CHAPTER I RELATED LITERATURE

TEENAGE PREGNANCY

Related Literature LOCAL

Teenage pregnancy is not like any other issue there in the whole world although
it seems to be a common concern, it does not seem to bother people that much. Not
until they are personally affected by the issue or until they finally realized that it had
been increasing in number of affected people that it slowly reached an abnormal stage
or the point that it affected too many lives already and too many aspects of living.
Teenage pregnancy is mostly unplanned, and as a result, people react to the
experience differently. The teenager has to come to terms with the unexpected
demands of being an adult, and in some cases, she may also have to deal with
disapproval and dissatisfaction shown by significant others like parents and relatives
(Clemens, 2002).According to Macleod and Durrheim (2003), teenage pregnancy as a
social problem that leads to the disruption of schooling; poor obstetric outcomes,
inadequate mothering; poor child outcomes; relationship difficulties with relatives,
partners and peers; and demographic concerns about increasing population numbers.
In major cases, teenage mothers are not in a position to go back to school after delivery
as they are forced to look after their children. In some cases, these young mothers
physical health conditions do not make it conducive for them to go back to school. While
some young women may be prevented from going back to school as a result of these
factors, De Jang (2001) found that there are some cases of teenagers who may use
their pregnant status to deliberately escape the demands of high school education.
Depression is one of the problems that results to teenage pregnancy of the women.
According to the psychodynamic theory, depression is presented as a disorder that can
be linked to real or imagined object loss (Gee and Rhodes 2003).
According to Cebu Normal University, Cebu City, Philippines GIDDENS
(2001:23), cultural factors refer to culture as the way of life of the members of a society,
or of groups within a society. It includes how people dress, their marriage customs and
family life, their patterns of work, religious ceremonies and leisure pursuits. Socialization
is also a factor. He defines socialization as the process by which humans learn the
culture of their society and become adult members of that society in which they live.
Socialization teaches humans to live in society and what is regarded as appropriate
behaviour in different situations (Giddens 2001:26). Cultural norms and values could be
the detriment of teenage mothers empowerment and could contribute to greater
confusion in teenagers minds (Dlamini 2002: 45). A study of Ehlers (2003), found that
the female adolescents who were poor students with low educational aspirations were
more likely to become teenage mothers than were their high-achieving peers. On the
other hand, he also stated some of the causes of teenage pregnancy such as lack of
parental guidance, adolescent sexual behaviour, inadequate knowledge about safe
sex, exploitation by older men and socio-economic factors. Lack of parental guidance:
Most people evade their children from talking about sex. In some cases, they provide
false information regarding sex and discourage their children to participate in any
informative discussion about sex. Adolescent sexual behaviour: Among the
adolescents, peer pressure is a major factor that encourages the teenage boys and girls
to indulge in sexual activities. Early dating, as early as 12 years of age, is another factor
that contributes to teen pregnancy. Inadequate knowledge about safe sex: Most
adolescents are unaware of safe sex. They probably have no access to the traditional
methods of preventing pregnancy. And the main reason behind is that they are either
too embarrassed or fear to seek information about it. Exploitation by older men: This is
another major factor that contributes to pregnancy among the teenagers. Those girls
who date older men are more likely to become pregnant before they attain womanhood.
Rape, sexual exploitation also takes place that leads to unwanted pregnancy among
teenage girls. Socio-economic factors: Teenage girls who belong to the poor families
are more likely to become pregnant. According to Quinlivan et al., (2003: 203), lack of
educational achievement is a risk factor not only because of limited career and
educational opportunities but also because of its correlation with a lack of motivation
and ambition Young people uncertain of a purpose in life or a career objective identify
parenting as a future role (Quinlivan 2004: 202). According to Williams (2005:75)
adolescents generally encounter more problems during pregnancy and child birth than
older women. The long- term effects of pregnancies are far reaching and teenage
mothers face difficulties such as dropping out of school. The problems encountered may
be physical, psychological, social, academic and emotional. Dlamini (2002:178) stated
in his study the problems that might affect the pregnant adolescents psychologically,
emotionally and also the social relations with the people around them, including the
support from individuals. And also there are some challenges that they encountered
such as: the father of the child were not willing to support or even denied for being a
father and non acceptance of pregnancy by the adolescents parents. Adolescent
pregnancy and child birth impose difficult long-term outcomes and have adverse effects
not only on the young mother, but also on her child (Hao & Cherlin, 2004; Meade
&Ickovics, 2005). A study of Darisi (2007) stated that a negative perspective on teen
pregnancy leads to a negative view of pregnant teens. The young woman who becomes
pregnant sets in motion a series of events that ultimately leads to the disaster of a teen
birth. The pregnant teen becomes a statistic and assumptions are made about her
character, intelligence and maturity. Young mothers are often well-aware of these
assumptions. According to Ioannidi - Kapolou (2004) lack of accurate information on
sex education is one of the reasons for the increasing number of unwanted pregnancies
among teenagers. However, Watson (2003) stated that a strategy can be successful
only when a multi agency tasked group is formed with representatives that provide
services and work closely with children and young people.
AUTHOR: Angeline M. Pogoy ,Ed. D. Rustica Verzosa, Ed. D. Nerlie S. Coming,
Ronalissa G. Agustino Cebu Normal University, Cebu City, Philippines

