% Dilute hepatic bile, in which solid cholesterol crystals and
of total lipids in bile by weight. They are mainly bilirubin gallstones never form, is always supersaturated with choles-
conjugates with traces of porphyrins and unconjugated biliru- terol because vesicles solubilize biliary cholesterol in excess of
bin. Bilirubin can be conjugated with a molecule of glucuronic what could be solubilized in mixed micelles. Cholesterol-rich
acid, which makes it soluble in water. In human bile, bilirubin vesicles are remarkably stable in dilute bile, consistent with
monoglucuronides and diglucuronides are the major bile pig- the absence of cholesterol crystallization in hepatic bile. The
ments. Other bile pigments are monoconjugates and diconju- unilamellar vesicles can fuse and form large multilamellar
gates of xylose, glucose, and glucuronic acid and various vesicles (also known as liposomes or liquid crystals). Solid cho-
homoconjugates and heteroconjugates of them. lesterol monohydrate crystals may nucleate from multilamel-
Proteins and elements are also found in bile. Albumin lar vesicles in concentrated gallbladder bile.
appears to be the most abundant protein in bile, followed by Vesicles are relatively static structures that are affected by
immunoglobulins G and M, apolipoproteins AI, AII, B, CI, and several factors, including biliary lipid concentrations and the
CII, transferrin, and 2-macroglobin. Other proteins that have relative ratios of cholesterol, phospholipids, and bile salts. The
been identified but not quantitated in bile include EGF, insulin, relative concentrations of these 3 important lipids in bile are
haptoglobin, CCK, lysosomal hydrolase, and amylase. Ele- influenced by their hepatic secretion rates, which vary with
ments detected in bile include sodium, phosphorus, potas- fasting and feeding. For example, during the fasting period,
sium, calcium, copper, zinc, iron, manganese, molybdenum, hepatic output of biliary bile salts is relatively low. As a result,
magnesium, and strontium. the ratio of cholesterol to bile salts is increased, and more
cholesterol is carried in vesicles than in micelles. By contrast,
with feeding, hepatic output of biliary bile salts is increased
Physical States of Biliary Lipids and more cholesterol is solubilized in micelles than in vesicles.
Cholesterol is nearly insoluble in water, and the mechanism In addition, when the concentration of bile salts is relatively
by which cholesterol is solubilized in bile is complex because low, especially in dilute hepatic bile, vesicles are relatively
bile is an aqueous solution. The 2 main types of macromolecu- stable, and only some vesicles are converted to micelles. By
lar aggregates in bile are micelles and vesicles, which greatly contrast, with increasing bile salt concentrations in concen-
enhance the solubilization of cholesterol in bile. trated gallbladder bile, vesicles may be converted completely
Bile salts are soluble in an aqueous solution because they into mixed micelles. Because relatively more phospholipids
are amphiphilic, in that they have both hydrophilic and hydro- than cholesterol can be transferred from vesicles to mixed
phobic areas. This unique property of bile salts is dependent micelles, the residual vesicles are remodeled and may be
on the number and characteristics of the hydroxyl groups and enriched in cholesterol relative to phospholipids. If the
1106 Section VIII Biliary Tract
)
larger (500 nm in diameter) multilamellar vesicles (i.e., lipo-
(%
Ph
somes or liquid crystals). Liquid crystals are often visible by
rol
os
60 40
ste
polarizing light microscopy as lipid circular droplets with
ph
o le
olip
characteristic birefringence in the shape of a Maltese cross. 3 Phases
Ch
id
Liquid crystals are inherently unstable and may form solid
(%
plate-like cholesterol monohydrate crystals, a process termed 40 60
)
cholesterol nucleation. Therefore, nucleation of cholesterol
D
monohydrate crystal results in a decrease in the amount of
cholesterol contained in vesicles but not in micelles, and ves- A B C E
20 80
icles may serve as the primary source of cholesterol for 2 Phases
nucleation. 2 Phases
Under normal physiologic conditions, bile is concentrated 1 Phase
gradually within the biliary tree so that the bile salt concentra- 0 100
tion approaches its critical micellar concentration. When this 100 80 60 40 20 0
occurs, bile salts begin to modify the structure of phospholipid-
Mixed bile salts (%)
rich vesicles that are secreted into bile by hepatocytes. These
interactions signify the start of a complex series of molecular FIGURE 65-3. Equilibrium phase diagram of a cholesterol
rearrangements that ultimately lead to formation of simple phospholipid (lecithin)mixed bile salt system (37C, 0.15 M
and mixed micelles. In supersaturated bile, 2 pathways result NaCl, pH 7.0, total lipid concentration 7.5 g/dL) showing posi-
in formation of cholesterol-rich vesicles from phospholipid- tions and configuration of crystallization regions. Components
rich vesicles at the canalicular membrane of hepatocyte. are expressed in moles percent. The 1-phase micellar zone at
Because bile salts solubilize phospholipids more efficiently the bottom is enclosed by a solid angulated line, and above it, 2
than cholesterol, cholesterol-rich vesicles may form when bile solid lines divide the two-phase zones from a central 3-phase
salts preferentially extract phospholipid molecules directly zone. Based on the solid and liquid crystallization sequences
from phospholipid-rich vesicles. The alternative pathway is present in the bile, the left two-phase and central three-phase
the rapid dissolution of phospholipid-rich vesicles by bile salts regions are divided by dashed lines into regions A to D. The
with the production of unstable mixed micelles that contain number of phases given represents the equilibrium state. The
excess cholesterol. Obviously, structural rearrangements of phases are cholesterol monohydrate crystals and saturated
these unstable micellar particles result in the formation of micelles for crystallization regions A and B; cholesterol monohy-
cholesterol-rich vesicles. drate crystals, saturated micelles, and liquid crystals for regions
C and D; and liquid crystals of variable composition and saturated
Phase Diagrams and Cholesterol Solubility in Bile micelles for region E. Of note is that decreases in temperature
(37C 4C), total lipid concentration (7.5 g/dL 2.5 g/dL),
In the 1960s, Small and colleagues defined the maximal solu- and bile salt hydrophobicity (3,123,73,7,123,7-
bility (saturation) limits for cholesterol in model quaternary hydroxylated taurine conjugates) progressively shift all crystalliza-
bile systems that consisted of varying proportions of choles- tion pathways to lower phospholipid contents, retard crystallization,
terol, phospholipids, bile salts, and water.62,63 The relative pro- and reduce micellar cholesterol solubilities. These changes gen-
portions (as molar percentages) of the 3 lipids in bile play a erate a series of new condensed-phase diagrams with an enlarged
critical role in determining the maximal solubility of choles- region E. (Reproduced with permission from Wang DQ, Carey
terol. When the relative proportions of the 3 lipids at a fixed MC. Complete mapping of crystallization pathways during cho-
total lipid concentration are plotted in a triangular coordinate, lesterol precipitation from model bile: Influence of physical-
the solubility of cholesterol for any given solute concentration chemical variables of pathophysiologic relevance and identification
can be determined.64 The triangular coordinate diagram also of a stable liquid crystalline state in cold, dilute and hydrophilic
illustrates the physical phases of cholesterol in bile. For bile salt-containing systems. J Lipid Res 1996; 37:606-30.)
example, the phase diagram shown in Figure 65-3 is specific
for a total lipid concentration of 7.5 g/dL, which is typical of
human gallbladder bile.65,66 For hepatic bile, with a typical occurs only in gallbladder bile. For example, in unsaturated
total lipid concentration of 3 g/dL, the phase boundaries bile, all cholesterol can be solubilized in both simple and
would be different, with a smaller micellar zone, all phase mixed micelles, and relative biliary lipid compositions are
boundaries shifted to the left, and an expanded 2-phase zone located in the micellar zone of the phase diagram. By contrast,
on the right (i.e., region E in Fig. 65-3). The effect of total lipid in supersaturated bile, cholesterol cannot be completely solu-
concentration on cholesterol solubilization in the micellar bilized by simple and mixed micelles, and relative biliary lipid
zone explains why hepatic bile tends to be more saturated compositions are located outside the micellar zone of the
with cholesterol than is gallbladder bile in the same subject. phase diagram. Under these circumstances, high vesicular
Because hepatic bile contains a large number of cholesterol- cholesterol concentrations and high total lipid concentrations
phospholipid vesicles that are relatively stable, solid plate-like in bile can work together to produce the solid crystalline
cholesterol monohydrate crystals never occur in hepatic bile. phase. Therefore, with typical physiologic lipid ratios, at equi-
Equilibrium phase diagrams can also be used to predict librium, cholesterol monohydrate crystals are present with
the phases in which solid cholesterol crystals can be found at saturated simple and mixed micelles or with saturated micelles
equilibrium.67 Although the equilibration process starts after plus vesicles that have become multilamellar liquid crystals.
hepatic bile is secreted from hepatocytes and flows into the The final physical state of bile is also influenced by the ratio
biliary tree, the evolution to cholesterol monohydrate crystals of the concentration of bile salts to that of phospholipids and
Chapter 65 Gallstone Disease 1107
Acetate
LDL
LDLR ABCB4
HMGCR
HDL Canalicular
Biosynthesis
SR-BI membrane
CMR PL
CMRR ABCG5/G8
ACAT
CH ester CH CH
Basolateral Esterification
membrane
NPC1L1 BS Vesicle
CYP7A1 Catabolism
CYP27A1 ABCB11
VLDL
Nascent
HDL
ABCA1 BS
FIGURE 65-4. Uptake, biosynthesis, catabolism, and biliary secretion of cholesterol at the hepatocyte level. Hepatic uptake of cholesterol
is mediated by the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor (LDLR) for LDL, by scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) for high-density
lipoprotein (HDL), and by the chylomicron remnant receptor (CMRR) for chylomicron remnants (CMR). Biosynthesis of hepatic choles-
terol (CH) from acetate is regulated by the rate-limiting enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR). Part of
the cholesterol is esterified by acyl-coenzyme A : cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) for storage in the liver. Some of the cholesterol is
used for the formation of very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), which is secreted into the blood. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) trans-
porter ABCA1 may translocate, either directly or indirectly, cholesterol and phospholipids to the cell surface, where they appear to
form lipid domains that interact with amphipathic -helices in apolipoproteins. This interaction solubilizes these lipids and generates
nascent HDL particles that dissociate from the cell. A proportion of cholesterol is used for synthesis of bile salts (BS) via the classical
and alterative pathways, as regulated by 2 rate-limiting enzymes, cholesterol 7-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) and sterol 27-hydroxylase
(CYP27A1), respectively. Hepatic secretion of biliary cholesterol, bile salts, and phospholipids (PL) across the canalicular membrane
is determined by 3 lipid transporters, ABCG5/G8, ABCB11, and ABCB4, respectively. The Niemann-Pick C1-like 1 (NPC1L1) protein
may have a weak role in taking cholesterol back from hepatic bile to the hepatocyte. A vesicle is shown in the canaliculus.
the overall hydrophilic-hydrophobic balance of both bile salt less than 1 is unsaturated; and bile with a saturation index
and phospholipid species. greater than 1 is supersaturated. The degree of saturation can
Within the micellar zone (see Fig. 65-3), bile is a visually also be expressed as percent saturation by multiplying the
clear, stable solution that is considered unsaturated because all saturation index by 100. For example, at the boundary of the
cholesterol can be solubilized in thermodynamically stable micellar zone, bile is saturated, and the CSI is 100%. Super-
simple and mixed micelles. At the boundary line of the micel- saturated bile has a CSI above 100%, and unsaturated bile has
lar zone, bile is saturated because all the solubilizing capacity a CSI below 100%. The CSI values are also useful for predict-
for cholesterol is utilized and no further cholesterol can be ing the proportion of lipid particles and the metastable and
carried in micelles. Outside the micellar zone, bile is supersatu- equilibrium physical states in bile.
rated because excess cholesterol cannot be solubilized by
micelles64,68 and exists in more than one phase (micelles, liquid
crystals, and solid monohydrate crystals); the solution is
Hepatic Secretion of Biliary Lipids
visually cloudy. Obviously, relatively stable unilamellar
cholesterol-phospholipid vesicles solubilize a significant pro- Source of Lipids Secreted in Bile
portion of cholesterol outside the micellar zone. The term The supply of hepatic cholesterol molecules that can be
metastable zone refers to the area in the phase diagram (above recruited for biliary secretion depends on the balance of input
but near the micellar zone) in which bile is supersaturated and output of cholesterol and its metabolism in the liver (Fig.
