Linear algebra II

Homework 7

Diego Gomez
201318237

1. Class notes
1.1.
Let S be a basis of P a vector space V . Any vector v V can be represented as a linear combination of
elements of S: v = sS as (v)s. The elements as can beP considered as functions that take an element
in V and map it into R, i.e., as V . Now, assume sS xs as = 0, where xs R. This linear
combination is the

map 0, so any element v maps to 0, in particular, the elements v = s , where s S.

P P
So, sS xs as (s ) = sS xs as (s ) = xs = 0, which is true for any element in S. Thus, all the

coefficients in the linear combination are 0, and so the set {as } is linearly independent.

1.2.
Let A, B and C be vector spaces, f, g L(A, B; C) bi-linear maps and x, y, , F , the field over
which are defined the vector spaces. Consider now a linear combination of these two maps, applied to
a linear combination of elements (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ) A B. First, take a1 = a2 = a , where a A is a
constant vector: (f + g)(x(a1 , b1 ) + y(a2 , b2 )) = (f + g)((x + y)a , xb1 + yb2 ) = f ((x + y)a , xb1 +
yb2 ) + g((x + y)a , xb1 + yb2 ) = xf ((x + y)a , b1 ) + yf ((x + y)a , b2 ) + xg((x + y)a , b1 ) + yg((x +
y)a , b2 ) = x((f +g)((x+y)a , b1 ))+y((f +g)((x+y)a , b2 )). Then, any linear combination of maps
f (a, ), g(a, ) C B is a linear map. Now, in the same fashion, take b1 = b2 = b a constant vector. By
exactly the same process, only maintaining constant b instead of a, it is clear that any linear combination
of maps f ( , b), g( , b) C A is a linear map: (f + g)(x(a1 , b1 ) + y(a2 , b2 )) = (f + g)(xa1 + ya2 , (x +
y)b ) = f (xa1 + ya2 , (x + y)b ) + g(xa1 + ya2 , (x + y)b ) = xf (a1 , (x + y)b ) + yf (a2 , (x + y)b ) +
xg(a1 , (x + y)b ) + yg(a2 , (x + y)b ) = x((f + g)(a1 , (x + y)b )) + y((f + g)(a2 , (x + y)b )). Thus,
any linear combination of maps f, g is also bi-linear, and so L(A, B; C) is closed under addition and scalar
multiplication, which in turn implies L(A, B; C) is a subspace of C AB .

1.3.
Let A, B and C be vector spaces, : A B C a bi-linear map and x, y F .
(1) Suppose f : C D is a linear map. Now, valuate the composition f in a pair of elements
(a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ) A B, holding a1 = a2 = a constant and varying bs: (f )(x(a1 , b1 ) + y(a2 , b2 )) =
f ()((x+y)a, xb1 +yb2 ) = f (x((x+y)a, b1 )+y((x+y)a, b2 )) = xf (((x+y)a, b1 ))+yf (((x+y)a, b2 )) =
x(f )((x + y)a, b1 )) + y(f )((x + y)a, b2 )). Repeat the process holding b1 = b2 = b constant:
(f )(x(a1 , b1 ) + y(a2 , b2 )) = f ()(xa1 + ya2 , (x + y)b) = f (x(a1 , (x + y)b) + y(a2 , (x + y)b)) =
xf ((a1 , (x + y)b)) + yf ((a2 , (x + y)b)) = x(f )(a1 , (x + y)b)) + y(f )(a2 , (x + y)b)). Then, the
composition f is bi-linear.

1
(2) Suppose f : V A and g : W B are linear maps and (v1 , w1 ), (v2 , w2 ) V W . In a
very similar process than (1), one gets first holding v constant: ( (f g))(x(v1 , w1 ) + y(v2 , w2 )) =
((f g)((x + y)v, xw1 + yw2 )) = (f ((x + y)v), g(xw1 + yw2 )) = (f ((x + y)v), xg(w1 ) + yg(w2 )) =
x(f ((x + y)v), g(w1 )) + y(f ((x + y)v), g(w2 )) = x((f g)((x + y)v, w1 )) + y((f g)((x + y)v, w2 )) =
x(( (f g))((x + y)v, w1 )) + y(( (f g))((x + y)v, w2 )). Due to f being linear as well as g and
being linear for any of the coordinates (individually), it should be clear that one obtains the same result
by holding constant w, and so it can be concluded that (f g) is a bi-linear map.