Related Literature Foreign

The purpose of this section of the study is to provide a review of relevant

literature that focuses on questions related to teenage pregnancy. The Introduction to
this study offered an overview of the extent of the problem, its effects and outcomes,
and a conceptual framework in which it was asserted that peer pressure to begin sexual
activity coupled with low self-esteem may very well be instrumental in placing some
young girls at risk for pregnancy during adolescence (Santor, Messervey, &
Kusmakar, 2000).

Presented below will be a discussion of first, the extent of teen pregnancy in

the United States and secondly, a description of some of the outcomes, effects, and
impacts of teenage pregnancy and childbirth on teenagers and their offspring. The
review will conclude with a description of some of the interventions that have been
developed to reduce what has been characterized as a major public health problem in
the United States (Sawhill, 2006).

The Guttmacher Institute (2006), a New York City based research

organization, reported on the incidence of teenage pregnancy in the United States.
Each year almost 750,000 females between the ages of 15 and 19 become pregnant.
The teenage pregnancy rate in this country is at its lowest level in 30 years, down 36
percent since its peak in 1990. At the same time, the problem continues to be significant
and to represent a major challenge to educators, health care providers, and social
service support systems.

The good news, according to the Guttmacher Institute (2006), is that the
teenage birth rate in 2002 was 30 percent lower than the peak rate of 61.8 births per
1,000 women which was reached in 1991. Between 1988 and 2000, teenage pregnancy
rates declined in every state and in the District of Columbia. The Guttmacher Institute
(2006) also reported that among black women aged 15 to 19, the pregnancy rate fell by
40 percent between 1990 and 2002, while declining by 34 percent among white
teenagers in the same time period. Among Hispanic teenagers, who may be of any
race, the pregnancy rate increased slightly from 1991 to 1992 but by 2002 was 19
percent lower than the 1990 rate.

Generally, states with the largest numbers of teenagers tend to have the
greatest number of teenage pregnancies. The Guttmacher Institute (2006) identified
the following states as having the highest number of adolescent pregnancies: California,
Texas, New York, Florida, and Illinois. The smallest numbers of teenage pregnancies
occurred in Vermont, North Dakota, Wyoming, South Dakota, and Alaska each of which
reported fewer than 2,000 pregnancies among those between the ages of 15 and 19.

These data are promising and do tend to suggest that there is reason to believe
that teen pregnancies are declining. Nevertheless, health care professionals, educators,
and social workers make note of the fact that 700,000 to 800,000 births to adolescents
each year is a highly undesirable phenomenon. Naomi Bar-Yam (2000) pointed out
that teenagers have been having babies since the beginning of time and this is still a
norm in much of the world. In the United States, teenage motherhood has been
identified as an epidemic and a problem worthy of debate, research, and policy
initiatives. In the United States, Bar-Yam (2000) noted that teenage childbearing
disproportionately affects poor, black, and rural girls than their middle class urban
counterparts because, in part, middle class teens become pregnant are more likely to
terminate their pregnancies. Because this is the case, Bar-Yam (2000) suggests that it
is difficult to know the actual extent of teen pregnancies in the U.S. or to determine
whether or not there is any meaningful correlation between such variables as race,
ethnicity, and socioeconomic status and the decision to continue or terminate a
pregnancy.

http://www.cyberessays.com/lists/review-of-related-literature-of-early-teenage-
pregnancy/

CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE

This risk factors mapping exercise forms part of the larger teenage pregnancy
needs assessment for Lancashire. The needs assessment was suggested as a priority
area of work for the Intelligence for Healthy Lancashire (IHL) group in 2010. The Joint
Strategic Needs Assessment team established a project group and led on the project
following agreement with the IHL leadership group, which is composed of the three
Lancashire Directors of Public Health and the Lancashire Directors of Adult and
Children's Social Care. Although the Lancashire JSNA is provided for the County
footprint, in line with the upper tier authority, the needs assessment was conducted in
partnership with Blackburn with Darwen and Blackpool due to the efficiencies involved
in completing the analysis. Risk factors for teenage pregnancy are well recognised and
provide a compelling case for targeted action on young people who are exposed to
these risks. Young people experiencing risk factors for teenage pregnancy are highly
concentrated within particular areas and among vulnerable groups. To target effectively
those most at risk requires both a geographical focus on high rate neighbourhoods and
the identification of vulnerable groups at high risk of teenage pregnancy.1This report
includes district maps highlighting the prevalence of a number of risk factors that
strongly correlate with teenage conceptions rates. These maps should enable the
targeting of upstream interventions to prevent teenage pregnancy, but also to position
sexual health services to prevent the rise of teenage conceptions in areas where they
are currently not high. The maps are given here just to provide an up-to-date picture of
the risk factors we identified in the main teenage pregnancy report and as such,
teenage conceptions hotspots have been omitted.

The risk factors for teenage pregnancy at an individual and population level are
well known nationally. To understand the relevance in Lancashire, a simple exercise
was conducted to correlate teenage conception rates against a number of other sets of
data. The results are provided on page 4 of this report. The Pearson's correlation
coefficient measures the degree of association between two variables. The value can
range between zero and one and can be either positive or negative. The closer the
value is to one, the greater the degree of association. A negative value indicates a
negative relationship with teenage conceptions in that as the variable increases,
teenage conceptions reduce. A positive value indicates that both the variable and
teenage conception rates move together.

BARRIER ONE: THE "AT RISK" CONCEPT

The "at risk" concept is so deeply embedded in the professional discourse of policy
makers that to subject it to critique is not without risks of its own. Statistical models
provide the standard form of analysis and explanation for the purposes of policy making
and state management and a kind of shorthand has emerged in which behaviour is
typically explained by "risk factors". This model, however, has its limitations. As an
explanation of a social practice, to say that those who adopt it do so because they are
the kind of people who probably will do so, does not explain why recognisable forms of
social practice have emerged, or why particular individuals (rather than others with
similar "risk" characteristics) should adopt them, or why their proportion might be 10%
or 20% rather than some other figure. The related notion, that all students from a
particular group, identified, for example, by its social or ethnic origin, are each equally
"carriers" of a specified weight of disadvantage, a virtual handicap, is a further common
error.

Quantitative methodologies can, of course, provide essential information about sources

of variance in the behaviour of students and, through multivariate analysis, can offer an
investigator at least a shrewd idea of the various social processes through which it has
been generated. It remains true, however, that the interpretation of statistical patterns
without any direct knowledge of the social processes by which they were created lacks
the evidence necessary to a complete explanation. Although it is not always easy to
identify the social processes responsible for specific system effects, an integrated,
realist approach is more likely to reveal what is happening than research legitimated as
"quantitative", or even "evidence-based", where that concept excludes integral
contextual investigations of social process. The taken-for-granted theory of
measurement in social science, which gives support to operationalism and nominalism,
is fundamentally anti-realist. The theory of statistical explanation associated with it is
equally inconsistent with a realist concept of explanation. These are serious issues for
the practice of a social science that attempts to provide evidence of the linkages
between the stratified entities of the social world, and directly affects the substantive
problem under discussion.
 BARRIER TWO: REDUCTION TO THE "TRUE EFFECT"

The second barrier to an integrated approach to social research is posed by a

variant of reductionism with a strong following among economists. I would argue that a
complete explanation of social processes would include an account of social structures,
individual dispositions, and practices. Social explanations are thus multi-layered, and in
their attempt to reflect the complexity of the world typically construct narratives that
integrate rather than disintegrate. In sociology the struggle to explain the complexity of
the real world generates complex multivariate models, but in contemporary economics
there is an influential tendency to search for "true effects" with overly simplified models.
A literature review of research into family and community effects, commissioned by the
Ministry of Education (Nechyba et al. 2000), is almost exclusively concerned with
studies conducted within this paradigm. The review is particularly influenced by Mayer
(1997) who is engaged in a search for the "true effect" of income, which she defines as
"the effect controlling all parental characteristics, both observed and unobserved, that
influence the parents' income and the children's outcomes" (Mayer 1997: 8). Mayer
points out that "the fact that poor children fare worse than rich children does not suffice
to prove that low parental income per se hurts children", and notes that children with
certain attributes "do well even when their parents do not have much money"