with cholesterol but may not form solid cholesterol monohy- 65-4) (also see Chapter 72). Input is related to the amount of
drate crystals even after many days. The diagram also sug- cholesterol (both unesterified and esterified) taken up by the
gests that when the quantity of cholesterol in bile exceeds that liver from plasma lipoproteins (LDL > HDL > chylomicron
which can be solubilized by the available bile salts and phos- remnants) plus de novo hepatic cholesterol synthesis. Output
pholipids, solid plate-like cholesterol monohydrate crystals is related to the amount of cholesterol disposed of within the
precipitate in bile. Furthermore, the proportional distance liver by conversion to cholesteryl ester (to form new very-low-
outside the micellar zone directed along an axis joined to the density lipoprotein [VLDL] and for storage) minus the amount
cholesterol apex is often calculated as the cholesterol satura- of cholesterol converted to primary bile salts. An appreciable
tion index (CSI) (or lithogenic index).68 Therefore, the degree fraction of cholesterol in bile may also be derived from the diet
of saturation of bile with cholesterol can be quantitated. A CSI via apolipoprotein Edependent delivery of chylomicron rem-
for a sample of bile can be estimated directly from the diagram nants to the liver. Under low or no dietary cholesterol condi-
or calculated by using a formula. The CSI is the ratio of the tions, bile contains newly synthesized cholesterol from the
actual amount of cholesterol present in a bile sample to the liver and preformed cholesterol that reaches the liver in several
maximal amount of cholesterol that can be dissolved in it. Bile different ways. Approximately 20% of the cholesterol in bile
that has a CSI of 1 is saturated; bile with a saturation index comes from de novo hepatic biosynthesis, and 80% is from
1108 Section VIII Biliary Tract
pools of preformed cholesterol within the liver. De novo cho- addition, rapid fixation techniques and electronic microscopy
lesterol synthesis in the liver uses acetate as a substrate and is have provided direct morphologic evidence of vesicle forma-
mainly regulated by the rate-limited enzyme HMG-CoA tion and secretion at the outer surface of the canalicular mem-
reductase. This enzyme can be up- or down-regulated depend- brane of hepatocytes.71,72 Most if not all bile salts are thought
ing on the overall cholesterol balance in the liver. An increase to enter canalicular spaces as monomers, whereas biliary
in the activity of this rate-limiting enzyme leads to excessive phospholipids and cholesterol enter as unilamellar vesicles
cholesterol secretion in bile. The major sources of preformed (see Fig. 65-4). A study on the molecular genetics of sitosterol-
cholesterol are hepatic uptake of plasma lipoproteins (mainly emia (see Chapter 64) has shown that efflux of biliary choles-
HDL and LDL through their receptors on the basolateral mem- terol from the canalicular membrane of the hepatocyte is a
brane of hepatocytes). Consistent with their central role in protein-mediated process. Two plasma membrane proteins
reverse cholesterol transport, HDL particles are the main lipo- ATP-binding cassette (ABC) sterol transporters ABCG5 and
protein source of cholesterol that is targeted for biliary secre- ABCG8promote cellular efflux of cholesterol. The signifi-
tion. Under conditions of a high cholesterol diet, dietary cance of this process for bile formation has been examined in
cholesterol reaches the liver through the intestinal lymphatic genetically modified mice in which overexpression of the
pathway as chylomicrons and then chylomicron remnants, human ABCG5 and ABCG8 genes in the liver was shown to
after chylomicrons are hydrolyzed by plasma lipoprotein increase the cholesterol content of gallbladder bile.73-77 Despite
lipase and hepatic lipase. The synthesis of new cholesterol in a reduced prevalence of gallstones, formation of gallstones is
the liver is reduced and comprises only about 5% of biliary still observed in Abcg5/g8 double-knockout mice, as well as in
cholesterol. Overall, the liver can systematically regulate the Abcg5 or Abcg8 single-knockout mice fed a lithogenic diet.73-77
total amount of cholesterol within it, and any excess choles- These findings strongly support the existence of an ABCG5/
terol is handled efficiently. G8-independent pathway for hepatic secretion of biliary cho-
Although biliary phospholipid is derived from the cell lesterol and its role in formation of cholesterol gallstones. The
membranes of hepatocytes, the composition of biliary phos- Niemann-Pick C1-like 1 (NPC1L1) protein is expressed in the
pholipid differs markedly from that of hepatocyte membranes. canalicular membrane of hepatocytes as well as the apical
The membranes of hepatocytes contain phosphatidylcho- membrane of enterocytes; however, its expression levels are
lines (lecithins), phosphatidylethanolamines, phosphatidylino- significantly lower in the liver than in the small intestine in
sitols, phosphatidylserines, and sphingomyelins. The major humans. These observations suggest that hepatic NPC1L1
source of phosphatidylcholine molecules destined for secre- may have a weak role in the regulation of biliary cholesterol
tion into bile is hepatic synthesis. A fraction of biliary phos- secretion.78 In addition, scavenger receptor class B type I
phatidylcholines may also originate in the phospholipid coat (SR-BI) is localized in sinusoidal and possibly canalicular
of HDL particles. From 10 to 15 g of phospholipids are secreted membranes of hepatocytes, and in transgenic and knockout
into bile each day in humans. mice fed a chow diet, biliary secretion of cholesterol varies in
More than 95% of bile salt molecules, after secretion into proportion to hepatic expression of SR-BI and to the contribu-
bile, return to the liver through the enterohepatic circulation tion of SR-BI to sinusoidal uptake of HDL cholesterol destined
by absorption mostly from the distal ileum via an active trans- for secretion into bile.79,80 Attenuation of the SR-BI, however,
port system such as apical sodium-dependent bile acid trans- does not influence gallstone formation in mice. These results
porter and organic solute transporters and (see Chapter suggest that although HDL cholesterol is a principal source of
64). Consequently, newly synthesized bile salts in the liver biliary cholesterol in the basal state, uptake of cholesterol from
contribute only a small fraction (<5%) to biliary secretion and chylomicron remnants appears to be the major contributor to
compensate for bile salts that escape intestinal absorption and biliary cholesterol hypersecretion during diet-induced chole-
are lost in feces. Fecal excretion of bile salts is increased when lithogenesis in the mouse.79
the enterohepatic circulation of bile salts is partially or com- Deletion of the Abcb4 gene completely inhibits hepatic
pletely interrupted by surgery, disease states, or drugs (e.g., secretion of biliary phospholipids in mice,81 suggesting that
bile salt-binding resins such as cholestyramine). Complete ABCB4 could be responsible for the translocation, or flip, of
interruption of the enterohepatic circulation results in phosphatidylcholine from the endoplasmic (inner) to ectoplas-
up-regulation of bile salt synthesis in the liver, which restores mic (outer) leaflet of the canalicular membrane bilayer of
bile salt secretion rates to approximately 25% of their usual hepatocytes and that the action of ABCB4 may form
values. Cholesterol from 2 sources serves as substrate for bile phosphatidylcholine-rich microdomains within the outer
salt synthesis: cholesterol that is newly synthesized in the membrane leaflet. Although the ectoplasmic leaflet of the
smooth endoplasmic reticulum and cholesterol that is pre- canalicular membrane is cholesterol- and sphingomyelin-rich
formed outside the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The first and is relatively resistant to penetration by bile salts, bile salts
step in this process is catalyzed by cholesterol 7-hydroxylase. may promote vesicular secretion of biliary cholesterol and
In the basal state, bile salt synthesis uses principally newly phosphatidylcholine. Bile salts may partition preferentially
synthesized cholesterol as substrate. When de novo choles- into these areas to destabilize the membrane and release
terol biosynthesis is suppressed by long-term therapy with an phosphatidylcholine-rich vesicles because detergent-like bile
HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor like a statin, preformed choles- salt molecules within the canalicular space could interact with
terol originating from plasma lipoprotein substitutes for newly the canalicular membrane. Mutations of the ABCB4 gene in
synthesized cholesterol. humans result in the molecular defect underlying type 3 pro-
gressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis (see Chapter 77).82
Biliary bile salts include those that are newly synthesized
Biliary Lipid Secretion in the liver and those that undergo enterohepatic cycling. The
Bile salts have been shown to stimulate hepatic secretion of precise molecular mechanism of bile salt secretion is not
vesicles, which are always detected in freshly collected hepatic known, although it involves ABCB11, a bile salt export pump
bile.69,70 When cultured under specified conditions, rat hepa- (see Chapter 64).83-85 Although hepatic secretion of biliary bile
tocytes form couplets with isolated bile canaliculi at the salts directly affects cholesterol-phospholipid vesicle secre-
interface between adjoining cells. With the use of laser light- tion, whether bile salt secretion is coupled to cholesterol and
scattering techniques, vesicle formation can be observed phospholipid secretion at a molecular level remains unknown.
within these bile canaliculi after exposure to bile salts. In The relationship between bile salt secretion and cholesterol
Chapter 65 Gallstone Disease 1109
Hepatic Gallbladder
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY hypersecretion hypomotility
liquid anhydrous cholesterol molecules in its core, possibly crystallization, and imbalances between them can induce
reflecting internal nucleation. In essence, these early vesicular rapid cholesterol crystallization in gallbladder bile in patients
nuclei may already have initiated the nucleation cascade by with cholesterol gallstones.92,93
the time bile enters the gallbladder. The current paradigm for Mucin was the first biliary protein shown to promote cho-
cholesterol nucleation and crystallization, based principally lesterol crystallization.94 The epithelial cells of the gallbladder
on observations from video-enhanced polarized light micros- secrete mucin that serves as a protective layer over the mucosa
copy, suggests that biliary vesicles must fuse or at least aggre- in the normal physiologic state. Mucin or mucin glycoproteins
gate to form crystalline cholesterol monohydrate. Because are large molecules that consist of a protein core and many
cholesterol nucleation and crystallization are apparently initi- carbohydrate side chains.95 An important property of mucin is
ated in vesicles, the stability of the vesicle determines the its ability to form a gel phase in higher concentrations, and the
stability of bile. Unstable vesicles can fuse, aggregate, gel has greatly increased viscosity compared with the sol
and grow into multilamellar liquid crystalline structures (soluble) phase.
(liposomes) in which cholesterol crystallizes out of solution. Gallbladder mucins, a heterogeneous family of O-linked
Furthermore, evidence from quasi-elastic light-scattering glycoproteins, are divided into 2 classes: epithelial and gel-
spectroscopy shows that nucleation of solid cholesterol crys- forming mucins.96 The epithelial mucins, which are produced
tals may occur directly from supersaturated micelles in conju- by mucin gene 1 (MUC1), MUC3, and MUC4, are not able to
gated deoxycholate-rich bile in vitro without an intervening form aggregates and are integral membrane glycoproteins
vesicle or liquid crystalline phase. located on the apical surface of epithelial cells.97-100 The gel-
In bile with the lowest phospholipid content (region A in forming mucins MUC2, MUC5AC, and MUC5B, which are
Fig. 65-3), arc-like crystals with a density (d = 1.030 g/mL) secreted by specialized gallbladder mucin-producing cells,
consistent with anhydrous cholesterol appear first and evolve provide a protective coating on the underlying mucosa.97-100
via helical and tubular crystals to form plate-like cholesterol They form disulfide-stabilized oligomers or polymers, a
monohydrate crystals (d = 1.045 g/mL).65,89,90 With higher phenomenon that accounts for their viscoelastic properties.
phospholipid contents (region B), cholesterol monohydrate Mucins from different organs vary in carbohydrate side chain,
crystals appear earlier than arc-like crystals and other transi- protein composition, and charge but generally have similar
tional crystals. With typical physiologic phospholipid contents properties. Mucins have hydrophilic domains to which many
(region C), early liquid crystals (d = 1.020 g/mL) are followed water molecules bind. They have an overall charge and are
by cholesterol monohydrate crystals; subsequently, arc-like capable of binding other charged species like calcium. Hydro-
and other intermediate crystals appear. With still higher phos- phobic domains in the mucin molecule (on the nonglycosyl-
pholipid contents (region D), liquid crystals are followed by ated regions of the polypeptide core) allow binding of lipids
cholesterol monohydrate crystals only. At the highest phos- such as cholesterol, phospholipids, and bilirubin.
pholipid mole fractions (region E), liquid crystals are quite Evidence shows that gallbladder mucins play an impor-
stable and no solid crystals form. Decreases in temperature tant role in the early stages of gallstone formation and are a
(37C 4C), total lipid concentration (7.5 g/dL 2.5 g/dL), potent pronucleating agent for accelerating cholesterol crystal-
and bile salt hydrophobicity (3,123,73,7,12 lization in native and model biles. Indeed, hypersecretion of
3,7-hydroxylated taurine conjugates) progressively shift gallbladder mucins is a prerequisite for gallstone formation,
all crystallization pathways to lower phospholipid con- and increased amounts of gallbladder mucins are consistently
tents, reduce micellar cholesterol solubilization, and retard observed in gallbladder bile of several animal models of gall-
crystallization.65,87 stones.88,94,101 Mucins are also found within gallstones, where
Cholesterol crystallization pathways and sequences in they act as a matrix for stone growth.102 The mucins in gall-
human gallbladder bile are identical to those of model bile stones have been found to extend from the amorphous center
samples matched for appropriate physical-chemical condi- to the periphery in either a radial or laminated fashion. Mucins
tions, and in the physiologic state, 3 of the 5 sequences are also a major component of sludge in the gallbladder, and
observed in model bile samples are found in human and sludge has been shown to be a precursor of gallstones. There-
mouse gallbladder biles.87 Notably, the kinetics of all these fore, 2 roles in the formation of gallstones have been proposed
phase transitions are faster in lithogenic human bile than in for mucins: (1) a pronucleating agent for accelerating the
identically patterned model bile samples, most likely a result nucleation and crystallization of cholesterol from saturated
in part of the combined influences of increased levels of cho- bile and (2) a scaffolding for the deposition of solid cholesterol
lesterol, secondary bile salts, and mucin glycoproteins.66 In monohydrate crystals during the growth of stones.
addition, biliary lipid, electrolyte, and protein factors may be The synthesis of mucin glycoproteins that are secreted by
important in stabilizing supersaturated bile. Nonprotein the epithelial cells of the gallbladder and bile ducts may be
factors that retard cholesterol nucleation and crystallization regulated by mucosal prostaglandins derived from arachi-
include (1) a total lipid concentration less than 3 g/dL, (2) donic acidcontaining biliary phospholipids.95 During gall-
reduced hydrophobicity of the bile salt pool, (3) low bile salt stone formation, the gallbladder hypersecretes mucins, mostly
to-phospholipid ratios, (4) low cholesterol-to-phospholipid as a result of stimulation by some components of saturated
ratios in vesicles, and (5) low total calcium ion concentrations. bile. Then, the carbohydrate groups of the polymers of mucins
The states opposite to these conditions accelerate cholesterol avidly bind water to form gels. The hydrophobic polypeptides
nucleation and crystallization.91 in the core of mucin glycoproteins also can bind bilirubin and
calcium in bile. The resulting water-insoluble complex of
Imbalance of Pronucleating and mucin glycoproteins and calcium bilirubinate provides a
surface for nucleation of cholesterol monohydrate crystals and
Antinucleating Factors a matrix for the growth of stones.
