C.T Sun Solution Manual PDF

Name: Mohamed Naleer Abdul Gaffor Email: muhammed_naleer@yahoo.com IP: 184.162.144.
24
Solution Manual for
Mechanics of Aircraft Structures

2nd edition, 3rd printing, 2007
C.T. Sun
School of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Purdue University
W. Lafayette, Indiana U.S.A.
Prepared with the assistance of Mr. Hsin-Haou Huang, graduate

student in School of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Purdue University
June, 2007
Address: 1650, BLVD DE MAISONNEUVE Apt. 904, Montreal, QC H3H2P3, CAN

Name: Mohamed Naleer Abdul Gaffor Email: muhammed_naleer@yahoo.com IP: 184.162.144.24
Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun
1.1 The beam of a rectangular thin-walled section (i.e., t is very small) is designed
to carry both bending moment M and torque T. If the total wall contour length
L = 2( a + b) (see Fig. 1.16) is fixed, find the optimum b/a ratio to achieve the
most efficient section if M = T and allowable = 2 allowable . Note that for closed
thin-walled sections such as the one in Fig.1.16, the shear stress due to torsion is
T
=
2abt
Figure 1.16 Closed thin-walled section
Solution:
My
(1) The bending stress of beams is = , where y is the distance from the neutral
I
axis. The moment of inertia I of the cross-section can be calculated by considering
the four segments of thin walls and using the formula for a rectangular section
1
with height h and width w. I = ( wh 3 + Ad 2 ) in which A is the
12
cross-sectional area of the segment and d is the distance of the centroid of the
segment to the neutral axis. Note that the Parallel Axis Theorem is applied. The
1 3 1 b tb 2
result is I = 2 tb + 2 [ at 3 + (at ) ( ) 2 ] (3a + b) , assuming that t is
12 12 2 6
very small.
(2) The shear stress due to torsion for a closed thin-walled section shown above is
T
= .
2abt
1.1.1


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(3) Two approaches are employed to find the solution.

(i) Assume that the bending stress reaches the allowable allowable first and find
the corresponding bending maximum bending moment. Then apply the stated
loading condition of T = M to check whether the corresponding max has
exceeded the allowable shear stress allowable . If this condition is violated, then
the optimized b/a ratio is not valid.
b
M
My 2 3M
(a) | b = = 2 =
y= I tb tb(3a + b)
2
(3a + b)
6
When given L = 2( a + b) as a constant, a can be expressed in terms of b
L
and L as a = b . Then we can minimize
2
tb(3a + b) tb(3L 4b)
S= = in order to maximize , i.e.,
3 6
S t 3L L L
= 0 (3L 8b) = 0 b = , so a = b =
b 6 8 2 8
b
where the optimum ratio is =3
a
3M 3M 32M
Thus, max = = =
tb(3a + b) t (3L / 8) (3 L / 8 + 3L / 8) 3tL2
(b) Check max with T = M and b/a = 3 and check whether max is within
the allowable shear stress allowable .
T M 32M
max = = = = max = allowable
2abt 2 ( L / 8) (3L / 8) t 3tL2
allowable
> allowable =
2
The result above means that under this assumption, shear stress would
reach the allowable stress allowable before reaches allowable . Consequently,
the optimal ratio obtained is not valid and different assumption needs to be
made.
(ii) Assume now that failure is controlled by shear stress. We assume that
max = allowable is reached first and then find the corresponding bending stress
according to the loading condition M = T .
T
(a) =
2abt
Again we minimize S = 2abt = ( L 2b)bt in order to maximize , i.e.,
1.1.2


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S L L L
= 0 ( L 4b) = 0 b = , so a = b =
b 4 2 4
b
and the optimum ratio is =1
a
T T 8T
and max = = = 2
2abt 2 ( L / 4) ( L / 4) t tL
(b) Then corresponding max under the optimum condition stated above can
be obtained using M = T . We have
3M 3T 12T 3 3
max = = = 2 = max = allowable
tb(3a + b) t ( L / 4) (3 L / 4 + L / 4) tL 2 2
< allowable = 2 allowable
This means that when the structure fails in shear, the bending stress is
b
still within the allowable stress level. Thus the optimum ratio = 1 is
a
valid.
b
(4) In conclusion, = 1 achieves the most efficient section for the stated conditions.
a
--- ANS
1.1.3


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1.2 Do problem 1.1 with M = T where = 0 to .
Figure 1.16 Closed thin-walled section
Solution:
My
(1) The bending stress of beams is = , where y is the distance from the neutral
I
axis. The moment of inertia I of the cross-section can be calculated by considering
the four segments of thin walls and using the formula for a rectangular section
1
with height h and width w. I = ( wh 3 + Ad 2 ) in which A is the
12
cross-sectional area of the segment and d is the distance of the centroid of the
segment to the neutral axis. Note that the Parallel Axis Theorem is applied. The
1 1 b tb 2
result is I = 2 tb 3 + 2 [ at 3 + (at ) ( ) 2 ] (3a + b) , assuming that t is
12 12 2 6
very small.
(2) The shear stress due to torsion for a closed thin-walled section shown above is
T
= .
2abt
(3) Two approaches are employed to find the solution.

