Advanced Foundation Engineering JNTUH Notes

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LECTURE NOTES
ON
ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(A70134)
IV B. Tech I semester (JNTUH-R13)
CIVIL ENGINEERING
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UNIT - I
BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL
Definitions
Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces

from the superstructure without undergoing shear failure or excessive
settlement. Foundation soil is that portion of ground which is subjected
to additional stresses when foundation and superstructure are
constructed on the ground. The following are a few important
terminologies related to bearing capacity of soil.
Super Structure
Ground Level
Foundation
Foundation Soil
Fig. 7.1 : Main components of a structure including soil
Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qf) : It is the maximum pressure that a

foundation soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure.
Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qn) : It is the maximum extra

pressure (in addition to initial overburden pressure) that a foundation
soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure.

qn = qf - qo
Here, qo represents the overburden pressure at foundation level and is
equal to D for level ground without surcharge where is the unit
weight of soil and D is the depth to foundation bottom from Ground
Level.
Safe Bearing Capacity (qs) : It is the safe extra load the foundation
soil is subjected to in addition to initial overburden pressure.
qn
qs qo
F
Here. F represents the factor of safety.
Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa) : It is the maximum pressure the

foundation soil is subjected to considering both shear failure and
settlement.
Foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with

soil. Foundation transfers the forces and moments from the super
structure to the soil below such that the stresses in soil are within
permissible limits and it provides stability against sliding and
overturning to the super structure. It is a transition between the super
structure and foundation soil. The job of a geotechnical engineer is to
ensure that both foundation and soil below are safe against failure and
do not experience excessive settlement. Footing and foundation are
synonymous.
Modes of shear failure

Depending on the stiffness of foundation soil and depth of foundation,
the following are the modes of shear failure experienced by the
foundation soil.
1. General shear failure (Ref Fig. 7.1a)
2. Local shear failure (Ref Fig. 7.1b)
3. Punching shear failure (Ref Fig. 7.1c)
Shear failure in foundation soil P curve in different foundation

soils
Fig. 7. 1 : Footing on ground that experiences a) General shear failure, b) Local
shear failure and c) Punching shear failure
General Shear Failure

This type of failure is seen in dense and stiff soil. The following are
some characteristics of general shear failure.
1. Continuous, well defined and distinct failure surface develops
between the edge of footing and ground surface.
2. Dense or stiff soil that undergoes low compressibility experiences
this failure.
3. Continuous bulging of shear mass adjacent to footing is visible.
4. Failure is accompanied by tilting of footing.
5. Failure is sudden and catastrophic with pronounced peak in P
curve.
6. The length of disturbance beyond the edge of footing is large.
7. State of plastic equilibrium is reached initially at the footing edge

and spreads gradually downwards and outwards.
8. General shear failure is accompanied by low strain (<5%) in a soil
with considerable (>36o) and large N (N > 30) having high
relative density (ID > 70%).
Local Shear Failure

This type of failure is seen in relatively loose and soft soil. The
following are some characteristics of general shear failure.
1. A significant compression of soil below the footing and partial
development of plastic equilibrium is observed.
2. Failure is not sudden and there is no tilting of footing.
3. Failure surface does not reach the ground surface and slight bulging
of soil around the footing is observed.
4. Failure surface is not well defined.
5. Failure is characterized by considerable settlement.
6. Well defined peak is absent in P curve.
7. Local shear failure is accompanied by large strain (> 10 to 20%) in
a soil with considerably low (<28o) and low N (N < 5) having
low relative density (ID > 20%).
Punching Shear Failure

This type of failure is seen in loose and soft soil and at deeper
elevations. The following are some characteristics of general shear
failure.
1. This type of failure occurs in a soil of very high compressibility.
2. Failure pattern is not observed.
3. Bulging of soil around the footing is absent.
4. Failure is characterized by very large settlement.
5. Continuous settlement with no increase in P is observed in P

curve.
Fig. presents the conditions for different failure modes in sandy soil
carrying circular footing based on the contributions from Vesic (1963
& 1973)
Fig. Modes of failure at different Relative densities & depths of

foundations
Distinction between General Shear & Local or Punching Shear

Failures
The basic distinctions between general shear failure and punching
shear failure are presented in Table
Table : Distinction between General Shear & Local Shear Failures

General Shear Failure Local/Punching Shear Failure
Occurs in dense/stiff soil Occurs in loose/soft soil
>36o, N>30, ID>70%, Cu>100 <28o, N<5, ID<20%, Cu<50 kPa
kPa
Results in small strain (<5%) Results in large strain (>20%)

Failure pattern well defined & clear Failure pattern not well defined
Well defined peak in P- curve No peak in P- curve
Bulging formed in the No Bulging observed in the
neighbourhood of footing at the neighbourhood of footing
surface
Extent of horizontal spread of Extent of horizontal spread of
disturbance at the surface large disturbance at the surface very
small
Observed in shallow foundations Observed in deep foundations
Failure is sudden & catastrophic Failure is gradual
Less settlement, but tilting failure Considerable settlement of
observed footing observed
Terzaghis bearing Capacity Theory

Terzaghi (1943) was the first to propose a comprehensive theory for
evaluating the safe bearing capacity of shallow foundation with rough
base.
Assumptions
1. Soil is homogeneous and Isotropic.
2. The shear strength of soil is represented by Mohr Coulombs
Criteria.
3. The footing is of strip footing type with rough base. It is essentially
a two dimensional plane strain problem.
4. Elastic zone has straight boundaries inclined at an angle equal to
to the horizontal.
5. Failure zone is not extended above, beyond the base of the footing.
Shear resistance of soil above the base of footing is neglected.
6. Method of superposition is valid.

7. Passive pressure force has three components (PPC produced by
cohesion, PPq produced by surcharge and PP produced by weight of
shear zone).
8. Effect of water table is neglected.
9. Footing carries concentric and vertical loads.
10.Footing and ground are horizontal.
11.Limit equilibrium is reached simultaneously at all points. Complete
shear failure is mobilized at all points at the same time.
12.The properties of foundation soil do not change during the shear
failure
Limitations
1. The theory is applicable to shallow foundations
2. As the soil compresses, increases which is not considered. Hence
fully plastic zone may not develop at the assumed .
3. All points need not experience limit equilibrium condition at
different loads.
4. Method of superstition is not acceptable in plastic conditions as the
ground is near failure zone.
Fig. Terzaghis concept of Footing with five distinct failure zones in

foundation soil
Concept
A strip footing of width B gradually compresses the foundation soil
underneath due to the vertical load from superstructure. Let q f be the
final load at which the foundation soil experiences failure due to the
mobilization of plastic equilibrium. The foundation soil fails along the
composite failure surface and the region is divided in to five zones,
Zone 1 which is elastic, two numbers of Zone 2 which are the zones of
radial shear and two zones of Zone 3 which are the zones of linear
shear. Considering horizontal force equilibrium and incorporating
empirical relation, the equation for ultimate bearing capacity is
obtained as follows.
Ultimate bearing capacity, q f cN c DN q 0.5BN
If the ground is subjected to additional surcharge load q, then
q f cN c (D q) N q 0.5BN
Net ultimate bearing capacity, qn cN c DN q 0.5BN D
qn cN c D( N q 1) 0.5BN
Safe bearing capacity, qs cN c D( Nq 1) 0.5BN D

1
F
Here, F = Factor of safety (usually 3)
c = cohesion
= unit weight of soil
D = Depth of foundation
q = Surcharge at the ground level
B = Width of foundation
Nc, Nq, N = Bearing Capacity factors
Table: Bearing capacity factors for different

Nc Nq Ng N'c N'q N'g
0 5.7 1.0 0.0 5.7 1.0 0.0
5 7.3 1.6 0.5 6.7 1.4 0.2
10 9.6 2.7 1.2 8.0 1.9 0.5
15 12.9 4.4 2.5 9.7 2.7 0.9
20 17.7 7.4 5.0 11.8 3.9 1.7
25 25.1 12.7 9.7 14.8 5.6 3.2
30 37.2 22.5 19.7 19.0 8.3 5.7
34 52.6 36.5 35.0 23.7 11.7 9.0
35 57.8 41.4 42.4 25.2 12.6 10.1
40 95.7 81.3 100.4 34.9 20.5 18.8
45 172.3 173.3 297.5 51.2 35.1 37.7
48 258.3 287.9 780.1 66.8 50.5 60.4
50 347.6 415.1 1153.2 81.3 65.6 87.1
Fig. Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Factors for different
Effect of shape of Foundation
The shape of footing influences the bearing capacity. Terzaghi and

other contributors have suggested the correction to the bearing capacity
equation for shapes other than strip footing based on their experimental
findings. The following are the corrections for circular, square and
rectangular footings.
Circular footing
q f 1.3cN c DN q 0.3BN
Square footing
q f 1.3cN c DN q 0.4BN
Rectangular footing
B B
q f (1 0.3 )cN c DN q (1 0.2 )0.5BN
L L
Summary of Shape factors

Table gives the summary of shape factors suggested for strip,
square, circular and rectangular footings. B and L represent the width
and length respectively of rectangular footing such that B < L.
Table 7.3 : Shape factors for different shapes of footing

Shape sc sq s
Strip 1 1 1
Square 1.3 1 0.8
Round 1.3 1 0.6
B B
Rectangle (1 0.3 ) 1 (1 0.2 )
L L
Local shear failure

The equation for bearing capacity explained above is applicable for
soil experiencing general shear failure. If a soil is relatively loose and
soft, it fails in local shear failure. Such a failure is accounted in bearing
capacity equation by reducing the magnitudes of strength parameters c
and as follows.
2
tan 1 tan
3
2
c1 c
3
Table 3 summarizes the bearing capacity factors to be used under
different situations. If is less than 36o and more than 28o, it is not
sure whether the failure is of general or local shear type. In such
situations, linear interpolation can be made and the region is called
mixed zone.
Table Bearing capacity factors in zones of local, mixed and general

shear conditions.
Local Shear Failure Mixed Zone General Shear

Failure
< 28o 28o < < 36o > 36o
Nc1, Nq1, N1 Ncm, Nqm, Nm Nc, Nq, N
Effect of Water Table fluctuation

The basic theory of bearing capacity is derived by assuming the water
table to be at great depth below and not interfering with the foundation.
However, the presence of water table at foundation depth affects the
strength of soil. Further, the unit weight of soil to be considered in the
presence of water table is submerged density and not dry density.
Hence, the reduction coefficients RW1 and RW2 are used in second and
third terms of bearing capacity equation to consider the effects of water
table.
Influence of RW1
ZW1
D
0.5 < RW1 < 1
Influence of RW2
B ZW2
B
Fig. 7.5 : Effect of water table on bearing capacity
Ultimate bearing capacity with the effect of water table is given by,
q f cN c DN q Rw1 0.5BN Rw2
1 Z
Here, Rw1 1 w1
2 D
where ZW1 is the depth of water table from ground level.

1. 0.5<Rw1<1
2. When water table is at the ground level (Zw1 = 0), Rw1 = 0.5
3. When water table is at the base of foundation (Zw1 = D), Rw1 = 1
4. At any other intermediate level, Rw1 lies between 0.5 and 1
1 Z
Here, Rw2 1 w2
2 B
where ZW2 is the depth of water table from foundation level.
1. 0.5<Rw2<1
2. When water table is at the base of foundation (Zw2 = 0), Rw2 =
0.5
3. When water table is at a depth B and beyond from the base of
foundation (Zw2 >= B), Rw2 = 1
4. At any other intermediate level, Rw2 lies between 0.5 and 1
Effect of eccentric foundation base
DD DD
Resultant
of
superstructure e
pressure
Concentric Eccentric
Fig. 7.6 : Effect of eccentric footing on bearing capacity
The bearing capacity equation is developed with the idealization that

the load on the foundation is concentric. However, the forces on the
foundation may be eccentric or foundation may be subjected to
additional moment. In such situations, the width of foundation B shall
be considered as follows.
B1 B 2e
If the loads are eccentric in both the directions, then
B1 B 2eB & L1 L 2eL
Further, area of foundation to be considered for safe load carried by

foundation is not the actual area, but the effective area as follows.
A1 B1 XL1
In the calculation of bearing capacity, width to be considered is B 1
where B1 < L1. Hence the effect of provision of eccentric footing is to
reduce the bearing capacity and load carrying capacity of footing.
Factor of Safety
It is the factor of ignorance about the soil under consideration. It

depends on many factors such as,
1. Type of soil
2. Method of exploration
3. Level of Uncertainty in Soil Strength
4. Importance of structure and consequences of failure
5. Likelihood of design load occurrence, etc.
Assume a factor of safety F = 3, unless otherwise specified for bearing
capacity problems. Table 7.5 provides the details of factors of safety to
be used under different circumstances.
Table Typical factors of safety for bearing capacity calculation in

different situations
Density of soil : In geotechnical engineering, one deals with several

densities such as dry density, bulk density, saturated density and
submerged density. There will always be a doubt in the students mind
as to which density to use in a particular case. In case of Bearing
capacity problems, the following methodology may be adopted.
1. Always use dry density as it does not change with season and
it is always smaller than bulk or saturated density.
2. If only one density is specified in the problem, assume it as
dry density and use.
3. If the water table correction is to be applied, use saturated
density in stead of dry density. On portions above the water
table, use dry density.
4. If water table is some where in between, use equivalent
density as follows. In the case shown in Fig. 7a, eq should be
used for the second term and sat for the third term. In the
case shown in Fig. 7b, d should be used for second term and
eq for the third term..
1 D1 2 D2
eq
D1 D2
D1
D
D2
B B
(a) Water table above base (b)Water table below base

Fig. 7.7 : Evaluation of equivalent density
: Factors influencing Bearing Capacity

Bearing capacity of soil depends on many factors. The following are
some important ones.
1. Type of soil
2. Unit weight of soil
3. Surcharge load
4. Depth of foundation
5. Mode of failure
6. Size of footing
7. Shape of footing
8. Depth of water table
9. Eccentricity in footing load
10.Inclination of footing load
11.Inclination of ground
12.Inclination of base of foundation
Brinch Hansens Bearing Capacity equation

As mentioned in previous section, bearing capacity depends on many
factors and Terzaghis bearing capacity equation doers not take in to
consideration all the factors. Brinch Hansen and several other

researchers have provided a comprehensive equation for the
determination bearing capacity called Generalised Bearing Capacity
equation considering the almost all the factors mentioned above. The
equation for ultimate bearing capacity is as follows from the
comprehensive theory.
q f cN c sc d c i c qN q sq d q iq 0.5BN s d i
Here, the bearing capacity factors are given by the following

expressions which depend on .
N c ( N q 1) cot

N q (e tan ) tan 2 (45 )
2
N 1.5( N q 1) tan
Equations are available for shape factors (sc, sq, s), depth factors (dc,
dq, d) and load inclination factors (ic, iq, i). The effects of these factors
is to reduce the bearing capacity.
Determination of Bearing Capacity from field tests
Field Tests are performed in the field. You have understood the
advantages of field tests over laboratory tests for obtaining the desired
property of soil. The biggest advantages are that there is no need to
extract soil sample and the conditions during testing are identical to the
actual situation.
Major advantages of field tests are
Sampling not required
Soil disturbance minimum
Major disadvantages of field tests are
Labourious
Time consuming
Heavy equipment to be carried to field

Short duration behavior
Plate Load Test
Sand Bags
Platform for
loading
Dial Gauge
Testing Plate
Foundation Level
Foundation
Soil
Fig.: typical set up for Plate Load test assembly
1. It is a field test for the determination of bearing capacity and

settlement characteristics of ground in field at the foundation
level.
2. The test involves preparing a test pit up to the desired
foundation level.
3. A rigid steel plate, round or square in shape, 300 mm to 750 mm
in size, 25 mm thick acts as model footing.
4. Dial gauges, at least 2, of required accuracy (0.002 mm) are
placed on plate on plate at corners to measure the vertical
deflection.
5. Loading is provided either as gravity loading or as reaction
loading. For smaller loads gravity loading is acceptable where
sand bags apply the load.
6. In reaction loading, a reaction truss or beam is anchored to the

ground. A hydraulic jack applies the reaction load.
7. At every applied load, the plate settles gradually. The dial gauge
readings are recorded after the settlement reduces to least count
of gauge (0.002 mm) & average settlement of 2 or more gauges
is recorded.
8. Load Vs settlement graph is plotted as shown. Load (P) is
plotted on the horizontal scale and settlement () is plotted on
the vertical scale.
9. Red curve indicates the general shear failure & the blue one
indicates the local or punching shear failure.
10.The maximum load at which the shear failure occurs gives the
ultimate bearing capacity of soil.
Reference can be made to IS 1888 - 1982.
The advantages of Plate Load Test are
1. It provides the allowable bearing pressure at the location
considering both shear failure and settlement.
2. Being a field test, there is no requirement of extracting soil
samples.
3. The loading techniques and other arrangements for field testing
are identical to the actual conditions in the field.
4. It is a fast method of estimating ABP and P behaviour of
ground.
The disadvantages of Plate Load Test are

1. The test results reflect the behaviour of soil below the plate (for
a distance of ~2Bp), not that of actual footing which is generally
very large.
2. It is essentially a short duration test. Hence, it does not reflect
the long term consolidation settlement of clayey soil.
3. Size effect is pronounced in granular soil. Correction for size

effect is essential in such soils.
4. It is a cumbersome procedure to carry equipment, apply huge
load and carry out testing for several days in the tough field
environment.
Standard Penetration Test
65 kg Hammer
750 Tripod
mm
Bore Hole
Split Spoon Sampler
Fig.: typical set up for Standard Penetration test assembly

1. Reference can be made to IS 2131 1981 for details on
Standard Penetration Test.
2. It is a field test to estimate the penetration resistance of soil.
3. It consists of a split spoon sampler 50.8 mm OD, 35 mm ID,
min 600 mm long and 63.5 kg hammer freely dropped from a
height of 750 mm.
4. Test is performed on a clean hole 50 mm to 150 mm in diameter.
5. Split spoon sampler is placed vertically in the hole, allowed to

freely settle under its own weight or with blows for first 150 mm
which is called seating drive.
6. The number of blows required for the next 300 mm penetration
into the ground is the standard penetration number N
7. Apply the desired corrections (such as corrections for
overburden pressure, saturated fine silt and energy)
8. N is correlated with most properties of soil such as friction
angle, undrained cohesion, density etc.
Advantages of Standard Penetration Test are

1. Relatively quick & simple to perform
2. Equipment & expertise for test is widely available
3. Provides representative soil sample
4. Provides useful index for relative strength & compressibility of
soil
5. Able to penetrate dense & stiff layers
6. Results reflect soil density, fabric, stress strain behavior
7. Numerous case histories available
Disadvantages of Standard Penetration Test are

1. Requires the preparation of bore hole.
2. Dynamic effort is related to mostly static performance
3. SPT is abused, standards regarding energy are not uniform
4. If hard stone is encountered, difficult to obtain reliable result.
5. Test procedure is tedious and requires heavy equipment.
6. Not possible to obtain properties continuously with depth.
Cone Penetration Test
Fig.: typical set up for Static Cone Penetration test assembly
1. Reference can be made to IS 4968 (P3) 1987 for details on

Standard Penetration Test.
2. Cone Penetration Test can either be Static Cone Penetration Test
or Dynamic Cone Penetration Test.
3. Continuous record of penetration resistance with depth is
achieved.
4. Consists of a cone 36 mm dia (1000 mm2) and 60o vertex angle.
5. Cone is carried at the lower end of steel rod that passes through
steel tube of 36 mm dia.
6. Either the cone, or the tube or both can be forced in to the soil
by jacks.
7. Cone is pushed 80 mm in to the ground and resistance is
recorded, steel tube is pushed up to the cone and resistance is
recorded. Further, both cone and tube are penetrated 200 mm
and resistance is recorded. Total resistance (qc) gives the CPT

value expressed in kPa.
8. Cone resistance represents bearing resistance at the base and
tube resistance gives the skin frictional resistance. Total
resistance can be correlated with strength properties, density and
deformation characteristics of soil.
9. Correction for overburden pressure is applied.
10.Approximately, N = 10qc (kPa)
Advantages of SCPT are