Cholesterol crystallization is significantly more rapid in the Mucin secretion and accumulation in the gallbladder is
gallbladder bile of patients with gallstones than in that of determined by multiple mucin genes. Targeted disruption of
control subjects even though CSI values are similar. These the Muc1 gene reduces MUC1 mucin in the gallbladder of
findings imply that lithogenic bile may contain pronucleating mice, thereby leading to a decrease in susceptibility to choles-
agents that accelerate crystallization or that normal bile may terol gallstone formation.103 Also, expression levels of the gall-
contain antinucleating agents that inhibit crystallization. Fur- bladder Muc5ac gel-forming mucin gene are significantly
thermore, bile may contain both accelerators and inhibitors of reduced in Muc1-knockout mice in response to a lithogenic
Chapter 65 Gallstone Disease 1111
viscous mucin gel that forms in the gallbladder lumen may Intestinal Factors
contribute to hypomotility by impairing gallbladder emptying
mechanically, possibly at the level of the cystic duct. In par- The high efficiency of intestinal cholesterol absorption corre-
ticular, sludge contains calcium, pigment, bile salts, and gly- lates significantly with the prevalence of cholesterol gallstones
coproteins and could serve as a nidus for nucleation and in inbred strains of mice, and gallstone-susceptible C57L mice
crystallization of cholesterol or precipitation of calcium biliru- display significantly higher intestinal cholesterol absorption
binate. The high prevalence of cholelithiasis in patients receiv- than do gallstone-resistant AKR mice.129 These observations
ing long-term TPN (see earlier) highlights the importance of show that high dietary cholesterol intake and high efficiency
gallbladder stasis in the formation of gallstones.121 For example, of intestinal cholesterol absorption are 2 independent risk
49% of patients with Crohns disease who are on TPN have factors for cholesterol gallstone formation. Differences in the
gallstones, whereas only 27% of patients with Crohns disease metabolism of chylomicron remnant cholesterol between C57L
alone have gallstones. During TPN, the gallbladder does not and AKR mice may account for lithogenic bile formation in
empty completely because the stimulus (ingestion of meals) the former, and the cholesterol absorbed from the small intes-
for CCK release is eliminated. As a result, bile stagnates and tine provides an important source for biliary cholesterol
sludge develops in the gallbladder, thereby enhancing gall- hypersecretion in mice fed a lithogenic diet.130
stone formation. Daily IV administration of CCK can com- Altered intestinal motility also may have a role in gallstone
pletely prevent gallbladder dysmotility and eliminate the formation. Delayed or impaired small intestinal transit is asso-
inevitable risk of biliary sludge and gallstone formation. In ciated with enhanced intestinal cholesterol absorption, biliary
addition, slow emptying and increased volume of the gall- cholesterol secretion, and gallstone formation in CCK-1
bladder, as measured by US, often occur during pregnancy receptor-knockout mice.130 The association of impaired colonic
and during administration of oral contraceptives, 2 conditions motility with increased biliary deoxycholate levels is found in
that predispose to formation of gallstones (see earlier).23,24 some patients with cholesterol gallstones. Evidence for a
Concentration of bile by the gallbladder increases choles- causal relation among impaired intestinal motility, deoxycho-
terol solubility but also enhances cholesterol nucleation and late formation, and bile lithogenicity comes from studies in
crystallization in bile and may thereby contribute to gallstone humans and mice. Clinical studies have found that acrome-
formation.122,123 In addition to concentrating bile, the normal galic patients treated with octreotide (a known risk factor for
gallbladder can acidify bile. Acidification increases the solubil- cholesterol gallstone disease [see earlier]) display a prolonged
ity of calcium salts (e.g., bilirubinate and carbonate), which colonic transit time, high levels of biliary deoxycholate con-
may be promoters of nucleation and crystallization of choles- centration, and rapid precipitation of cholesterol crystals.131-134
terol; therefore, defective acidification may promote the for- Furthermore, higher levels of biliary deoxycholate are associ-
mation of gallstones. ated with increased amounts of Gram-positive anaerobic bac-
Differential absorption rates of cholesterol, phospholipids, teria and increased activity of 7-dehydroxylase in the cecum
and bile salts by the gallbladder epithelial cells may reduce of patients with cholesterol gallstones compared with control
cholesterol saturation of bile in normal subjects; however, the subjects who have no stones.135 Biliary deoxycholate and cho-
gallbladder epithelium of patients with cholesterol gallstones lesterol concentrations can be lowered by antibiotic treatment
loses the capacity for selective absorption of biliary cholesterol that reduces fecal 7-dehydroxylation activity. Compared
and phospholipids.124,125 Impaired lipid absorption by the gall- with resistant AKR mice, gallstone-susceptible C57L mice also
bladder may contribute to gallstone formation by sustaining have higher biliary levels of deoxycholate, which are associ-
cholesterol supersaturation of bile during storage.126 The ated with cholesterol supersaturation and gallstone forma-
physical-chemical fate of cholesterol absorbed by the gallblad- tion.88,136 Chronic intestinal infection has been proposed to be
der may be similar to that which occurs during the develop- a potential risk factor in the pathogenesis of cholesterol gall-
ment of an atherosclerotic plaque. In all likelihood, cholesterol stones. A mouse study has shown that distal intestinal infec-
molecules are absorbed continuously by the gallbladder tion with a variety of enterohepatic Helicobacter species (but
mucosa from supersaturated bile,127 and the unesterified cho- not Hp) is essential for nucleation and crystallization of cho-
lesterol molecules diffuse rapidly to the muscularis propria lesterol from supersaturated bile.137,138 These Helicobacter
because the gallbladder lacks an intervening muscularis species also have been identified in the bile and gallbladder
mucosae and submucosa. Because the gallbladder apparently tissue of Chilean patients with chronic cholecystitis.139 Whether
does not synthesize lipoproteins for exporting cholesterol to chronic intestinal infection has a direct pathogenic role
plasma, excess unesterified cholesterol molecules are remov- in the formation of cholesterol gallstones requires further
able from gallbladder mucosa and muscle only by esterifica- investigation.
tion and storage or back diffusion into bile.128 In the lithogenic In patients with Crohns disease and those who have
state, back diffusion of cholesterol molecules into bile is undergone intestinal resection or total colectomy, gallbladder
blocked because gallbladder bile is continuously saturated. As bile is supersaturated with cholesterol, and cholesterol crystals
a result, gallbladder mucosal acyl-coenzyme A : cholesterol are prone to precipitate and form gallstones.140 The enterohe-
acyltransferase (ACAT) esterifies most but not all cholesterol patic circulation of bile salts is probably impaired in these
molecules. As in an atherosclerotic plaque, mucosal and patients, so hepatic secretion of biliary bile salts is greatly
muscle membranes apparently become saturated with choles- reduced and the solubilization of cholesterol in bile is
terol and coexist with stored cholesteryl ester droplets. Fur- decreased. Moreover, Crohns disease may lead to impaired
thermore, the unesterified cholesterol molecules become enterohepatic cycling of bilirubin, with increased biliary
intercalated within the membrane bilayer of muscle cells, a bilirubin levels and precipitation of calcium bilirubinate,
process that may alter the physical state of phospholipid mol- thereby providing a nidus for cholesterol nucleation and
ecules, as reflected by their increased rigidity. Consequently, crystallization.56,141
gallbladder motility function is impaired because signal trans-
duction in response to CCK is diminished markedly. In addi-
tion, excess cholesterol molecules absorbed from the lithogenic
Growth of Gallstones
bile may be direct stimulants to proliferative and inflamma- Findings in patients who have cholesterol crystals but no gall-
tory changes in the mucosa and lamina propria of the stones in the gallbladder suggest that the growth of cholesterol
gallbladder.112 crystals into gallstones does not always follow crystallization.
Chapter 65 Gallstone Disease 1113
Stone growth may represent a second critical stage in gallstone insights into genetic mechanisms of the disease. Unfortu-
formation that results from delayed emptying of the gallblad- nately, intermarriages between 2 populations result in a
der. When multiple gallstones are found in the gallbladder, rapid loss of the original genetic background within a few
they often are equal in size, indicating that cholesterol generations and make such studies impossible. With use of
crystallization for this family of stones occurred simultane- pedigree data to explore the genetic susceptibility to symp-
ously and the stones grew at the same rate. By contrast, stones tomatic gallbladder disease in a Mexican-American popula-
of unequal size could represent different generations. The tion of 32 families, heritability (i.e., the proportion of the
amorphous material in the center of stones contains bilirubin, phenotypic variance of the trait that is due to genetic effects)
bile salts, mucin glycoproteins, calcium carbonate, phosphate, has been estimated to be 44%.154 A variance component analy-
copper, and sulfur, which could have provided a required sis in 1038 persons from 358 families in the United States
nidus for cholesterol nucleation and crystallization. Solid has determined the heritability of symptomatic gallbladder
plate-like cholesterol monohydrate crystals could assemble disease to be 29%.155 A large study of 43,141 twin pairs in
about this nidus. Formation of a nidus and subsequent stone Sweden has provided conclusive evidence for the role of
growth could be determined by mucins, other biliary proteins, genetic factors in the pathogenesis of cholesterol gallstones.156
and the cholesterol saturation of bile. The growth of stones is In this study, concordance rates were significantly higher
likely a discontinuous process punctuated by deposition of in monozygotic twins than in dizygotic twins, with genetic
rings of calcium bilirubinate and calcium carbonate. Because factors accounting for 25% of the phenotypic variation
cholesterol monohydrate crystals often aggregate randomly in between twins.
amorphous groupings and layer radially and concentrically, Evidence that human gallstones may be caused by a single
cholesterol stones consist of radially or horizontally oriented gene defect came initially from a study by Lin and colleagues,157
cholesterol crystals embedded within an organic matrix. In the who reported that among 232 Mexican-Americans, a variant
outer portion of stones, cholesterol monohydrate crystals are of the cholesterol 7-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) gene was associ-
oriented perpendicularly to the surface.142 Throughout the for- ated with gallstones in men but not in women. CYP7A1 is an
mation of gallstones, mucins could provide a matrix on which attractive candidate gene because it encodes the rate-limiting
gallstone growth occurs. Furthermore, concentric pigmented enzyme in hepatic bile salt synthesis of the classical pathway
rings separate layers of cholesterol monohydrate crystals that and because bile salts are essential for forming bile and for
have different axial orientations. The chemical composition of keeping cholesterol molecules solubilized in simple and mixed
these rings often resembles the center of gallstones, and the micelles in bile. Pullinger and colleagues found a link between
rings may reflect cyclic deposition of calcium bilirubinate, another single gene defect of CYP7A1 and cholesterol gall-
other calcium salts, and mucin glycoproteins. stones associated with hypercholesterolemia resistant to
HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors in 2 male homoyzgotes.158
Missense mutations in the ABCB4 gene, which encodes the
GENETICS phosphatidylcholine transporter in the canalicular membrane
of hepatocytes, are the basis of a particular type of cholelithia-
Evidence for a genetic component of cholesterol gallstone sis.81,159 The disorder is characterized by intrahepatic sludge,
disease in humans is mostly indirect and based on geographic gallbladder cholesterol gallstones, mild chronic cholestasis, a
and ethnic differences, as well as on family and twin high cholesterol-to-phospholipid ratio in bile, and recurrent
studies.16,143-150 A genetic predisposition is clearly present in the symptoms after cholecystectomy.160-162 In patients with hepa-
Pima and certain other North and South American Indians, tolithiasis, a common disease in Asia, low expression levels
who display the highest prevalence rate (48%) of gallstones of ABCB4 and phosphatidylcholine transfer protein occur
in the world.16,143,144 By contrast, the overall prevalence of gall- together, with markedly reduced phospholipid concentrations
stones in white American and European populations is about in bile (see Chapter 68).163 Additionally, HMG-CoA reductase
20%. The lowest rates (<5%) are observed in African popula- activity is increased and CYP7A1 activity is reduced in patients
tions, and intermediate rates are found in Asian populations with gallstones compared with control subjects. In this disor-
(5% to 20%), as shown in Figures 65-1 and 65-2. Although der, the formation of cholesterol-rich intrahepatic stones could
some independent risk factors (e.g., aging, gender, parity, be induced by decreased hepatic secretion of biliary phospho-
obesity, insulin resistance, some drugs, rapid weight loss) for lipids in the setting of increased cholesterol synthesis and
gallstone formation have been found,21,25,54,151-153 none can decreased bile salt synthesis.