(i) Assume that the bending stress reaches the allowable allowable first and find
the corresponding bending maximum bending moment. Then apply the stated
loading condition of M = T to check whether the corresponding max has
exceeded the allowable shear stress allowable . If this condition is violated, then
the optimized b/a ratio is not valid.
b
M
My 2 3M
(a) | b = = 2 =
y= I tb tb(3a + b)
2
(3a + b)
6
When given L = 2( a + b) as a constant, a can be expressed in terms of b
1.2.1


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L
and L as a = b . Then we can minimize
2
tb(3a + b) tb(3L 4b)
S= = in order to maximize , i.e.,
3 6
S t 3L L L
= 0 (3L 8b) = 0 b = , so a = b =
b 6 8 2 8
b
where the optimum ratio is =3
a
3M 3M 32M
Thus, max = = =
tb(3a + b) t (3L / 8) (3 L / 8 + 3L / 8) 3tL2
(b) Check max with M = T and b/a = 3 and check whether max is
within the allowable shear stress allowable .
T M / 32M 1
max = = = = max
2abt 2 ( L / 8) (3L / 8) t 3tL 2

1 2
= allowable = allowable

2
We have max allowable allowable allowable

2 (since allowable > 0 is always satisfied)
(ii) Assume now that failure is controlled by shear stress. We assume that
max = allowable is reached first and then find the corresponding bending stress
according to the loading condition M = T .
T
(a) max =
2abt
Again we minimize S = 2abt = ( L 2b)bt in order to maximize , i.e.,
S L L L
= 0 ( L 4b) = 0 b = , so a = b =
b 4 2 4
b
and the optimum ratio is =1
a
T T 8T
and max = = = 2
2abt 2 ( L / 4) ( L / 4) t tL
(b) Then corresponding max under the optimum condition stated above can
be obtained using M = T . We have
3M 3T 12T 3
max = = = = max
tb(3a + b) t ( L / 4) (3 L / 4 + L / 4) tL2 2
3 3 3
= allowable = ( allowable ) = allowable
2 2 2 4
3
Since max allowable allowable allowable
4
4
(since allowable > 0 is always satisfied)
3
1.2.2


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(4) From the above two approaches, we have the conclusions.

4
(i) For 0 < , the failure is controlled by shear and the optimum ratio
3
b
of = 1 achieves the most efficient section..
a
(ii) For 2 , the failure is controlled by bending and the optimum ratio of
b
= 3 achieves the most efficient section.
a
4
(iii) For < < 2 , the optimal ratio lies between 1 and 3. The most
3
straightforward way in finding the best ratio for a given in this range
is to calculate the maximum bending moments and torques for different
values of b/a ratios between 1 and 3 and pick the ratio that produces the
greatest minimum failure load, either T or M.
--- ANS
1.2.3


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1.3 The dimensions of a steel (300M) I-beam are b = 50 mm, t = 5 mm, and h = 200
mm (Fig. 1.17). Assume that t and h are to be fixed for an aluminum(7075-T6)
I-beam. Find the width b for the aluminum beam so that its bending stiffness EI
is equal to that of the steel beam. Compare the weights-per-unit length of these
two beams. Which is more efficient weightwise?
Figure 1.17 Dimensions of the cross-section of an I-beam
Solution:
(1) The expression of area moment of inertia I for an I-beam is:
t b h
I= (h t ) 3 + [ t 3 + (bt )( ) 2 ] 2 , by applying Parallel Axis Theorem.
12 12 2
(2) First obtaining the area moment of inertia of the steel (300M) I-beam with given b,
t, and h.
5 50 200 2
I Steel = (200 5) 3 + [ 5 3 + (50 5)( ) ] 2 = 8090573mm 4
12 12 2
(3) For the given condition ( EI ) Alu min um = ( EI ) Steel
E St 200
we have I Al = I St = 8090573 = 22790000mm 4
E Al 71
which allows to calculate the width b for the aluminum beam with the following
result:
5 b 200 2
I Al = ( 200 5 )3 + [ 5 3 + ( b 5 )( ) ]2
12 12 2
= 3089531.3 + 100020.8b = 22790000
and b = 197 mm
---- ANS
(4) Then we compare the weights-per-unit length of these two beams.
1.3.1