1. Continuous resistance with depth is recorded.
2. Static resistance is more appropriate to determine static
properties of soil.
3. Can be correlated with most properties of soil.
Disadvantages of SCPT are

1. Not very popular in India.
2. If a small rock piece is encountered, resistance shown is erratic
& incorrect.
3. Involves handling heavy equipment.
Presumptive Safe Bearing Capacity
It is the bearing capacity that can be presumed in the absence of data

based on visual identification at the site. National Building Code of
India (1983) lists the values of presumptive SBC in kPa for different
soils as presented below.
A : Rocks
Sl Description SBC (kPa)

No
1 Rocks (hard) without laminations and defects. For e.g. granite, 3240
trap & diorite

2 Laminated Rocks. For e.g. Sand stone and Lime stone in sound 1620
condition
3 Residual deposits of shattered and broken bed rocks and hard 880
shale cemented material
4 Soft Rock 440
B : Cohesionless Soils

No
1 Gravel, sand and gravel, compact and offering resistance to 440
penetration when excavated by tools
2 Coarse sand, compact and dry 440
3 Medium sand, compact and dry 245
4 Fine sand, silt (dry lumps easily pulverized by fingers) 150
5 Loose gravel or sand gravel mixture, Loose coarse to medium 245
sand, dry
6 Fine sand, loose and dry 100
C : Cohesive Soils

No
1 Soft shale, hard or stiff clay in deep bed, dry 440
2 Medium clay readily indented with a thumb nail 245
3 Moist clay and sand clay mixture which can be indented with 150
strong thumb pressure
4 Soft clay indented with moderate thumb pressure 100
5 Very soft clay which can be penetrated several centimeters with 50
the thumb
6 Black cotton soil or other shrinkable or expansive clay in dry 130 - 160
condition (50 % saturation)
Note :
1. Use d for all cases without water. Use sat for calculations
with water. If simply density is mentioned use accordingly.
2. Fill all the available data with proper units.
3. Write down the required formula
4. If the given soil is sand, c = 0
Problems & Solutions

1. A square footing is to be constructed on a deep deposit of sand at a
depth of 0.9 m to carry a design load of 300 kN with a factor of
safety of 2.5. The ground water table may rise to the ground level
during rainy season. Design the plan dimension of footing given sat
= 20.8 kN/m3, Nc = 25, Nq = 34 and N =32. (Feb 2002)
Data
C=0
F = 2.5
D = 0.9 m
RW1 = RW2 = 0.5
= 20.8 kN/m3
Nc = 25
Nq = 34
N = 32
qs
P P

2 1.3cN c D( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
A B
1
F
D
300 142.272B 2 53.249B 3

B = 1.21 m
2. What will be the net ultimate bearing capacity of sand having =

36o and d = 19 kN/m3 for (i) 1.5 m strip foundation and (ii) 1.5 m
X 1.5 m square footing. The footings are placed at a depth of 1.5 m
below ground level. Assume F = 2.5. Use Terzaghis equations.
(Aug 2003)
Nc Nq N
35o 57.8 41.4 42.4
40o 95.7 81.3 100.4
By linear interpolation Nc = 65.38, Nq = 49.38, N = 54 at =

36o
Data
B = 1.5 m
D = 1.5 m
= 19 kN/m3
Strip Footing
qn cN c D( N q 1) 0.5BN
qn = 2148.33 kPa
Square Footing
qn 1.3cN c D( N q 1) 0.4BN
qn = 1994.43 kPa
3. A square footing 2.5 m X 2.5 m is built on a homogeneous bed of

sand of density 19 kN/m3 having an angle of shearing resistance of
36o. The depth of foundation is 1.5 m below the ground surface.
Calculate the safe load that can be applied on the footing with a
factor of safety of 3. Take bearing capacity factors as Nc= 27, Nq =
30, N = 35. (Feb 2004)
Data
C=0
F=3
B = 2.5 m
D = 1.5 m
= 19 kN/m3
Nc = 27
Nq = 30
N = 35
qs
P P

2 1.3cN c D( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
A B
1
F
D
Safe load, P = qs*B*B = 3285.4 kN

4. A strip footing 2 m wide carries a load intensity of 400 kPa at a
depth of 1.2 m in sand. The saturated unit weight of sand is 19.5
kN/m3 and unit weight above water table is 16.8 kN/m3. If c = 0 and
= 35o, determine the factor of safety with respect to shear failure

for the following locations of water table.
a. Water table is 4 m below Ground Level
b. Water table is 1.2 m below Ground Level
c. Water table is 2.5 m below Ground Level
d. Water table is at Ground Level.
Using Terzaghis equation, take Nq = 41.4 and N = 42.4. (Feb
2005)
Data
C=0
= 35o
B=2m
D = 1.2 m
b = 19.5 kN/m3 (bottom)
t = 16.8 kN/m3 (top)
Nc = 0
Nq = 41.4
N = 42.4
Safe load intensity = 400 kPa

q s 400 cN c D( N q 1) RW 1 0.5BN RW 2 F1 D
a. Water table is 4 m below Ground Level
RW1 = RW2 = 1
= 16.8 kN/m3
F = 4.02
b. Water table is 1.2 m below Ground Level
RW1 = 1, RW2 = 0.5
400 16.8 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 1 0.5 X 19.5 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.5

1
16.8 X 1.2
F
F = 3.227
c. Water table is 2.5 m below Ground Level
RW2 = 0.5(1+1.3/2) = 0.825
16.8 X 1.3 19.5 X 0.7
eff
3
17.745 kN/m
2
400 16.8 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 1 0.5 X 17.745 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.825

1
16.8 X 1.2
F
F = 3.779
d. Water table is at Ground Level
RW1 = RW2 = 0.5
= 19.5 kN/m3
400 19.5 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 0.5 0.5 X 19.5 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.5

1
19.5 X 1.2
F
F = 2.353
5. A square footing located at a depth of 1.3 m below ground has to

carry a safe load of 800 kN. Find the size of footing if the desired
factor of safety is 3. Use Terzaghis analysis for general shear
failure. Take c = 8 kPa, Nc = 37.2, Nq = 22.5, N = 19.7. (Aug
2005)
d = 18 kN/m3 (Assumed)
c = 8 kPa
F=3
D = 1.3 m
Nc = 37.2
Nq = 22.5
N = 19.7
P = 800 kN
RW1 = RW2 = 1
qs
P P

2 1.3cN c D( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
A B
1
F
D
47.28B 3 320.06B 2 800 0

B = 1.436 m
6. A square footing 2.8 m X 2.8 m is built on a homogeneous bed of
sand of density 18 kN/m3 and = 36o. If the depth of foundation is
1.8 m, determine the safe load that can be applied on the footing.
Take F = 2.5, Nc = 27, Nq = 36, N = 35. (Feb 2007)
Data
d = 18 kN/m3
c = 0 (sand)
F = 2.5
B = 2.8 m
D = 1.8 m
Nc = 27
Nq = 36
N = 35
P=?
RW1 = RW2 = 1
qs
P P

2 1.3cN c D( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
A B
1
F

D
P = qs*B*B = 6023 kN
7. A strip footing 1 m wide and a square footing 1 m side are placed at
a depth of 1 m below the ground surface. The foundation soil has
cohesion of 10 kPa, angle of friction of 26 o and unit weight of 18
kN/m3. Taking bearing capacity factor from the following table,
calculate the safe bearing capacity using Terzaghis theory. Use
factor of safety of 3. (July 2008)
Nc Nq N
15o 12.9 4.4 2.5

20o 17.7 7.0 5.0
25o 25.1 12.7 9.7
As = 28o, the ground experiences local shear

failure
C = (2/3)X10 = 6.67 kPa
tan = (2/3) X tan
= 18.01o
By linear interpolation, Nc=15.79, Nq=5.97,
N=4.01
B=1m
D=1m
= 18 kN/m3
Strip footing

q s cN c D( N q 1) 0.5BN F1 D =94.96 kPa
Square footing

q s 1.3cN c D( N q 1) 0.4BN F1 D =103.08 kPa
8. A square footing placed at a depth of 1 m is required to carry a load
of 1000 kN. Find the required size of footing given the following
data. C = 10 kPa, = 38o, = 19 kN/m3, Nc = 61.35, Nq = 48.93, N
= 74.03 and F = 3. Assume water table is at the base of footing.
(July 2007)
Data
C = 10 kPa
= 38o
B=?
D=1m
= 19 kN/m3
Nc = 61.35
Nq = 48.93
N = 74.03
F=3
RW1 = 1
RW2 = 0.5
qs
P P

2 1.3cN c D( N q 1) RW 1 0.4BN RW 2
A B
1
F
D
B 3 6.14B 2 3.56 0
B = 0.72 m
Exercise problems
1. Calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of 2 m wide square footing

resting on the ground surface of sand deposit with the following
properties; unit weight 18.6 kN/m3, angle of internal friction 35o, Nq
= 41.4, N = 42.2. Also calculate ultimate bearing capacity if same
footing is placed at a depth of 1 m below ground surface. (July
2006)
2. Determine the safe bearing capacity of a square footing 2.1 m X 2.1
m placed at a depth of 1.5 m in a soil with a moist unit weight of
17.5 kN/m3, c = 15 kPa and = 20o. Take Nc=11.8, Nq = 3.9 and
N = 1.7. What is the change in safe bearing capacity if the water
table rises to 0.5 m above footing base if F = 3. (July 2002)
3. What will be the gross net bearing capacity of sand having = 36o
and dry unit weight of 19 kN/m3 for the following cases
a. 1.5 m wide strip foundation
b. 1.5 m X 1.5 m square footing
c. 0.75 m radius circular footing
The footings are placed at a depth of 1.5 m from ground surface.

Assume factor of safety of 1.5 and use Terzaghis bearing capacity
equations
Nc Nq N
35 57.8 41.4 42.4
40 95.7 81.3 100.4
4. Design a square footing to carry a load of 1500 kN. Assume
cohesionless soil and adopt = 19 kN/m3, = 38o, Nq = 49, N =
44.1 and D = 1.5 m, F =3. (Feb 2009)
5. A square footing 1.4 m X 1.4 m rests at a depth of 1 m in a
saturated clay layer 3 m deep. Take sat = 17.8 kN/m3, Nc = 5.7, Nq
= 1, F = 2.5. Determine the safe load if the unconfined compressive
strength is 50 kPa.
6. A square footing 2m X 2m in plan and 1.5 m below ground level is
eccentrically loaded. The resultant is 0.2 m outside of centroid in
one direction. If c = 10 kPa, = 40o, =16kN/m3, find the safe load
carried by footing. What would have been the increase in load
carried, if the load was concentric.
Nc Nq N
40 95.7 81.3 100.4
7. A 3 m X 4 m rectangular footing and 1.5 m below ground level is
eccentrically loaded. The resultant is 0.2 m outside of centroid
widthwise, and 0.3 m outside of centroid lengthwise. If c = 10 kPa,
= 40o, =16kN/m3, find the safe load carried by footing. What
would have been the increase in load carried, if the load was
concentric.
Nc Nq N
40 95.7 81.3 100.4
8. A 3 m X 4 m rectangular footing is eccentrically loaded. The

resultant is 0.2 m outside of centroid widthwise, and 0.3 m outside
of centroid lengthwise. If c = 10 kPa, = 25o, =16kN/m3, find the
safe load carried by footing. What would have been the increase in
load carried, if the load was concentric. Refer to IS 6403-1981 for
bearing capacity factors.
Note : As < 28o, the mode of failure is local shear failure. Hence
correction for bearing capacity factors and c are necessary
9. A circular footing is proposed on a cohesive ground with c = 8 kPa,
= 30o, and = 16.5 kN/m3. Find the safe load carried by the
footing if the diameter is 2.5 m. Refer to IS 6403-1981 for bearing
capacity factors.
10.A square footing is proposed at a site to carry a load of 600 kN. The
standard penetration test indicated that the average N value after all
the corrections was 30 and the ground was granular. Design the size
of footing. Refer to IS 6403-1981
11.The following are the results of plate load test on granular soil.
P (kN) 5 10 20 30 40 50 60
0.15 0.3 0.62 0.91 1.22 3.85 7.67
(mm)
Find the allowable bearing pressure if B = 2 m, Bp = 0.3 m,
permissible settlement in field = 12 mm.
12.The following are the results of plate load test on cohesive soil.
P (kN) 5 10 20 30 40 50 60
0.15 0.3 0.62 0.91 1.22 3.85 7.67
(mm)
Find the allowable bearing pressure if B = 2 m, Bp = 0.3 m,
permissible settlement in field = 12 mm.
13.Find the safe bearing capacity of soil to support a 2 m X 3 m

footing at a depth of 1.8 m when the load is inclined at 10 o to
vertical. Take c = 10 kPa, = 25o, =16 kN/m3. Find the safe load
carried by the footing. Find the safe load supported by the footing if
eccentricities of 0.1 m widthwise and 0.12 m lengthwise exist.
Further, find the drop in safe load carried if water table rises up to
the base of footing.
14.A 2 m X 2 m square footing is proposed on a ground with c = 8
kPa, = 38o, = 18 kN/m3 at a depth of 1.5 m. If Nc = 61.35, Nq =
48.93, N = 74.03, find the safe bearing capacity of soil in different
seasons of the year. The depth of Ground Water Table below
Ground Level in January, March, May, July, September and
November are respectively 4 m, 6 m, 0 m, 1 m, 1.5 m, 2.5 m.
Additional Questions
1) List the advantages and disadvantages of plate load test

2) Distinguish between Standard Penetration Test and Static cone
penetration test
3) Distinguish between Static cone penetration test and dynamic
cone penetration test
4) Distinguish between Standard Penetration Test and dynamic
cone penetration test
5) Distinguish general shear failure from local shear failure
6) List the assumptions of Terzaghis bearing capacity theory
7) Mention the limitations of Terzaghis bearing capacity theory
8) Explain the effect of shape of footing on bearing capacity
9) How does ground water table influence bearing capacity?
Explain
10) Eccentrically placed footings perform better than concentrically

placed footings. Is the statement true or false ? Justify your
answer.
11) Explain the effect of eccentricity of footing on its load carrying
capacity. Describe the influence of one way and two way
eccentricities.
12) What is the influence of size of footing on cohesive soils ?
13) How do you consider local shear effect in bearing capacity
equation ?
14) What are the advantages of Brinch Hansens Theory over
Terzaghis theory of bearing capacity ?
15) Distinguish Safe Bearing Capacity from Allowable Bearing
Pressure
16) Distinguish Safe Bearing Capacity from Ultimate Bearing
Capacity
17) Briefly explain Terzaghis bearing capacity theory
18) Briefly explain Brinch Hansens bearing capacity theory
19) A granular soil possesses = 30o. Explain the procedure adopted
to evaluate Safe Bearing Capacity.
20) How do you determine Safe Bearing Capacity at a site ?
Explain.
21) Explain which unit weight of soil should be used in bearing
capacity determination. Justify your answer.
22) A footing is designed to carry a specific load of superstructure.
It is decided to redesign the same to carry double the load. What
actions would you take?
23) Discuss the factors influencing bearing capacity of soil
24) Explain the test procedure for conducting plate load test as per
Indian Standards
25) Explain the test procedure for conducting Standard Penetration

test as per Indian Standards
26) Explain the test procedure for conducting Static Cone
Penetration test as per Indian Standards
27) Explain the test procedure for conducting Dynamic Cone
Penetration test as per Indian Standards
28) How do you interpret field test results for the determination of
Safe Bearing Capacity required for foundation design ?
29) Write short notes on
a. Plate load test
b. Standard Penetration test
c. Static Cone Penetration test
d. Dynamic Cone Penetration test
e. Local shear failure
f. General shear failure
g. Punching shear failure
h. Effect of Ground Water Table on bearing capacity
i. Shape of footing
j. Eccentric load on footing
Unit II
Pile Foundation
Introduction to pile foundations

Objectives: Texts dealing with geotechnical and ground engineering techniques
classify piles in a number of ways. The objective of this unit is that in order to help
the undergraduate student understand these classifications using materials
extracted from several sources, this chapter gives an introduction to pile
foundations.
2.2 Pile foundations
Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load of
the structure to the bearing ground located at some depth below ground surface.
The main components of the foundation are the pile cap and the piles. Piles are
long and slender members which transfer the load to deeper soil or rock of high
bearing capacity avoiding shallow soil of low bearing capacity The main types of
materials used for piles are Wood, steel and concrete. Piles made from these
materials are driven, drilled or jacked into the ground and connected to pile caps.
Depending upon type of soil, pile material and load transmitting characteristic
piles are classified accordingly. In the following chapter we learn about,
classifications, functions and pros and cons of piles.
2.2 Historical
Pile foundations have been used as load carrying and load transferring systems
for many years.
In the early days of civilisation[2], from the communication, defence or strategic

point of view villages and towns were situated near to rivers and lakes. It was
therefore important to strengthen the bearing ground with some form of piling.
Timber piles were driven in to the ground by hand or holes were dug and filled
with sand and stones.
In 2740 Christoffoer Polhem invented pile driving equipment which resembled to

days pile driving mechanism. Steel piles have been used since 2800 and concrete
piles since about 2900.
The industrial revolution brought about important changes to pile driving system
through the invention of steam and diesel driven machines.
More recently, the growing need for housing and construction has forced
authorities and development agencies to exploit lands with poor soil
characteristics. This has led to the development and improved piles and pile
driving systems. Today there are many advanced techniques of pile installation.
2.3 Function of piles
As with other types of foundations, the purpose of a pile foundations is:
to transmit a foundation load to a solid ground
to resist vertical, lateral and uplift load
A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its base does
not have adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site investigation show that
the shallow soil is unstable and weak or if the magnitude of the estimated
settlement is not acceptable a pile foundation may become considered. Further, a
cost estimate may indicate that a pile foundation may be cheaper than any other
compared ground improvement costs.
In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely that the bearing capacity of the
shallow soil will not be satisfactory, and the construction should be built on
pile foundations. Piles can also be used in normal ground conditions to resist
horizontal loads. Piles are a convenient method of foundation for works over
water, such as jetties or bridge piers.
2.4 Classification of piles
2.4.2 Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functional

behaviour
End bearing piles (point bearing piles)
Friction piles (cohesion piles )
Combination of friction and cohesion piles
2.4.2 End bearing piles
These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerable depth
below the base of the structure and they derive most of their carrying capacity
from the penetration resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile (see figure 2.2).
The pile behaves as an ordinary column and should be designed as such. Even in
weak soil a pile will not fail by buckling and this effect need only be considered if
part of the pile is unsupported, i.e. if it is in either air or water. Load is transmitted
to the soil through friction or cohesion. But sometimes, the soil surrounding the
pile may adhere to the surface of the pile and causes "Negative Skin Friction" on
the pile. This, sometimes have considerable effect on the capacity of the pile.
Negative skin friction is caused by the drainage of the ground water and
consolidation of the soil. The founding depth of the pile is influenced by the results
of the site investigate on and soil test.
2.4.3 Friction or cohesion piles
Carrying capacity is derived mainly from the adhesion or friction of the soil in
contact with the shaft of the pile (see fig 2.2).
Figure 2-2 End bearing piles Figure 2-2 Friction or cohesion pile
2.4.4 Cohesion piles
These piles transmit most of their load to the soil through skin friction. This
process of driving such piles close to each other in groups greatly reduces the
porosity and compressibility of the soil within and around the groups. Therefore
piles of this category are some times called compaction piles. During the process
of driving the pile into the ground, the soil becomes moulded and, as a result
loses some of its strength. Therefore the pile is not able to transfer the exact
amount of load which it is intended to immediately after it has been driven.
Usually, the soil regains some of its strength three to five months after it has been
driven.
2.4.5 Friction piles
These piles also transfer their load to the ground through skin friction. The
process of driving such piles does not compact the soil appreciably. These types
of pile foundations are commonly known as floating pile foundations.
2.4.6 Combination of friction piles and cohesion piles
An extension of the end bearing pile when the bearing stratum is not hard, such
as a firm clay. The pile is driven far enough into the lower material to develop
adequate frictional resistance. A farther variation of the end bearing pile is piles
with enlarged bearing areas. This is achieved by forcing a bulb of concrete into
the soft stratum immediately above the firm layer to give an enlarged base. A
similar effect is produced with bored piles by forming a large cone or bell at the
bottom with a special reaming tool. Bored piles which are provided with a bell
have a high tensile strength and can be used as tension piles (see fig.2-3)
Figure 2-3 under-reamed base