explain the striking differences in the prevalence of gallstones Because gallbladder hypomotility favors gallstone forma-
among different populations, thereby suggesting a genetic tion, the genes for CCK and the CCK-1 receptor (CCK-1R),
contribution to the etiology of the disease.5,6 which regulate gallbladder motility, are attractive candi-
Gallstones are more frequent by a ratio of 3 : 1 in siblings dates.130,164 Genetic variation in CCK-1R is associated with
and other family members of affected persons than in spouses gallstone risk, and an aberrant splicing of CCK-1R, which is
or unrelated controls.145 Using US to detect gallstones in first- predicted to result in a nonfunctional receptor, has been found
degree relatives of index patients, Gilat and colleagues147 in a few obese patients with gallstones.164,165 A search for muta-
found a 21% prevalence rate in first-degree relatives compared tions or polymorphisms in the CCK-1R gene in patients with
with 9% in matched controls. Sarin and coworkers148 also gallstones has been unsuccessful, however.166
observed a prevalence that was 5 times higher in relatives than Some studies have reported that certain polymorphisms
in controls. Furthermore, cholesterol supersaturation is higher of the apolipoprotein (APO)E and APOB genes and the cho-
in fasting duodenal bile of older sisters of patients with cho- lesteryl ester transfer protein, all of which are involved in
lesterol gallstones than in controls.149 Cholesterol synthesis carrying cholesterol in plasma, are associated with gallstone
rates, bile saturation levels, and gallstone prevalence rates are formation. The APOE polymorphisms are the most exten-
also significantly higher on pair-wise correlations in monozy- sively studied polymorphisms in patients with gallstones, but
gotic than in dizygotic male twins.150 Despite these observa- reports concerning the protective role of the 4 allele against
tions, a mode of inheritance that fits a Mendelian pattern gallstones have been inconsistent.167-171 The 2 allele appears to
cannot be shown in most cases. protect against gallstones, and the degree of dietary choles-
Study of populations with different incidence rates of gall- terol absorption in the intestine varies with the APOE isoform
stones but living in the same environment should provide (4>3>2). Also, the fecal excretion of cholesterol tends to be
1114 Section VIII Biliary Tract
higher in persons with the APOE2 phenotype than in those reduced intestinal absorption of cholesterol or hepatic uptake
with the APOE3 or APOE4 phenotypes.172 In a study of poly- of chylomicron remnants may induce a decrease in biliary
morphisms at the APOB, APOAI, and cholesteryl ester transfer cholesterol secretion and saturation. In addition, reduced
protein gene loci in patients with gallbladder disease, a poly- expression levels of the genes encoding the ileal apical sodium-
morphism of the cholesteryl ester transfer protein gene, in dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT), the cytosolic ileal
relation to another HDL lowering factor, was found to be lipid binding protein (ILBP), and organic solute transporters
associated with cholesterol gallstones.173 Also, a link was and (OST and ) may contribute to gallstone formation
found between the X+ allele of the APOB gene and an increased by decreased ileal bile acid reabsorption and an altered bile
risk of cholesterol gallstones.174 A genome-wide association acid pool and composition in female and nonobese patients
study in a large cohort of patients with gallstones from with gallstones compared with control subjects.188,189 The
Germany175 and a linkage study in affected sibling pairs176 single nucleotide polymorphism rs9514089 in the apical
identified a common variant (D19H) of the sterol transporters sodium-dependent bile acid transporter gene (gene symbol
ABCG5 and ABCG8 on the canalicular membrane of hepato- SLC10A2) has been identified as a susceptibility variant for
cytes as a risk factor for gallstones. Subsequently, many studies cholelithiasis in humans,190 although the effect of rs9514089
have shown that ABCG8 variants (T400K, D19H, A632V, genotype on gallstone risk was not replicated in Sorbs.191
M429V, C54Y) and ABCG5 variants (Q604E) may be important Further analyses in larger cohorts are required to evaluate the
risk factors for gallstone formation in European, Asian, and role of genetic variants of SLC10A2 as a risk factor for gallstone
Chilean Hispanic populations.177-183 formation.
Table 65-1 summarizes progress in identifying LITH genes
and the major classes of candidate genes for cholesterol and
pigment gallstones in humans.26 Although some candidate
genes have been found in humans, their roles in cholelitho- PIGMENT STONES
genesis merit further investigation. In general, genes that con-
tribute to cholesterol gallstone formation include those that Although the pathogenesis of black and brown pigment gall-
encode (1) hepatic and intestinal membrane lipid transporters, stones is not as well understood as that of cholesterol gall-
(2) hepatic and intestinal lipid regulatory enzymes, (3) hepatic stones, and each type of stone probably has a distinctive
and intestinal intracellular lipid transporters, (4) hepatic and pathogenesis, both types of pigment stones result from abnor-
intestinal lipid regulatory transcription factors, (5) hepatic malities in the metabolism of bilirubin and are pigmented as
lipoprotein receptors and related proteins, (6) hormone recep- a result of bilirubin precipitation.192-194 In general, the bile of
tors in the gallbladder, and (7) biliary mucins. patients with both types of pigment stones contains an excess
Changes in the expression and function of one of several of unconjugated bilirubin, analogous to the saturation of bile
ABC transporters in the canalicular membrane may influence with cholesterol in patients with cholesterol stones.195 Also,
gallstone formation by inducing an alteration of biliary lipid both types of pigment stones are composed primarily of bile
secretion and bile composition. In addition, mutations in pigment and contain a matrix of mucin glycoproteins. In black
genes that encode several lipoprotein receptors and related stones, however, the pigment is predominantly an insoluble
proteins that determine the uptake of HDL and LDL and in highly cross-linked polymer of calcium bilirubinate, whereas
several intracellular proteins that transport biliary lipids in brown stones, the main pigment is monomeric calcium bili-
through the cytosol of hepatocytes, as well as transcription rubinate. The 2 types of pigment stones also differ in radio-
factors that regulate hepatic cholesterol and bile salt metabo- density, location within the biliary system, and geographic
lism and biliary lipid secretion, may cause formation of cho- distribution.
lesterol gallstones. Mutations in genes that affect CCK, the Results of studies of susceptibility genes for pigment
CCK-receptor, and the secretion and properties of mucin may stones are summarized in Table 65-1. Several candidate
also play a role in the pathogenesis of gallstones. A large case- genes enhance the formation of pigment stones by increasing
control study184 has found that increased hepatic biosynthesis enterohepatic cycling of bilirubin. Persons with Gilberts syn-
and fecal excretion of cholesterol may precede cholesterol gall- drome have mild, chronic, unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia
stone formation and may be key metabolic features in some in the absence of liver disease or overt hemolysis because
ethnic groups at high risk of gallstones. This study strongly of reduced expression of bilirubin uridine diphosphate-
suggests that inhibiting both hepatic synthesis and intestinal glucuronosyltransferase 1 (gene symbol UGT1A1), which is
absorption of cholesterol to reduce biliary output of choles- due to an abnormality in the promoter region of the gene for
terol may be a therapeutic strategy for genetically defined this enzyme (see Chapter 21).196 A genome-wide association
subgroups of persons at high risk for gallstones.185 study has identified a variant of the UGT1A1 gene as a major
The factors that regulate intestinal membrane lipid trans- risk factor for gallstone disease in humans.197 The UGT1A1
porters, lipid regulatory enzymes, intracellular lipid trans- promoter variant increases the susceptibility to pigment
porters, and lipid regulatory transcription factors may stone formation in patients with sickle cell disease or CF.198-201
influence the amount of cholesterol of intestinal origin contrib- A regression analysis has shown that serum bilirubin levels
uting to biliary secretion by the liver. Direct evidence for the and the prevalence of gallstones are strongly associated with
role of intestinal factors in mouse gallstones comes from a the number of UGT1A1 promoter [TA] repeats in patients with
study of ACAT2-knockout mice.186 Because of the deletion of sickle cell disease, with each additional repeat correlating
the Acat2 gene, the lack of cholesteryl ester synthesis in the with an increase in serum bilirubin levels of 21% and in cho-
small intestine significantly reduces intestinal cholesterol lelithiasis risk of 87%.199 Moreover, UGT1A1 gene variants in
absorption and leads to complete resistance to diet-induced linkage disequilibrium with the variant are associated with the
cholesterol gallstones. Furthermore, the potent cholesterol risk of developing cholesterol gallstones. These findings imply
absorption inhibitor ezetimibe prevents gallstones by effec- that the supersaturation of bile with bilirubin may be a risk
tively reducing intestinal absorption and biliary secretion of factor for the formation of both pigment and cholesterol gall-
cholesterol and protects gallbladder motility by desaturating bladder stones. As discussed earlier, increased biliary bilirubin
bile in mice.44,187 Moreover, ezetimibe significantly reduces levels and enhanced precipitation of calcium bilirubinate in
biliary cholesterol saturation and retards cholesterol crystal- bile provide a critical nidus for cholesterol nucleation and
lization in bile of patients with gallstones.44 Therefore, crystallization.
TABLE 65-1 Human Gallstone (LITH) Genes and Gene Products That Have Been Identified as of 2014
Inheritance Pattern
Cholesterol Stones
Lipid Membrane Transporters
ABCG5/G8 ATP-binding cassette 2p21 ABCG8 + Biliary cholesterol secretion
transporters G5/G8 p.D19H
(rs1188753)
ABCB4 ATP-binding cassette 7q21.1 Multiple + Biliary phospholipid secretion
transporter B4
ABCB11 ATP-binding cassette 2q24 Multiple + Biliary bile salt secretion
transporter B11
SLC10A2 (IBAT) Solute carrier family 10, 13q33 c.378105A>G + + Intestinal bile salt absorption
member 2 (Ileal sodium- (rs9514089)
dependent bile salt
transporter)
SLCO1B1 Solute carrier organic anion 12p12 p.P155Thr (rs11045819) + Intestinal bile salt absorption
(OATP1B1) transporter family, member
1B1
VLDL synthesis
Intestinal cholesterol absorption
Continued
1115
TABLE 65-1 Human Gallstone (LITH) Genes and Gene Products That Have Been Identified as of 2014contd
1116
Inheritance Pattern
Hormone Receptors
CCK1R Cholecystokinin 1 receptor 4p15.1-p15.2 RFLP + + Gallbladder and small intestinal
(CCKAR) (Cholecystokinin A receptor) motility
ESR2 (ER) Estrogen receptor 2 14q23.2 c.1092+3607(CA)n + Hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis
AR Androgen receptor Xq12 c.172(CAG)n + Gallbladder motility
ADRB3 3-Adrenergic receptor 8p12 p.R64W (rs4944) + Gallbladder motility
HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LRP, low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein; RFLP, restriction fragment length polymorphism; SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism; TBD, to be determined; UDP, uridine diphospate; VLDL,
very-low-density lipoprotein.
Reproduced with slight modifications and with permission from Krawczyk M, Wang DQ, Portincasa P, et al. Dissecting the genetic heterogeneity of gallbladder stone formation. Semin Liver Dis 2011; 31:157-72.
Chapter 65 Gallstone Disease 1117
The frequency of gallstones in patients with CF is 10% facilitates supersaturation of calcium carbonate and calcium
to 30% compared with less than 5% in age-matched control phosphate that would not occur at a more acidic pH. Gallblad-
subjects, but biliary cholesterol saturation does not differ der motility defects are not observed in patients with black
between patients with and without gallstones. In fact, gall- pigment stones.
stones in patients with CF are generally black pigment stones
(i.e., composed of calcium bilirubinate with an appreciable
cholesterol admixture) but rarely cause symptoms. In a mouse
Brown Stones
(F508 mutant) model of CF, increased fecal bile salt loss Brown pigment stones are composed mainly of calcium salts
induces more hydrophobic bile salts in hepatic bile and aug- of unconjugated bilirubin, with varying amounts of choles-
ments enterohepatic cycling of bilirubin.202 These alterations terol, fatty acids, pigment fraction, and mucin glycoproteins,
lead to hyperbilirubinbilia and significantly higher levels of as well as small amounts of bile salts, phospholipids, and
all bilirubin conjugates and unconjugated bilirubin, followed bacterial residues. Brown pigment stones may be easily dis-
by hydrolysis and precipitation of divalent metal salts of tinguished grossly from black pigment stones by their reddish
unconjugated bilirubin in bile. In addition, lower gallbladder brown to dark brown color and lack of brightness. Their shape
bile pH values and elevated levels of calcium bilirubinate ion is irregular or molded and occasionally spherical. Most of the
products in bile increase the likelihood of supersaturating stones are muddy in consistency, and some show facet forma-
bile with bilirubin and forming black pigment gallstones. The tion. Brown pigment stones are either smooth or rough without
pancreatic duodenal homeobox gene-1 (Pdx1) is required for any surface luster and are soft, fragile, and light in comparison
proper development of the major duodenal papilla, peribiliary with other gallstones. The cut surface is generally a stratified
glands, and mucin-producing cells in the bile duct and for structure (lamellation) or is amorphous without the radiating
maintenance of the periampullary duodenal epithelial cells crystalline structure seen in cholesterol stones. Almost invari-
during the perinatal period. Loss of the major duodenal ably, brown pigment stones have a lamellated cross-sectional
papilla allows duodenobiliary reflux and bile infection, result- surface with calcium bilirubinate-rich layers alternating with
ing in formation of brown pigment stones in Pdx1-knockout calcium palmitate-rich layers.