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The weights-per-unit length is defined as

w = A , where = density , and A = cross-sectional area
(i) For the Steel beam
St = 7.8( g / cm 3 ) = 7.8 10 3 ( g / mm 3 )
ASt = (200 5) 5 + 2 50 5 = 1475( mm 2 )
wSt = St ASt = 7.8 10 3 1475 = 11.5( g / mm )
(ii) For the Aluminum beam
Al = 2.78( g / cm 3 ) = 2.78 10 3 ( g / mm 3 )
AAl = ( 200 5 ) 5 + 2 196.97 5 = 2945( mm 2 )
w Al = Al AAl = 2.78 10 3 2944.7 = 8.2( g / mm )
For a unit length of both materials, the aluminum beam is much lighter than the
steel beam. It means that the ALUMINUM BEAM IS MORE EFFICIENT!
--- ANS
1.3.2


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1.4 Use AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite to make the I-beam as stated in

Problem 1.3. Compare its weight with that of the aluminum beam.
Figure 1.17 Dimensions of the cross-section of an I-beam
Solution:
Proceed in the same manner as that of problem 1.3.
(1) The expression of area moment of inertia I for a I-beam is:
t b h
I= (h t ) 3 + [ t 3 + (bt )( ) 2 ] 2
12 12 2
(2) First, obtain the area moment of inertia of the steel (300M) I-beam with given b, t,
and h. We have
5 50 200 2
I Steel = (200 5) 3 + [ 5 3 + (50 5)( ) ] 2 = 8090573mm 4
12 12 2
(3) For the condition ( EI ) Composite = ( EI ) Steel
E St 200
we have I Com = I St = 8090573 = 11558000mm 4
ECom 140
The moment of inertia of the composite beam is given by
5 b 200 2
I Com = ( 200 5 )3 + [ 5 3 + ( b 5 )( ) ]2
12 12 2
= 3089531.3 + 100020.8b = 11558000
Thus the width of the cross-section is obtained as b = 84.7 mm

---- ANS
(4) Then, we compare the weights-per-unit length of these two beams.
The weights-per-unit length is defined as
w=A , where = density , and A = cross-sectional area
1.4.1


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(i) For the composite beam
Com = 1.55( g / cm 3 ) = 1.55 10 3 ( g / mm 3 )
ACom = ( 200 5 ) 5 + 2 84.67 5 = 1822( mm 2 )
wCom = Com ACom = 1.55 10 3 1821.7 = 2.8( g / mm )
(ii) Compare the weights per unit length with that of the aluminum beam
wCom = 2.8( g / mm ) < wAl = 8.2( g / mm )
This indicates that the AS4/3501-6 CARBON/EPOXY COMPOSITE BEAM IS

MORE EFFICIENT than the aluminum beam!
--- ANS
1.4.2


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1.5 Derive the relations given by (1.4) and (1.5).

(1.4) : V x = t a
Remark:
(1.5) : V y = t b
Solution:
(1) Consider a very small section within the curved panel with thickness t and length
L . is the constant shear stress, so we have the shear force V = ( L t )
acting on the cross section.
(2) It is possible to take apart the shear force into x and y direction shown in the
figure, where
V x = V cos = L t cos = t (L cos )
= t x
similarly, V y = t y
(3) Now consider the length to be extremely small, therefore V x dV x as well as
V y dV y . The horizontal component and the vertical component of the shear
force V x , V y can be verified as following:
a
V x = dVx = t dx = t a
0
b
V y = dV y = t dy = t b
0
1.5.1


C.T. Sun
1.6 The sign convention (positive direction of resultants) used in the beam theory
depends on the coordinate system chosen. Consider the moment-curvature
relation
d 2w
M = EI 2
dx
in reference to the coordinate system shown in Fig. 1.18. If w is regarded as a
positive displacement (or deflection) in the positive y-direction, find the positive
direction of the bending moment. State the reason.
Figure 1.18 Coordinate system for a beam
Solution:
d 2w d 2w
(1) The moment-curvature relation M = EI gives that is always
dx 2 dx 2
opposite in sign to M. (It is quite obvious that both E and I are always positive.).
(2) We can assume a moment M applying to the beam as shown below, which makes
dw
the beam concave upwards. It is not difficult to observe that the slope
dx
d 2w
increases with increasing x and thus a positive .
dx 2
(3) By applying the statement (1), it is concluded that the deformation described in (2)
is produced by a negative moment while a positive moment makes the beam
concave downward as shown below..
1.6.1