1.4.
Let A, B and C be vector spaces, i : A B C a bi-linear map, (a, b) A B, i (a, ) Hom(B, C)
the map that results after fixing a constant in i , i = {1, 2}, x, y F , the field over which are defined
the vector spaces, and : L(A, B; C) Hom(A, Hom(B, C)) a map. Evaluate in a linear combination
of s that satisfies the usual definition of addition and scalar multiplication of maps:

((x1 + y2 )(a))(b) = ((x1 + y2 )(a, ))(b) = (x1 + y2 )(a, b)

= x1 (a, b) + y2 (a, b) = x(1 (a, ))(b) + y(2 (a, ))(b) = x((1 )(a))(b) + y((2 )(a))(b)
= (x(1 )(a) + y(2 )(a))(b) = ((x(1 ) + y(2 ))(a))(b)
Thus satisfies additivity and homogeneity, and so it is a linear map. Now, it is pretty straightforward
to prove injectivity of . Suppose i Hom(A Hom(B C)), (i ) = i and 1 = 2 .So,
1 (a) = 2 (a), which by definition of is the same as 1 (a, ) = 2 (a, ), which in turn is equivalent to
1 (a, b) = 2 (a, b). Because this is true for any (a, b), it follows that 1 = 2 , as desired. Now, choose
any map Hom(A Hom(B C)). By definition, this map can be evaluated on some a; the result
is some map from B to C, which also can be evaluated in some b. So, it can be defined a function
: A B C such that (a, b) = ((a))(b). Evaluate this on some linear combination of (ai , bi ), first
holding ai constant and then bi :

(x(a1 , b1 ) + y(a2 , b2 )) = ((x + y)a, xb1 + yb2 ) = (((x + y)a))(xb1 + yb2 )

= x(((x + y)a))(b1 ) + y(((x + y)a))(b2 ) = x((x + y)a, b1 ) + y((x + y)a, b2 ), qed.

(x(a1 , b1 ) + y(a2 , b2 )) = (xa1 + ya2 , (x + y)b) = ((xa1 + ya2 ))((x + y)b)

= (x(a1 ) + y(a2 ))((x + y)b) = x((a1 ))((x + y)b) + y(((x + y)a))((x + y)b)
= x(a1 , (x + y)b) + y(a2 , (x + y)b), qed.
So, from any can be defined a bi-linear function . If one takes = , is clear that is the image
of after . Clearly, this implies that is surjective, and so is an isomorphism. The inverse of
this map simply maps to . So, define it like 1 : Hom(A, Hom(B, C)) L(A, B; C) such that
1 () = ((a))(b).

2. Duality
2.1.
g f
(1) Let f, g be linear maps such that U V W , u U and W . Evaluate the dual of

the composition of f and g in : ((f g) ())(u) = ( (f g))(u) = ((f g))(u)) = (f (g(u))) =
(f (g(u)) = (f )g)(u) = (g (f ))(u) = (g (f ()))(u) = ((g f )())(u). So, (f g) = g f .

2
(2) Let V be a vector space, v V and V . Evaluate the dual of the identity in : (Id
V ())(v) =
( IdV )(u) = (IdV (v)) = (v) = (IdV ())(v). So, Id
V = IdV .

(3) Let f : V W be an isomorphism, 1 , 2 V and 1 , 2 W . Suppose now that f (1 ) = 1 ,

f (2 ) = 2 and 1 = 2 . Then, 1 f = 2 f . Evaluate this result on some vector v V :
(1 f )(v) = (2 f )(v) 1 (f (v)) = 2 (f (v)). Because this is true for any v, 1 = 2 and so f is
injective. Now, suppose (f 1 ) () = , where W . The existence of the map (f 1 ) is guaranteed

by f being an isomorphism.
 So, taking into
 account  results in (1) and (2): = IdV () = IdV () =
the
1


1 1


(f f ) () = f f () = f f () = f (). Then any V can be written as
the image of some W applying the map f , i.e., f is surjective and so it is also an isomorphism.
1 1
Furthermore, apply the inverse of f in the last result: (f ) () = (f ) (f ()) = = (f 1 ) ().
1 1
So, (f ) = (f ) .