mice, and treatment with antibiotics significantly reduces the Brown pigment stones are formed not only in the gallblad-
frequency of brown pigment stones.203 der but also commonly in other portions of the biliary tract,
especially in intrahepatic bile ducts. Formation of brown
pigment stones requires the presence of structural or func-
Black Stones tional stasis of bile associated with biliary infection, especially
Black pigment stones are formed in uninfected gallbladders, with Escherichia coli.208 These stones are quite prevalent in Asia,
particularly in patients with chronic hemolytic anemia (e.g., where Clonorchis sinensis and roundworm infestations are
-thalassemia, hereditary spherocytosis, sickle cell disease), common, and parasitic elements have been considered to be
ineffective erythropoiesis (e.g., pernicious anemia), ileal dis- kernels of brown pigment stone formation (see Chapter 84).209
eases (e.g., Crohns disease) with spillage of excess bile salts Bile stasis predisposes to bacterial infection as well as accu-
into the large intestine, extended ileal resections, and liver mulation of mucins and bacterial cytoskeletons in the bile
cirrhosis. These alterations promote formation of black ducts. Bile stasis may be induced by bile duct stenosis and
pigment stones because higher colonic bile salt concentrations bacterial infection caused by infestation of parasites and their
enhance the solubilization of unconjugated bilirubin, thereby ova.210 As the incidence of biliary infections has decreased in
increasing bilirubin concentrations in bile.204 The resulting Asian populations prone to development of brown pigment
unconjugated bilirubin is precipitated as calcium bilirubinate stones, the ratio of cholesterol stones to pigment stones has
to form stones.205 This type of stone is composed of either pure also changed in these populations. The percentage of brown
calcium bilirubinate or polymer-like complexes consisting of pigment stones in Japan has fallen from 60% to 24% since the
unconjugated bilirubin, calcium bilirubinate, calcium, and 1950s, and similar changes have been reported from other
copper. Mucin glycoproteins account for as much as 20% of Asian countries.211-213
the weight of black pigment stones. A regular crystalline struc- Enteric bacteria produce -glucuronidase, phospholipase
ture is not present in this type of stone. A1, and conjugated bile acid hydrolase. Activity of -
For hepatic secretion, bilirubin is first mono- or digluc- glucuronidase results in production of unconjugated bilirubin
uronidated by UGT1A1 and subsequently secreted by ABC from bilirubin glucuronide; phospholipase A1 liberates pal-
transporter C2 (ABCC2), also called multidrug-resistance associ- mitic and stearic acids from phospholipids; and bile acid
ated protein 2 (MRP2) (see Chapters 64 and 77). Under normal hydrolases produce unconjugated bile salts from glycine or
physiologic conditions, unconjugated bilirubin is not secreted taurine-conjugated bile salts. Partially ionized saturated fatty
into bile. Although bilirubin glucuronides are hydrolyzed by acids, unconjugated bilirubin, and unconjugated bile salts
endogenous -glucuronidase, unconjugated bilirubin consti- may precipitate as calcium salts. Mucin gel can trap these
tutes less than 1% of total bile pigment, primarily because the complex precipitates and facilitate their growth into macro-
activity of the enzyme is inhibited by -glucaro-1,4-lactone in scopic brown pigment stones. Figure 65-6 shows the postu-
the biliary system.206,207 The unifying predisposing factor in lated mechanisms underlying the formation of brown pigment
black pigment stone formation is hepatic hypersecretion of stones. Under normal physiologic conditions, bilirubin in bile
bilirubin conjugates (especially monoglucuronides) into bile. exists mainly as bilirubin glucuronide, which is soluble in
In the presence of hemolysis, hepatic secretion of these biliru- aqueous media. Bile also contains -glucuronidase of tissue
bin conjugates increases 10-fold. Unconjugated monohydroge- origin, the activity of which is inhibited by -glucaro-1,4-
nated bilirubin is formed by the action of endogenous lactone, which is also formed in the liver. If infection with E.
-glucuronidase, which coprecipitates with calcium as a result coli occurs, the concentration of bacterial -glucuronidase
of supersaturation. A 1% hydrolysis rate may give rise to high increases significantly and exceeds the inhibitory power of
concentrations of unconjugated bilirubin that often greatly -glucaro-1,4-lactone. As a result, bilirubin glucuronide is
exceed the solubility of bilirubin in bile. A defect in acidifica- hydrolyzed to produce unconjugated bilirubin and glucuronic
tion of bile may also be induced by gallbladder inflammation acid; the former is water-insoluble and combines with calcium
or the reduced buffering capacity of sialic acid and sulfate to form calcium bilirubin at its carboxyl radical, thereby
moieties in the mucin gel. The reduction in buffering capacity leading to the formation of brown pigment gallstones.
1118 Section VIII Biliary Tract
b-Glucaro1,4
lactone
Bacterial Bile salt
()
b-glucuronidase Phospholipase A1 hydrolase
Endogenous
Glucuronic acid
b-glucuronidase
Brown pigment
Calcium bilirubinate stones
FIGURE 65-6. Proposed mechanisms for the pathogenesis of brown pigment stones. Under normal physiologic conditions, unconjugated
bilirubin is not secreted into bile. Although modest hydrolysis of bilirubin glucuronides by endogenous -glucuronidase occurs, uncon-
jugated bilirubin constitutes less than 1% of total bile pigment, mostly because the activity of -glucuronidase is inhibited by -
glucaro-1,4-lactone in the biliary system. The presence of excess bacterial -glucuronidase, however, overcomes the inhibitory ()
effect of -glucaro-1,4-lactone, which results in hydrolysis of bilirubin glucuronide into free bilirubin and glucuronic acid. Free bilirubi-
nate combines with calcium to yield water-insoluble calcium bilirubinate. In addition, phospholipase A1 liberates free fatty acids such
as palmitic and stearic acids from phospholipids, and bile salt hydrolases produce unconjugated bile salts from glycine or taurine-
conjugated bile salts. Dead bacteria and/or parasites could act as nuclei that accelerate precipitation of calcium bilirubinate. The mucin
gel in the gallbladder can trap these complex precipitates and facilitate their growth into macroscopic stones.
Stones in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus gallstones. The risk of biliary complications is estimated to be
1% to 2% per year and is believed to remain relatively constant
Diabetic patients have been considered at increased risk of over time.222 Therefore, cholecystectomy should be offered to
gallstone complications; however, the natural history of gall- patients after biliary symptoms develop. In patients with high
stones in diabetic patients follows the same pattern observed operative risk, an alternative approach is close observation,
in nondiabetic persons. A prospective study of patients with because 30% will have no further episodes of biliary pain.
insulin-resistant diabetes mellitus showed that after 5 years of
follow up, symptoms had developed in 15% of the asymptom-
atic patients.219 Moreover, the complication and mortality rates
Special Patient Populations
were comparable to those in studies of nondiabetic patients The clinical manifestations of gallstones are shown schemati-
with gallstones. Therefore, prophylactic cholecystectomy is cally in Figure 65-7 and summarized in more detail in Table
not recommended in patients with insulin-resistant diabetes 65-2.223-227 Biliary pancreatitis is discussed in Chapter 58.
mellitus and asymptomatic gallstones. Although the standard approach to asymptomatic gallstones
is observation, some patients with asymptomatic gallstones
may be at increased risk of complications and may require
Symptomatic Stones consideration of prophylactic cholecystectomy.
The cardinal symptom of gallstones is biliary pain (colic), An increased risk of cholangiocarcinoma and gallbladder
which is described as pain in the right upper quadrant (RUQ) carcinoma has been associated with certain disorders of the
often radiating to the back, with or without nausea and vomit- biliary tract and in some ethnic groups (e.g., Native Ameri-
ing. The pain is usually not true colic (see Chapter 11) and is cans) (see Chapter 69). Risk factors include choledochal cysts,
almost never associated with fever. The natural history of Carolis disease, anomalous pancreatic ductal drainage (in
symptomatic gallstones has a more aggressive course than which the pancreatic duct drains into the bile duct), large
that of asymptomatic stones. The U.S. National Cooperative gallbladder adenomas, and porcelain gallbladder (see Chap-
Gallstone Study showed that in persons who had an episode ters 62 and 67). Patients at increased risk of biliary cancer may
of uncomplicated biliary pain in the year before entering the benefit from prophylactic cholecystectomy. If abdominal
study, the rate of recurrent biliary pain was 38% per year.220 surgery is planned for another indication, an incidental chole-
Other investigators have reported a rate of recurrent biliary cystectomy should be performed.
pain as high as 50% per year in persons with symptomatic Pigment gallstones are common and often asymptomatic
gallstones.221 As noted earlier, biliary complications are also in patients with sickle cell disease. Prophylactic cholecystec-
more likely to develop in persons with symptomatic tomy is not recommended, but an incidental cholecystectomy
1 ** *
*
*
7 *
Long-standing cholelithiasis,
resulting in gallbladder
carcinoma (<0.1%)
*
6
FIGURE 65-7. Schematic depiction of the natural history and complications of gallstones. Percentages indicate approximate frequencies
of complications that occur in untreated patients, based on natural history data. The most frequent outcome is for the patient with a
stone to remain asymptomatic throughout life (1). Biliary pain (2), acute cholecystitis (3), cholangitis (5), and pancreatitis (5) are the
most common complications. Mirizzis syndrome (4), cholecystoenteric fistula (6), Bouverets syndrome (6), and gallbladder cancer
(7) are uncommon. (Sum of percentages is >100% because patients with acute cholecystitis generally have had prior episodes of
biliary pain.)
1120 Section VIII Biliary Tract
TABLE 65-2 Pathophysiology, Clinical Manifestations, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Gallstone Disease*
Pathophysiology Intermittent obstruction Impacted stone in the cystic Stone passed from the A stone in the BD
of the cystic duct duct gallbladder via the causing bile stasis
No acute inflammation Acute inflammation of the cystic duct or formed in Bacterial superinfection
of the gallbladder gallbladder the BD of stagnant bile
Secondary bacterial infection Intermitted obstruction of Early bacteremia
in 50% the BD
Symptoms Severe, poorly localized, 75% of cases are preceded Often asymptomatic Charcots triad (pain,
epigastric or RUQ by attacks of biliary pain Symptoms (when present) jaundice, and fever) is
visceral pain growing Visceral epigastric pain gives are indistinguishable present in 70% of
in intensity over 15 way to moderately severe from biliary pain patients
minutes and localized pain in the the Predisposes to cholangitis Pain may be mild and
remaining constant RUQ, back, right shoulder, and acute pancreatitis transient and is often
for 1-6 hours, often or, rarely, chest accompanied by chills
with nausea Nausea with some vomiting Mental confusion,
Frequency of attacks is frequent lethargy, and delirium
varies from days to Pain lasting >6 hours favors suggest sepsis
months cholecystitis over biliary
Gas, bloating, pain alone
flatulence, and
dyspepsia are not
related to stones
Physical findings Mild to moderate Fever, but usually to <102F Often findings are Fever in 95%
epigastric/RUQ unless complicated by completely normal if RUQ tenderness in 90%
tenderness during an gangrene or perforation the obstruction is Jaundice in 80%
attack, with mild Right subcostal tenderness intermittent Peritoneal signs in 15%
residual tenderness with inspiratory arrest Jaundice with pain Hypotension and mental
lasting days (Murphys sign) suggests stones; confusion (forming
Often, findings are Palpable gallbladder in 33% painless jaundice and a Reynolds pentad in
normal of patients, especially palpable gallbladder combination with
those having their first favor malignancy Charcots triad)
attack coexist in 15% and
Mild jaundice in 20%; higher suggest Gram-
frequency in older adults negative sepsis
Laboratory Usually normal Leukocytosis with band Elevated serum bilirubin Leukocytosis in 80%,
findings Elevated serum bilirubin, forms is common and alkaline but the remainder
alkaline phosphatase, Serum bilirubin level may be phosphatase levels are may have a normal
or amylase levels 2-4 mg/dL, and seen with BD white blood cell count
suggest coexisting aminotransferase and obstruction with or without band
BD stones alkaline phosphatase Serum bilirubin level forms
levels may be elevated >10 mg/dL suggests Serum bilirubin level is
even in the absence of a malignant obstruction or >2 mg/dL in 80%
BD stone or hepatic coexisting hemolysis Serum alkaline
infection A transient spike in phosphatase level is
Mild serum amylase and serum aminotransferase usually elevated
lipase elevations are seen or amylase (or lipase) Blood cultures are
even in the absence of levels suggests the usually positive,
pancreatitis passage of a stone especially during chills
If serum bilirubin is >4 mg/ or a fever spike; 2
dL or amylase or lipase is organisms are grown
markedly elevated, a BD in cultures from half of
stone should be patients
suspected
TABLE 65-2 Pathophysiology, Clinical Manifestations, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Gallstone Disease*contd
Natural history After the initial attack, 50% of cases resolve Natural history is not A high mortality rate if
30% of patients have spontaneously in 7-10 well defined, but unrecognized, with
no further symptoms days without surgery complications are more death from septicemia
Symptoms develop in Left untreated, 10% of cases common and more Emergency
the remainder at a are complicated by a severe than for decompression of the
rate of 6% per year, localized perforation and asymptomatic stones in BD (usually by ERCP)
and severe 1% by a free perforation the gallbladder improves survival
complications at a and peritonitis dramatically
rate of 1%-2% per
year
Treatment (see Elective laparoscopic Laparoscopic Stone removal at the time Emergency ERCP with
Chapters 66 cholecystectomy, cholecystectomy, possibly of ERCP, followed in stone removal or at
and 70) possibly with IOC with IOC if feasible; most cases by early least biliary
ERCP for stone removal otherwise open laparoscopic decompression
or BD exploration if cholecystectomy cholecystectomy Antibiotics to cover
IOC shows stones BD exploration or ERCP for Gram-negative and
stone removal if IOC possibly anaerobic
shows stones organisms and
Enterococcus spp.
Subsequent
cholecystectomy
*See Chapter 58 for a discussion of biliary pancreatitis.
BD, bile duct; IOC, intraoperative cholangiography; MRC, magnetic resonance cholangiography; RUQ, right upper quadrant; THC, transhepatic cholangiography.
should be considered if abdominal surgery is performed for abdominal films are limited by a lack of sensitivity and speci-
other reasons. Some authorities recommend combined pro- ficity. Only 50% of pigment stones and 20% of cholesterol
phylactic splenectomy and cholecystectomy in young asymp- stones contain enough calcium to be visible on a plain abdomi-
tomatic patients with hereditary spherocytosis if gallstones are nal film. Because 80% of gallstones in the Western world are
present. of the cholesterol type, only 25% of stones can be detected by
Morbidly obese persons who undergo bariatric surgery are simple radiographs. Plain abdominal films have their greatest
at high risk of complications of gallstones (see Chapters 7 and usefulness in evaluating patients with some of the unusual
8). These patients have a frequency of gallstones of greater complications of gallstones (e.g., emphysematous cholecysti-
than 30%. An incidental cholecystectomy is recommended at tis, cholecystenteric fistula, gallstone ileus) or in detecting a
the time of surgery. porcelain gallbladder (see later).