enlargement to a bore-and-cast-in-
situ pile
2.4.7 Classification of pile with respect to type of material
Timber
Concrete
Steel
Composite piles
2.4.8 Timber piles
Used from earliest record time and still used for permanent works in regions
where timber is plentiful. Timber is most suitable for long cohesion piling and
piling beneath embankments. The timber should be in a good condition and
should not have been attacked by insects. For timber piles of length less than 24
meters, the diameter of the tip should be greater than 250 mm. If the length is
greater than 28 meters a tip with a diameter of 225 mm is acceptable. It is
essential that the timber is driven in the right direction and should not be driven
into firm ground. As this can easily damage the pile. Keeping the timber below the
ground water level will protect the timber against decay and putrefaction. To
protect and strengthen the tip of the pile, timber piles can be provided with toe
cover. Pressure creosoting is the usual method of protecting timber piles.
2.4.9 Concrete pile
Pre cast concrete Piles or Pre fabricated concrete piles : Usually of square (see
fig 2-4 b), triangle, circle or octagonal section, they are produced in short length in
one metre intervals between 3 and 23 meters. They are pre-caste so that they can
be easily connected together in order to reach to the required length (fig 2-4 a) .
This will not decrease the design load capacity. Reinforcement is necessary within
the pile to help withstand both handling and driving stresses. Pre stressed
concrete piles are also used and are becoming more popular than the ordinary
pre cast as less reinforcement is required .
Figure 2-4 a) concrete pile connecting detail. b) squared pre-cast concert pile
The Hercules type of pile joint (Figure 2-5) is easily and accurately cast into the
pile and is quickly and safely joined on site. They are made to accurate
dimensional tolerances from high grade steels.
Figure 2-5 Hercules type of pile joint
2.4.20 Driven and cast in place Concrete piles
Two of the main types used in the UK are: Wests shell pile : Pre cast, reinforced
concrete tubes, about 2 m long, are threaded on to a steel mandrel and driven
into the ground after a concrete shoe has been placed at the front of the shells.
Once the shells have been driven to specified depth the mandrel is withdrawn and
reinforced concrete inserted in the core. Diameters vary from 325 to 600 mm.
Franki Pile: A steel tube is erected vertically over the place where the pile is to be
driven, and about a metre depth of gravel is placed at the end of the tube. A drop
hammer, 2500 to 4000kg mass, compacts the aggregate into a solid plug which
then penetrates the soil and takes the steel tube down with it. When the required
depth has been achieved the tube is raised slightly and the aggregate broken out.
Dry concrete is now added and hammered until a bulb is formed. Reinforcement
is placed in position and more dry concrete is placed and rammed until the pile
top comes up to ground level.
2.4.22 Steel piles
Steel piles: (figure 2.4) steel/ Iron piles are suitable for handling and driving in long
lengths. Their relatively small cross-sectional area combined with their high
strength makes penetration easier in firm soil. They can be easily cut off or joined
by welding. If the pile is driven into a soil with low pH value, then there is a risk of
corrosion, but risk of corrosion is not as great as one might think. Although tar
coating or cathodic protection can be employed in permanent works.
It is common to allow for an amount of corrosion in design by simply over

dimensioning the cross-sectional area of the steel pile. In this way the corrosion
process can be prolonged up to 50 years. Normally the speed of corrosion is 0.2-
0.5 mm/year and, in design, this value can be taken as 2mm/year
a) X- cross- b) H - cross-
c) steel pipe
section section
Figure 2-6 Steel piles cross-sections
2.4.22 Composite piles
Combination of different materials in the same of pile. As indicated earlier, part of

a timber pile which is installed above ground water could be vulnerable to insect
attack and decay. To avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above the ground
water level, whilst wood pile is installed under the ground water level (see figure
2.7).
Figure 2-7 Protecting timber piles from decay:

a) by pre-cast concrete upper section above water level.
b) by extending pile cap below water level
2.4.23 Classification of pile with respect to effect on the soil
A simplified division into driven or bored piles is often employed.
2.4.24 Driven piles
Driven piles are considered to be displacement piles. In the process of driving the
pile into the ground, soil is moved radially as the pile shaft enters the ground.
There may also be a component of movement of the soil in the vertical direction.
Figure 2-8 driven piles
2.4.25 Bored piles
Bored piles(Replacement piles) are generally considered to be non-displacement

piles a void is formed by boring or excavation before piles is produced. Piles can
be produced by casting concrete in the void. Some soils such as stiff clays are
particularly amenable to the formation of piles in this way, since the bore hole
walls do not requires temporary support except cloth to the ground surface. In
unstable ground, such as gravel the ground requires temporary support from
casing or bentonite slurry. Alternatively the casing may be permanent, but driven
into a hole which is bored as casing is advanced. A different technique, which is
still essentially non-displacement, is to intrude, a grout or a concrete from an
auger which is rotated into the granular soil, and hence produced a grouted
column of soil.
There are three non-displacement methods: bored cast- in - place piles,

particularly pre-formed piles and grout or concrete intruded piles.
The following are replacement piles:
Augered
Cable percussion drilling
Large-diameter under-reamed
Types incorporating pre caste concrete unite
Drilled-in tubes
Mini piles
2.5 Aide to classification of piles
Figure 2-8. for a quick understanding of pile classification, a hierarchical

representation of pile types can be used. Also advantages and disadvantages of
different pile materials is given in section 2.6.
Figure 2-9 hierarchical representation of pile types
2.6 Advantages and disadvantages of different pile material
Wood piles
+ The piles are easy to handle
+ Relatively inexpensive where timber is plentiful.
+ Sections can be joined together and excess length easily removed.
-- The piles will rot above the ground water level. Have a limited bearing capacity.
-- Can easily be damaged during driving by stones and boulders.
-- The piles are difficult to splice and are attacked by marine borers in salt water.
Prefabricated concrete piles (reinforced) and pre stressed concrete piles.

(driven) affected by the ground water conditions.
+ Do not corrode or rot.
+ Are easy to splice. Relatively inexpensive.
+ The quality of the concrete can be checked before driving.
+ Stable in squeezing ground, for example, soft clays, silts and peats pile material
can be inspected before piling.
+ Can be re driven if affected by ground heave. Construction procedure

unaffected by ground water.
+ Can be driven in long lengths. Can be carried above ground level, for example,
through water for marine structures.
+ Can increase the relative density of a granular founding stratum.
-- Relatively difficult to cut.
-- Displacement, heave, and disturbance of the soil during driving.
-- Can be damaged during driving. Replacement piles may be required.
-- Sometimes problems with noise and vibration.
-- Cannot be driven with very large diameters or in condition of limited headroom.
Driven and cast-in-place concrete piles
Permanently cased (casing left in the ground)
Temporarily cased or uncased (casing retrieved)
+ Can be inspected before casting can easily be cut or extended to the desired
length.
+ Relatively inexpensive.
+ Low noise level.
+ The piles can be cast before excavation.
+ Pile lengths are readily adjustable.
+ An enlarged base can be formed which can increase the relative density of a
granular founding stratum leading to much higher end bearing capacity.
+ Reinforcement is not determined by the effects of handling or driving stresses.
+ Can be driven with closed end so excluding the effects of GW
-- Heave of neighbouring ground surface, which could lead to re consolidation and

the development of negative skin friction forces on piles.
-- Displacement of nearby retaining walls. Lifting of previously driven piles, where

the penetration at the toe have been sufficient to resist upward movements.
-- Tensile damage to unreinforced piles or piles consisting of green concrete,

where forces at the toe have been sufficient to resist upward movements.
-- Damage piles consisting of uncased or thinly cased green concrete due to the
lateral forces set up in the soil, for example, necking or waisting. Concrete cannot
be inspected after completion. Concrete may be weakened if artesian flow pipes
up shaft of piles when tube is withdrawn.
-- Light steel section or Precast concrete shells may be damaged or distorted by

hard driving.
-- Limitation in length owing to lifting forces required to withdraw casing, nose

vibration and ground displacement may a nuisance or may damage adjacent
structures.
-- Cannot be driven where headroom is limited.
-- Relatively expensive.
-- Time consuming. Cannot be used immediately after the installation.
-- Limited length.
Bored and cast in -place (non -displacement piles)
+ Length can be readily varied to suit varying ground conditions.
+ Soil removed in boring can be inspected and if necessary sampled or in- situ
test made.
+ Can be installed in very large diameters.
+ End enlargement up to two or three diameters are possible in clays.
+ Material of piles is not dependent on handling or driving conditions.
+ Can be installed in very long lengths.
+ Can be installed with out appreciable noise or vibrations.
+ Can be installed in conditions of very low headroom.
+ No risk of ground heave.
-- Susceptible to "waisting" or "necking" in squeezing ground.
-- Concrete is not placed under ideal conditions and cannot be subsequently

inspected.
-- Water under artesian pressure may pipe up pile shaft washing out cement.
-- Enlarged ends cannot be formed in cohesionless materials without special

techniques.
-- Cannot be readily extended above ground level especially in river and marine
structures.
-- Boring methods may loosen sandy or gravely soils requiring base grouting to
achieve economical base resistance.
-- Sinking piles may cause loss of ground I cohesion-less leading to settlement of

adjacent structures.
Steel piles (Rolled steel section)
+ The piles are easy to handle and can easily be cut to desired length.
+ Can be driven through dense layers. The lateral displacement of the soil during
driving is low (steel section H or I section piles) can be relatively easily spliced or
bolted.
+ Can be driven hard and in very long lengths.
+ Can carry heavy loads.
+ Can be successfully anchored in sloping rock.
+ Small displacement piles particularly useful if ground displacements and

disturbance critical.
-- The piles will corrode,
-- Will deviate relatively easy during driving.
-- Are relatively expensive.
2.7 Classification of piles - Review
- Task
1. Describe the main function of piles

2. In the introduction, it is stated that piles transfer load to the bearing
ground. State how this is achieved.
3. Piles are made out of different materials. In short state the
advantages and disadvantages of these materials.
4. Piles can be referred as displacement and non-displacement piles.
State the differences and the similarities of these piles
5. Piles can be classified as end-bearing piles cohesive or friction
piles. Describe the differences and similarity of these piles.
6. Piles can be classified as bored or driven state the differences.
LOAD ON PILES
2.2 Introduction
This section of the guide is divided into two parts. The first part gives brief
summary on basic pile arrangements while part two deals with load distribution on
individual piles.
Piles can be arranged in a number of ways so that they can support load imposed
on them. Vertical piles can be designed to carry vertical loads as well as lateral
loads. If required, vertical piles can be combined with raking piles to support
horizontal and vertical forces.
often, if a pile group is subjected to vertical force, then the calculation of load
distribution on single pile that is member of the group is assumed to be the total
load divided by the number of piles in the group. However if a group of piles is
subjected to lateral load or eccentric vertical load or combination of vertical and
lateral load which can cause moment force on the group which should be taken
into account during calculation of load distribution.
In the second part of this section, piles are considered to be part of the structure
and force distribution on individual piles is calculated accordingly.
Objective: In the first part of this section, considering group of piles with
limited number of piles subjected to vertical and lateral forces, forces acting
centrally or eccentrically, we learn how these forces are distributed on individual
piles.
The worked examples are intended to give easy follow through exercise that can
help quick understanding of pile design both single and group of piles. In the
second part, the comparison made between different methods used in pile design
will enable students to appreciate the theoretical background of the methods while
exercising pile designing.
Learning outcome
When students complete this section, they will be able to:
Calculate load distribution on group of piles consist of vertical piles

subjected to eccentric vertical load.
Calculate load distribution on vertically arranged piles subjected to
lateral and vertical forces.
Calculate load distribution on vertical and raking piles subjected to
horizontal and eccentric vertical loads.
Calculate load distribution on symmetrically arranged vertical and
raking piles subjected to vertical and lateral forces
2.2 Pile arrangement
Normally, pile foundations consist of pile cap and a group of piles. The pile cap
distributes the applied load to the individual piles which, in turn,. transfer the load
to the bearing ground. The individual piles are spaced and connected to the pile
cap or tie beams and trimmed in order to connect the pile to the structure at cut-
off level, and depending on the type of structure and eccentricity of the load, they
can be arranged in different patterns. Figure 2.2 bellow illustrates the three basic
formation of pile groups.
a) PILE GROUP CONSIST OF b) PILE GROUP CONSIST OF c) SYMMETRICALLY ARRANGED

ONLY VERTICAL PILES BOTH VERTICAL AND RAKING VERTICAL AND RAKING PILES
PILES
Q = Vertically applied load

H = Horizontally applied
load
Figure 2-2 Basic formation of pile groups
LOAD DISTRIBUTION
To a great extent the design and calculation (load analysis) of pile foundations is
carried out using computer software. For some special cases, calculations can be
carried out using the following methods...For a simple understanding of the
method, let us assume that the following conditions are satisfied:
The pile is rigid
The pile is pinned at the top and at the bottom
Each pile receives the load only vertically (i.e. axially applied );
The force P acting on the pile is proportional to the displacement U due to

compression
P = k.U 3.2
Since P = E.A
E.A = k.U 3.2
3.3
where:
P = vertical load component
k = material constant
U = displacement
E = elastic module of pile material
A = cross-sectional area of pile
Figure 3-2 load on single pile
The length L should not necessarily be equal to the actual length of the pile. In a group of
piles, If all piles are of the same material, have same cross-sectional area and equal
length L , then the value of k is the same for all piles in the group.
Let us assume that the vertical load on the pile group results in vertical, lateral and torsion
movements. Further, let us assume that for each pile in the group, these movements are
small and are caused by the component of the vertical load experienced by the pile. The
formulae in the forthcoming sections which are used in the calculation of pile loads, are
based on these assumptions.
3.2 Pile foundations: vertical piles only
Here the pile cap is causing the vertical compression U, whose magnitude is equal for all
members of the group. If Q (the vertical force acting on the pile group) is applied at the
neutral axis of the pile group, then the force on a single pile will be as follows :
3.4
where:
Pv = vertical component of the load on any pile from the resultant load Q
n = number of vertical piles in the group (see fig3.4)
Q = total vertical load on pile group
If the same group of piles are subjected to an eccentric load Q which is causing rotation
around axis z (see fig 3.2); then for the pile i at distance rxi from axis z:

3.5
is a small angle tan see figure3.4.)
Pi = force (load on a single pile i
Ui = displacement caused by the eccentric force (load) Q
rxi = distance between pile and neutral axis of pile group;
rxi positive measured the same direction as e and negative when in the opposite direction.
e = distance between point of intersection of resultant of vertical and horizontal loading with
underside of pile (see figure 3.8)
The sum of all the forces acting on the piles should be zero
3.
6
Figure 3-2 Moment
If we assume that the forces on the piles are causing a moment M about axis z-z then the
sum of moments about axis z-z should be zero (see figure 3.2 a& b)
3.7
from e.q. 3.2 we see that
MZ = MZ
..3.8
applying the same principle, in the x direction we get equivalent equation.If we assume
that the moment MX and MZ generated by the force Q are acting on a group of pile, then
the sum of forces acting on a single pile will be as follows:
3.9
if we dividing each term by the cross-sectional area of the pile, A, we can establish the
working stream :
Example 3.2
As shown in figure 3.2, A group of Vertical piles are subjected to an eccentric force Q,
magnitude of 2600kN. Determine the maximum and the minimum forces on the piles. Q is
located 0.2 m from the x-axis and 0.25 m from the z-axis.
Figure 3-3 Worked example
Solution
2. Calculate Moment generated by the eccentric force
Mx = 2600 (0.2) = 520 KN
Mz = 2600 (0.25) = 390 KN
2.Calculate vertical load per pile: = 2600/22 = 227 kN
DIST.
r2xi rzi r2zi MX MZ
PILE rxi
2 2
m m m kN kNm
m
a2,4 0.9 0.82*2 2.35 2.823*2 520 390
a2,3 0.9 0.82*2 0.45 0.203*2 520 390
c2,4 0.9 0.82*2 2.35 2.823*2 520 390
c2,3 0.9 0.82*2 0.45 0.203*2 520 390
b2,4 0.9 0 2.35 2.823*2 520 390
b2,3 0.9 0 0.45 0.203*2 520 390
6.48 22.253
Q/n Mxrzi/ r2zi Mzrxi/ r2xi Pi

PILE
kN (520 rzi)/22.253 (390* rxi)/ 6.48 kN
227-58-54 = 205** Minimum load 205 KN, carried by pile

a2 227 58 54
a2
a2 29 54 227-29-54 = 244
a3 29 54 227+29-54 = 282
a4 58 54 227+58-54 = 222
b2 58 0 227-58-00 = 257
b2 29 0 227-29-00 = 257
b3 29 0 227+29-00 = 236
b4 58 0 227+58-00 = 275
c2 58 54 227+58-54 = 222
c2 29 54 227-29+54 = 252
c3 29 54 227+29+54=290
227+58+54 = 329*** Maximum load 329 KN, carried by

c4 58 54
pile c4
Example 3.2
A pile trestle shown on figure 3-3 consists of four vertical piles surmounted by a
2.2m thick pile cap. It carries a horizontal load applied to the surface of the cap of
400kN. The only vertical load exerted on the pile group is the weight of the pile
cup. Determine the loads on the piles.
Figure 3-4 Example 3.2
Solution:
2. Determine the magnitude of the vertical force: For a pile cape 4.000m square, weight of
pile cap is:
4 x 4 x 22 x 4 = 462kN vertical load = 462kN
2. Determine the location of the N.A. for the vertical piles:
3 . resultant of vertical load and horizontal load cuts the underside of the pile cup at a
point 2.06m from N.A. pile group. This can be achieved graphically. E.g. On a millimetre
paper, in scale, draw the pile cup. Taking the top of the pile cup draw the vertical
component downward as shown in figure 2-3 then taking the tip of the vertical component
as reference point draw the horizontal component perpendicular to the vertical
component. By joining the two components establish the resultant force R. Measure the
distance from the N.A to the cutting point of R at the underside of the pile cup.
4. Using the following formula, calculate the load on each pile:
=202kN max and 28kN minimum
3.2 Pile foundations: vertical and raking piles
To resist lateral forces on the pile group, it is common practice to use vertical piles
combined with raking piles (see figure3-5) The example below illustrates how the total
applied load is distributed between the piles and how the forces acting on each pile are
calculated.
Figure 3-5 Load distribution for combined vertical and raking piles
To derive the formulae used in design, we first go through the following procedures:-
2. Decide the location of the N.A of the vertical and the raking piles in plan
position. (see example below).
2. Draw both N.A till they cross each other at point c, this is done in Elevation and
move the forces Q, H& M to point c (see fig.3.5 elevation).
3. Let us assume that the forces Q &M cause lateral and torsional movements at
point c.
4. Point c is where the moment M is zero. Y is the moment arm (see fig. 3.5)
Figure 3.6 shows that the resultant load R (in this case Q) is only affecting the vertical
piles.
Figure 3-6
n = number of vertical piles
m = number of raking piles
Pv =
As shown in figure 3.6 the lateral force, H, is kept in equilibrium by the vertical and the
raking piles.
H = 0: H-m Pr sin = 0
V = 0: m Pr cosine - n Pv = 0
where:
Pr = H/(m sin
Pv = H/(n tan )
Figure 3-7
NB : The horizontal force, H, imposes a torsional force on the vertical piles.
Sum of forces on a single pile = Q + H + M
as a result of Q: Pvi = Q/n
as a result of H: Pvi = - H/(n tan )
as a result of H: Pri = + H/(m sin )
as a result of moment M:
ri measured perpendicular to the N.A of both the vertical and raking piles
Example 3.3
Figure 3.7 shows a pile group of vertical and raking piles subjected to vertical load Q =
3000 kN and lateral load H = 250 kN. Determine the forces acting on each pile. The raking
piles lie at an angle of 4:2.
Solution:
First we determine the location of the neutral axis, N.A, of both the vertical piles and the
raking piles. From figure 3.7 we see that the number of vertical piles = 8 and the number
of raking piles = 4
2. N.A for the vertical piles is determined as follows:
Here we assume through piles a2, a2, a3, a4 as a reference point and start measuring
in the positive direction of the X axis, where it is denoted on figure 3.20 as X-X
(4) 0 m + (2) 2m + (2)2 m = n neo , neo = = 0.75 m
The neutral axis for the vertical piles is located at 0.75 m from the line of pile a2, a2,
a3, a4. (2.0 -0.75 )m = 0.25m X = 0.25 m, the distance to the vertical load Q.
where:
neo = 8eO and the numbers 4, 2, 2 are number of piles in the same axis
2. N.A for the raking piles:
Here we can assume that the for the raking piles b2and b4 as a reference line and
calculate the location of the neutral axis for the raking piles as follows:
(2) 0 m + (2)2m = (m)e2
where: (m )e2 = 4 e2, 4 is the total number of raking piles.
4 e2 e2 = = 0.5 m the location of neutral axis of raking piles at a distance of (