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1.7 Compare the load-carrying capabilities of two beams having the respective
cross-sections shown in Fig. 1.19. Use bending rigidity as the criterion for
comparison. It is given that a = 4 cm, t = 0.2 cm, and the two cross-sections
have the same area.
Figure 1.19 Cross-sections of two beams
Solution:
When using the bending rigidity ( EI ) as a criterion for comparison, Youngs modulus
E and the area moment of inertia I should be estimated.
(1) Youngs modulus E :
Assume the Youngs modulus of the beam having the left-hand-side
cross-section and the right-hand-side cross-section are El and Er ,
respectively.
(2) Moment of inertia I :
(i) Left cross-section:
1 4 1
Il = a = 4 4 = 21.33cm 4
12 12
(ii) Right cross-section:
b bt 3
Ir = ( a + 2b) 3 a --- (a)
12 12
t 3 1 a b
or { I r = a + [ b4 + b2 ( + )2 ] 2 }
12 12 2 2
where b remains unknown. There is another condition, two cross-section
have the same area, which will help to solve b.
Al = a 2 = 4 2 = 16cm 2 , Ar = 2 b 2 + a t = 2 b 2 + 4 0.2
1.7.1


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let Al=Ar => b = 2.7568cm , then we have
Ir =
2.7568
(4 + 2 2.7568 )3 (2.7568 0.2 ) 4 3 = 184 cm 4
12 12
0 .2 3 1 4 2.7568 2
or { I r = 4 + [ 2.7568 4 + 2.7568 2 ( + ) ] 2 = 184 cm 4 }
12 12 2 2
(3) Performance:
The ratio of the moments of inertia of the two cross-sections can be expressed as
( EI )l EI 21.33 El El E
= l l = = = 0.12 l
( EI )r Er I r 184.18 Er 8.635 Er Er
The cross-section to the right is much better if the same material is used for
both beams.
(i) If Er < 0.12 El

The left cross-section outperforms the right one.
(ii) If Er = 0.12 El
They are equivalent.
(iii) If Er > 0.12 El
The right cross-section outperforms the left one.
--- ANS
1.7.2


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2.1 Consider a unit cube of a solid occupying the region

0 x 1 , 0 y 1, 0 z 1
After loads are applied, the displacements are given by
u = x
v = y
w=0
(a) Sketch the deformed shape for = 0.03 , = 0.01 .
(b) Calculate the six strain components.
(c) Find the volume change V [ V = V (the volume after deformation) V0
(the original volume) ] for this unit cube. Show that xx + yy + zz V .
Solution:
(a) Since w = 0 , there is no deformation in the z-direction and the deformation can
be represented in the x-y plane.
The new position of point B after deformation is given by
x ' = 1 + u | x =1, y = 0 = 1 + 0.03 1 = 1.03
y ' = 0 + v | x =1, y =0 = 0 + ( 0.01) 0 = 0
New coordinates of B = ( 1.03 , 0 )

Similarly, new positions of A, C, D can be obtained as follows:
A = ( 0 , 0 )
C = ( 1.03, 0.99 )
D = ( 0 , 0.99 )
y
A=(0,0) A=(0,0)
D, 1 C B=(1,0) B=(1.03,0)
C
D C=(1,1) C=(1.03,0.99)
0.99 D=(0,1) D=(0,0.99)
x
A, A B B
1 1.03
--- ANS
2.1.1


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(b) Strain components are:

Normal strain components,
u
xx = = = 0.03
x
v
yy = = = 0.01
y
w
zz = =0
z
Shear strain components,
u v
xy = yx = + =0
y x
u w
xz = zx = + =0
z x
v w
yz = zy = + =0
z y
--- ANS
(c) The volume change is defined by
V = V V0 = x' y' z' 1 = 1.03 0.99 1 1 1 1 = 0.0197
Also, xx + yy + zz = 0.03 + ( 0.01) + 0 = 0.02 V = 0.0197
--- ANS
It can also be verified by:
V = V V0 = ( 1 + xx ) 1 ( 1 + yy ) 1 ( 1 + zz ) 1 1 1 1
= V0 ( 1 + xx + yy + zz + xx yy + xx zz + yy zz + xx yy zz 1 )
= V0 ( xx + yy + zz + xx yy + xx zz + yy zz + xx yy zz )
Since the deformation is very small, we have << 1 => higher order terms can
be dropped. Therefore we have
V V0 ( xx + yy + zz ) = xx + yy + zz , since V0 = 1
2.1.2