Some investigators have proposed that patients with inci-
dental cholelithiasis who are awaiting heart transplantation
undergo a prophylactic cholecystectomy irrespective of the
US
presence or absence of biliary tract symptoms because they are Since its introduction in the 1970s, US examination of the
at increased risk of post-transplant gallstone complications.228 biliary tract has become the principal imaging modality for the
A retrospective study that addressed this issue in renal trans- diagnosis of cholelithiasis. US requires only an overnight or
plant recipients, however, concluded that complications of 8-hour fast, involves no ionizing radiation, is simple to
gallstones could be managed safely after symptoms emerged.229 perform, and provides accurate anatomic information. It has
the additional advantage of being portable and thus available
at the bedside of a critically ill patient.231
DIAGNOSIS The diagnosis of gallstones relies on detection of echogenic
objects within the lumen of the gallbladder that produce an
Imaging studies play a central role in the diagnosis of gall- acoustic shadow (Fig. 65-8A). The stones are mobile and gen-
stones and associated conditions. Table 65-3 shows the wide erally congregate in the dependent portion of the gallbladder.
array of imaging techniques available to evaluate the biliary Modern US is able to detect stones as small as 2 mm in diam-
tract.230-233 Each modality has its strengths and limitations, and eter routinely. Smaller stones may be missed or may be con-
the methods vary widely in relative cost and risk to the patient. fused with biliary sludge (layering echogenic material that
With the possible exception of US, none of the modalities does not cast acoustic shadows).234
should be ordered routinely in the evaluation of a patient with The sensitivity of US for detection of gallstones in the
suspected gallstone disease; rather, the diagnostic evaluation gallbladder is better than 95% for stones larger than 2 mm.235
should proceed in a rational stepwise fashion based on the The specificity is greater than 95% when stones produce
individual patients symptoms, signs, and results of labora- acoustic shadows. Rarely, advanced scarring and contraction
tory studies (see later). of the gallbladder around gallstones make locating the gall-
Notably absent from the list of imaging studies of the bladder or the stones impossible, raising the possibility of
biliary tract is the plain abdominal film. Although useful on gallbladder cancer. The contracted gallbladder filled with
occasion for evaluating patients with abdominal pain, plain stones may give a double-arc shadow or wall-echo shadow
1122 Section VIII Biliary Tract
US Cholelithiasis Stones manifest as mobile, dependent echogenic foci within the gallbladder
lumen with acoustic shadowing
Sludge appears as layering echogenic material without shadows
Sensitivity >95% for stones >2 mm
Specificity >95% for stones with acoustic shadows
Rarely, a stone-filled gallbladder may be contracted and difficult to see, with
a wall-echo-shadow sign
Best single test for stones in the gallbladder
Choledocholithiasis Stones are seen in the BD in only 50% of cases but can be inferred from the
finding of a dilated BD (>6 mm diameter), with or without gallstones, in
another 25% of cases
Can confirm, but not exclude, BD stones
Acute cholecystitis Sonographic Murphys sign (focal gallbladder tenderness under the
transducer) has a positive predictive value of >90% in detecting acute
cholecystitis when stones are seen
Pericholecystic fluid (in the absence of ascites) and gallbladder wall
thickening to >4 mm (in the absence of hypoalbuminemia) are nonspecific
findings but are suggestive of acute cholecystitis
Oral cholecystography* Cholelithiasis Stones manifest as mobile filling defects in an opacified gallbladder
Sensitivity and specificity exceed 90% when the gallbladder is opacified, but
nonvisualization occurs in 25% of studies and can result from multiple
causes other than stones
Opacification of the gallbladder indicates cystic duct patency
May be useful in the evaluation of acalculous gallbladder diseases such as
cholesterolosis and adenomyomatosis (see Chapter 67)
ERCP Choledocholithiasis ERCP is the standard diagnostic test for stones in the BD, with sensitivity and
specificity of 95%
Use of ERCP to extract stones (or at least drain infected bile) is life-saving in
severe cholangitis and reduces the need for BD exploration at the time of
cholecystectomy
Recommended for patients with a high clinical probability of
choledocholithiasis
Cholelithiasis When contrast agent flows retrograde into the gallbladder, stones appear as
filling defects and can be detected with a sensitivity rate of 80%, but US
remains the mainstay for confirming cholelithiasis
Chapter 65 Gallstone Disease 1123
MRCP Choledocholithiasis A rapid, noninvasive modality that provides detailed bile duct and pancreatic
duct images equal to those of ERCP
Sensitivity 93% and specificity 94%, comparable with those for ERCP
Useful for examining nondilated ducts, particularly at the distal portion, which
often is not well visualized by US
Adjacent structures such as the liver and pancreas can be examined at the
same time
Recommended for patients with low to moderate clinical probability of
choledocholithiasis
CT Complications of Not well suited for detecting uncomplicated stones but excellent for detecting
gallstones complications such as abscess, perforation of gallbladder or BD, and
pancreatitis
Spiral CT may prove useful as a noninvasive means of excluding BD stones;
some studies suggest improved diagnostic accuracy when CT is combined
with an oral cholecystographic contrast agent
*Performed infrequently.
BD, bile duct.
sign, with the gallbladder wall, echogenic stones, and acoustic Intraluminal imaging provides several advantages over trans-
shadowing seen in immediate proximity. If the gallbladder abdominal US, including closer proximity to the bile duct,
cannot be identified ultrasonographically, then a complemen- higher resolution, and lack of interference by bowel gas or
tary imaging modality such as oral cholecystography or abdominal wall layers (Fig. 65-9). In several studies, EUS had
abdominal CT is warranted. a positive predictive value of 99%, negative predictive value
US is the standard for the diagnosis of stones in the gall- of 98%, and accuracy rate of 97% for the diagnosis of bile
bladder but is distinctly less sensitive for the detection of duct stones compared with ERCP.240,241 If bile duct stones are
stones in the bile duct (common bile duct).236 Because of the found on EUS, endoscopic removal of the stones is necessary,
proximity of the distal bile duct to the duodenum, luminal and it can be argued that ERCP should be the initial study
bowel gas often interferes with the US image, and the entire if choledocholithiasis is strongly suspected. Nevertheless,
length of the bile duct cannot be examined.237 As a result, only several studies that compared EUS with ERCP have found
about 50% of bile duct stones are actually seen on US.231 The both techniques to be accurate for confirming or excluding
presence of an obstructing bile duct stone, however, can be choledocholithiasis, with EUS having advantages in both
inferred when a dilated duct is found in the absence of chole- safety and cost.242-244
cystectomy. Now that ERCP has uncovered a rising frequency EUS has also been found to be superior to MRCP (or
of falsely negative US, the upper limit of normal of the diam- simply magnetic resonance cholangiography [MRC]) in detect-
eter of the bile duct has declined from 10 mm to 6 mm. Even ing the presence or absence of bile duct stones (see later). The
so, inferring choledocholithiasis from a dilated bile duct on US major benefit of EUS in patients with a clinical suspicion of
has a sensitivity of only 75%. choledocholithiasis is the ability to avoid unnecessary ERCP
US is quite useful for diagnosing acute cholecystitis.238 and sphincterotomy, which is not without risk. Use of EUS to
Pericholecystic fluid (in the absence of ascites) and gallbladder determine if ERCP is indicated may avoid a significant number
wall thickening to more than 4 mm (in the absence of hypoal- of ERCPs and result in fewer complications. A systematic
buminemia) are suggestive of acute cholecystitis (see Fig. review of randomized controlled trials compared EUS-guided
65-8B). Unfortunately, in the critical care setting, these nonspe- ERCP with ERCP alone for detection of bile duct stones.245
cific findings are seen frequently in patients with no other Patients randomized to EUS were able to avoid ERCP in 67%
evidence of gallbladder disease.238 A more specific finding is of cases and had lower rates of complications and pancreatitis
the so-called sonographic Murphys sign, in which the ultra- compared with those randomized to ERCP alone (OR, 0.35
sonographer elicits focal gallbladder tenderness under the and 0.21, respectively). EUS failed to detect common bile duct
ultrasound transducer. Eliciting a sonographic Murphys sign stones in only 2 of 213 patients (0.9%). Therefore, EUS is cur-
is somewhat operator dependent and requires an alert patient. rently considered an appropriate modality for excluding bile
Presence of the sign has a positive predictive value of greater duct stones, especially if the pretest probability of finding
than 90% for detecting acute cholecystitis if gallstones are stones is low to intermediate.
present.239 US may help localize other abdominal diseases,
such as abscesses or pseudocysts, that may be in the differen-
tial diagnosis.
Oral Cholecystography
Once the mainstay of imaging studies of the gallbladder, oral
cholecystography (OCG) now has limited application as a sec-
EUS ondary approach to identifying stones in the gallbladder.231
EUS is highly accurate for detecting choledocholithiasis. More The only useful clinical indications for OCG are the evaluation
invasive and more expensive than standard US, EUS has the of patients in whom medical dissolution of stones or litho-
advantage of being able to visualize the bile duct from within tripsy is being considered (see Chapter 66)246 and the evalua-
the GI lumen and is comparable to ERCP in this respect. tion of patients for unsuspected gallbladder disease, such as
1124 Section VIII Biliary Tract
GB
GB
Stone BD
Acoustic A
shadowing
A
GB
BD
PD
Stones
PV
B
Acoustic
shadowing
B
CLINICAL DISORDERS
Biliary Pain and Chronic Cholecystitis
Biliary pain is the most common presenting symptom of cho-
lelithiasis, and about 75% of patients with symptomatic gall-
GB stone disease seek medical attention for episodic abdominal
pain. In patients who present with a complication of gall-
stones, such as acute cholecystitis, a history of recurrent
episodes of abdominal pain in the months preceding the
complication is often elicited.
Stone
Pathogenesis
Biliary pain (conventionally referred to as biliary colic,
a misnomer) is caused by intermittent obstruction of the
cystic duct by 1 or more gallstones. Biliary pain does not
require that inflammation of the gallbladder accompany the
FIGURE 65-12. Abdominal CT demonstrating emphysematous obstruction. The term chronic cholecystitis to describe
cholecystitis with associated cholelithiasis. Pockets of gas (yellow biliary pain should be avoided because it implies the presence
arrow), resulting from a secondary infection with gas-forming of a chronic inflammatory infiltrate that may or may not be
organisms, are present within the wall of the gallbladder (GB). present in a given patient. Indeed, the severity and frequency
(Courtesy Julie Champine, MD, Dallas, Tex.) of biliary pain and the pathologic changes in the gallbladder
do not correlate.262 The most common histologic changes
observed in patients with biliary pain are mild fibrosis of the
gallbladder wall with a chronic inflammatory cell infiltrate
and intact mucosa. Recurrent episodes of biliary pain can
also be associated with a scarred, shrunken gallbladder and
Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses (intramural diverticula). Bacteria
can be cultured from gallbladder bile or gallstones themselves
in about 10% of patients with biliary pain, but bacterial
infection is not believed to contribute to the symptoms (see
GB Stones Chapter 67).
Clinical Features
BD
Biliary pain is visceral in nature and thus poorly localized.263
In a typical case, the patient experiences episodes of upper
abdominal pain, usually in the epigastrium or RUQ, but some-
times in other abdominal locations. Ingestion of a meal often
precipitates pain, but more commonly no inciting event is
apparent. The onset of biliary pain is more likely to occur
during periods of weight reduction and marked physical inac-
tivity such as prolonged bed rest than at other times.
The term biliary colic, used in the past, is a misnomer
because the pain is steady rather than intermittent, as would
be suggested by the word colic. The pain increases gradually
over a period of 15 minutes to an hour and then remains at a
FIGURE 65-13. MRCP demonstrating choledocholithiasis. Within
plateau for an hour or more before slowly resolving. In one
the bile duct (BD) are 2 filling defects representing gallstones. GB,
third of patients, the onset of pain may be more sudden, and
gallbladder. (Courtesy Charles Owen, III, MD, Dallas, Tex.)
on rare occasions, the pain may cease abruptly. Pain lasting
more than 6 hours suggests acute cholecystitis rather than
simple biliary pain.
bile duct stones, it may reveal other surrounding pathologic In order of decreasing frequency, biliary pain is felt maxi-
abnormalities.257 mally in the epigastrium, RUQ, left upper quadrant, and
MRC is highly useful for imaging the bile duct and detect- various parts of the precordium or lower abdomen. Therefore,
ing gallstones. This modality is especially useful for detecting the notion that pain not located in the RUQ is atypical of
abnormalities in the most distal extrahepatic portion of the gallstone disease is incorrect. Radiation of the pain to the
bile duct when the duct is not dilated; this region is often not scapula, right shoulder, or lower abdomen occurs in half of
well visualized by transabdominal US.232 With the advent of patients. Diaphoresis and nausea with some vomiting are
laparoscopic cholecystectomy, an easy, quick, and preferably common, although vomiting is not as protracted as in intesti-
noninvasive method of excluding bile duct stones is needed. nal obstruction or acute pancreatitis. Like patients with other
MRC permits construction of a 3-dimensional image of the bile kinds of visceral pain, the patient with biliary pain is usually
duct with a high sensitivity for detecting bile duct stones (Fig. restless and active during an episode.