The lessons for critical social theory point directly at the need for closer
attention to the study of lived cultures and actual social practices in our fragmented
national community. The resource "gaps" of recent political discourse are caused by
relations of social class and ethnic domination, but the precise nature of the connections
between these structures, the dispositions associated with them, and the multitude of
practices generated, cannot be taken for granted. On the contrary, the real implications
of the post-modern insight that discourses, as narratives of practice, are not determined
should be thrust home. We live in a society in which the adoption of social practices by
individuals is increasingly likely to be de-coupled from their socio-economic and even
ethnic location, but that must not be allowed to encourage the view that such practices,
in themselves, do not have their origin in structural conditions. Economic models based
on rational action are particularly likely to fail when confronted with the reality of
behaviors that stems from habituated frames of mind acquired through socialization into
practices with a high degree of cultural integrity.

BARRIER THREE: THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE

A third barrier to studies of how people live in contemporary society can be

recognised in the influential definition of culture as practices deemed authentic in the
customary repertoire of an ethnic community. In Bunge's scientific realism the cultural
system includes all those social practices that involve the production and dissemination
of information of all kinds. The sphere of culture embraces religion, education, the arts,
the media and all related activities. A culture is thus conceptualised as a concrete
system brought into being as people engage in activities of an appropriate kind. This
materialist concept differs fundamentally from idealist concepts of culture as a set of
ideas or "meanings". This analysis makes it possible to distinguish between two
questions: (i) how do social groups create practices of a certain kind, and (ii) how are
they acquired by individuals? The first question requires an historical and functional
account in which social groups devise specific practices as they attempt to meet the
central needs of survival and reproduction. The second question must be answered with
a theory of socialisation that describes how a society's members acquire the habitual
routines that ensure its continued functioning.

These three modes of the determination of cultural dispositions and practices are
not necessarily in opposition, but nor are they always compatible, and analyses based
on one or another often lead to quite different social movements. They certainly require
different modes of investigation and analysis. It is relatively easy to specify a practice as
one characteristic of a group by observing whether it is common or not; whether a
practice is traditional to a group must be established by historical inquiry and rests
ultimately on legitimate authority; and to demonstrate the relationships between
structural conditions and the emergence of practices in response to them requires
rigorous sociological and anthropological analysis.

Thinking within this three-model framework is useful when dealing with the
multitude of problems that arise when the common practices of a defined group are not
traditional to that group (hence, "inauthentic"), seem to be generated by an actual
principle with a different character (such as "assimilation"), and perhaps stand in
contradiction to a theoretical principle derived from other defining criteria (such as
"autonomy"). In this area, indeed, conceptual clarity - or the lack of it - may have directly
practical consequences. It threatens, at the very least, to inhibit the study of lived
cultures by denying their conceptual validity. Indeed, the crucial question of who defines
teenage pregnancy as a social problem, cannot fully be answered if the voice of those
to whom it may well seem not a problem but a solution, is silenced by the failure to
acknowledge lived cultures in all their real complexity.
 CHAPTER IV QUESTIONNAIRE

11 Questions with a Teen Pregnancy

Right now the United States has the highest teen pregnancy rate in the industrialized
world - three times higher, in fact.

DoSomething.org asked Jessica Sheets, Senior Manager, Communications at The

National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, for advice on what a
young person could be doing to prevent being called "mommy" or "daddy" before
graduation.

1. Is it true that more teens are having babies each year?

After going down for more than a decade, the rates seem to be stalling out. Maybe
people had gotten a little complacent and started focusing on other issues, but with the
recent increases people are paying attention again.

2. What can teens do to spread awareness?

The best thing anyone can do [is] to talk about teen pregnancy. Teen pregnancy is
100% preventable. You never have to have another pregnant teen if they know how to
protect themselves from pregnancy either by waiting or by using contraception correctly
every single time they have sex.

3. What are benefits of a comprehensive sex education program?

Whenever you set up a curriculum talking to teenagers about how to prevent

pregnancies, you are getting the conversation going which is the first step to making
sure that kids know what theyre doing.

4. Why are there so many unplanned pregnancies among teens in this country?

Teenagers are having sex and theyre not using contraception. Thats the bottom line. If
youre going to have sex, you have to protect yourself.

5. How important is it to use contraception?

Couples who have sex regularly for a whole year without using contraception have an
85% chance of getting pregnant. Thats a really high number.

6. How does the rate of teen pregnancy in this country compare to that in other
countries?

We have the highest teen pregnancy rate in the industrialize world. Our numbers are far
higher than in places like Canada, or England, or anywhere in Europe.
7. Whats the consequence of having so many teen pregnancies in this country?