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2.2 Consider the following displacement field:

u = y
v = x
w=0
Sketch the displaced configuration of a unit cube with the faces originally
perpendicular to the axes, respectively. This displacement field does not yield
any strains; it only produces a rigid body rotation. Show that the angle of
rotation is
1 v u
=
2 x y
Solution:
(a) Consider a unit cube, the coordinates before deformation corresponding to each
corner are:
A(0,0,0), B(1,0,0), C(1,1,0), D(0,1,0),
E(0,0,1), F(1,0,1), G(1,1,1), H(0,1,1)
D C
H G
A B x
E F
After deformation, we have the coordinates for each point as follows:

For point A ( denotes the point after deformation) :
x' = x + u | x =0, y =0, z =0 = 0 + 0 = 0
y ' = y + v | x =0, y = 0, z = 0 = 0 + ( 0) = 0
z ' = z + w | x =0 , y =0 , z =0 = 0 + 0 = 0 , Thus, we have A(0,0,0)
Another example for G, we have
2.2.1


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x' = x + u | x =1, y =1, z =1 = 1 + 1 = 1 +
y ' = y + v | x =1, y =1, z =1 = 1 + ( 1) = 1
z ' = z + w | x =1, y =1, z =1 = 1 + 0 = 1 , Thus, G(1+ ,1- ,1)
Similarly, we can verify other points

B(1,- ,0), C(1+ ,1- ,0), D( ,1,0),
E(0,0,1), F(1,- ,1), H( ,1,1)
(1) In x-y plane
A(0,0,0), B(1,0,0), C(1,1,0), D(0,1,0)
A(0,0,0), B(1,- ,0), C(1+ ,1- ,0), D( ,1,0)
D D C
C

A,A B x

B
(2) In y-z plane

A(0,0,0), D(0,1,0), H(0,1,1), E(0,0,1)
A(0,0,0), D( ,1,0), H( ,1,1), E(0,0,1)
z
E E H
H
A,A D D y
2.2.2


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(3) In z-x plane

A(0,0,0), E(0,0,1), B(1,0,0), F(1,0,1)
A(0,0,0), E(0,0,1,) B(1,- ,0), F(1,- ,1)
x
B B F
F
A,A E E z
--- ANS
(b) Then we verify the strains are zero under this circumstance:
u v w
xx = = 0, yy = =0, zz = =0
x y z
u v v w u w
xy = + = = 0 , yz = + = 0, xz = + =0
y x z y z x
--- ANS
(c) If we denote the counterclockwise rotation
y
to be positive, we have the angle of
rotation equals to avg =

1
( 1 2 ) .
2
If the deformation is small enough, we
2
v u
have 1 = = , and 2 = =
x y
Therefore the angle of rotation is
1
(1 2 ) = 1 v u
1 x
avg =
2 2 x y
=
1
( ) =
2
--- ANS
2.2.3


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2.3 Consider the displacement field in a body:

u = 0.02x + 0.02y 0.01z cm
v= + 0.01y 0.02z cm
w = -0.01x + 0.01z cm
Find the locations of the two points (0,0,0) and (5,0,0) after deformation. What
is the change of distance between these two points after deformation? Calculate
the strain components corresponding to the given displacement field. Use the
definition of xx to estimate the change of distance between the two points.
Compare the two results.
Solution:
(a) Consider the point (0,0,0), after deformation :
x' = x + u | x =0, y =0, z =0 = 0
y ' = y + v | x =0, y =0, z =0 = 0
z ' = z + w | x =0, y =0, z =0 = 0
So the corresponding location after deformation is (0,0,0)

(b) Consider the point (5,0,0), after deformation :
x' = x + u | x =5, y = 0, z = 0 = 5 + 0.02 5 = 5.1
y ' = y + v | x = 5, y = 0 , z = 0 = 0
z ' = z + w | x =5, y = 0, z = 0 = 0 0.01 5 = 0.05
(c) The change of distance between these two points after deformation.
(1) before deformation:
distance between (0,0,0) and (5,0,0), Dbefore = 5
(2) after deformation:

distance between (0,0,0) and ( 5.1 , 0 , -0.05 ),
Dafter = (5.1 0)2 + (0 0)2 + ( 0.05 0)2 = 5.100245
(3) change of distance D :
D = Dafter Dbefore = 5.100245 5 = 0.100245
(d) Calculate the strain components
2.3.1