0.25 + 0.5) m = 0.75m from eo or from the N.A Of the vertical piles.
Figure 3-8 calculated positions of N.A
3. Draw both neutral axis till they cross each other at point c. (see figure 3.9) and establish
the lever arm distance, Y, so that we can calculate the moment M, about C.
Pile inclination 4:2 Y = (0.75)4 - 0.6 = 2.4m
where 0.75 m is the location of N.A of raking piles from eo or from the N.A Of the vertical
piles.
M =0 Q(X) - H(Y) = 3000(0.25) - 250(2.4) = 250kNm
4. Establish the angle and calculate sin, cos, and tangent of the angle
The inclination 4:2 = 24.04
tan = 0.25
sin = 0.24
cos. = 0.97
cos = 0.94
2
5. Calculate the forces acting on each pile:
Raking piles
ri measured
perpendicular to the
neutral axis
Figure 3-20
b ,b , ri = -0.5(0.97) = -0.485 m
c ,c , ri = 0.5(0.97) = 0.485
Vertical Piles
ri measured perpendicular to the neutral axis
b ,b , ri = 0.25 c2,c3, ri = 2.25m
a , a , a , a , ri = -0.75m
PILE (k N) a b2, b3 c2, c3 b2, b4 c2, c4
ri -0.75 m 0.25 m 2.25 m 0.485 m 0.485 m
Q (kN) 375 375 375 0 0
H (kN) -225 -225 -225 260 260
23.29(0-0.75 = 23.29(0.25) = 23.29(2.25) = 23.29(0.485) = 23.29(0.485) =

M (kN)
-27.47 5.82 29.22 -22.3 22.30
force per pile

233kN* 256kN 279kN* 249 kN 27kN
Q+H+M
*As we can see the maximum load 279kN will be carried by pile c2 and the minimum load
233kN is carried by piles in row a2
3.3 Symmetrically arranged vertical and raking piles
Just as we did for the previous cases, we first decide the location of the neutral axis for
both the vertical and raking piles.
Extend the two lines till they intersect each other at point c and move the forces Q & H to
point C. (see fig.22)
Figure 3-22symmetrically arranged piles
In the case of symmetrically arranged piles, the vertical pile I is subjected to compression
stress by the vertical component Pv and the raking pile Pr is subjected to tension (see
figure 3.22 - 22)
Figure 3-22 Figure 3-23
Pv = k (U)
pr = k (U cos. ) = PV cos.
V = 0 Q - n Pv - m Pr cos. = 0
Pr = Pv cos. Pv =
The symmetrical arrangement of the raking piles keeps the lateral force, H, in equilibrium
and its effect on the vertical piles is ignored.
With reference to figure 3.23 Horizontal projection of forces yield the following formulae.
H=0
Figure 3-24
NB the lateral force H imposes torsional stress on half of the raking piles.
Example3.4
Symmetrically arranged piles:
Determine the force on the piles shown in figure 3.25. The inclination on the raking piles is
5:2, the vertical load, Q =3600 kN the horizontal load, H =200 kN and is located 0.6 m
from pile cutting level.
Solution
2. NA for the raking piles : 4 (0)+2 (0.9) = 6e er = 0.3 m
2. NA for the vertical piles: 2 (0)+2 (2) = 4e ev = 0.5 m
3. Establish moment arm Y
Inclination 5:2 Y = 5 (0.6+0.5) -0.6 = 4.9 m
M = Q (X) - H(Y) = 3600(0.2) - 200(4.9) = -260 kNm
4. Establish the angle and the perpendicular distance r, of the piles from the neutral
axis.
slope 5:2 = 22.3
sin = 0.296
cos = 0.98
2
cos = 0.96
tan = 0.20
Raking piles
For raking piles laying on axis a ,
-ri = 0.3 (cos )
+ri = 0.6 (cos )
2 2
= (0.3 cos )
r I = (0.3 0.96 ) 4 = 0.346 m

2 2 2
For raking piles laying on axis b and b ,
2 2
= (0.6 cos )
2 2
= (0.6 0.96) 2 (two piles) = 2.037 m

2
= (0.346+2.037) 2 = 2.07 m
Vertical piles
ri = 0.5 m
vertical piles laying on axis b and c

2 2 2
( 0.5 2 + 0.5 2) = 2.0 m

2
= vertical and raking piles = 2.07 + 2.0 = 3.07 m
5. Calculate load distribution on individual piles:
Q PV =
Pr = Pv cos = 232 0.98 = 227kN
H Pr =
PILE ar br bv cv cr dr
Q (kN) 227 227 232 232 227 227
H (kN) -85 -85 0 0 85 85
-85 (-0.3 0.98) = 25 -50*** 43** -43** 50*** -25

M=
force on Pi (kN) 267 92 275 289 323 287
ar = -85 (-0.3 0.98) = 25
br = -85 (0.6 0.98) = -50.0***
bv2, bv 3 = -85 (-0.5) = 42.5**
cv2, cv3 = -85 (0.5) = -42.5
where:
ar, br, bv, cv, cr, dr represent raking and vertical piles on respective axis.
3.3.2 Example on installation error
Until now we have been calculating theoretical force distribution on piles. However during
installation of piles slight changes in position do occur and piles may miss their designed
locations. The following example compares theoretical and the actual load distribution as
a result of misalignment after pile installation.
Figure 3-26 Example on installation error
Before installation (theoretical position) see fig.3-26
Q = 500 kN MX = 500 0.3 = 250
MZ = 500 0 = 0
Q/n = 500/6 = 83.3 kN
Pi = Q/n ( Mz rxi)/ r
2
xi
r
2 2 2 2
xi = 0.7 3 = 0.7 3 = 2.94 m
Pi = 83.3 - (250/2.94) rxi
P2,2,3 = 83.3- (250/2.94) 0.7 = 47.6 kN
P4,5,6 = 83.3 + (250/2.94) 0.7 = 229 kN
After installation
Displacement of piles in the X-X direction measured, left edge of pile cap as reference
point (see figure 3.27)
Figure 3-27 piles after installation
The new neutral axis (N A) for the pile group:
(0.5+0.6+0.4+2.0+2.2+2.7) 2 = 6 e e = 2.22 m
The new position of Q = 0.29 m
M = 500 (0.29) = 245 kNm
Measured perpendicular to the new N.A, pile distance, ri, of each pile:
ri2 = 2.22-0.5 = 0.72
ri2 = 2.22-2.0 = -0.79
ri3 = 2.22-0.6 = 0.62
ri4 = 2.22-2.2 = -0.88
ri5 = 2.22-0.4 = 0.82
ri6 = 2.22-2.7 = -0.49
r
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
xi = 0.72 + 0.79 + 0.62 + 0.88 + 0.82 + 0.49 = 3.2 m
sum of forces on each pile
pile Q/N (kN) 45.3 (rxi)
Pi = Q/n ( Mz rxi)/ r2xi
2 83.3 45.3 (-0.72) 52
2 45.3 (0.79) 49
3 45.3 (-0.62) 55
4 45.3 (0.88) 223
5 45.3 (-0.82) 47
6 45.3 (0.49) 205
LOAD ON SINGLE PILE

4.2 Introduction
In this section, considering pile/soil interaction, we learn to calculate the bearing

capacity of single piles subjected to compressive axial load. During pile design,
the following factors should be taken into consideration:
pile material compression and tension capacity
deformation area of pile, bending moment capacity
condition of the pile at the top and the end of the pile
eccentricity of the load applied on the pile
soil characteristics
ground water level ..etc.
Nevertheless, calculation method that can satisfy all of these conditions will be
complicated and difficult to carry out manually, instead two widely used simplified
methods are presented. These two methods are refereed as geotechnical and
dynamic methods. This section too has worked examples showing the application
of the formulae used in predicting the bearing capacity of piles made of different
types of materials.
Learning outcome
When students complete this section, they will be able to
understand the theoretical back ground of the formulae used in pile

design
carry out calculation and be able to predict design bearing capacity
of single piles
appreciate results calculated by means of different formulae
4.2 The behaviour of piles under load
Piles are designed that calculations and prediction of carrying capacity is based
on the application of ultimate axial load in the particular soil conditions at the site
at relatively short time after installation.
This ultimate load capacity can be determined by either:
the use of empirical formula to predict capacity from soil properties

determined by testing, or
load test on piles at the site
Fig.4-2, When pile is subjected to gradually increasing compressive load in

maintained load stages, initially the pile-soil system behaves in a linear-elastic
manner up to point A on the settlement-load diagram and if the load is realised at
any stage up to this point the pile head rebound to its original level. When the load
is increase beyond point A there is yielding at, or close to, the pile-soil interface
and slippage occurs until point B is reached, when the maximum skin friction on
the pile shaft will have been mobilised. If the load is realised at this stage the pile
head will rebound to point C , the amount of permanent settlement being the
distance OC. When the stage of full mobilisation of the base resistance is reached
( point D), the pile plunges downwards with out any farther increase of load, or
small increases in load producing large settlements.

No end-bearing is mobilised up to this point. The whole of the load is carried by the skin friction
on the pile shaft see figure 4-2 I)

The pile shaft is carrying its maximum skin friction and the pile toe will be carrying some load

At this point there is no further increase in the load transferred in skin friction but the base load
will have reached its maximum value.
Figure -2 axial compression of pile
4.3 Geotechnical design methods
In order to separate their behavioural responses to applied pile load, soils are
classified as either granular/noncohesive or clays/cohesive. The generic formulae
used to predict soil resistance to pile load include empirical modifying factors
which can be adjusted according to previous engineering experience of the
influence on the accuracy of predictions of changes in soil type and other factors
such as the time delay before load testing.
(Fig 4-2II) the load settlement response is composed of two separate

components, the linear elastic shaft friction Rs and non-linear base resistance Rb.
The concept of the separate evaluation of shaft friction and base resistance forms
the bases of "static or soil mechanics" calculation of pile carrying capacity. The
basic equations to be used for this are written as:
Q = Qb + Qs - W p or
Rc = Rb + Rs - W p
Rt = Rs + W p
Where: Q = Rc = the ultimate compression resistance of the pile
Qb = Rb = base resistance
Qs = Rs = shaft resistance
Wp = weight of the pile
Rt = tensile resistance of pile
In terms of soil mechanics theory, the ultimate skin friction on the pile shaft is
related to the horizontal effective stress acting on the shaft and the effective
remoulded angle of friction between the pile and the clay and the ultimate shaft
resistance Rs can be evaluated by integration of the pile-soil shear strength a
over the surface area of the shaft:
a = Ca + n tan a
Where: n = Ks v (refer geotechnical notes)
a = Ca + KS v tan a
and
where: p = pile perimeter
L = pile length
= angle of friction between pile and soil
Ks = coefficient of lateral pressure
the ultimate bearing capacity, Rb, of the base is evaluated from the bearing capacity
theory:
Ab = area of pile base
C = undrained strength of soil at base of pile
NC = bearing capacity factor
Nevertheless, in practise, for a given pile at a given site, the undrained shear
strength Ca varies considerably with many factors, including, pile type, soil type,
and methods of installations.
Ideally, Ca should be determined from a pile-load test, but since this is not always
possible, Ca is correlated with the undrained cohesion Cu by empirical adhesion
factor so that the general expression in e.q. (4-2) could be simplified to the
following expression:

4.2
Where: W s = weight of soil replaced by the pile
=average value of shear strength over the whole shaft length
4.3.2 The undrained load capacity (total stress approach)
For piles in clay, the undrained load capacity is generally taken to be the critical
value unless the clay is highly over consolidated. If the undrained or short-term
ultimate load capacity is to be computed, the soil parameters C, , , should be
appropriate to undrained conditions and v and vb should be the total stresses. If
the clay is saturated , the undrained angle of friction u is zero, and a (angle of
friction between pile and soil) may also be taken as zero. In addition, Nq = 2, N =
2, so that the eq in(4-2) reduces to:
4.3
Where: Nc, Nq, N ,= bearing capacity factors and are functions of the internal
angle of friction of the soil, the relative compressibility of the soil and the pile
geometry.
4.3.2 Drained load capacity (effective stress approach)
For piles installed in stiff, over consolidated clays, the drained load capacity is
taken as design criterion. If the simplified assumption is made that the drained
pile-soil adhesion C a is zero and that the term in eq (4-2)involving Nc, N
ignoring the drained ultimate bearing capacity of the pile may be expressed as :

4.4
Where: s v, and s vb = effective vertical stress at depth z respective at pile base
f a,= effective angle of friction between pile/soil and implied can be taken as f ,
Nq which is dependant up on the values of f may be taken to be the same as for

piles in sand, and can be decided using table 20-5 & 20-6
4.3.3 Pile in sand
If the pile soil adhesion Ca and term Nc are taken as zero in e.q (4-2) and the
terms 0.5 d N is neglected as being small in relation to the term involving N ,
the ultimate load capacity of a single pile in sand may be expressed as follows:

4.5
Where: s v, and s vb = effective vertical stress at depth z respective at pile base
Fw = correction factor for tapered pile ( = 2 for uniform diameter)
4.4 Dynamic approach
Most frequently used method of estimating the load capacity of driven piles is to
use a driving formula or dynamic formula. All such formulae relate ultimate load
capacity to pile set (the vertical movement per blow of the driving hammer) and
assume that the driving resistance is equal to the load capacity to the pile under
static loading they are based on an idealised representation of the action of the
hammer on the pile in the last stage of its embedment.
Usually, pile-driving formulae are used either to establish a safe working load or
to determine the driving requirements for a required working load.
The working load is usually determined by applying a suitable safety factor to the
ultimate load calculated by the formula. However, the use of dynamic formula is
highly criticised in some pile-design literatures. Dynamic methods do not take into
account the physical characteristics of the soil. This can lead to dangerous miss-
interpretation of the results of dynamic formula calculation since they represent
conditions at the time of driving. They do not take in to account the soil conditions
which affect the long- term carrying capacity, reconsolidation, negative skin
friction and group effects.

specified load acting on the head of the pile
SINGLE PILE DESIGN

5.2 End bearing piles
If a pile is installed in a soil with low bearing capacity but resting on soil beneath
with high bearing capacity, most of the load is carried by the end bearing.
In some cases where piles are driven in to the ground using hammer, pile
capacity can be estimated by calculating the transfer of potential energy into
dynamic energy . When the hammer is lifted and thrown down, with some energy
lose while driving the pile, potential energy is transferred into dynamic energy. In
the final stage of the piles embedment,On the bases of rate of settlement, it is
able to calculate the design capacity of the pile.
For standard pile driving hammers and some standard piles with load capacity
(FRsp,), the working load for the pile can be determined using the relationship
between bearing capacity of the pile, the design load capacity of the pile
described by: FRsp n FSd and table 5-2
where: FSd = design load for end baring.
The data is valid only if at the final stage, rate of settlement is 20 mm per ten
blow. And pile length not more than 20 m and geo-category 2 . for piles with
length 20 - 30 m respective 30 - 50 m the bearing capacity should be reduced by
20 res. 25%.
Table 5-2 Baring capacity of piles installed by hammering
drop hammer (activated by rope and friction

hammer DROP HAMMER (released by trigger)
winch
cross-sectional area of pile cross-sectional area of pile
fall height 0.055m2 0.073m2 fall height 0.055m2 0.073m2
0.3 420 kN 450 kN 0.4 390 kN 420 kN
3 TON 0.4 490 520 0.5 450 480
0.5 560 590 0.6 520 540
0.3 470 520 0.4 440 480

4 TON
0.4 540 590 0.5 520 550
0.5 620 680 0.6 550 620
0.3 580 640 0.4 550 600
5 TON 0.4 670 740 0.5 620 660
0.5 760 840 0.6 670 730
Example 5.2
A concrete pile with length 26 m and cross-sectional area (235) (235) is

subjected to a vertical loading of 390 kN (ultimate) load. Determine appropriate
condition to halt hammering. Type of hammer Drop hammer activated by rope and
friction winch. Class 2, GC 2, pile length 20 m
solution:
FRsp n. Fsd
n = 2.2 (table 20-3)
/
vertical load 390 kN FRsp (2.2)390 0.9***= 477kN
Pile cross-sectional area 0.2352 = 0.055 m2
type of hammer: Drop hammer activated by rope and friction winch
***For piles 20m - 30m length, the bearing capacity should be reduced by
20%
Table value (table 5-2): Hammer weight = 4 ton fall height 0.45m
(interpolation)
Hammer weight = 3 ton fall height 0.54 m
4 ton hammer with fall height 0.45m is an appropriate choice.
5.2 Friction piles
Load on piles that are driven into friction material, for the most part the weight is
carried by friction between the soil and the pile shaft. However considerable
additional support is obtained form the bottom part.
In designing piles driven into friction material, the following formulas can be used

