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Unit 1 Functions and Relations
Concepts and Objectives
z Number Theory (Obj. #1)
z Identify subsets of real numbers
z Simplify expressions using order of operations
z Identify real number axioms
z Rational Numbers (Obj. #2)
z Convert between fractions and decimals
Number Systems
z What we currently know as the set of real numbers was
only formulated around 1879. We usually present this
as sets of numbers.
Number Systems
z The set of natural numbers ( ) and the set of integers
( ) have been around since ancient times, probably
prompted by the need to maintain trade accounts.
Ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonians, also used
ratios to compare quantities.
z One of the greatest mathematical advances was the
introduction of the number 0.
Properties of Real Numbers
For all real numbers a, b, and c:
z Closure Property z Identity Property
z a + b ∈ z a + 0 = a
z ab ∈ z a i 1 = a
z Commutative Property z Inverse Property
z a + b = b + a z a + (–a) = 0
z ab = ba 1
z a i =1
z Associative Property a
z Distributive Property
z (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
z a(b + c) = ab + ac
z (ab)c = a(bc)
Properties of Real Numbers
z The properties are also called axioms.
z 0 is called the additive identity and 1 is called the
multiplicative identity.
z Notice the relationships between the identities and the
inverses (called the additive inverse and the
multiplicative inverse).
z Saying that a set is “closed” under an operation (such as
multiplication) means that performing that operation on
numbers in the set will always produce an answer that is
also in the set – there are no answers outside the set.
Properties of Real Numbers
z Examples
z The set of natural numbers ( ) is not closed under the
operation of subtraction. Why?
z –20 ÷ 5 = –4. Does this show that the set of integers is
closed under division?
Order of Operations
z Parentheses (or other grouping symbols, such as square
brackets or fraction bars) – start with the innermost set,
following the sequence below, and work outward.
z Exponents
z Multiplication
z Division working from left to right
z Addition
working from left to right
z Subtraction
Order of Operations
z Use order of operations to explain why
( −3 )
2
≠ −32
Order of Operations
Work the following examples without using your calculator.
1. −2 i 5 + 12 ÷ 3
−4 ( 9 − 8 ) + ( −7 )( 2)
3
2.
−8 + ( −4 )( −6 ) ÷ 12
3.
4 − ( −3)
Absolute Value
z The absolute value of a real number a, denoted by |a|, is
the distance from 0 to a on the number line. This
distance is always taken to be nonnegative.
⎧ x if x ≥ 0
x =⎨
⎩− x if x < 0
Absolute Value Properties
For all real numbers a and b:
1. a ≥ 0
2. −a = a
3. a i b = ab
a a
4. = (b ≠ 0)
b b
5. a+b ≤ a + b
Absolute Value
z Example: Rewrite each expression without absolute
value bars.
1. 3 −1
2. 2− π
3.
x
, if x < 0
x
Rational Numbers
z The Greeks, specifically Pythagoras of Samos, originally
believed that the lengths of all segments in geometric
objects could be expressed as ratios of positive integers.
z A number is a rational number ( ) if and only if it can be
expressed as the ratio (or quotient) of two integers.
z Rational numbers include decimals as well as fractions.
The definition does not require that a rational number
must be written as a quotient of two integers, only that it
can be.
Examples
z Example: Prove that the following numbers are
rational numbers by expressing them as ratios of
integers.
0.9
1. 2‐4 4.
6.3
2. 64‐½ 5. 20.3
4π
3. 6. –5.4322986
π
Irrational Numbers
z Unfortunately, the Pythagoreans themselves later
discovered that the side of a square and its diagonal
could not be expressed as a ratio of integers.
z Prove is irrational.
2
Proof (by contradiction): Assume is rational. This
2
means that there exist relatively prime integers a and b
such that
a a2
2 = ⇒2= 2
b b
2b2 = a2 , therefore, a is even
Irrational Numbers
This means there is an integer j such that 2j=a.
2b2 = ( 2 j )
2
2b = 4 j
2 2
b2 = 2 j 2 ⇒ b is even
If a and b are both even, then they are not relatively
prime. This is a contradiction. Therefore, is
2
irrational.
z n
Theorem: Let n be a positive integer. Then is either
an integer or it is irrational.
Real Numbers
z The number line is a geometric model of the system of
real numbers. Rational numbers are thus fairly easy to
represent:
z What about irrational numbers? Consider the following:
(1,1)
•
2
Real Numbers
z In this way, if an irrational number can be identified
with a length, we can find a point on the number line
corresponding to it.
z What this emphasizes is that the number line is
continuous—there are no gaps.
Intervals
Name of Inequality
Notation Number Line Representation
Interval Description
a b
finite, open
(a, b) a < x < b a b
a b
finite, closed
[a, b] a≤x≤b
a b
a bb
finite, half
open
(a, b] a < x ≤ b
a b
[a, b) a ≤ x < b
a b
a b
infinite, open
(a, ∞) a < x < ∞
a
(‐∞, b) ‐∞ < x < b
b
a b
infinite,
closed
[a, ∞) a ≤ x < ∞
a
(‐∞, b] ‐∞< x ≤ b
b
Finite and Repeating Decimals
z If a nonnegative real number x can be expressed as a
finite sum of of the form
d1 d2 dt
x = D++ + ... + t
10 102 10
where D and each dn are nonnegative integers and
0 ≤ dn ≤ 9 for n = 1, 2, …, t, then D.d1d2…dt is the finite
decimal representing x.
Finite and Repeating Decimals
z If the decimal representation of a rational number does
not terminate, then the decimal is periodic (or
repeating). The repeating string of numbers is called the
period of the decimal.
a
z It turns out that for a rational number where b > 0,
the period is at most b – 1. b
Finite and Repeating Decimals
z Example: Use long division (yes, long division) to find
462
the decimal representation of and find its period.
13
What is the period of this decimal?
Finite and Repeating Decimals
z The repeating portion of a decimal does not necessarily
start right after the decimal point. A decimal which
starts repeating after the decimal point is called a
simpleperiodic decimal; one which starts later is called a
delayedperiodic decimal.
Decimal Representation
z For simple‐periodic decimals, the “trick” is to turn them
into fractions with the same number of 9s in the
denominator as there are repeating digits and simplify:
3 1 9 1 153846 2
0.3 = = 0.09 = = 0.153846 = =
9 3 99 11 999999 13
To put this more generally, the decimal
0.d1d2d3 ...dp
M
can be written as the fraction , where M is the
10p − 1
integer d1d2d3…dp.
Decimal Representation
z For delayed‐periodic decimals, the process is a little
more complicated. Consider the following:
1
What is the decimal representation of ? 0.083
12
1 1 1
is the product of what two fractions? i
12 4 3
Notice that the decimal representation has
characteristics of each factor.
Decimal Representation
z It turns out you can break a delayed‐periodic decimal
into a product of terminating and simple‐periodic
decimals, so the general form is also a product of the
general forms:
d1d2d3…dtdt+1dt+2dt+3…dt+p – d1d2d3…dt .
Decimal Representation
z Example: Convert the decimal to a
0.467988654
fraction.