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u u v
xx = = 0.02 , xy = + = 0.02 + 0 = 0.02 ,
x y x
v v w
yy = = 0.01 , yz = + = 0.02 + 0 = 0.02 ,
y z y
w u w
zz = = 0.01 xz = + = 0.01 0.01 = 0.02
z z x
u
(e) The normal strain in the x-direction is xx = = 0 ,02 . The change of distance
x
between the two points can be estimated by
=> D x = xx ( x 2 x1 ) = 0.02 (5 0) = 0.1
(f) Compare the two results
From the displacement field calculation, we have D = 0.100245 ,
And directly from the strain calculation, we have D = 0.1
They are basically the same when the strain components are small.
2.3.2


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2.4 Consider the problem of simple shear in Example 2.1 and Fig. 2.5. From the
deformed shape, find the normal strain for material along the line CB by
comparing the deformed length C ' B' and undeformed length CB .
Set up new coordinates (x,y) so that the x-axis coincides with CB , and y is
perpendicular to the x-axis. The relation between (x,y) and (x,y) is given by
x' = x cos + y sin
y ' = x sin + y cos
where = 45 o is the angle between x and the x-axis.
Write the displacements u and v in the x and y directions, respectively, in
terms of the new coordinates x and y. The relation between (u,v) and (u,v) is
the same as between (x,y) and (x,y). Then calculate the strains using u and v,
i.e.,
u '
' xx =
x'
v'
' yy =
y '
u ' v'
' xy = +
y ' x'
Compare ' xx with the normal strain (along CB ) obtained earlier.
Solution:
(a) The result of example 2.1 gives the new positions of A, B, C, D, which are
A(0.01,0), B(1.01,1.015), C(0,0), D(1,0.015).
From which we obtain
CB = (1 0)2 + (1 0)2 = 2 = 1.414214
C ' B' = (1.01 0)2 + (1.015 0)2 = 1.431896
and the normal strain along the line CB is

C ' B ' CB 1.431896 1.414214
= = = 0.0125
CB 1.414214
--- ANS
(b) The relation between (x,y) and (x,y) is given by
x' = x cos + y sin
y ' = x sin + y cos
which can be written in matrix form as
2.4.1


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x ' x
= [ ] --- (1)
y ' y
cos sin
where the transformation matrix is [ ] = , and = 45 o
sin cos
From this equation we can get the equivalent form:
x 1 x ' T x'
= [ ] = [ ] --- (2)
y y ' y '
cos sin
Here it is easy to prove that [ ] = [ ] =
1 T

sin cos
Since displacements transform like coordinates, we can write
u ' u
= [ ] --- (3)
v' v
From example 2.1 we have the displacement field : u = 0.01 y , v = 0.015x ,
where we can also write in matrix form,
u 0 0.01 x
= --- (4)
v 0.015 0 y
So the displacements u and v can be derived, from equation (3) and (4), and by
applying (2), set = 45 o , as follows:
u ' u 0 0.01 x 0 0.01 T x'
= [ ] = [ ] = [ ] [ ] y '
v' v 0.015 0 y 0.015 0
0.025 sin cos 0.01 cos 2 0.015 sin 2 x'
=
0.015 cos 0.01sin 0.025 sin cos
2 2
y '
0.0125 0.0025 x'
=
0.0025 0.0125 y '
--- ANS
(c) Strains in the new transformed coordinate and displacements are:
u '
' xx = = 0.0125
x '
v'
' yy = = 0.0125
y '
u ' v'
' xy = + = 0.0025 + 0.0025 = 0
y ' x'
--- ANS
Note that ' xx is the same as the strain measured along CB .
2.4.2


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2.5 A cantilever beam of a rectangular cross-section is subjected to a shear force V

as shown in Fig. 2.17. The bending stress is given by
Mz
xx =
I
where M = V ( L x ) . Assume a state of plane stress parallel to the x-z plane,
i.e., yy = xy = yz = 0 . Find the transverse shear stress xz (= zx ) by
integrating the equilibrium equations over the beam thickness and applying the
h
boundary conditions xz = 0 at z = .
2
Hint: From the equilibrium equation
xx xz
+ =0
x z
we have
xz z M
= xx =
z x I x
Figure 2.17 Cantilever beam subjected to a shear force
Solution:
M
(a) Bending moment is M = V ( L x ) , so =V
x
(b) From the equilibrium equation for a state of plane stress parallel to the x-z plane,
we have
xz z M V
= xx = = z
z x I x I
V V
Therefore, xz = z dz = z 2 + C
I 2I
2.5.1


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h
(c) Applying the B.C.: xz = 0 at z =
2
we have
2
V h Vh 2
+C = 0 => C=
2I 2 8I
So xz =
V 2
2I
z +C =
V 2
8I
(
h 4z 2 ) also I =
bh 3
12
=> xz =
V 2
(h 4z 2 ) =
3V
(h 2 4 z 2 )
8I 2bh 3
--- ANS
2.5.2