2.2.

Let f : V W , W , (1)V : V (V ) , (1)W : W (W ) , v V and w W , where
(1)V (v) = ( )(v) and (1)W (w) = ( )(w), the maps that hold constant v or w and evaluate this vector on

some map ( ) in the
dual
space. So, take the composition of (f ) after (1)V and evaluate in some pair

v, : (f ) (1)V (v) () = (f ) (( )(v)) () = (( )(v) f ) () = ( )(v) (f ()) = (f ()) (v) =

( f )(v) = (f (v)) = ( )(f (v))() = ((1)W (f (v)))() = (((1)W f )(v))(). Thus it can be concluded

that (f ) (1)V = (1)W f , and so the diagram commutes.

2.3.
Let V be a vector space, S V and T V , such that for any v S there exists a T such that
(v) 6= 0 and |S\{v} . Also, let = {1, 2, ...} be a set of indexes, so that the conditions on can be
re-written as: i, j , i = j i (vj ) = n 6= 0 : n R i 6= j Pi (vj ) = 0. By the same token that
the prove in 1.1., take a null linear combination of elements in S:
i xi vi = 0. Now, apply the linear
P P
map (linear by definition) j to this null combination: j i xi vi = i xi j (vi ) = xj n = 0. This
implies that xj is 0, because n 6= 0. This is true for any j , so all the xs are 0 and so S is linearly
independent.

2.4.
Let W be a subspace of the vector space V and ann(W ) := { V ||W = 0}.
(1) Let x, y F , the field over which is defined V , and 1 , 2 ann(W ). Evaluate the linear combination
of such s in some w W , taking into account they are linear maps by definition of V : (x1 +y2 )(w) =
x1 (w) + y2 (w) = x0 + y0 = 0. So ann(W ) is closed under addition and scalar multiplication, which
implies it is a subspace of V .
(2) Let dim V = n < , dim W = m and xi F (1 i n). It follows that there is a basis {vi } of V ,
that can be organized in such a way that the first m elements form a basis of W . This basis of vectors
in V has a dual basis of maps {vj } in V , such that vj (vi ) = 0 if j 6= i or vj (vi ) = 1 if j = i (similar
Pn
definition than in 2.3.). Thus, any map in ann(W ) can be written as a linear combination j=1 xj vj .
However, if xj 6= 0 for any 1 j m, this will cause the evaluation of in vj to be different to zero
(precisely xj ) and so is not really
Pn an element of ann(W ). Then the representation of is actually a
linear combination of the form j=m+1 xj vj , which implies the last n m vectors in the dual basis form
a basis of ann(W ) (they are independent because they already compose a basis, and they span ann(W ),
because all of them result in 0 after the evaluation in some vi ). Thus dim ann(W ) = n m.

3
2.5.
Let W be a subspace of a vector space V , q(v) = v + W the canonical map from V to V /W and
ann(W ). As was shown in Homework 5, the identity in V /W is the element 0 + W , so any
linear function from this space to R will map 0 + W to 0. Another result from the definition of q is
that if v W , then q(v) = v + W = 0 + W . So, the composition q is a map from V to R that
maps W to 0, i.e., q = q () ann(W ). Despite may be defined in multiple ways, there is one
particular useful definition for this case: (v + A) = (v). The definition is allowed because any v in W
will be mapped to 0. So, q () = defines a surjective and injective map by construction (injectivity:
1 = 2 1 (v) = 2 (v) 1 (v + A) = 2 (v + A) 1 = 2 , surjectivity: any is image of some
by q). Thus, the defined q establishes an isomorphism (V /W ) = ann(W ).

2.6.
Let f : V W be a linear map of rank r. This map defines a subspace I in W such that I = Im f .
Because f may not be injective, the existence of a unique inverse function cannot be guaranteed. However,
it can be defined a vector space V 0 whose basis is the same that the basis of V , but eliminating those
vectors that do not belong to the kernel of f and that maps to linear combinations of the images of the
other vector in the original basis, i.e., V 0 is selected in such a way