Unit 1: Task cycle 1 - Write An Article And Demonstrate An Application Of The Device

Selected

Nelson Stefan Ortiz Puertas

CDIGO: 94285773
Grupo 299002_15

Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia UNAD

CCAV Dosquebradas
Fsica de Semiconductores
Programa de Ingeniera Electrnica
Fsica de Semiconductores 299002A_363
Unit 1. Task cycle 1 - Write an article and demonstrate an application of the device selected

Semiconductors are resistive devices. Some examples of semiconductors are transistors, junction
diodes, Zener diodes, tunnel diodes, integrated circuits and metal rectifiers. Semiconductors are
used in computers, radio receivers, television sets, video recorders and other electronic devices.
In addition semiconductors perform various control functions. They can be used as rectifiers,
amplifiers, detectors, oscillators and switching elements. Some characteristics of semiconductors
are the following.

1. Semiconductors are solid. Therefore, it is very unlikely that they will vibrate.
2. Semiconductors consume little energy and radiate little heat. They do not require warm-up
time and start working as soon as they are supplied with energy.
3. Semiconductors are strong and can be configured to remain airtight in the external
environment. Together with their reduced size these characteristics allow large circuits to occupy
a minimum space.
4. This two-element device has a unique feature: the ability to allow the passage of current in
only one direction.

Semiconductor materials and impurities

The silicon and the germanium, are the materials with which semiconductor devices are currently
being built. Silicon predominates because it is less sensitive to heat. Before making efficient
semiconductor materials with them, germanium and silicon must undergo a high purification
process. In their original state, the conductivity of these semiconductors is very low; that is, its
resistivity is high. To increase the conductivity of germanium and silicon are added minute
quantities of certain "impurities". The addition of various amounts and varieties of impurities, or
contamination, modifies the structure of the electronic bond of the atoms of these elements, and
provides them with current carriers that increase their conductivity.
These impurities are arsenic and antimony. Impurities increase the conductivity of silicon by
increasing the amount of negative charge (free) electrons (N). Due to the above, silicon
contaminated with arsenic or antimony is known as type N. N-type silicon contains some
positive (hollow) charges, but they are the minority and are known as minority carriers. It can be
considered that the current flow in the N-type silicon is carried by the free electrons, which are
the majority carriers.
Impurities such as indium and gallium raise the conductivity of silicon by increasing the number
of positive charge carriers (P, voids). The silicon contaminated with indium or gallium is known
as type P. The type P silicon contains some free electrons, but they are minority carriers. The
flow of the current in the P-type silicon can be considered to be carried out through gaps, which
are the majority carriers.
The holes feel attraction for the free electrons. When you get to "find" a free electron and a gap,
the first "fills" the gap and neutralizes its charge. It is said that the free electron has combined
with the gap. During this process, both the hollow and the free electron are lost as current
carriers. While this is happening, new current carriers are also forming in other parts of the
semiconductor.
Types of semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors
A silicon crystal forms a tetrahedral structure similar to that of carbon by covalent bonds
between its atoms
Extrinsic Semiconductors
If an intrinsic semiconductor, like the previous one, is added a small percentage of impurities,
that is, trivalent or pentavalent elements, the semiconductor is called extrinsic, and is said to be
doped. Obviously, impurities should form part of the crystalline structure by replacing the
corresponding silicon atom.
Semiconductor type N
A type N Semiconductor is obtained by conducting a doping process by adding a certain type of
atoms to the semiconductor in order to increase the number of free charge carriers (in this case,
negatives or electrons).
When the dopant material is added, it brings its electrons more loosely bound to the
semiconductor atoms. This type of doping agent is also known as donor material since it gives
some of its electrons.
The purpose of n-type doping is to produce abundance of carrier electrons in the material. To
help understand how doping type n occurs, consider the case of silicon (Si). The silicon atoms
have an atomic valence of four, whereby a covalent bond is formed with each of the adjacent
silicon atoms. If an atom with five valence electrons, such as those in the VA group of the
periodic table (eg phosphorus (P), arsenic (As) or antimony (Sb)), is incorporated into the crystal
lattice in the place of an atom of silicon, then that atom will have four covalent bonds and one
unbound electron. This extra electron results in the formation of "free electrons", the number of
electrons in the material far exceeds the number of holes, in that case the electrons are the
majority carriers and the voids are the minority carriers. Because atoms with five valence
electrons have an extra electron to "give," they are called donor atoms. Note that each free
electron in the semiconductor is never far from an immobile positive dopant ion, and the N-type
doped material usually has a final net electric charge of zero ....

Semiconductor type P
A type P Semiconductor is obtained by conducting a doping process, adding a certain type of
atoms to the semiconductor in order to increase the number of free (in this case positive or void)
charge carriers.

When the dopant material is added, it releases the weakly bonded electrons from the
semiconductor atoms. This doping agent is also known as acceptor material and semiconductor
atoms that have lost an electron are known as voids.