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2.6 The state of stress in a body is uniform and is given by
xx = 4MPa , xy = 2MPa , xz = 0
yy = 3MPa , yz = 0 , zz = 0
Find the three components of the stress vector t on the surface ABCD as shown
in Fig. 2.18. Find the normal component n of the stress vector.
Hint: From the equilibrium equation
Figure 2.18 Shape of a wedge
Solution:
(a) The stress vector t can be expressed as {t } = [ ] n ,{ }

in which ji = ij
t x
{t i } = t y is the stress vector on surface ABCD,
t
z
xx xy xz
[ ]
ij

= yx

yy yz are the stress components associated with the coordinate
zx zy zz

x-y-z,
n x
and {n j } = n y is the normal vector to the surface ABCD,

n
z
2.6.1


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(b) Calculate the normal vector to the surface ABCD, {n j }
Assume that the positions of point B, C, D are B(1,0,1), C(1,0,0), D(0,1,0)
We have BC = (0 ,0 ,1) and CD = ( 1,1,0 )
BC CD 1 1
thus {n} = = ,0
T
,
BC CD 2 2
(c) Now applying {t } = [ ]{n }, we have

t x 4 2 0 1 / 2 6 / 2 4.24

t y = 2 3 0 1 / 2 = 5 / 2 = 3.54 MPa
t 0 0 0 0 0 0
z
--- ANS
(d) The normal component n = {t} {n},

T
1 / 2
6 5 11
n = 01 / 2 = = 5.5MPa
2 2 2
0
--- ANS
2.6.2


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2.7 Find the principal stresses and corresponding principal directions for the stresses
given in Problem 2.6. Check the result with other methods such as Mohrs
circle.
Solution:
(a) The stress given in problem 2.6 is
4 2 0
[ ij ] = 2 3 0 ,
0 0 0
[ ]
To find the principal stresses, we require that ij [I ] = 0 , or
4 2 0
2 3 0 =0
0 0
( )
Expanding the determinant yields 2 7 + 8 = 0 , the solutions of are
7 17
= 0 , or = , (which are 1.43845 and 5.56155)
2
--- ANS
(i) When 1 = 0
We have the equations
4 n x + 2 n y = 0

2n x + 3n y = 0 , and also we have (n x ) + (n y ) + (n z ) = 1
2 2 2
0n = 0
z
So the solutions can be obtained uniquely as
n x = 0
(1)
n x 0

n y = 0 , and n y = 0 is the corresponding principal direction
n = 1 n 1
z z
--- ANS
(ii) When 2 = 1.43845
2.56155n x + 2n y = 0

2n x + 1.56155n y = 0 , and also we have (n x ) + (n y ) + (n z ) = 1
2 2 2
1.43845n = 0
z
2.7.1


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Therefore we have the corresponding principal direction

( 2)
n x 0.61541

n y = 0.78821
n
z 0
--- ANS
(iii) When 3 = 5.56155
1.56155n x + 2n y = 0

2n x 2.56155n y = 0 , and also we have (n x ) + (n y ) + (n z ) = 1
2 2 2
5.56155n = 0
z
Therefore we have the corresponding principal direction

( 3)
n x 0.78821

n y = 0.61541
n 0
z
--- ANS
(b) Comparing with Mohrs circle
Since the stresses associated with z are all zero, we know one principal stress is 0,
(1)
n x 0

and its corresponding principal direction is n y = 0 . So here we can use the
n 1
z
2D analysis on the x-y plane just for other principal values.
(4,2)

min max
(3,-2)
According to the Mohrs circle, we have the radius of the circle
2.7.2


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r=
1
2
((4 3) 2
+ (2 + 2 )
2
) = 2.06155 ,
4+3 22
The central coordinate of the circle is ( xc , y c ) = , = (3.5,0 )
2 2
Therefore we have the maximum and minimum stresses, respectively,
max = xc + r = 3.5 + 2.06155 = 5.56155
min = xc r = 3.5 2.06155 = 1.43845
These are the same as we obtained above.
--- ANS
2.7.3


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2.8 A state of hydrostatic stress is given by
0 0 0
[ ij ] = 0 0 0
0 0 0
Show that on any surface the force (or stress vector) is always perpendicular to
the surface and that the magnitude of the stress vector is equal to 0 .
Solution:
(a) Assume any arbitrary plane surface with its normal unit vector {n} = {n x , n y , n z }.
T
The stress vector acting on this surface, from equation (2.29) in the textbook,
t x nx
[ ]
{t} = t y = {n} = 0 n y .
t n
z z
Since 0 is a scalar, the stress vector on this arbitrary surface is always parallel
to the normal vector of this surface. This leads to the conclusion that the stress
vector is always perpendicular to the surface.
--- ANS
(b) The magnitude of this stress vector t is
{t} = (t x )2 + (t y )2 + (t z )2 = 0 {n} = 0 .
--- ANS
2.8.1