65-13).259,260 In a systematic review that compared MRC with Complaints of gas, bloating, flatulence, and dyspepsia,
diagnostic ERCP for detection of choledocholithiasis, MRC which are common in patients with gallstones, are probably
had a sensitivity of 93% and a specificity of 94%.261 not related to the stones themselves. These nonspecific
Chapter 65 Gallstone Disease 1127
systemic disorders may manifest as acalculous cholecystitis hours of hospitalization. One study has shown that acute cho-
(see Chapter 36). lecystitis resolves without complications in about 83% of
patients but results in gangrenous cholecystitis in 7%, gall-
bladder empyema in 6%, perforation in 3%, and emphysema-
Clinical Features tous cholecystitis in fewer than 1%.277
Approximately 75% of patients with acute cholecystitis report
prior attacks of biliary pain (see Table 65-2).274 Often, such a
patient is alerted to the possibility that more than simple Diagnosis
biliary pain is occurring by the prolonged duration of the pain. Perhaps because it is so common, acute cholecystitis is often
If biliary pain has been constant for more than 6 hours, acute at the top of the differential diagnosis of abdominal symptoms
cholecystitis should be suspected. and is actually overdiagnosed when clinical criteria alone are
In contrast to uncomplicated biliary pain, the physical considered. In a prospective series of 100 patients with RUQ
findings can, in many cases, suggest the diagnosis of acute pain and tenderness and suspected acute cholecystitis, this
cholecystitis. Fever is common, but body temperature is diagnosis was correct in only two thirds of cases. The clinician
usually less than 102F unless the gallbladder has become must therefore use laboratory and imaging studies to confirm
gangrenous or has perforated (Fig. 65-14). Mild jaundice is the presence of acute cholecystitis, exclude complications such
present in 20% of patients with acute cholecystitis and 40% as gangrene and perforation, and look for alternative causes
of older adult patients. Serum bilirubin levels usually are of the clinical findings.
less than 4 mg/dL.275 Bilirubin levels above this value suggest Table 65-3 shows the most common laboratory findings in
the possibility of bile duct stones, which may be found in acute cholecystitis.276 Leukocytosis with a shift to immature
50% of jaundiced patients with acute cholecystitis. Another neutrophils is common. Because a diagnosis of bile duct stones
cause of pronounced jaundice in patients with acute cho- with cholangitis usually is in the differential diagnosis, atten-
lecystitis is Mirizzis syndrome, which is associated with tion should be directed to results of liver biochemical tests.275
inflammatory obstruction of the common hepatic duct Even without detectable bile duct obstruction, acute cholecys-
(see later). titis often causes mild elevations in serum aminotransferase
The abdominal examination often demonstrates right sub- and alkaline phosphatase levels. As noted earlier, the serum
costal tenderness with a palpable gallbladder in a third of bilirubin level may also be mildly elevated (2 to 4 mg/dL),
patients; a palpable gallbladder is more common in patients and even serum amylase and lipase values may be elevated
having a first attack of acute cholecystitis. Repeated attacks nonspecifically. A serum bilirubin value above 4 mg/dL or
usually result in a scarred, fibrotic gallbladder that is unable amylase value above 1000 U/L usually indicates coexisting
to distend. For unclear reasons, the gallbladder is usually pal- bile duct obstruction or acute pancreatitis, respectively, and
pable lateral to its normal anatomic location. warrants further evaluation.
A relatively specific finding of acute cholecystitis is Mur- When the level of leukocytosis exceeds 15,000/mm3, par-
phys sign.274 During palpation in the right subcostal region, ticularly in the setting of worsening pain, high fever (tempera-
pain and inspiratory arrest may occur when the patient takes ture > 102F), and chills, suppurative cholecystitis (empyema)
a deep breath that brings the inflamed gallbladder into contact or perforation should be suspected, and urgent surgical inter-
with the examiners hand. The presence of Murphys sign in vention may be required. Such advanced gallbladder disease
the appropriate clinical setting is a reliable predictor of acute may be present even if local and systemic manifestations are
cholecystitis, although gallstones should still be confirmed unimpressive.
by US. US is the single most useful imaging study in acutely ill
patients with RUQ pain and tenderness. It accurately estab-
lishes the presence or absence of gallstones and serves as an
Natural History extension of the physical examination. Presence of sonographic
The pain of untreated acute cholecystitis generally resolves in Murphys sign, defined as focal gallbladder tenderness under
7 to 10 days.276 Not uncommonly, symptoms remit within 48 the transducer, has a positive predictive value better than
90% for detecting acute cholecystitis if gallstones are also
present, the operator is skillful, and the patient is alert.278
Additionally, US can detect nonspecific findings suggestive of
acute cholecystitis, such as pericholecystic fluid and gallblad-
der wall thickening greater than 4 mm. Both findings lose
specificity for acute cholecystitis if the patient has ascites or
hypoalbuminemia.232,279
GB
Because the prevalence of gallstones is high in the popula-
Fluid tion, many patients with nonbiliary tract diseases that mani-
collection
fest as acute abdominal pain (e.g., acute pancreatitis and
complications of peptic ulcer) may have incidental and clini-
cally irrelevant gallstones. The greatest usefulness of choles-
cintigraphy in these patients is its ability to exclude acute
cholecystitis and allow the clinician to focus on nonbiliary
causes of the patients acute abdominal pain.225 A normal cho-
lescintigraphy result shows radioactivity in the gallbladder,
bile duct, and small intestine within 30 to 60 minutes of injec-
tion of the isotope. With rare exceptions, a normal result
excludes acute cholecystitis due to gallstones. Several studies
have suggested that the sensitivity and specificity of scintig-
FIGURE 65-14. US demonstrating a complex fluid collection adja- raphy in the setting of acute cholecystitis are approximately
cent to the gallbladder (GB), consistent with gallbladder perfora- 94% each. However, sensitivity and specificity are reduced
tion. (Courtesy Julie Champine, MD, Dallas, Tex.) considerably in patients who have liver disease, are receiving
Chapter 65 Gallstone Disease 1129
parenteral nutrition, or are fasting. These conditions can lead generally should be followed by an intervention to remove the
to a false-positive result, defined as the absence of isotope in stones (see Chapter 70).
the gallbladder in a patient who does not have acute cholecys-
titis. If a positive result is defined as the absence of isotope in
the gallbladder, then a false-negative result is defined as filling Etiology
of the gallbladder with isotope in the setting of acute chole- Gallstones may pass from the gallbladder into the bile duct or
cystitis, a situation that virtually never occurs. Therefore, scin- form de novo in the duct. Generally, all gallstones from one
tigraphy should not be used as the initial imaging study in a patient, whether from the gallbladder or bile duct, are of one
patient with suspected cholecystitis but rather should be used type, either cholesterol or pigment. Cholesterol stones form
as a secondary imaging study in patients who already are only in the gallbladder, and any cholesterol stones found in
known to have gallstones and in whom a nonbiliary cause of the bile duct must have migrated there from the gallbladder.
acute abdominal pain is possible.280 Black pigment stones, which are associated with old age,
The greatest usefulness of abdominal CT in patients with hemolysis, alcoholism, and cirrhosis, also form in the gallblad-
acute cholecystitis is to detect complications such as emphy- der but only rarely migrate into the bile duct. The majority of
sematous cholecystitis and perforation of the gallbladder. At pigment stones in the bile duct are the softer brown pigment
the same time, CT can exclude other intra-abdominal pro- stones. These stones form de novo in the bile duct as a result
cesses that may engender a similar clinical picture. For of bacterial action on phospholipid and bilirubin in bile (see
example, abdominal CT is highly sensitive for detecting earlier).282 They are often proximal to a biliary stricture and
pneumoperitoneum, acute pancreatitis, pancreatic pseudo- are frequently associated with cholangitis. Brown pigment
cysts, hepatic or intra-abdominal abscesses, appendicitis, and stones are found in patients with hepatolithiasis and recurrent
obstruction or perforation of a hollow viscus. Abdominal CT pyogenic cholangitis (see Chapter 68).283
usually is not warranted in patients with obvious acute cho- Fifteen percent of patients with gallbladder stones also
lecystitis, but if the diagnosis is uncertain or the optimal have bile duct stones. Conversely, of patients with ductal
timing of surgery is in doubt, CT may be invaluable. stones, 95% also have gallbladder stones.284 In patients who
present with choledocholithiasis months or years after a cho-
lecystectomy, determining whether the stones were over-
Differential Diagnosis looked at the earlier operation or have subsequently formed
The principal conditions to consider in the differential diag- may be impossible. In fact, formation of pigment stones in the
nosis of acute cholecystitis are appendicitis, acute pancreatitis, bile duct is also a late complication of endoscopic sphincter-
pyelonephritis or renal calculi, peptic ulcer, acute hepatitis, otomy.285 In a study of the long-term consequences of endo-
pneumonia, hepatic abscess or tumor, and gonococcal or chla- scopic sphincterotomy in more than 400 patients, the
mydial perihepatitis. These possibilities should be considered cumulative frequency of recurrent bile duct stones was 12%;
before a cholecystectomy is recommended. all the recurrent stones were of the brown pigment type, irre-
spective of the chemical composition of the original gallstones.
This observation suggests that sphincterotomy permits chronic
Treatment bacterial colonization of the bile duct that results in deconjuga-
The patient in whom acute cholecystitis is suspected should tion of bilirubin and precipitation of pigment stones.
be hospitalized. The patient is often hypovolemic from vomit- Stones in the bile duct usually come to rest at the lower
ing and poor oral intake, and fluid and electrolytes should be end of the ampulla of Vater. Obstruction of the bile duct raises
administered IV. Oral feeding should be withheld and an NG bile pressure proximally and causes the duct to dilate. Pres-
tube inserted if the patient has a distended abdomen or per- sure in the bile duct is normally 10 to 15 cm H2O and rises to
sistent vomiting. 25 to 40 cm H2O with complete obstruction. When pressure
In uncomplicated cases of acute cholecystitis, antibiotics exceeds 15 cm H2O, bile flow decreases, and at 30 cm H2O, bile
need not be given. Antibiotics are warranted if the patient flow stops.
appears toxic or is suspected of having a complication such as The bile duct dilates to the point that dilatation can be
perforation of the gallbladder or emphysematous cholecysti- detected on either US or abdominal CT in about 75% of cases.
tis. Broad-spectrum antibiotic coverage is usually indicated to In patients who have had recurrent bouts of cholangitis, the
cover Gram-negative organisms and anaerobes, with multiple bile duct may become fibrotic and unable to dilate. Moreover,
possible regimens. The most commonly used regimens include dilatation of the duct is sometimes absent in patients with
piperacillin-tazobactam, ceftriaxone plus metronidazole, or choledocholithiasis because the obstruction is low-grade and
levofloxacin plus metronidazole. intermittent.
Definitive therapy of acute cholecystitis consists of chole-
cystectomy. The safety and effectiveness of a laparoscopic
approach in the setting of acute cholecystitis have been dem- Clinical Features
onstrated (see Chapter 66).281 The morbidity of choledocholithiasis stems principally from
biliary obstruction, which raises biliary pressure and dimin-
ishes bile flow. The rate of onset of obstruction, its extent,
Choledocholithiasis and the amount of bacterial contamination of the bile are the
Choledocholithiasis is defined as the occurrence of stones in the major factors that determine resulting symptoms. Acute
bile ducts. Like stones in the gallbladder, stones in the bile obstruction usually causes biliary pain and jaundice, whereas
ducts may remain asymptomatic for years, and stones from obstruction that develops gradually over several months
the bile duct are known to pass silently into the duodenum, may manifest initially as pruritus or jaundice alone.286 If bac-
perhaps frequently. Unlike stones in the gallbladder, which teria proliferate, life-threatening cholangitis may result (see
usually become clinically evident as relatively benign epi- later).
sodes of recurrent biliary pain, stones in the bile duct, when Physical findings are usually normal if obstruction of the
they do cause symptoms, tend to manifest as life-threatening bile duct is intermittent. Mild to moderate jaundice may be
complications such as cholangitis and acute pancreatitis noted when obstruction has been present for several days to
(see Chapter 58). Therefore, discovery of choledocholithiasis a few weeks. Deep jaundice without pain, particularly with a
1130 Section VIII Biliary Tract
palpable gallbladder (Courvoisiers sign), suggests neoplastic diagnosis in patients with an intact gallbladder. The presence
obstruction of the bile duct, even when the patient has stones of jaundice or abnormal liver biochemical test results strongly
in the gallbladder. With longstanding obstruction, secondary points to the bile duct rather than the gallbladder as the source
biliary cirrhosis may result, leading to physical findings of of the pain.
chronic liver disease. In patients who present with jaundice, malignant obstruc-
As shown in Table 65-2, the results of laboratory studies tion of the bile duct or obstruction from a choledochal cyst
may be the only clue to the presence of choledocholithiasis.287 may be indistinguishable clinically from choledocholithiasis
With bile duct obstruction, serum bilirubin and alkaline phos- (see Chapters 62 and 69). AIDS-associated cholangiopathy292
phatase levels both increase. Bilirubin accumulates in serum and papillary stenosis should be considered in HIV-positive
because of blocked excretion, whereas alkaline phosphatase patients with RUQ pain and abnormal liver biochemical test
levels rise because of increased synthesis of the enzyme by results (see Chapter 34).
the canalicular epithelium. The rise in the alkaline phospha-
tase level is more rapid than and precedes the rise in bilirubin
level.288 The absolute height of the serum bilirubin level is Treatment
proportional to the extent of obstruction, but the height of Because of its propensity to result in serious complications
the alkaline phosphatase level bears no relation to either such as cholangitis and acute pancreatitis, choledocholithiasis
the extent of obstruction or its cause. In cases of choledocho- warrants treatment in nearly all cases.293 The optimal therapy
lithiasis, the serum bilirubin level is typically in the range of for a given patient depends on the severity of symptoms, pres-
2 to 5 mg/dL242 and rarely exceeds 12 mg/dL. Transient ence of coexisting medical problems, availability of local
spikes in serum aminotransferase or amylase levels suggest expertise, and presence or absence of the gallbladder.
passage of a bile duct stone into the duodenum. The overall Bile duct stones discovered at the time of a laparoscopic
sensitivity of liver biochemical testing for detecting choledo- cholecystectomy present a dilemma to the surgeon. Some sur-
cholithiasis is reported to be 94%; serum levels of GGTP are geons may attempt laparoscopic exploration of the bile duct.