The purpose of doping type P is to create plenty of voids. In the case of silicon, a trivalent atom
(typically from group IIIA of the periodic table) of the neighboring atoms is joined thereby
completing its four bonds. Thus the dopants create the "holes". Each gap is associated with a
negatively charged nearby ion, so the semiconductor is generally electrically neutral. However,
when each hole has moved through the network, a proton of the atom in the position of the hole
is "exposed" and soon is balanced by an electron. For this reason a gap behaves as a certain
positive charge. When a sufficient number of acceptors are added, the gaps largely outweigh the
thermal excitation of the electrons. Thus, gaps are the majority carriers, while electrons are the
minor carriers in P-type materials. Blue diamonds (type IIb) containing boron impurities (B) are
an example of a P-type semiconductor produces in a natural way.

Diode
A diode (from the Greek "two ways") is a semiconductor device that allows the passage of
electric current in a single direction with characteristics similar to a switch. In simplified form,
the characteristic curve of a diode (IV) consists of two regions: below a certain potential
difference, it behaves like an open circuit (not conducting), and above it as a short circuit with
very small resistance electric.

Due to this behavior, they are often called rectifiers, since they are devices capable of converting
an alternating current into a direct current. Its operating principle is based on the experiments of
Lee De Forest.

Diode pn or Union pn
The diodes pn, are junctions of two extrinsic semiconductor materials types p and n, so they are
also called pn junction. It should be noted that neither of the two crystals separately has an
electric charge, since in each crystal, the number of electrons and protons is the same, from
which we can say that the two crystals, both the p and the n, are neutral.

Direct polarization
It is when the current flowing through the diode follows the path of the arrow (that of the diode),
that is, from the anode to the cathode.

In this case the current flows through the diode very easily behaving practically as a short circuit.
If we now apply to this junction an external voltage opposite the internal potential barrier, it will
decrease in width. The higher the voltage applied externally, the lower the internal barrier will
be, and the barrier can disappear completely.

Reverse polarization
It is when the current in the diode wants to circulate in the opposite direction to the arrow (the
arrow of the diode), that is of the cathode to the anode. In this case the current does not pass
through the diode, and behaves practically as an open circuit.

Applications of semiconductors.

The applications of semiconductors are mainly in diodes, transistors and thermistors. Diodes: By
joining a semiconductor N with another P, a charge diffusion phenomenon occurs in the contact
zone, which creates a potential barrier that prevents the other electrons in the N zone from
saturating the remaining positive voids in the zone. If we join a generator as shown in the figure
the free electrons of the N zone are repelled by the negative pole and the holes of the zone P by
the positive pole, towards the transition region, that they cross. The current passes. This would
not happen if the connection had been made with reverse polarity. The device is a
"semiconductor diode" and acts as a current rectifier.
Transistors.
A transistor consists of two zones:
Two N's separated by a P (NPN transistor), this arrangement provides the set with particular
properties, especially amplifiers.
Two P's separated by an N (PNP transistor) allow to act on the intensity of the electronic current
passing between two semiconductor crystals of the same type, by means of a metal electrode
insulated by a thin layer of oxide.
A transmitter is used, above all, as an amplifier and also in computers, as a rapid power switch.

Thermometers.
It is called semiconductors that are sensitive to changes in temperature, or rather, those in which
variations have, compared to the composition, a great value. The most used materials are Cobalt
(CoO), Iron (FeO), Magnesium (MgO), Manganese (MnO), Nickel (NiO) and Titanium (TiO)
oxides. They are used in the form of a ball, disk or rod, thereby indicating how the base material
of the thermistor is separated. In the ball, the oxide mixture is applied viscously between two
parallel Platinum threads with a small droplet, approximately 1 mm. of diameter and by and by
cooking is attached to the threads. When used in the form of disks or rods are prepared by
synthesized. Its applications are for measuring temperature, vacuum measurements and in
communication circuits like voltage regulators and volume limiters.

Aval Avalanche diodes: They are also called zener diodes; are rectifiers of Si. In reverse
polarization a small current leakage occurs due to the movement of electrons and thermally
activated voids. As the reverse polarization becomes too great, any carrier that escapes will
accelerate sufficiently to excite charge carriers, causing a high current in the reverse direction.
Due to this phenomenon voltage limiting devices can be designed. By suitably doping the p-n
junction, the avalanche or burst voltage can be selected. By greatly increasing the voltage, above
the rupture, a high current will flow through the junction, thus preventing it from passing through
the rest of the circuit; so they are used to protect circuits against accidental voltages.
We decided to use the present design in the simulation to describe the behavior of the diode
when it is polarized directly and indirectly within a single circuit.
Direct Polarization

Indirect polarization
 Conclusions
Electronic devices are concerned with converting information from the outside world into
electrical signals, processing these signals and transforming them into other sources of
energy. These devices are composed of electronic circuits that perform a certain function.
An electronic circuit is an association of components that, working together, perform a
certain treatment of the signals.
Electronic circuits are made up of active components, such as transistors or diodes, and
passive components such as resistors.
In the electronic circuits, the control is carried out by electrical signals.
 Bibliography

Donald R. Askeland, Ciencia e ingeniera de los materiales, Ed. Paraninfo Thompson Learning,
2001

William F Smith, Fundamentos de la ciencia e ingeniera de materiales, 3 Edicin, Ed. Mc Graw

Hill.