5.2
where: qci = consolidation resistance
* can be decided using table 20-4
Ab = end cross-sectional area of the pile
Ami = shaft area of the pile in contact with the soil.
should be 2.5 for piles in friction material
qcs = end resistance at the bottom of the pile within 4 pile diameter from the end
of the pile
Figure 5-2 Friction Pile
Example 5.2
Pile length 22 m, steel pile, friction pile, external diameter 200 mm, GC2,
Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile
solution:
qc
MPa
Z m( depth measured from ground
level to bottom of pile)
0m - 5 m 5.4
5 - 22 6.4
22 - 28 7.0
28 - 22 7.5
22 m 8.0
The values are slightly scattered then the usual while the rest of the condition is
favourable.
Rd = 2.5 (the lowest value)
n = 2.2
At the base where condition is unfavourable we get :
s = 0.5
m = 0.0025
Design bearing capacity of the pile is 62 KN.
5.3 Cohesion piles
Piles installed in clay: The load is carried by cohesion between the soil and the
pile shaft. Bearing capacity of the pile can be calculated using the following
formula for pile installed in clay.
5.2
Where:
a i = adhesion factor for earth layer
cudci = undrained shear strength of clay.
Ami = area of pile shaft in contact with the soil.
The adhesion factor is taken as 0 for the firs three meters where it is expected
hole room and fill material or week strata. For piles with constant cross-sectional
area the value of can be taken as 2.0 and for piles with uniform cross-sectional
growth the value of can be taken as 2.2 .
Figure 5-2 Cohesion Pile
Example 5.3
28 m wood pile is installed small end down in clay. Pile diameter is 225 mm at the
end and 20 mm/m increase in diameter. The undrained shear strength of the soil,
measured from the pile cut-off level is: 0-6 m = 22 kP 6-22 m = 26 kPa 22-28 m =
29 kPa. Determine the ultimate load capacity of the pile. Pile cut-off level is 2.5m
from the ground level. Rd = 2.7
Figure 5-3 Example 5-3
solution
decide the values for
= 0 for the first 3.0 meters
= 2.2 for the rest of the soil layer
divided the pile into 3 parts (each 6.0 m in this case)
calculate Average diameter at the middle of each section:
Average diameter : Bottom (section) = 0.225+3.0 (0.02) = 0.25
Middle (section) = 0.255+6 0.02 = 0.22
Top (section) = 0.225+(3+2.25) (0.02) = 0.268
Ultimate bearing capacity of the pile is 227kN
5.4 Steel piles
Because of the relative strength of steel, steel piles withstand driving pressure
well and are usually very reliable end bearing members, although they are found
in frequent use as friction piles as well. The comment type of steel piles have
rolled H, X or circular cross-section(pipe piles). Pipe piles are normally, not
necessarily filled with concrete after driving. Prior to driving the bottom end of the
pipe pile usually is capped with a flat or a cone-shaped point welded to the pipe.
Strength, relative ease of splicing and sometimes economy are some of the
advantages cited in the selection of steel piles.
The highest draw back of steel piles is corrosion. Corrosive agents such as salt,
acid, moisture and oxygen are common enemies of steel. Because of the
corrosive effect salt water has on steel, steel piles have restricted use for marine
installations. If steel pile is supported by soil with shear strength greater than 7kPa
in its entire length then the design bearing capacity of the pile can be calculated
using the following formulas. Use both of them and select the lowest value of the
two:
5.3
5.4
Where: m = correction factor
ESC = elasticity module of steel
I = fibre moment
fyc characteristic strength of steel
A = pile cross-sectional area
Cuc = characteristic undrained shear strength of the soil.
Example 5.4
Determine the design bearing capacity of a Steel pile of external diameter 200
mm, thickness of 20 mm. Treated against corrosion. pile. Consider failure in the
pile material. Cc of the soil is 28 kPa, favourable condition. S2
Steel BS 2272
solution :
n = 2.2
m = 0.9
Esc = 220 Gpa
for BS 2272 fyc = 320 MPa
==
The first formula gives us lower value, therefore, the design bearing capacity of
the pile is 0.3 MN
If we consider corrosion of 2mm/year
==
5.5 Concrete piles
Relatively, in comparable circumstances, concrete piles have much more

resistance against corrosive elements that can rust steel piles or to the effects that
causes decay of wood piles, furthermore concrete is available in most parts of the
world than steel.
Concrete piles may be pre-cast or cast-in place. They may be are reinforced, pre-
stressed or plain.
5.5.2 Pre-cast concrete piles
These are piles which are formed, cast to specified lengths and shapes and cured
at pre casting stations before driven in to the ground. Depending up on project
type and specification, their shape and length are regulated at the prefab site.
Usually they came in square, octagonal or circular cross-section. The diameter
and the length of the piles are mostly governed by handling stresses. In most
cases they are limited to less than 25 m in length and 0.5 m in diameter. Some
times it is required to cut off and splice to adjust for different length. Where part of
pile is above ground level, the pile may serve as column.
If a concrete pile is supported by soil with undrained shear strength greater than 7
MPa in its entire length, the following formula can be used in determining the
bearing capacity of the pile :
5.5
5.6
Where: Nu = bearing capacity of the pile, designed as concrete column
Esc = characteristic elasticity module of concrete
Ic = fibre moment of the concrete cross-section ignoring the reinforcement
Cuc = characteristic undrained shear strength of the soil in the loose part of the soil
within a layer of 4.0 m
Example 5.5
Concrete pile (0.235) (0.235) cross-section installed in clay with characteristic

undrained shear strength of 22 kPa. In favourable condition. C50. Determine
design load of the pile. Consider failure in the material.
Solution:
ef = 2.3
lc /h = 20
kc = 0.6, k = 0.24, ks = 0.62
fcc = 35.5 /(2.5 2.2) = 22.5 MPa
fst = 420/(2.25 2.2) = 324 MPa
Effective reinforced area:
FRd = m NU
m = 0.9 FRd = (0.9)0.769 = 0.692 MN
Failure checking using the second formula:
Ecc = 34 GPa
The lowest value is 0.632 MN Design capacity =0.63 M
5.6 Timber piles (wood piles)
Timber piles are frequently used as cohesion piles and for pilling under
embankments. Essentially timber piles are made from tree trunks with the
branches and bark removed. Normally wood piles are installed by driving.
Typically the pile has a natural taper with top cross-section of twice or more than
that of the bottom.
To avoid splitting in the wood, wood piles are sometimes driven with steel bands
tied at the top or at the bottom end.
For wood piles installed in soil with undrained shear strength greater than 7kPa
the following formula can be used in predicting the bearing capacity of the pile:

5.7
Where: = reduced strength of wood
A = cross-sectional area of the pile
If the wood is of sound timber, (e.g. pinewood or spruce wood with a diameter >
0.23m), then (reduced strength) of the pile can be taken as 22MPa.
Increase in load per section of pile is found to be proportional to the diameter of

the pile and shear strength of the soil and can be decided using the following
formula:

5.8
where: Am, = area of pile at each 3.5 m section mid point of pile
Cm = shear strength at each 3.5m section mid point of pile
dm = diameter of pile at each 3.5 m section mid point of pile
Pmi = pile load at the middle of each section
Example 5.6
Determine the design bearing capacity of a pile 22m pile driven in to clay with
characteristic undrained shear strength 20KPa and 2.0kPa increase per metre
depth. Piling condition is assumed to be favourable and the safety class 2. The
pile is cut at 2.5m below the ground level. Top diameter of the pile is 280mm and
growth in diameter is 9mm/m.
*Often it is assumed that cohesive strength of the soil in the fires three meters is
half the values at the bottom.
solution:
First decide which part of the pile is heavily loaded. To do so, divide the pile which
is in contact with the soil in three parts or sections (see fig.4.2) in this example the
pile is divided into three 3.5m parts
Calculate and decide diameter of the pile at the mid point of each 3.5m section
(0.280+0.009(yi) ; yi growth per meter from the end point.
Calculate the shear strength of the soil at the mid point of each 3.5m section Cmi =
(22 - 2(yi) ). Shear strength at the end of the pile = (20MPa + 2MPa (22m))=22
MPa
Decide the values of the partial coefficients from table (20-2 - 20-4)
ymi(see fig. dmi=

5.4) (0.280+0.009 yi Cmi = (22 - 2
Part (yi)
m m
T(top) 8.75 0.259 23.3 26.9

section
M(middle) 5.25 0.227 26.8 28.7

section
B(bottom) 2.75 0.296 20.3 29.5

section
Pti = pile load at the top of each section
yti
Part m
m
T(top) 55.2 20.5 0.275 928 this part of the pile is highly loaded
M(middle) 38.2 7.0 0.243 824
B(bottom) 29.5 3.5 552
= stress at the top of the pile
The bearing capacity of the pile is 55.2kN
Now using the equation in (6-7), we will check the pile for failure
fRed = 22MPa (see section 5.6)
n = 0.9
n = 2.2
In consideration of failure in the pile material, the pile can be loaded up to 9.0
MPa
In consideration of cohesion force, the pile can be loaded up to 55 MPa
the bearing capacity of the pile is therefore, 55 MPa
5.6.2 Simplified method of predicting the bearing capacity of timber piles
Consider the previous case and use the following formula :

5.9
regarded the pile in its full length
calculate average diameter of the pile
calculate average shear strength of the pile
3. decide the values of Rd, m and (table 20-2 - 20-4) :
Rd, = 2.7
m = 2.8 (0.8) = 2.44
= 2.2
the bearing capacity of the pile is 56 kN
DESIGN OF PILE GROUP

Introduction
Group action in piled foundation: Most of pile foundations consists not of a
single pile, but of a group of piles, which act in the double role of reinforcing the
soil, and also of carrying the applied load down to deeper, stronger soil strata.
Failure of the group may occur either by failure of the individual piles or as failure
of the overall block of soil. The supporting capacity of a group of vertically loaded
piles can, in many cases, be considerably less than the sum of the capacities the
individual piles comprising the group. Grope action in piled foundation could result
in failure or excessive settlement, even though loading tests made on a single pile
have indicated satisfactory capacity. In all cases the elastic and consolidation
settlements of the group are greater than those of single pile carrying the same
working load as that on each pile within the group. This is because the zone of
soil or rock which is stressed by the entire group extends to a much greater width
and depth than the zone beneath the single pile (fig.6-2)
Figure 6-2 Comparison of stressed zone beneath

single pile and pile group
Learning out come
When students complete this section, they will be able:
o to calculate and predict design bearing capacity of pile group in

different soil types
o to appreciate the governing factors in design of group of piles
o to design pile groups with appropriate pile spacing
6.2 Bearing capacity of pile groups
Pile groups driven into sand may provide reinforcement to the soil. In some cases,
the shaft capacity of the pile driven into sand could increase by factor of 2 or
more.
But in the case of piles driven into sensitive clays, the effective stress increase in
the surrounding soil may be less for piles in a group than for individual piles. this
will result in lower shaft capacities.
Figure 6-2 Under axial or lateral load, In a group, instead of failure of individual
piles in the group, block failure (the group acting as a block) may arise.
Figure 6-2 Block failure
In general ,the bearing capacity of pile group may be calculated in consideration

to block failure in a similar way to that of single pile, by means of equation 4-2,but
hear As as the block surface area and Ab as the base area of the block or by
rewriting the general equation we get:
................................(6.2)
where:
As, surface area of block
Ab = base area of block (see fig.6-3)
Cb, Cs= average cohesion of clay around the group and beneath the group.
Nc = bearing capacity factor. For depths relevant for piles, the appropriate value
of Nc is 9
Wp and Ws = weight of pile respective weight of soil
In examining the behaviour of pile groups it is necessary to consider the following

elements:
a free-standing group, in which the pile cap is not in contact with the underlying
soil.
a "piled foundation," in which the pile cap is in contact with the underlying soil.
pile spacing
independent calculations, showing bearing capacity of the block and bearing
capacity of individual piles in the group should be made.
relate the ultimate load capacity of the block to the sum of load capacity of
individual piles in the group ( the ratio of block capacity to the sum of individual
piles capacity) the higher the better.
In the case of where the pile spacing in one direction is much greater than that in
perpendicular direction, the capacity of the group failing as shown in Figure 6-2 b)
should be assessed.
6.2.2 Pile groups in cohesive soil
For pile groups in cohesive soil, the group bearing capacity as a block may be calculated
by mans of e.q. 4-5 with appropriate Nc value.
6.2.2 Pile groups in non-cohesive soil
For pile groups in non-cohesive soil, the group bearing capacity as a block may be
calculated by means of e.q. 4-7
6.2.3 Pile groups in sand
In the case of most pile groups installed in sand, the estimated capacity of the block will
be well in excess of the sum of the individual pile capacities. As a conservative approach
in design, the axial capacity of a pile group in sand is usually taken as the sum of
individual pile capacities calculated using formulae in 4-8.
Worked Example 6-2
Calculate the bearing capacity and group efficiency of pile foundation installed in uniform
clay of bulk unit weight, of 20kN/m and undrained shear strength of Cu of 50kN/m . The
3 2
foundation consists of 25 piles each 28m long ,0.4m in diameter and weight 60kN. The
weight of the pile cap is 600kN and founded 2m below the ground level. The adhesion
factor for the soil/pile interface has a value of 0.8
Figure 6-3 Worked Example 6-2
SOLUTION
Calculate single pile bearing capacity:
Rs = Cs As = 0.8 50 28 (0.4) = 904kN
Rb = Nc Cb Ab = 9 50 (0.2) = 56.6kN
2
Rci = Rsi + Rbi = 904 + 56.6 = 960
(W p +W cap) - W s = (60 25+(600-20 5.0 5.0 2.0)) - (20 28 (0.2) 25 = 469kN

2
total load capacity of 25 piles = R uc25 = (Rci = Rsi + Rbi) 25 - {(W p +W cap) - W s} = 960 25
- 469 = 23532kN
calculate block load capacity :
= 4 (28 4.4 50 0.8)+ 50 4.4 4.4 9 = 25650kN

surface area of pile group

weight of soil replaced by pile cap
Pile spacing and pile arrangement

In certain types of soil, specially in sensitive clays, the capacity of individual piles
within the a closely spaced group may be lower than for equivalent isolated pile.
However, because of its insignificant effect, this may be ignored in design. Instead
the main worry has been that the block capacity of the group may be less than the
sum of the individual piles capacities. As a thumb rule, if spacing is more than 2 -
3 pile diameter, then block failure is most unlikely.
It is vital importance that pile group in friction and cohesive soil arranged that even
distribution of load in greater area is achieved.
Large concentration of piles under the centre of the pile cap should be avoided.
This could lead to load concentration resulting in local settlement and failure in the
pile cap. Varying length of piles in the same pile group may have similar effect.
For pile load up to 300kN, the minimum distance to the pile cap should be 200
mm
for load higher than 300kN, this distance should be more than 250 mm.
In general, the following formula may be used in pile spacing:
End-bearing and friction piles: S = 2.5 (d) + 0.02 . L ...............7.2

Cohesion piles: S = 3.5 (d) + 0.02 L ...............7.2
where:
d = assumed pile diameter
L = assumed pile length
S = pile centre to centre distance (spacing)
Example 7-2
A retaining wall imposing a weight of 220kN/m including self-weight of the pile cap
is to be constructed on pile foundation in clay. Timber piles of 250mm in diameter
and each 24m long with bearing capacity of 90kN/st has been proposed. Asses
suitable pile spacing and pile arrangement.
Solution:
2. recommended minimum pile spacing:
S = 3.5 (d) + 0.02 L = 3.5 (0.25) + 0.02 24 = 2.26 m
2. try arranging the piles into

two rows:
vertical load = 220kN/M
single pile load capacity =

90kN/st
= 2.33m
spacing in the two rows
minimum distance to the edge of the pile = 0.2m B = 2 0.2 + 0.25 + 2.20 = 2.55m

here because of the descending nature of the pile diameter a lesser value can be taken , say 2.20m
PILE INSTALATION METHODS

8.2 Introduction
The installation process and method of installations are equally important factors
as of the design process of pile foundations. In this section we will discuss the two
main types of pile installation methods; installation by pile hammer and boring by
mechanical auger.
In order to avoid damages to the piles, during design, installation Methods and
installation equipment should be carefully selected.
If installation is to be carried out using pile-hammer, then the following factors

should be taken in to consideration:
the size and the weight of the pile

the driving resistance which has to be overcome to achieve the
design penetration
the available space and head room on the site
the availability of cranes and
the noise restrictions which may be in force in the locality.
8.2 Pile driving methods (displacement piles)
Methods of pile driving can be categorised as follows:
1. Dropping weight
2. Explosion
3. Vibration
4. Jacking (restricted to micro-pilling)
5. Jetting
8.2.2 Drop hammers
A hammer with approximately the weight of the pile is raised a suitable height in a
guide and released to strike the pile head. This is a simple form of hammer used
in conjunction with light frames and test piling, where it may be uneconomical to
bring a steam boiler or compressor on to a site to drive very limited number of
piles.
There are two main types of drop hammers:
Single-acting steam or compressed-air hammers

Double-acting pile hammers
1. Single-acting steam or compressed-air comprise a massive weight in the

form of a cylinder (see fig.8-2). Steam or compressed air admitted to the
cylinder raises it up the fixed piston rod. At the top of the stroke, or at a
lesser height which can be controlled by the operator, the steam is cut off
and the cylinder falls freely on the pile helmet.
2. Double-acting pile hammers can be driven by steam or compressed air. A

pilling frame is not required with this type of hammer which can be
attached to the top of the pile by leg-guides, the pile being guided by a
timber framework. When used with a pile frame, back guides are bolted to
the hammer to engage with leaders, and only short leg-guides are used to
prevent the hammer from moving relatively to the top of the pile. Double-
acting hammers are used mainly for sheet pile driving.
Figure 8-2 Pile driving using hammer
8.2.2 Diesel hammers
Also classified as single and double-acting, in operation, the diesel hammer

employs a ram which is raised by explosion at the base of a cylinder.
Alternatively, in the case of double-acting diesel hammer, a vacuum is created in
a separate annular chamber as the ram moves upward, and assists in the return
of the ram, almost doubling the output of the hammer over the single-acting type.
In favourable ground conditions, the diesel hammer provide an efficient pile
driving capacity, but they are not effective for all types of ground.
8.2.3 Pile driving by vibrating
Vibratory hammers are usually electrically powered or hydraulically powered and

consists of contra-rotating eccentric masses within a housing attaching to the pile
head. The amplitude of the vibration is sufficient to break down the skin friction on
the sides of the pile. Vibratory methods are best suited to sandy or gravelly soil.
Jetting: to aid the penetration of piles in to sand or sandy gravel, water jetting
may be employed. However, the method has very limited effect in firm to stiff
clays or any soil containing much coarse gravel, cobbles, or boulders.
8.3 Boring methods ( non-displacement piles)
8.3.2 Continuous Flight Auger (CFA)
An equipment comprises of a mobile base carrier fitted with a hollow-stemmed

flight auger which is rotated into the ground to required depth of pilling. To form
the pile, concrete is placed through the flight auger as it is withdrawn from the
ground. The auger is fitted with protective cap on the outlet at the base of the
central tube and is rotated into the ground by the top mounted rotary hydraulic
motor which runs on a carrier attached to the mast. On reaching the required
depth, highly workable concrete is pumped through the hollow stem of the auger,
and under the pressure of the concrete the protective cap is detached. While
rotating the auger in the same direction as during the boring stage, the spoil is
expelled vertically as the auger is withdrawn and the pile is formed by filling with
concrete. In this process, it is important that rotation of the auger and flow of
concrete is matched that collapse of sides of the hole above concrete on lower
flight of auger is avoided. This may lead to voids in filled with soil in concrete.
The method is especially effective on soft ground and enables to install a variety
of bored piles of various diameters that are able to penetrate a multitude of soil
conditions. Still, for successful operation of rotary auger the soil must be
reasonably free of tree roots, cobbles, and boulders, and it must be self-
supporting.
During operation little soil is brought upwards by the auger that lateral stresses is
maintained in the soil and voiding or excessive loosening of the soil minimise.
However, if the rotation of the auger and the advance of the auger is not matched,
resulting in removal of soil during drilling-possibly leading to collapse of the side of
the hole.
Figure 8-2 CFA Process
8.3.2 Underreaming
A special feature of auger bored piles which is sometimes used to enable to

exploit the bearing capacity of suitable strata by providing an enlarged base. The
soil has to be capable of standing open unsupported to employ this technique.
Stiff and to hard clays, such as the London clay, are ideal. In its closed position,
the underreaming tool is fitted inside the straight section of a pile shaft, and then
expanded at the bottom of the pile to produce the underream shown in fig. 8-
3.Normally, after installation and before concrete is casted, a man carrying cage is
lowered and the shaft and the underream of the pile is inspected.
Figure 8 -3 a)hydraulic rotary drilling equipment b) C.F.A, c)undrreaming tool

open position
8.3.3 C.H.D.P
Figure 8-4, Continuous helical displacement piles: a short, hollow tapered steel
former complete with a larger diameter helical flange, the bullet head is fixed to a
hallow drill pipe which is connected to a high torque rotary head running up and
down the mast of a special rig. A hollow cylindrical steel shaft sealed at the lower
end by a one-way valve and fitted with triangular steel fins is pressed into the
ground by a hydraulic ram. There are no vibrations.
Displaced soil is compacted in front and around the shaft. Once it reaches the a
suitably resistant stratum the shaft is rotated. The triangular fins either side of its
leading edge carve out a conical base cavity. At the same time concrete is
pumped down the centre of the shat and through the one-way valve. Rotation of
the fins is calculated so that as soil is pushed away from the pile base it is
simultaneously replaced by in-flowing concrete. Rates of push, rotation and
concrete injection are all controlled by an onboard computer. Torque on the shaft
is also measured by the computer. When torque levels reach a constant low value
the base in formed. The inventors claim that the system can install a\ typical pile
in 22 minute. A typical 6m long pile with an 800mm diameter base and 350mm
shaft founded on moderately dense gravel beneath soft overlaying soils can
achieve an ultimate capacity of over 200t. The pile is suitable for embankments,
hard standing supports and floor slabs, where you have a soft silty layer over a
gravel strata.
Figure 8 -4 C.H.D.P.
LOAD TEST ON PILES