elevated most commonly but may not be assessed in clinical In other cases, the operation can be converted to an open
practice.288 cholecystectomy with bile duct exploration, but this approach
results in greater morbidity and a more prolonged hospital
stay. Alternatively, the laparoscopic cholecystectomy can be
Natural History carried out as planned, and the patient can return for ERCP
Little information is available on the natural history of asymp- with removal of the bile duct stones. Such an approach, if
tomatic bile duct stones. In many patients, such stones remain successful, cures the disease but runs the risk of necessitating
asymptomatic for months or years, but available evidence a third procedure, namely a bile duct exploration, if the stones
suggests the natural history of asymptomatic bile duct stones cannot be removed at ERCP. In general, the greater the
is less benign than that of asymptomatic gallstones.286,289 expertise of the therapeutic endoscopist, the more inclined
the surgeon should be to complete the laparoscopic chole-
cystectomy and have the bile duct stones removed
Diagnosis endoscopically.293
US actually visualizes bile duct stones in only about 50% of In especially high-risk patients, endoscopic removal of bile
cases,236 whereas dilatation of the bile duct to a diameter duct stones may be performed without cholecystectomy. This
greater than 6 mm is seen in about 75% of cases. US can approach is particularly appropriate for older adult patients
confirm, or at least suggest, the presence of bile duct stones with other severe concurrent illnesses.294 Cholecystectomy is
but cannot exclude choledocholithiasis definitively. EUS, required subsequently for recurrent symptoms in only 10% of
although clearly more invasive than standard US, has the patients. Surgical management and endoscopic treatment of
advantage of visualizing the bile duct more accurately. In pre- gallstones are discussed in detail in Chapters 66 and 70,
liminary studies, EUS has excluded or confirmed choledocho- respectively.
lithiasis with sensitivity and specificity rates of approximately
98% as compared with ERCP.240
ERCP is the standard method for diagnosis and therapy of
Cholangitis
bile duct stones,290 with sensitivity and specificity rates of Of all the common complications of gallstones, the most
about 95%. When the clinical probability of choledocholithia- serious and lethal is acute bacterial cholangitis. Pus under
sis is low, however, less invasive studies like EUS and MRCP pressure in the bile ducts leads to rapid spread of bacteria
should be performed first.256 via the liver into the blood, with resulting septicemia. More-
Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (percutane- over, the diagnosis of cholangitis is often problematic (espe-
ous THC) is also an accurate test for confirming the presence cially in the critical early phase of the disease) because clinical
of choledocholithiasis. The procedure is most readily accom- features that point to the biliary tract as the source of sepsis
plished when the intrahepatic bile ducts are dilated and is are often absent.29 Table 65-2 delineates the symptoms, signs,
performed primarily when ERCP is unavailable or has been and laboratory findings that can aid in an early diagnosis of
technically unsuccessful. cholangitis.
Laparoscopic US may be used in the surgical suite imme-
diately before mobilization of the gallbladder during cholecys-
tectomy. Laparoscopic US may be as accurate as surgical Etiology and Pathophysiology
cholangiography in detecting bile duct stones and may thereby In approximately 85% of cases, cholangitis is caused by a stone
obviate the need for the latter.291 embedded in the bile duct, with resulting bile stasis.295 Other
causes of bile duct obstruction that may result in cholangitis
are neoplasms (see Chapters 60 and 69), biliary strictures (see
Differential Diagnosis Chapters 68 and 70), parasitic infections (see Chapters 68 and
Symptoms caused by obstruction of the bile duct cannot be 84), and congenital abnormalities of the bile ducts (see Chapter
distinguished from those caused by obstruction of the cystic 62). This discussion deals specifically with cholangitis caused
duct. Therefore, biliary pain is always in the differential by gallstones in the bile duct.
Chapter 65 Gallstone Disease 1131
Bile duct obstruction is necessary but not sufficient to Abdominal CT is an excellent test for excluding complica-
cause cholangitis. Cholangitis is relatively common in patients tions of gallstones such as acute pancreatitis and abscess, but
with choledocholithiasis and nearly universal in patients with standard abdominal CT is not capable of excluding bile duct
a post-traumatic bile duct stricture, but is seen in only 15% of stones. EUS and MRC, as noted earlier, have a much higher
patients with neoplastic obstruction of the bile duct. It is most accuracy rate than CT for detecting and excluding stones in
likely to result when a bile duct that already contains bacteria the bile duct.
becomes obstructed, as in most patients with choledocholi- ERCP is the definitive test for the diagnosis of bile duct
thiasis and stricture but in few patients with neoplastic stones and cholangitis. Moreover, the ability of ERCP to estab-
obstruction. Malignant obstruction is more often complete lish drainage of infected bile under pressure can be life-saving.
than obstruction by a stricture or a bile duct stone and less If ERCP is unsuccessful, percutaneous THC can be performed
commonly permits reflux of bacteria from duodenal contents (see Chapter 70).
into the bile ducts.296
The bacterial species most commonly cultured from the
bile are E. coli, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Proteus, and enterococci. Treatment
Anaerobic species such as Bacteroides fragilis and Clostridium In cases of suspected bacterial cholangitis, blood culture speci-
perfringens are found in about 15% of appropriately cultured mens should be obtained immediately and therapy started
bile specimens. Anaerobes usually accompany aerobes, espe- with antibiotics effective against the likely causative organ-
cially E. coli. The shaking chills and fever of cholangitis are isms.297 In mild cases, initial therapy with a single drug (e.g.,
due to bacteremia from bile duct organisms. The degree of cefoxitin 2.0 g IV every 6 to 8 hours) is usually sufficient. In
regurgitation of bacteria from bile into hepatic venous blood severe cases, more intensive therapy (e.g., gentamicin, ampi-
is directly proportional to the biliary pressure and, hence, the cillin, and metronidazole or a broad-spectrum agent such as
degree of obstruction.296 For this reason, decompression alone piperacillin-tazobactam 3.375 g IV every 6 hours or, if resistant
often effectively treats the illness. organisms are suspected, meropenem 1 g IV every 8 hours) is
indicated.
The patients condition should improve within 6 to 12
Clinical Features hours, and in most cases, the infection comes under control
The hallmark of cholangitis is Charcots triad, consisting of within 2 to 3 days, with defervescence, relief of discomfort,
RUQ pain, jaundice, and fever (see Table 65-2). The full triad and a decline in WBC count. In these cases, definitive therapy
is present in only 70% of patients.296 The pain of cholangitis can be planned on an elective basis. If, however, after 6 to 12
may be surprisingly mild and transient but is often accompa- hours of careful observation, the patients clinical status
nied by chills and rigors. Older adult patients in particular declines, with worsening fever, pain, mental confusion, or
may present solely with mental confusion, lethargy, and delir- hypotension, the bile duct must be decompressed immedi-
ium. Altered mental status and hypotension in combination ately.297 If available, ERCP with stone extraction, or at least
with Charcots triad, known commonly as Reynolds pentad, decompression of the bile duct with an intrabiliary stent, is the
occur in severe suppurative cholangitis. treatment of choice. Controlled studies in which ERCP and
On physical examination, fever is almost universal, decompression of the bile duct were compared with emer-
occurring in 95% of patients, and usually greater than 102F. gency surgery and bile duct exploration have shown dramati-
RUQ tenderness is elicited in about 90% of patients, but jaun- cally lower morbidity and mortality rates in patients treated
dice is clinically detectable in only 80%. Notably, peritoneal endoscopically.293 The surgical treatment and endoscopic man-
signs are found in only 15% of patients. The combination of agement of cholangitis are discussed in detail in Chapters 66
hypotension and mental confusion indicates Gram-negative and 70, respectively.
septicemia. In overlooked cases of severe cholangitis, intra-
hepatic abscess may manifest as a late complication (see
Chapter 84). UNCOMMON COMPLICATIONS
Laboratory study results are often helpful in pointing to
the biliary tract as the source of sepsis. In particular, the serum Table 65-4 describes the clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and
bilirubin level exceeds 2 mg/dL in 80% of patients. When the treatment of several uncommon complications of gallstone
bilirubin level is normal initially, the diagnosis of cholangitis disease.
may not be suspected.288 The WBC count is elevated in 80% of
patients. In many patients who have a normal WBC count,
examination of the peripheral blood smear reveals a dramatic
Emphysematous Cholecystitis
shift to immature neutrophil forms. The serum alkaline phos- Patients who have emphysematous cholecystitis present with
phatase level is usually elevated, and the serum amylase level the same clinical manifestations as patients with uncompli-
may also be elevated if pancreatitis is also present. cated acute cholecystitis, but in the former, gas-forming organ-
In the majority of cases, blood culture results are positive isms have secondarily infected the gallbladder wall. Pockets
for enteric organisms, especially if culture specimens are of gas are evident in the area of the gallbladder fossa on plain
obtained during chills and fever spikes. The organism found abdominal films, US, and abdominal CT (see Fig. 65-13).298
in the blood is invariably the same as that found in the bile. Emphysematous cholecystitis often occurs in diabetic persons
or older men who do not have gallstones, in whom atheroscle-
rosis of the cystic artery with resulting ischemia may be the
Diagnosis initiating event (see Chapter 67). Emergency antibiotic therapy
The principles of radiologic diagnosis of cholangitis are the with anaerobic coverage and early cholecystectomy are war-
same as those for choledocholithiasis. Stones in the bile duct ranted because the risk of gallbladder perforation is high.
are seen ultrasonographically in only about 50% of cases171 but
can be inferred by detection of a dilated bile duct in about 75%
of cases (see Table 65-3). Normal US findings do not exclude
Cholecystoenteric Fistula
the possibility of choledocholithiasis in a patient in whom the A cholecystoenteric fistula occurs when a stone erodes through
clinical presentation suggests cholangitis.280 the gallbladder wall (usually the neck) and into a hollow
1132 Section VIII Biliary Tract
Emphysematous Secondary infection of the Symptoms and signs similar to Plain abdominal films may show
cholecystitis gallbladder wall with those of severe acute gas in the gallbladder fossa
gas-forming organisms cholecystitis US and CT are sensitive for
(Clostridium welchii, confirming gas
Escherichia coli, and Treatment is with IV antibiotics,
anaerobic streptococci) including anaerobic coverage,
More common in older adult and early cholecystectomy
diabetic men; can occur High morbidity and mortality rates
without stones (see
Chapter 67)
Cholecystoenteric Erosion of a (usually large) Symptoms and signs similar to Plain abdominal films may show
fistula stone through the those of acute cholecystitis, gas in the biliary tree and/or a
gallbladder wall into the although sometimes a fistula small bowel obstruction in
adjacent bowel, most often may be clinically silent gallstone ileus, as well as a stone
the duodenum, followed in Stones > 25 mm, especially in in the RLQ if the stone is calcified
frequency by the hepatic older adult women, may Contrast upper GI series may
flexure, stomach, and produce a bowel obstruction, demonstrate the fistula
jejunum or gallstone ileus; the A fistula from a solitary stone that
terminal ileum is the most passes may close spontaneously
common site of obstruction Cholecystectomy and bowel closure
Gastric outlet obstruction are curative
(Bouverets syndrome) may Gallstone ileus requires emergency
occur rarely laparotomy; the diagnosis is often
delayed, with a resulting mortality
rate of 20%
Mirizzis syndrome An impacted stone in the Jaundice and RUQ pain ERCP demonstrates dilated
gallbladder neck or cystic intrahepatic ducts and extrinsic
duct, with extrinsic compression of the common
compression of the hepatic duct and possible fistula
common hepatic duct from Preoperative diagnosis is important
accompanying to guide surgery and minimize the
inflammation or fistula risk of BD injury
Porcelain gallbladder Intramural calcification of the No symptoms attributable to the Plain abdominal films or CT show
gallbladder wall, usually in calcified wall per se, but intramural calcification of the
association with stones carcinoma of the gallbladder gallbladder wall
is a late complication in 20% Prophylactic cholecystectomy is
(see Chapter 69) indicated to prevent carcinoma
BD, bile duct; RLQ, right lower quadrant; RUQ, right upper quadrant.
viscus. The most common entry point into the bowel is the delayed, with a resulting mortality rate of approximately 20%.
duodenum, followed in frequency by the hepatic flexure of the Bouverets syndrome is characterized by gastric outlet obstruc-
colon, the stomach, and the jejunum. Symptoms are initially tion resulting from duodenal impaction of a large gallstone
similar to those of acute cholecystitis, although at times the that has migrated through a cholecystoduodenal fistula.301
stone may pass into the bowel and may be excreted without
causing any symptoms.299 Because the biliary tract is decom-
pressed, cholangitis is not common, despite gross seeding
of the gallbladder and bile ducts with bacteria. The diagnosis
Mirizzis Syndrome
of a cholecystoenteric fistula is suspected from radiographic Mirizzis syndrome is a rare complication in which a
evidence of pneumobilia and may be confirmed by barium stone embedded in the neck of the gallbladder or cystic
contrast studies of the upper or lower GI tract; often the duct extrinsically compresses the common hepatic duct, with
precise anatomic location of the fistula is not identified until resulting jaundice, bile duct obstruction, and in some cases a
surgery. fistula.302,303 Typically the gallbladder is contracted and con-
If the gallstone exceeds 25 mm in diameter, it may manifest tains stones. ERCP usually demonstrates the characteristic
(especially in older adult women) as a small intestinal obstruc- extrinsic compression of the common hepatic duct. Treatment
tion (gallstone ileus); the ileocecal area is the most common site is traditionally by an open cholecystectomy, although endo-
of obstruction.300 In such cases, a plain abdominal film may scopic stenting and laparoscopic cholecystectomy have been
show the pathognomonic features of pneumobilia, a dilated performed successfully. Preoperative diagnosis of Mirizzis
small bowel, and a large gallstone in the right lower quadrant. syndrome is important so that bile duct injury can be avoided
Unfortunately, the diagnosis of a gallstone ileus is often (see Chapter 66).304
Chapter 65 Gallstone Disease 1133