Teen pregnancy is something that affects a ton of other social issues. For example, the
children of teen parents are more likely to become teen parents themselves. Sons of
teen mothers are more likely to become incarcerated. Teen parents are less likely to
finish high school which means they are less likely to earn a high-paying wage later in
life. They are less likely to go to college and less likely to have a two-parent family.

8. What are the prospects for a teen mother for finding a job or financial security?

The majority of women who drop out of high school do so because theyve had a
baby. Its incredibly difficult to go to school when you have a kid at home. Its incredibly
difficult to finish your homework when youve got a crying baby on your lap. A lot of
these women work very, very hard and become successful but a majority of these
women have an extraordinarily difficult road ahead.

9. How much is sex part of a young persons life these days?

We know that teenagers are having sex and we know that a lot of the teens who had
sex wish that they had waited. So while sex is definitely a part of the lives of teenagers I
also think its something that they wish they had waited to have, not necessarily until
they were married but until they were in a more committed relationship, until they knew
their partner had been tested, etc.

10. Does your org advocate abstinence or birth control?

We like to advocate both. We would like to say that teens should delay sex until theyre
ready, and the decision is theirs, but when they do decide to have sex, they must know
what theyre doing.

11. What are some of the ways that teens deal with newfound parenthood?

A lot of them think its going to be easier than it is. Then they find out that its extremely
difficult to start a family, particularly when youre not ready, when youre still living at
home, when youre not married to your partner, etc. If youre doing it all on your own,
youve got a really tough road ahead.

https://www.dosomething.org/tipsandtools/11-questions-teen-pregnancy-expert

Hypothesis Teenagers Pregnancy Health

Nowadays we have serious problems about the teenagers pregnancy and the abortion.
People do not take serious about having sex before marriage. It is now became a way
to developing relationship each other. Teenagers pregnancy is not that serious
problem. The abortion is most an important matter in this situation. The abortion is a
murder. It is killing their baby. I want to talk about the pregnancy and the abortion in the
world.

Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by the removal or expulsion from the uterus
of a fetus or embryo. Its means that fetus is killed. Abortion gives harmful facts to
humans body. If someone wants to do abortion because of their fine life, they killed
their baby and themselves. Abortion has various methods. The baby removes for the
use of sharpened tools, physical trauma, and other traditional methods. It also has a
history for the methods. Many countries have a various way to doing an abortion. In
many parts of the world there is prominent and divisive public controversy over the
ethical and legal issues of abortion.

There are many types of abortion methods. This graph is showing us about the way to
remove fetus in various time. The contraception also has a time slots. The medicine
called Nolevo is most powerful method for non-surgical. If women take this medicine
after having sex, the chemicals from medicine kill sperm and prevent adapting between
sperm and ovum. But that is only possible in 72hours. The time before 24hours is most
successful duration for the preventing. In the case of failure of medical abortion, vacuum
or manual aspiration is used to finalizing the surgical abortion.

Surgical method is the most safety way to remove the fetus. They do not put anything
on to the uterus. They suctioning in to the uterus and cut off the baby. The baby thrown
out from the womb is killed or forced to dead. This is a picture of the baby came out
from the womb. This baby cannot see the world and cannot breath and does not have
name. it just killed by their parents.

In the first 12 weeks, suction-aspiration or vacuum abortion is the most common method
for the abortion. Manual Vacuum aspiration (MVA) abortion consists of removing the
fetus or embryo. Sooner abortion gives reliable result. Manual Vacuum Aspiration also
known as mini-suction and menstrual extraction can be used in early pregnancy.
From the 15th week until 26th, Dilation and Evacuation is used. It consists of opening
the cervix of the uterus and emptying it using surgical instruments and suction. Dilation
and curettage is the second most common method of abortion. It examines of the
uterine lining for the possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding and
abortion. Curettage is cleaning the walls of the uterus with a curette. The World Health
Organization recommends this procedure (also called sharp curettage) only when
Manual Vacuum Aspiration is not available.

There are some other techniques of abortion in the second trimester. Premature
delivery can be induced with prostaglandin. This can be coupled with injecting the
amniotic fluid with hypertonic solutions containing saline or urea. After the 16th week of
gestation abortions can be induced by intact dilation and extraction which requires
surgical decompression of the fetus' head before evacuation. A hysterectomy abortion is
a procedure similar to a caesarean section. It is performed under general anesthesia. It
requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and is used during later stages of
PREGNANCY.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Abortionmethods.png/350px
-Abortionmethods.png
GOPEZ, MARRION P. SCORE:

BBAO1C 10 13 2014

SOCIOLOGY
TEENAGE PREGNANCY