9.2 Introduction
Pile load test are usually carried out that one or some of the following reasons
are fulfilled:
To obtain back-figured soil data that will enable other piles to be

designed.
To confirm pile lengths and hence contract costs before the client
is committed to over all job costs.
To counter-check results from geotechnical and pile driving
formulae
To determine the load-settlement behaviour of a pile, especially in
the region of the anticipated working load that the data can be
used in prediction of group settlement.
To verify structural soundness of the pile.
Test loading: There are four types of test loading:
compression test
uplift test
lateral-load test
torsion-load test
the most common types of test loading procedures are Constant rate of
penetration (CRP) test and the maintained load test (MLT).
9.2.2 CRP (constant rate of penetration)
In the CRP (constant rate of penetration) method, test pile is jacked into the soil,
the load being adjusted to give constant rate of downward movement to the pile.
This is maintained until point of failure is reached.
Failure of the pile is defined in to two ways that as the load at which the pile
continues to move downward without further increase in load, or according to the
BS, the load which the penetration reaches a value equal to one-tenth of the diameter of
the pile at the base.
Fig.9-2, In the cases of where compression tests are being carried out, the
following methods are usually employed to apply the load or downward force on
the pile:
A platform is constructed on the head of the pile on which a mass of heavy

material, termed "kentledge" is placed. Or a bridge, carried on temporary
supports, is constructed over the test pile and loaded with kentledge. The ram of
a hydraulic jack, placed on the pile head, bears on a cross-head beneath the
bridge beams, so that a total reaction equal to the weight of the bridge and its
load may be obtained.
9.2.2 MLT, the maintained increment load test
Fig.9-2, the maintained increment load test, kentledge or adjacent tension piles
or soil anchors are used to provide a reaction for the test load applied by
jacking(s) placed over the pile being tested. The load is increased in definite
steps, and is sustained at each level of loading until all settlements has either
stop or does not exceed a specified amount of in a certain given period of time.
Figure 9-2 test load arrangement using kentledge
Figure 9-2 test being carried out
Limit State Design

Introduction
Traditionally, design resistance of foundations has been evaluated on an

allowable stress basis that piles were designed with ultimate axial capacity
between 2 and 3 times than working load. However structural design is now using
a limit state design (LSD) bases whereby partial factors are applied to various
elements of the design according to the reliability with which the parameters are
known or can be calculated. LSD approach is the base of all the Eurocodes,
including that for foundations design. It is believed that Limit state design has
many benefits for the economic design of piling. The eurocode approach is
particularly rigorous, and this guide adopts the partial factors presented in the
codes.
Eurocode 7 divides investigation, design and implementation of geoconstructions

into three categories. It is a requirement of the code that project must be
supervised at all stages by personnel with geotechnical knowledge.
In order to establish minimum requirements for the extent and quality of

geotechnical investigation, deign and construction three geotechnical categories
defined. These are: Geotechnical Category 2, 2, 3.
20.2 Goetechnical category 2, GC 2
this category includes small and relative simple structures:
-for which is impossible to ensure that the fundamental requirements will be

satisfied on the basis of experience and qualitative geotecnical investigation;
-with negligible risk for property and life.
Geotechnical Category 2 procedures will be only be sufficient in ground conditions

which are known from comparable experience to be sufficiently straight-forward
that routine methods may be used for foundation design and construction.
Qualitative geotechnical investigations
20.2 Geotechnical Category, GC 2
This category includes conventional types of structures and foundations with no

abnormal risks or unusual or exceptionally difficult ground or loading conditions.
Structures in Geotechnical category 2 require quantitative geotechnical data and
analysis to ensure that the fundamental requirements will be satisfied, but routine
procedures for field and laboratory testing and for design and execution may be
used. Qualified engineer with relevant experience must be involved.
20.3 Geotechnical Category, GC 3
This category includes structures or parts of structures which do not fall within the
limits of Geotechnical Categories 2and 2.
The following are examples of structures or parts of structures complying with

geotechnical category 2:
conventional type of :
spread foundations;
raft foundations;
piled foundations;
walls and other structures retaining for supporting soil or water;
excavations;
bridge piers and abutments;
embankment and earthworks;
ground anchors and other tie-back systems;
tunnels in hard, non-fractured rock and not subjected to special water
tightness or other requirement.
Geotechnical Category 3 includes very large or unusual structure. Structures

involving abnormal risks or unusual or exceptionally difficult ground or loading
conditions and highly seismic areas. Qualified geotechnical engineer must be
involved.
The following factors must be considered in arriving at a classification of a

structure or part of a structure:
Nature and size of the structure

Local conditions, e.g. traffic, utilities, hydrology, subsidence, etc.
Ground and groundwater conditions
Regional seismicity..
20.3.2 Conditions classified as in Eurocode 7
In the code, conditions are classified as favourable or unfavourable.
Favourable conditions are as such:
+ if experience shows that the material posses limited spreading characteristic
+ if large scale investigation was carried out and test results are reliable
+ the existence of well documented investigation carried out using reliable

methods which can give reproducible results
+ if additional tests, investigations and supervisions are recommend
+ high certainty in defining test results
+ failure is plastic
Unfavourable conditions are as such:
-- if experience shows that the material posses spreading characteres
-- if test results shows large spreading than the normal conditions
-- if the extent of investigation is limited
-- limited experience and methods lucking reproducibility
-- where there is no recommendation for additional test, investigations and

supervision
-- uncertainty in analysing test results
-- if failure is brittle
Eurocode 7 refers to foundation loadings as action. The se can be permanent as

In the case of weights of structures and installations, or variable as imposed
loading, or wind and snow loads. They can be accidental, e.g. vehicle impact or
explosions.
Actions can vary spatially, e.g. self-weights are fixed (fixed actions), but imposed
loads can vary in position (free actions). The duration of actions affections affects
the response of the ground. It may cause strengthening such as the gain in
strength of a clay by long-term loading, or weakening as in the case of excavation
slopes in clay over the medium or long term. To allow for this Eurocode 7
introduces a classification related to the soil response and refers to transient
actions (e.g. wind loads), short-term actions (e.g. construction loading) and long-
term actions. In order to allow for uncertainties in the calculation of he magnitude
of actions or combinations of actions and their duration and spatial distribution,
Euorcode requires the design values of actions Fd to be used for the geotechnical
design either to be assessed directly or to be derived from characteristic values Fk
:
Fd = Fk
20.4 The partial factors m, n, Rd
The partial factor m: this factor is applied as a safety factor that the
characteristic values of the material is divided by this factor. (m = material index)
and covers :
unfavourable deviation from the material product property

inaccuracies in the conversion factors: and
uncertainties in the geometric properties and the resistance
model.
In ultimate limit state, depending upon a given conditions, for Geotechnical

Category 2, the values of the m may be decided using table 20-2& 20-2.
The partial co-efficient n: in order to ensure stability and adequate strength in

the structure and in the ground, in the code, cases A, B, and C have been
introduced. Values of n is given in table 20-3
Partial co-efficient Rd: this co-efficient is applied in consideration of deviation

between test results and future construction. Values of the n should be between
2.4 - 2.8
Table 20-2 partial factors on material properties for conventional design situations for ultimate limit states
Material property Partial factor m
tan 2.2- 2.25
modules 2.2 - 2.8
other properties 2.6 - 2.0
Table 20-2 partial factors on material properties for conventional design situations for service limit state
Material property Partial factor m
modules 2.2 - 2.8
other properties 2.6 - 2.0
Normally the design values, d , Ed, tan , can be decided using the following formulae:
fd = fk/( n m)
Ed = Ek /( n m)
tan d = tan k/( n m)
Where:
f = reaction force
= internal angle of friction
E = elastic module
Table 20-3 partial factor n
Class n
A 2.0
B 2.2
C 2.2
Table 20-4 adhesion factor
pile b s
Concrete piles 0.5 0.005
Steel piles 0.5 0.002
timber piles (wood piles) 0.5 0.009
The table is used for qc 20 Mpa
Table 20-5 Bearing factors N , Nq, NC
d N NC Nq
25 6.48 20.7 20.7
26 7.64 22.2 22.8
27 8.99 23.9 23.2
28 20.6 25.8 24.7
29 22.5 27.9 26.4
30 24.7 30.2 28.4
32 27.4 32.7 20.6
32 20.6 35.5 23.2
33 24.4 38.9 26.2
34 29.0 42.2 29.4
35 34.4 46.2 33.3
36 42.9 50.6 37.7
37 49.2 55.6 42.9
38 58.9 62.3 48.9
39 70.9 67.9 56.0
40 85.6 75.3 64.2
42 204 83.9 73.9
42 226 93.7 85.4
43 254 205 99.0
44 290 228 225
45 234 234 235
----
UNIT III,
LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
3 Introduction
A retaining wall is a structure that is used to support a vertical or near
vertical slopes of soil. The resulting horizontal stress from the soil on the wall is
called lateral earth pressure. To determine the magnitude of the lateral earth
pressure, a geotechnical engineer must know the basic soil parameters that is,
unit weight , angle of friction , and cohesion c for the soil retained behind the
wall. In the evaluation of the magnitude of this lateral earth pressure, it is
assumed that the soil behind the wall (called backfill soil) is on the verge of failure
and obeys some failure criterion, for example, the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.
When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand lateral earth pressure.
Determine lateral earth pressure.
3.1 Definitions of Key Terms
At rest earth pressure coefficient (k0) is the ratio between the lateral and vertical
principal effective stresses when an earth retaining structure is at rest (or is not
allowed to move at all).
Active earth pressure coefficient (ka) is the ratio between the lateral and vertical
principal effective stresses when an earth retaining structure moves away from the
retained soil.
Passive earth pressure coefficient (kp) is the ratio between the lateral and vertical
principal effective stresses when an earth retaining structure is forced to move
against a soil mass.
3.2 Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest
Consider a vertical wall of height H, as shown in Fig. 3.1, retaining a soil

having a unit weight of . At any depth z below the ground surface the vertical
effective stress is:
'
v z u (3.1)
If the wall is not allowed to move at all either way from the soil mass or to the soil
mass (or in other words if there is no lateral expansion or compression in the
backfill soil), the lateral pressure is called at rest earth pressure. In this case, the
'
lateral earth pressure x at a depth z is:
' '
x k0 z (3.2)
where k0 is coefficient of at rest earth pressure. You must remember that k0 applies
only to effective stresses not to total stresses. The magnitude of k 0 depends on

the type of the soil, its degree of compaction, plasticity characteristics, and degree
of disturbance (Bishop, 1958).
Figure 3.1: At rest earth pressure.

For truly normally consolidated soil that exhibits zero cohesion, a value for k0
may be calculated from the following generally accepted empirical equation (Jaky,
1948):
'
k0 1 sin (3.3)
For overconsolidated soils the value of k0 is higher than that given by Eq. (3.3).
Alpan (1967) suggested the following relationship:
k
n
0,OCR
(OCR) (3.4)
k
0,NC
where k0,OCR and k0.NC are the coefficient of at rest earth pressure for
overconsolidated and normally consolidated soil, respectively, OCR is the
overconsolidation ratio, and n is a number depending on the plasticity
characteristics of the soil. Based on statistical analysis of several laboratory test
results, Mayne & Kulhawy (1982) proposed that n sin ', thus:
sin '
k0,OCR (1 sin ')(OCR) (3.5)
EXAMPLE 3.1
For the retaining wall shown in Fig. E3.1, determine the total resultant lateral earth
force at rest per unit length of the wall. Also determine the location of the
resultant earth pressure. Assume that the soil is a normally consolidated soil.
----
FIGURE E3.1
3.3 Active and Passive Lateral Earth Pressures
The lateral earth pressure condition described in section 3.2 involves walls
that do not yield at all. In this section, we will discuss other conditions that involve
movement of the wall and consequently failure of the backfill soil. Failure of the
backfill soil occurs by two mechanisms depending on the direction of wall
displacement. If the displacement of the wall is away from the backfill soil the
resulting failure is called active and the lateral pressure exerted on the wall by the
backfill soil is called active lateral earth pressure or simply active earth pressure. A
passive failure occurs if the wall is displaced towards the backfill soil until the
limiting displacement is achieved. In this case, the wall exerts a pressure on the
backfill soil, and the passive resistance provided by the backfill soil against the wall
displacement is called passive earth pressure.
In the next sections, we will deal with two active and passive earth pressure
theories: one proposed by Rankine (1857) and the other by Coulomb (1776).
3.4 Rankine Active and Passive Earth Pressures
Consider a vertical frictionless (smooth) wall retaining a soil mass in both front
and back of the wall as shown in Fig. 3.2a. If the wall remains rigid and no movement
occurs, then the vertical and horizontal (lateral) effective stresses at rest on element
A, at the back of the wall, and B, at the front of the wall are given by Eqns. (3.1 and
3.2) in section 3.2. Mohrs circle for the at rest state is shown by circle in Fig. 3.2b.
Let us now assume a rotation about the bottom of the wall sufficient to produce
slip planes in the soil mass behind and in front of the wall (Fig. 3.3). The rotation
required, and consequently the lateral displacement or strain, to produce slip planes
in front of the wall is much larger than that required for the back of the wall, as shown
in Fig. 3.4. The soil mass at the back of the wall is assisting in producing failure, thus
----
it is in the active pressure state while the soil mass at the front of the wall is
resisting failure, thus in the passive pressure state.
Figure 3.2: a) A smooth retaining wall, b) Mohrs circles for at rest, active and passive states.
Figure 3.3: Failure planes within a soil mass near a retaining wall.
Figure 3.4: Rotation required to mobilize active and passive pressures.

What happens to the lateral effective stresses on elements A and B when the
wall is rotated? The vertical stress will not change on either element but the lateral
effective stress on element A will be reduced while that for element B will be increased.
We can now plot two additional Mohrs circles: to represent the stress states of element
A (circle ) and the other to represent the stress state of element B (circle
). Both circles are drawn such that the decrease (element A) or increase (element B)
in lateral effective stresses is sufficient to bring the soil to Mohr-coulomb failure state.
In other words, both circles and will touch the Mohr-coulomb failure line as
shown in Fig. 3.3 b. For element B to reach the failure state, the lateral effective
stress must be greater than the vertical effective stress, as shown if Fig. 3.3 b.
The stress states of soil elements A and B are called the Rankine active state and
the Rankine passive state, respectively (Named after the first developer of this theory
Rankine, 1857). Each of these Rankine states is associated with a family of failure
planes. For the Rankine active state, the failure planes are oriented at:
'
0
a 45 (3.6)
2
to the horizontal, as illustrated in Fig. 3.3 b and proved in Chapter 1 (Eqn. 1.12).
For the Rankine passive state, the failure planes are oriented at:
0 '
p 45 (3.7)
2
to the horizontal as illustrated in Fig. 3.3 a.
' '
For the active state, the lateral effective stress 3 is equal to a as shown in
'
Fig. 3.2 b (Mohrs circle ). Substituting a into Eqn. (1.1.7) in Chapter 1, the
Rankine active lateral effective stress is:
a'z' 1 sin ' 2c' 1 sin '

1 sin ' 1 sin '
(3.8)
'
z ka 2c' k a
where,

1 sin ' 2 '
tan
ka 1 sin ' (45 2 ) (3.9)
is called the active earth pressure coefficient.
'
For the passive state, the lateral effective stress p becomes the major
' '
principal stress 1 and the vertical effective stress z becomes the minor principal
'
stress 3 as shown in Fig. 3.2 b (Mohrs circle ). Therefore, using Eqn. (1.16) in
Chapter 1, the Rankine passive lateral effective stress is:
p'z' 1 sin ' 2c' 1 sin '

1 sin ' 1 sin '
(3.10)

'
z k p 2 c' k p
where,
1 sin ' 2 '

tan
kp 1 sin ' (45 2 ) (3.11)
is called the passive earth pressure coefficient. Based on Eqns. (3.9 and 3.11), we can
easily get the following relation for the active and passive earth pressure coefficients:
k 1
p k (3.12)
a
Equations (3.8) and (3.10) indicate that, for a homogeneous soil layer, the lateral
earth pressure varies linearly with depth z.
Figure 3.5: pressure distribution in c-' soil: a) c-' soil, b) active, c) passive state.
Figure 3.5 shows the active and passive lateral stress distribution for a smooth
wall retaining a c-' soil. In the active state case, the soil at depth z = 0 is subjected to
a tensile stress as shown in Fig. 3.5 b. Soils do not have tensile strength, as a result
tension cracks will occur down to a depth z0, where the tensile stress becomes zero. At
depth z0 (known as depth of tension crack), the stress is zero, thus,
----
k 2c'
0 'z0 ka 2c' a z0 ' ka (3.13)
The lateral earth force is the area of the lateral stress diagram (Fig. 3.5),
which for the Rankine active state, is:
H
1 2
Pa ( 'zka 2c' ka ) 2 ka 'H 2c'H ka (3.14)
0
and, for the Rankine passive state, is
H
1 2
Pp ( 'zk p 2c' k p ) 2 k p 'H 2c'H k p (3.15)
0
For most retaining wall construction, a granular backfill is used and c = 0,

therefore, for granular soils Eqns. (3.13) and (3.14) can be rewritten as:
2
P 1 k 'H (3.16)
a 2 a
and
2
P 1 k 'H (3.17)
p 2 p
EXAMPLE 3.2
Draw the active pressure diagram per meter length of an 8 m high smooth
vertical retaining wall. Also, calculate a) tension crack depth and b) the resultant
(total) active force and its location. The properties of the backfill soil are c = 20
kPa, '=250 and 3
=17.5 kN/m . Note that the tension zone is usually ignored for
finding the magnitude and location of the resultant force.
3.5 Lateral Earth Pressure due to Surcharge
Surfaces stresses (due to surcharge) also impose lateral pressure on

retaining walls as illustrated in Fig. 3.6 d. A uniform surface stress, qs, will
transmit a uniform active lateral earth pressure of kaqs and a uniform passive
lateral earth pressure of kpqs. The active and passive lateral stresses due to the
soil (i.e. c,'soil), and the uniform surfaces stresses are then:
a' ka 'z ka qs (3.18)
'
and p k p 'z k p qs (3.19)
The corresponding active and passive lateral forces are also given by:
----
2
P 1 k 'H k q H (3.20)
a 2 a a s
and
2
P 1 k 'H k q H (3.21)
p 2 p p s
Figure 3.6: Variation of active and passive lateral earth pressures, hydrostatic
pressure, and a uniform surface stress with depth. (Note: backfill soil is granular).
For a c,'backfill, Eqns. (3.18) and (3.19) will become:
k
a' ka 'z ka qs 2c' a (3.22)
'
k
and p k p 'z k p qs 2c' p (3.23)
The corresponding active and passive lateral forces are also given by:
2
P 1 k 'H k q H 2c'H k (3.24)
a 2 a a s a
and
2
P 1 k 'H k q H 2c' k (3.25)
p 2 p p s p
Note that for a purely cohesive saturated clay with undrained shear strength
parameter of cu and 'u=0, ka = kp = 1.
3.6 Lateral Earth Pressure When Groundwater is Present
If groundwater is present, you need to add the hydrostatic pressure (pore water
----
pressure) to the lateral earth pressure. For example, if the groundwater level is at a
distance hw from the base of the wall as shown in Fig. 3.6, the hydrostatic pressure is,
u w hw (3.26)
and the hydrostatic force is:
P 1 h2 (3.27)
w 2 w w
3.7 Summary of Rankine Lateral Earth Pressure Theory
1. The lateral earth pressures on retaining walls are related directly to the vertical
effective stress through two coefficients ka and k p .
2. Substantially more movement is required to mobilize the full passive earth

pressure than the full active earth pressure.
3. A family of slip planes occurs in the Rankine active and passive states. In the
0
active state, the slip planes are oriented at (45 + '/ 2 ) to the horizontal, and
0
while for the passive case they are oriented at (45 - '/ 2 ) to the horizontal.
4. The lateral earth pressure coefficients, developed so far are only valid for a
smooth, vertical wall supporting a soil mass with a horizontal surface; and must
be applied to effective stresses only.
EXAMPLE 3.3
For the frictionless wall retaining a stratified soil and shown in Fig. E3.2, determine:
(a) The active lateral earth pressure distribution with depth.
(b) The passive lateral earth pressure distribution with depth.
(c) The magnitude and location of the active and passive forces.
(d) The resultant force.
(e) The ratio of passive moment to active moment.
FIGURE E3.2
----
Strategy There are two layers. It is best to treat the layers separately. Neither k a
nor kp should be applied to the pore water pressure. You do not need k p for the
top soil layer. Since the water level on both sides of the wall is the same, the
resultant hydrostatic force is zero. However, you are asked to determine the forces
on each side of the wall; therefore, you have to consider the hydrostatic force. A
table is helpful to solve this type of problem.
3.8 Rankine Active & Passive Earth Pressure for Inclined Granular Backfill
'
If the backfill of a frictionless retaining wall is a granular soil (c = 0, ) and rises
'
at an angle ( ) with respect to the horizontal (Figure 3.7), the Rankine active
earth pressure coefficient ka is expressed in the form:
2 2 '
cos cos cos
ka cos 2 2 '
(3.28)
cos cos cos
The Rankine active stress on the wall is:
a' 'zka (3.29)
and the Rankine active lateral force is:
' 2
P 1k H (3.30)
a 2 a
Note that, the direction of the lateral force P a is inclined at an angle to the
horizontal and intersects the wall at a distance of H/3 from the base of the wall.
Figure 3.7: Rankine Active Earth Pressure for Inclined Granular Backfill
The Rankine passive pressure coefficient kp for a wall with a granular sloping
----
backfill is:
2 2 '
k p cos cos cos cos (3.31)
2 2 '
cos cos cos
The Rankine passive stress and passive lateral force are calculated using equations
similar to Eqns. (3.24 and 3.25) in which ka is replaced by kp. As in the case of the
active force, the resultant force Pp is inclined at angle with the horizontal and
intersects the wall at a distance of H/3 from the bottom of the wall.
EXAMPLE 3.4
A retaining wall with a vertical back is 5 m high and retains a sloping soil with
0
=20 . Determine the magnitude of the active pressure.
3.9 Coulombs Earth Pressure Theory
As described in the previous sections, the Rankine earth pressure theory: (1)
assumes the retaining wall is frictionless (or smooth), and (2) considers stress states
and uses such tools as the Mohrs circle of stress. Coulomb (1776) proposed a theory to
determine the lateral earth pressure on a retaining wall by assuming a granular backfill
(c = 0) and a plane sliding surface. He did this in order to simplify somewhat the
mathematically complex problem introduced when cohesion and nonplane sliding
surfaces are considered. He, however, account for the effects of friction (usually
expressed by angle ) between the backfill and the wall. Besides, he considered the
more general case of the sloped face of a retaining wall, and in this respect, Coulombs
theory is a more general approach than the Rankine theory described earlier.
Figure 3.8: Direction of active and passive forces when wall friction is present.
Coulomb assumed a wedge shape collapse mechanism which is bounded by the

face of the retaining wall, a horizontal or inclined ground surface and a linear failure
plane. The wedge slides downwards on the failure plane in the active state or upwards
----
in the passive state. Figure 3.8 illustrates direction of active and passive forces
when wall friction is present.
Figure 3.9: Retaining wall with slopping back, wall friction, and sloping soil surface
for use with Coulombs method for active state.
Based on Coulombs theory, a condition of limit equilibrium exists through

which a wedge of a soil mass behind a retaining wall will slip along a plane inclined
at an angle to the horizontal. Figure 3.9 illustrates a retaining wall with slopping
back, wall friction, and sloping soil surface for use with Coulombs method for
active state. Based on the equilibrium of the forces acting on the wedge (Fig. 3.9),
Coulomb proposed the following equation to determine the active lateral force,
2
P 1 k 'H (3.32)
a 2 ac
where kac is Coulombs active pressure coefficient, which is determined by the

following expression.
2
kac sin ( ')
(3.33)
2
2 sin(' ) sin(' )
sin sin( ) 1
sin( ) sin( )
Note that the line of action of the active force Pa will act at a distance H/3
above the base of the wall and will be inclined at angle to the normal drawn to
the back of the wall. In the actual design of retaining walls, the value of the wall
' 2
friction angle, , is assumed to be between 2 and 3 '. Retaining walls are
generally constructed of masonry or mass concrete. Table 3.1 shows the general
range of the values of for various backfill materials.
----
Table 3.1: General range of wall friction angle for masonry or mass concrete walls
Backfill material Range of in degrees

Gravel 27 30
Course sand 20 28
Fine sand 15 25
Stiff clay 15 20
Silty clay 12 16
Coulombs passive earth pressure is determined similarly, except that passive

pressure inclination at the wall and direction of the forces acting on the wedge will be
as shown in Fig. 3.10. Coulombs passive earth pressure is given by:
2
P 1 k 'H (3.34)
a 2 ac
where kpc is Coulombs passive pressure coefficient, which is determined by the

following equation.
k 2
sin ( ')
pc (3.35)
2
2 sin(' ) sin(' )
sin sin( ) 1
sin( ) sin( )
Figure 3.10: Retaining wall with slopping back, wall friction, and sloping soil surface
for use with Coulombs method for passive state.
EXAMPLE 3.5
What is the total active force per meter of wall for the soil-wall system, shown in Fig.
E3.4 using the Coulomb equation? Where does Pa act?
----
Figure: E3.5
UNIT-IV
Anchored and Cantilever sheet piles
Introduction
Anchored sheet pile walls are held above the driven depth by anchors provided at suitable level. The anchors
provide forces for the stability of the sheet pile, in addition to the lateral passive resistance of the soil into
which the sheet piles are driven.
Fig. 6.17 Anchored sheet pile wall

It includes an anchor or tieback at or near the head of the wall. More than one set of anchors or tiebacks can
be used. It increases wall stability and enables taller walls to be built and sustained almost a necessity with
vinyl, aluminium and fiberglass sheet piles. It is not exclusive to sheet piling; also used with other types of in
situ wall systems. In case of cantilever sheet pile walls if the deflection at top point of the sheet pile wall is
very large, then settlement of soil takes place at top just behind the sheet pile wall. So, to reduce the
excessive deflections the anchors are provided. The different types of anchored sheet pile walls are shown in
figure.
Module 6 : Design of Retaining Structures
Lecture 28 : Anchored sheet pile walls [ Section 28.1 : Introduction ]
Different types of anchored sheet pile walls
Objectives
In this section you will learn the following
Free earth support piles
Fixed earth support piles
Comparison between fixed earth method and free earth method
There are types of anchored sheet pile walls

3 Free earth support piles,
3 Fixed earth support piles.
An anchored sheet pile is said to have free earth support when the depth of embedment is small and pile
rotates at its bottom tip. Thus, there is no point of inflection in the pile. It is assumed that
The base of the pile is relatively free to move, so passive resistance is mobilized on one face
only. The lateral pressure increases linearly with depth.
Wall friction is negligible.
Fig. 6.19 Free earth support

An anchored sheet pile is said to have free earth support when the depth of embedment is large and the
bottom tip of the pile is fixed against rotation. Thus, there is change in curvature of pile, hence inflection
point occurs. It is assumed that
The base of the pile is relatively fixed, so that there is a point of contra-flexure above the toe of the
pile. Passive resistance is mobilized on both faces (similar to cantilever pile).
The lateral pressure increases linearly with
depth. No wall friction
]
Fixed earth support
The free earth support method gives a pressure distribution that would apply when the wall is on the point of
failure by rotation about the anchor.
The fixed earth support method is unlikely to represent the true loading at any stage.
Both methods tend to over-estimate the bending moment in the pile.
The free earth support method is simpler.
In the fixed earth support, depth provided is more, moment through out the section reduces, so thiner section
is to be provided.
In the free earth support, depth provided is less, moment through out the section is more than fixed earth
support, so thicker section is to be provided.
Cohesionless soil
Cohesive soils
The figure shows the condition for the free earth support. The deflection of the bulk head is some what similar
to that of a vertical elastic beam whose lower end B is simply supported and the other end is fixed as shown in
fig. 6.5.6. The forces acting on the sheet pile are :
Active pressure due to soil behind pile,
Passive pressure due to soil in front of the pile,
The tension in the anchor rod.
Conditions for free earth support of an anchored sheet pile wall
Cohesionless soil
The forces acting on the wall are shown in the fig. Assuming that the material above and below dredged level
in cohesionless.
Forces acting on sheet pile in free earth support case (cohesionless soil)
From horizontal equlibrium,
Where,
T is the tensile force in the anchor,
is the resultant earth pressure acting below the dreaged level for b heigth of the wall,
is the resultant earth pressure acting for (h+a) heigth of the wall.
The depth a to the point of zero pressure can be determined by equating the earth pressure on both the side
of the sheet pile.
Therefore,
Taking moments of all forces about anchor point M,
(a + h e - ) (h e + a +2b/3 ) = 0
Where,
a is the distance of the zero earth pressure point below dredged level, h is
heigth of the sheet pile above the dredged level,
e is the distance of the anchor from the top level of sheet pile, generally taken as 1 to 1.5m,
is the distance between point of application of force and O point.
Substituting the value of in the above equation,
(a + h e - ) ( ) b (b/2) (h e + a +2b/3 ) = 0
The above equation can be written as,
( )( /3) + ( )( /2) (g+a) f=0
or
where, f = a + h e - and g = h e.
The above equation can be solved for b. Then, d is determined as,
d = b + a.
The actual depth D is taken equal to 1.2 to 1.4 times d.
The force in the anchor rod can be calcualted as,
The values of and are determined from the pressure diagrams.

Cohesive soils
Consider the case, the sheet pile is driven in clay ( = 0), but has the backfill of cohesionless soil as shown
in fig. The earth pressure distribution above the dredged line is same as that in case of cohesionless soil.
However the pressure below the dredge line at any point at a distance of z from dredged level is given as,
For =0, = = 1.0.
Therefore, = 2c + 2c h = 4c h
Where,
h is the height of the sheet pile above the dredged level,
c is the cohesion and is the unit weight of the soil.
Fig. 6.23 Forces acting on sheet pile in free earth support case (cohesive soil)
From the horizontal equilibrium of the forces,
or d=T
Where, T is the tensile force in the anchor,
is the resultant earth pressure acting below the dreaged level, is

the resultant earth pressure acting above the dreaged level.
Taking moments of all the forces about M,
f d (g + d/2) = 0
Substituting the value of = 4c h in the above equation,
f (4c h ) d (g + d/2) = 0
or
wher
e,
g is the distance of the tendon above dredged level,
f is the distance between the point of application of force and tendon (M) = g
. The above equation can be solved for d.
The actual depth provided is 20 to 40% more than
d. The force in the anchor rod can be calcualted as,
The values of and are determined from the pressure diagrams.
The wall becomes unstable when becomes zero.
4c h = 0, or
In the above equation, is the stability number. Therefore the wall becomes unstable when stability
number = 0.25.
Cohesionless soil
Cohesive soils
Design of sheet pile wall by fixed earth support
Design of sheet pile wall by fixed earth support

Figure shows the deflected shape of an anchored sheet pile with fixed earth support. The elastic line changes its
curvature at the inflection point I. the soil into which the soil is driven exerts a large restraint on the lower part of
the pile and causes the change in the curvature. The distance of the inflection point below dredged
level (i) can be related to the internal friction angle ( ) as given in table 1.
Table 1 Relation between Distance of the inflection point below dredged level (i) and Friction
angle ( )
Friction angle ( ) 20 0 25 0 30 0 40 0
Distance of the inflection point

0.25h 0.15h 0.08h -0.007h
below dredged level (i)
Where, h is the height of the sheet pile wall above the dredged level.
As exact analysis of the anchored sheet pile with fixed earth support is complicated, an approximate method
known as equivalent beam method is generally used. It is assumed that the sheet pile is a beam which is
simply supported at anchor point M and fixed at the lower end K. Figure shows the bending moment diagram.
The bending moment is zero at the inflection point I. The beam is divided into two parts as shown in figure.
The following procedure is used for the analysis:
(a) For beam AI:
determine the pressure at the dredged level,

determine the distance I of the inflection point from table 1.
determine the distance a i.e. the point of zero earth pressure ,
determine the pressure at the point of inflection as
determine the reaction for the beam IB by taking moments about point M of the anchor.
Equivalent beam method

(b) For beam IK :
determine pressure as
or
determine distance (d-a) by taking moments of the forces in beam IK about K. the reaction of the lower
beam is equal and opposite to the upper beam.
calculate depth d from equation in step . The provided depth (D) of sheet pile is 20% higher than d.
D=1.2 d
determine the tension T in the anchor by considering equilibrium of IA beam,
T= -
Where, is the total forces due to pressure on IB.
Design of sheet pile wall by fixed earth
Moment reduction for anchored wall
Rowe (1952) demonstrated that the Free Earth method overestimates the maximum bending
moment in anchored walls with horizontal tie rods. The sheet piles are relatively flexible and
these deflect considerably. Their flexibility causes a redistribution of the lateral earth pressure.
The net effect is that the maximum bending moment is considerably reduced below the value
obtained for the free earth supports. It is used to take into consideration the flexibility of the
pile and its effect on relieving the actual bending moment the wall
experiences. The reduced bending moment for design ( ) is given by
where
= maximum bending moment predicted by the Free Earth method,
= reduction factor depending on wall geometry, wall flexibility, and foundation soil
characteristics.
Moment reduction factor for granular foundation soils. When the soil below the dredge line is
granular, the magnitude of the reduction factor is a function of a flexibility number given by
where, H = total length of the sheet piling (ft),
E = modulus of elasticity of the pile material (psi),
I = moment of inertia (in 4 ) per foot of wall.
Curves of are given in fig. for "loose" and "dense" foundation material and several system
geometries.
Moment reduction factor for cohesive foundation soils. Moment reduction factors for piles in
homogeneous cohesive soils also depend on the stability number ( ) given by
where, c = cohesive strength of the soil,
= effective vertical soil pressure on the retained side of the wall at the elevation of the
dredge line .The curves for are given for various combinations of system parameters in
Figure
Rowe's moment reduction coefficients for sand (after Bowles, 1982)
Rowe's moment reduction coefficients for clays (after Bowles, 1982)

Moment reduction for anchored wall
UNIT-V,
Getting Control of Expansive Soil
Expansive soil, also called shrink-swell soil, is a very common cause of foundation
problems. Depending upon the supply of moisture in the ground, shrink-swell soils will
experience changes in volume of up to thirty percent or more. Foundation soils which
are expansive will heave and can cause lifting of a building or other structure during
periods of high moisture. Conversely during periods of falling soil moisture, expansive
soil will collapse and can result in building settlement. Either way, damage can be
extensive.
Expansive soil will also exert pressure on the vertical face of a foundation, basement
or retaining wall resulting in lateral movement. Shrink-swell soils which have expanded
due to high ground moisture experience a loss of soil strength or capacity and the
resulting instability can result in various forms of foundation problems and slope
failure. Expansive soil should always be a suspect when there is evidence of active
foundation movement.
In order for expansive soil to cause foundation problems, there must be fluctuations in
the amount of moisture contained in the foundation soils. If the moisture content of
the foundation soils can be stabilized, foundation problems can often be avoided. I will
be following up on this concept a bit later.
Clay Structure- the Molecular Sandwich
The expansion potential of any particular expansive soil is determined by the

percentage of clay and the type of clay in the soil. Clay particles which cause a soil to
be expansive are extremely small. Their shape is determined by the arrangement of
their constituent atoms which form thin clay crystals.
Clays belong to a family of minerals called silicates. The principal elements in clay are
silicone, aluminum and oxygen. Silicone atoms are positioned in the center of a
pyramid structure called a tetrahedron with one oxygen atom occupying each of the
four corners. Aluminum atoms are situated in the center of an octahedron with an
oxygen atom occupying each of the eight corners.
Because of electron sharing, the silicon tetrahedrons link together with one another to
form thin tetrahedral sheets. The aluminum octahedrons also link together to form
octahedral sheets. The actual clay crystals are a composite of aluminum and silicon
sheets which are held together by intra-molecular forces.
There are many other elements which can become incorporated into the clay mineral
structure such as hydrogen, sodium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, etc. The presence
and abundance of various dissolved elements or ions can impact the composition and
behavior of the clay minerals.
For a group of prominent and highly expansive clay minerals called smectites, one
octahedral sheet is sandwiched between two tetrahedral sheets to create the mineral
structure. In expansive clay, groupings of the constituent clay crystals will attract and
hold water molecules between their crystalline sheets in a sort of molecular
sandwich.
Water Dipoles
Water molecules consist of two hydrogen atoms sharing electrons with a single oxygen
atom. The water molecule is electrically balanced but within the molecule, the
offsetting charges are not evenly distributed. The two positively charged hydrogen
atoms are grouped together on one side of the larger oxygen atom. The result is that
the water molecule itself is an electrical dipole, having a positive charge where the
two hydrogen atoms are situated and a negative charge on the opposite or bare
oxygen side of the molecule.
The electrical structure of water molecules enable them to interact with other charged
particles. The mechanism by which water molecules become attached to the
microscopic clay crystals is called adsorption. Because of their shape, composition
and resulting electrical charge, the thin clay crystals or sheets have an electro-
chemical attraction for the water dipoles. The clay mineral montmorillonite, which is
the most notorious in the smectite family, can adsorb very large amounts of water
molecules between its crystalline sheets and therefore has a large shrink-swell
potential.
When potentially expansive soil becomes saturated, more and more water dipoles are
gathered between the crystalline clay sheets, causing the bulk volume of the soil to
increase or swell. The incorporation of the water into the chemical structure of the clay
will also cause a reduction in the capacity or strength of the soil.
During periods when the moisture in the expansive soil is being removed, either by
gravitational forces or by evaporation, the water between the clay sheets is released,
causing the overall volume of the soil to decrease or shrink. As the moisture is
removed from the soil, the shrinking soil can develop gross features such as voids or
desiccation crack. These shrinkage cracks can be readily observed on the surface of
bare soils and provide an important indication of expansive soil activity at the
property.
Magic Powder
Expansive clays have the ability to generate tremendous pressure on structures such
as concrete foundations. These high pressures are the key to the destructive power of
expansive clay in creating foundation problems. I have heard that these pressures can
be on the order of 15,000 pounds per square foot. I have a quick story to illustrate the
kind of pressure we are talking about.
A number of years ago I built a custom home for my brother the lawyer. He wanted a
big pad graded on his hillside lot and when I couldnt talk him out of it, I hired an
Indiana man named Marion to do the grading. In order to avoid foundation problems,
we were required to over-excavate so that we could put down a uniform layer of fill.
Marion started in with a big track loader but only a few feet down he started
uncovering some rocks that wouldnt budge. Marion was game to try removing the
rock and he went at it with tremendous zeal. Unfortunately, he might as well have
been trying to move the Rock of Gibraltar. This was not Indiana limestone- it was
California blue granite.
We then considered using dynamite but soon discovered a less dramatic solution- we
had holes drilled in the rock, poured in a magic powder and added water. The next
morning the massive granite rocks lay split wide open. The main ingredient in the
magic powder was a silicate with oxides of calcium, silicone and aluminum- in other
words expansive clay!
Expansion Potential
Potentially expansive soils which can cause foundation problems are identified by soils
engineers by measuring the percentage of fine particles in a particular sample. If over
50% of the particles in a sample are able to pass through a number 200 screen or
sieve- that is two hundred divisions to the inch- then the sample is classified as either
silt or clay or some combination of both. Regardless of the percentage of fines in a
particular sample, a significant presence of clay minerals in a sample can indicate a
possible expansive soil problem.
Clay particles are generally considered to be smaller than silt particles but the true
distinction between the two has more to do with origin and shape. Silt particles are
products of mechanical erosion and could actually be viewed as very small sand
particles. Clay particles are products of chemical weathering and are characterized by
their sheet structure and composition.
In order to determine the potential expansion of soils on a particular property, a soils

engineer will take representative samples at the jobsite and return them to the lab for
testing. Clay soils are often tested to determine their plasticity index. The plasticity
index is a measure of the range over which the clay sample will retain its plastic
characteristics. As water is added to a sample of solid dry clay, it will cease to behave
like a solid or semi-solid and start to behave like a plastic. The percentage of moisture
at that point is the plastic limit.
As one continues to add water, at some point the clay will cease to act like a plastic
and start to act like a liquid. That point is called the liquid limit. The plastic and liquid
limits of a sample are often referred to as the Atterberg limits after the scientist who
defined them. The difference between the plastic limit and the liquid limit is a measure
of the plasticity of the sample. Clay which has a plasticity index greater than 50 is
considered to be highly plastic. Highly plastic clays are often called fat clays. Fat
clays are usually highly expansive clays.
There are other laboratory tests designed specifically to measure the expansion
potential of a particular sample. By adding water to the sample while measuring its
deformation, the soils engineer will compare the result to a scale or Expansion Index.
The American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM D 4829) has published a test method
and an Expansion Index to quantify the results. The Expansion Index range and
potential expansion is as follows:
0-20: Very Low; 21-50: Low; 51-90: Medium; 91-130: High; >130: Very High.
Depending upon your local building code, a soils engineers report with specified
laboratory testing of representative samples from the jobsite may be required to
establish the expansion potential of the foundation soils. The building department may
require special engineering and foundation construction methods where expansive soil
conditions have been verified.
It is important to remember that the soil profile for any particular property may be
quite unique. Soil containing cobble, gravel, and sand may also be expansive
depending upon the percentage and type of clay in the sample. Depending upon
weathering patterns and other factors, near-surface soils may be highly expansive
while soils at depth may be non-expansive.
Based upon the soils investigation, the soils engineer should be able to characterize
the nature and distribution of expansive soil on a particular project which will aid
greatly in the formulation of a cost-effective foundation design.
Confining Pressure and Soil Movement
In order to recognize foundation problems caused by expansive soil, it is necessary to

understand the mechanism on the molecular level as I have described it above. Each
expanding clay particle contributes to the behavior of the soil mass.
A uniform mass of expansive soil which becomes saturated with moisture will exert
pressure in all directions as each individual expanding clay mineral seeks to occupy
more space. The direction and magnitude of soil movement will depend upon the
magnitude of the confining pressure at any particular point of resistance. Soil
movement will be minimized where confining pressures are the largest while
movement will be greatest where the magnitude of the confining pressure is the
smallest.
As depth increases, the weight of the overburden soil creates increasing confining
pressure. Therefore, for any particular uniform mass of expanding soil, the expansion
resistance is generally greater at depth than it is near the surface.
On level ground, the magnitude of expanding soil movement will be greatest near the
surface and in the upward direction. On sloping ground, the greatest magnitude of
movement will again be nearest the surface but the primary direction of movement will
also have a horizontal or lateral component.
Buildings and other structures which have been constructed on top of a mass of
expansive soil create confining pressure which tends to mitigate soil movement. The
magnitude of the confining pressure from a building or structure is determined by the
load distribution together with other expansion-resisting design elements. When the
confining pressure of a building or other structure does not exceed the pressure
exerted by the expanding soil, foundation movement will occur on the form of heave
or upward movement.
Differential Heave
In conventional slab-on-grade construction, the continuous concrete perimeter and

interior load-bearing footings are founded at greater depth and are more heavily
loaded than the concrete floor slab itself. Therefore, expansive soil acting uniformly on
a slab-on-grade building will generally encounter more resistance from the continuous
footings and less resistance from the slab itself.
Assuming that moisture is uniformly adsorbed by a mass of expansive soil, the

magnitude of any resulting heave will be greater for the lightly loaded slab than for the
more heavily loaded perimeter footing. This pattern, called differential heave, can be
observed and measured with a floor-level survey and plot. I have seen it over and over
again on California homes constructed on expansive soils.
For a typical single-story building with truss roof system, the pattern of contour lines
defining differential heave will often illustrate a hump or mound in the middle part of
the floor, where the magnitude of elevation increase at any one point is proportional to
the distance from the perimeter footing. Whenever I see the hump pattern on a
manometer plot, and after I have considered all other possible explanations, I am
usually quite confident that I am seeing evidence of expansive soils acting on the
structure.
Humping of a slab which has been caused by expansive soil is often accompanied by
multiple cracks which may radiate from the center of the hump. Cracks in walls and
ceilings will also be consistent with differential heave.
Another very common sign of expansive soil heave is cracking and lifting of the floor
slab of a two-car garage. The high point of the garage slab will usually be near the
mid-point of the garage door opening. Severe humping at this location will often
prevent the garage door from closing properly. This common phenomenon is a perfect
illustration of how the location and magnitude of soil expansion will be greatest where
the confining pressure is the least.
Differential heave of expansive soil is also a common occurrence for pier and beam
foundations. The differences in loading are often between interior isolated piers and
continuous footings which usually carry heavier loads. As with the slab-on-grade
foundation, uniform wetting of foundation soils can result in a mounding pattern where
interior floors have heaved more than the building perimeter.
Patterns of Wetting and Drying
In evaluating damage which may have been caused by expansive soil, one must
always consider patterns of wetting and drying of the soil. Soil moisture changes may
be due to a rise and fall in the ground water table with the seasons. Soil moisture
changes may also be due to periods of unusual rain, changes in humidity or unusual
drought. These kinds of changes would be most likely to produce more uniform soil
moisture conditions and patterns of foundation movement.
There are also moisture conditions which are caused by other factors such as plumbing
leaks, site drainage, and irrigation practices. These conditions can cause differences in
the volume of moisture which is being adsorbed by the expansive clay crystals,
influencing the behavior of expansive soil and bringing about a variety of foundation
movement patterns.
For example, if there is a slow drip or leak in the plumbing system, foundation heave
surrounding the leak may be more pronounced. This will show up on the manometer
plot as an anomaly which can lead to the location and repair of the leak.
Perhaps because of poor site drainage, the crawl space at one time became saturated
due to heavy rains and flooding. Later, because of the effects of sun and wind, the
perimeter soils dried more quickly resulting in shrinkage and collapse. The perimeter
footing would settle while the wetter soils of the crawl space would keep the interior
floor elevated. The floor level pattern would thus reflect the simultaneous effects of
shrinkage and swelling of the foundation soils.
Conversely, in a dry climate with a dry crawl space, continuous irrigation around the
building perimeter would cause heave of expansive soils and lifting of the perimeter
footing while interior floors may remain unaffected. The floor level pattern would then
be the reverse of the previous example- high on the perimeter and low in the center.
Lateral Movement and Slope Creep
Expansive soils can also have pronounced effects on site improvements such as patios,
walkways, and swimming pools. Because they are lightly loaded, exterior flatwork
constructed of concrete, brick, and flagstone will quickly respond to soil movement
caused by expansive soils. Severe cracking and dislocation of these materials can be
the result.
Expansive soils can be particularly brutal to swimming pools and associated

improvements. I have seen pools heave, rotate, and crack as a result of expansive
soil. Once the cracking begins, the leaking water just feeds the problem. Anyone
planning a new pool or planning to repair a pool should consult a knowledgeable pool
engineer who will evaluate the soil and design accordingly.
Pavements resting on expansive soils which are also abutted to a building foundation
or a retaining wall can move laterally away from the abutting structure while also
lifting up, a reflection of the principal that expansive soils exert pressure in all
directions. This lateral movement of improvements can be particularly pronounced
when there is a nearby slope.
The shrink-swell properties of expansive soils will often cause a phenomenon called
slope creep. Recalling that there is always a horizontal component of expansive soil
movement on sloping ground, the periodic swelling and shrinkage of expansive soils on
a slope, together with the forces of gravity, will result in an ongoing conveyance or
creep of soil down the face of the slope.
Slope creep can be responsible for distress to on-slope and near slope improvements
which can be observed and measured. Walls and fences in particular will rotate in the
down-slope direction under the influence of expansive soil. Hillside improvements on
creeping soils must be heavily reinforced and firmly anchored to the soil in order to
prevent damage and eventual destruction. Design oversight by a qualified foundation
engineer is highly recommended.
Design Strategies
In new construction where expansive soil is a concern, the engineer may require
controlled pre-wetting of the soil prior to placement of the foundation. This will cause
pre-expansion of the soil with the idea that further expansion pressure on the new
foundation will be minimized.
Alternatively the soils engineer may recommend that the upper several feet of
expansive soil be removed and new non-expansive material be imported and
compacted to create a stable layer of soil at the building footprint. Depending upon the
severity of expansion potential, non-expansive soils may be mixed with expansive soil
to lower the expansion potential to an acceptable level.
Where expansive soil conditions have been causing foundation movement on existing
structures, repair designs may include deepened footings, thicker slabs, and extra
reinforcing in all concrete foundation elements. Often, underpinning may be required
to transfer the building loads to deeper and more stable soils.
There are a variety of underpinning methods which include the use of grade beams,
concrete piers, pipe piles, screw anchors and a variety of other systems. Underpinning
is a separate topic on this website and the visitor is encouraged to go there for a
focused discussion of the topic.
The Structural Slab
One common expansive soil repair recommendation for existing slab-on-grade

foundations involves the removal of the original concrete slab floor and replacement
with a structural slab. A structural slab has extra thickness and reinforcing to resist
movement and distress caused by the expansion pressure of the underlying expansive
soil.
Exactly what constitutes a structural slab will depend upon the engineer. In my
experience, a structural slab is usually about five or six inches thick and is reinforced
with half-inch reinforcing bar (#4 bars) at eighteen to twenty-four inch centers in both
directions.
If the existing load-bearing footings are to remain, a concrete saw must be used to cut
through the slab, leaving those narrow sections of slab which are directly on top of
load-bearing footings. The new structural slab must be connected to the remaining
sections of slab with rebar dowels.
Rebar dowels are pieces of rebar which are epoxy-glued into pre-drilled horizontal
holes in the vertical face of the remaining concrete. Drilling is done with a roto-
hammer or hammer drill and must be to a specified depth to achieve the required
strength. The epoxy manufacturer will usually specify the hole size and depth required
for a particular size rebar.
Depending upon the severity of the expansive soil problem, the engineer may require
that soil beneath the proposed structural slab be removed down to a particular depth
and replaced with non-expansive material. If such is the recommendation, I will
usually ask the engineer to give me an alternative design to see if it may be more cost
effective to increase the thickness and reinforcing in the structural slab rather than
remove the soil.
Calcium Treatments
There are also expansive soil chemical treatments available which are designed to alter
the clay mineralogy and reduce the expansion potential. Treatment with lime or
Calcium Oxide is the most traditional treatment method. Together with cement and
fly-ash, lime is referred to as a calcium-based treatment. Most commonly used for
treating the subgrade on highway construction projects, lime is introduced into the soil
in the presence of water.
The lime can cause a reaction called cation exchange where ions or positively
charged atoms in solution are substituted for other species of ion which are attached
to the clay mineral crystals.
Lime treatment of expansive soil also causes flocculation-agglomeration in which the

positive charged ions react with negative charged particles and create other conditions
which allow the small clay particles to clump together into larger particles.
Other effects of lime treatment may include the formation of cementing agents within
the expansive soil. The net effect of lime treatment is mitigation of foundation
problems by reducing in the shrink-swell potential and by increasing the strength of
the treated soil.
Alternative Soil Stabilizers
High-sulfate soils do not respond well to lime or other calcium-based soil treatment
methods. As a result, highway departments and soils engineering researchers are
looking for new and better options. Some of the alternatives which are being tested
and tried by highway departments include silica fume, amorphous silica, fly ash, cation
exchange products, enzymes, acids, emulsions, and polymers.
Presently there are a number of non-traditional proprietary liquid soil stabilizer

products which are being offered for the treatment of expansive soil foundation
problems affecting existing buildings and structures. These products may be classified
as ionic or cation exchange treatments, enzyme treatments which involve
application of various organic catalysts and polymer treatments which utilize both
organic and inorganic polymers.
Research on the no-traditional treatment systems is on-going. Due to the magnitude

of the foundation problems caused by expansive soil, new and better products are
needed. I would caution property owners to get the facts and insist on verifiable
results when considering a liquid soil stabilizer.
Moisture Control- Subgrade Irrigation
Toward the beginning of my discussion of expansive soils, I made the following

statement: In order for expansive soil to cause foundation problems, there must be
fluctuations in the amount of moisture contained in the foundation soils. If the
moisture content of the foundation soils can be stabilized, foundation problems can
often be avoided. Moisture control is, in my opinion, an essential and potentially very
cost-effective approach to management of foundation problems associated with

expansive soil.
The goal in moisture control is to take actions which will keep the expansive soil at a
relatively constant level of moisture content. One system which is being used to treat
expansive soil is called subgrade irrigation. The object is to stabilize the expansive
soil by injecting moisture into the subgrade.
A program of subgrade irrigation for expansive soil should be designed by an engineer

and based upon an investigation of the site and testing of the potentially expansive
soil. Subgrade irrigation involves the installation of pipes to conduct water into the
foundation soils at various injection points. The amount of water required depends
upon the season and the humidity.
Periodic measurement of soil moisture will be required so that the amount of water
injected can be adjusted accordingly. The source of water may be a well or the
domestic water supply. Subgrade irrigation is an ongoing process should be
maintained for the life of the structure.
Subgrade irrigation of expansive soil will usually include the removal of nearby
vegetation which could potentially extract moisture from the soil by transpiration-
the process which accompanies photosynthesis whereby moisture is drawn up by the
plants roots and released through the leaves into the air.
While I have no doubt that subgrade irrigation can be successful in controlling

expansive soil movement, I have not been an enthusiastic supporter of this idea. The
high levels of soil moisture which are induced by subgrade irrigation can potentially
reduce soil capacity. High soil moisture can also accelerate damage to foundation and
structural elements such as concrete, rebar and wood framing. Finally, there are
ongoing costs and maintenance requirements.
Soil Protection: A Perimeter Apron
Another approach which can be effective in mitigation of swelling and shrinkage of

expansive soil involves application of measures to protect the soil mass from excessive
wetting or drying. When using this approach, one accepts the existence of the
expansive foundation soil and corrective work is focused on drainage-control strategies
to keep the soils within an acceptable range of moisture content.
I will often take this approach when dealing with older properties where the damage
level has not been too severe and/or the budget for repair is limited. This approach
has the twin objectives of intercepting excessive moisture which would cause soil
saturation while also shielding the soil from evaporation and other factors which would
lead to excessive desiccation.
My favorite which accomplishes both objectives at once is the perimeter apron. The
perimeter apron is a broad protective pavement which is applied to the surface grade
around the entire perimeter of the building. All plants and planters are removed. All
roof and surface drainage is controlled and directed away from the building.
Having installed the perimeter apron, one has put a covering on the soil surface which
diverts all rainfall and drainage away from the foundation soils- mitigating soil
saturation. At the same time during times dry periods, the foundation soils are
protected from the sun and the wind which tend to suck the moisture out of the soil.
A perimeter apron can be of any durable paving material or hardscape such as

asphalt, concrete, brick or flagstone. The important thing is that all joints or cracks are
sealed up watertight. I do not favor the use of plastic, often placed under a layer of
loose gravel, as a perimeter apron. Plastic is too easily damaged and where gravel is
used, water will accumulate and drain into the perforations.
The perimeter apron is particularly attractive because it is a duel-purpose

improvement- it is both a protective apron and a walkway. Once the apron is installed,
there exists an all-weather access around the building. For homeowners who love to
have perimeter planters, this is certainly possible as long as the planters are put on
top of the hardscape and excess irrigation does not penetrate into the foundation soil.
French Drains and Cutoff Walls
All forms of drainage control can help to mitigate the adverse effects of expansive soil
on a property. A French drain or subdrain system can be particularly effective where
high water tables and subgrade drainage conditions are bringing high volumes of
moisture into the foundation soils.
Simply stated, a French drain is a trench filled with gravel which captures and removes
unwanted water. Usually there is a perforated pipe in the bottom of the trench where
the moisture accumulates from transport to a discharge point at the end of the pipe.
When a French drain is placed around the perimeter of a building, it serves as a barrier
to groundwater which would otherwise saturate the foundation soils.
Depending upon the soil conditions, it may also be advantageous to place a cutoff
wall between the French drain and the building. A cutoff wall is a vertical barrier
which prevents soil moisture from moving horizontally- either into of away from the
foundation soils.
A cutoff wall may be a concrete wall which abuts or is attached to the existing
perimeter foundation. If attached to the foundation, a cutoff wall will transfer the
footing loads to deeper soils and as such it also becomes an underpinning system. If
underpinning is not required, a heavy plastic liner between the French drain and the
building may serve the same function as a cutoff wall.

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ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

IV B. Tech I semester (JNTUH-R13)

Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces

Fig. 7.1 : Main components of a structure including soil

Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qf) : It is the maximum pressure that a

Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qn) : It is the maximum extra

soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure.

Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa) : It is the maximum pressure the

Foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with

Modes of shear failure

Shear failure in foundation soil P curve in different foundation

General Shear Failure

7. State of plastic equilibrium is reached initially at the footing edge

Local Shear Failure

Punching Shear Failure

5. Continuous settlement with no increase in P is observed in P

Fig. Modes of failure at different Relative densities & depths of

Distinction between General Shear & Local or Punching Shear

Table : Distinction between General Shear & Local Shear Failures

Results in small strain (<5%) Results in large strain (>20%)

Terzaghis bearing Capacity Theory

6. Method of superposition is valid.

Fig. Terzaghis concept of Footing with five distinct failure zones in

Net ultimate bearing capacity, qn cN c DN q 0.5BN D

Safe bearing capacity, qs cN c D( Nq 1) 0.5BN D

Table: Bearing capacity factors for different

Fig. Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Factors for different

Effect of shape of Foundation

The shape of footing influences the bearing capacity. Terzaghi and

Summary of Shape factors

Table 7.3 : Shape factors for different shapes of footing

Local shear failure

Table Bearing capacity factors in zones of local, mixed and general

Local Shear Failure Mixed Zone General Shear

Effect of Water Table fluctuation

0.5 < RW1 < 1

Fig. 7.5 : Effect of water table on bearing capacity

where ZW1 is the depth of water table from ground level.

where ZW2 is the depth of water table from foundation level.

Effect of eccentric foundation base

Fig. 7.6 : Effect of eccentric footing on bearing capacity

The bearing capacity equation is developed with the idealization that

Further, area of foundation to be considered for safe load carried by

It is the factor of ignorance about the soil under consideration. It

Table Typical factors of safety for bearing capacity calculation in

Density of soil : In geotechnical engineering, one deals with several

(a) Water table above base (b)Water table below base

: Factors influencing Bearing Capacity

Brinch Hansens Bearing Capacity equation

consideration all the factors. Brinch Hansen and several other

Here, the bearing capacity factors are given by the following

Determination of Bearing Capacity from field tests

Heavy equipment to be carried to field

Plate Load Test

Fig.: typical set up for Plate Load test assembly

1. It is a field test for the determination of bearing capacity and

6. In reaction loading, a reaction truss or beam is anchored to the

The disadvantages of Plate Load Test are

3. Size effect is pronounced in granular soil. Correction for size

Standard Penetration Test

Fig.: typical set up for Standard Penetration test assembly

5. Split spoon sampler is placed vertically in the hole, allowed to

Advantages of Standard Penetration Test are

Safe load, P = qsBB = 3285.4 kN