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2.9 An isotropic solid with Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio is under a
state of hydrostatic stress as given in Problem 2.8. Find the corresponding strain
components.
0 0 0
Recall: [ ij ] = 0 0 0
0 0 0
Solution:
(a) Three dimensional stress-strain relations can be expressed as:
xx xx

yy yy
zz zz
[ ]
= aij 66 , where aij are elastic compliances.
yz yz
xz xz

xy xy
(b) When the material is isotropic, a ij can be obtained individually as:
1
a11 = a 22 = a33 = , a12 = a13 = a 23 = a 21 = a 31 = a32 = ,
E E
1
a 44 = a 55 = a 66 = , and others are zero.
G
(c) For a state of hydrostatic stress, we can obtain strain components with matrix
multiplication:
1
E 0 0 0
E E 0
(1 2 )
xx 1
0 0 0 0 E

E E 0
yy 0 (1 2 )
0 E
1
zz 0 0
E 0
= 0 = 0 (1 2 )
yz
1
0 0 E
xz G 0 0

0 0
1
xy
symm 0
G
1 0

G
--- ANS
2.9.1


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2.10 For small strains, the volume change V is identified to be equal to

V
xx + YY + zz . The bulk modulus K of an isotropic solid is defined as the ratio
of the average stress and the volume change, i.e.,
1
( xx + yy + zz ) = K V
3 V
Derive K in terms of E and .
Solution:
(a) Three dimensional stress-strain relations can be expressed as:
xx xx

yy yy
zz zz
[ ]
yz yz
xz xz

xy xy
(b) If the material is isotropic, a ij are given as
1
a11 = a 22 = a33 = , a12 = a13 = a 23 = a 21 = a 31 = a32 = ,
E E
1
a 44 = a 55 = a 66 = , and the rest are zero.
G
(c) For arbitrary stresses, we can obtain strain components with matrix multiplication:
1 1
E 00 0 E ( xx yy zz )
E E 1

xx 1
0 0 0 xx ( xx + yy zz )
E E yy E
yy 1 1
zz 0 0 0 ( xx yy + zz )
E E
= =
zz
yz
yz
1
0 0 yz
xz G
xz G
1 xz
xy symm 0 xy

G G
1 xy

G G
(d) With the definition of bulk modulus K, we have
1
( xx + yy + zz ) = K V = K ( xx + YY + zz )
3 V
Substituting the strains in terms of stresses in the equation above, we obtain
2.10.1


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1
3 E
[ ]
( xx + yy + zz ) = K xx (1 2 ) + yy (1 2 ) + zz (1 2 )
K (1 2 )
= ( xx + yy + zz )
E
E
Thus, K =
3(1 2 )
--- ANS
2.10.2


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2.11 A block of elastic solid is compressed by normal stress xx as shown in Fig.

2.19. The containing walls are rigid and smooth (frictionless). Find the values
of k for plane strain and plane stress conditions, respectively, in the
stress-strain relation obtained from the compression test above.
xx = k xx
Assume that E = 70GPa and = 0.3 .
y
xx = 0 xx = 0
x
Figure 2.19 Solid between two smooth rigid walls
Solution:
Recall: Three dimensional stress-strain relations can be expressed as:
xx xx

yy yy
zz zz
[ ]
= cij 66 , where c ij are elastic constants.
yz yz
xz xz

xy xy
or
xx xx

yy yy
zz zz
[ ]
yz yz
xz xz

xy xy
If the material is isotropic, c ij and a ij are given as
c11 = c 22 = c33 = + 2G , c12 = c13 = c 23 = c 21 = c 31 = c32 = ,

c 44 = c55 = c66 = G , and the rest are zero.
E E
where = and G =
(1 + )(1 2 ) 2(1 + )
2.11.1


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1
or, a11 = a 22 = a33 = , a12 = a13 = a 23 = a 21 = a 31 = a32 = ,
E E
1
G
(a) Plane strain problem:
In plane strain problems, we have
zz = yz = xz = 0
In this problem, we also have the following constraint condition
yy = 0
Therefore, the relation { } = cij [ ] { }

66
can be used to obtain
xx + 2G 0 0 0 xx

yy + 2G 0 0 0 yy = 0
zz + 2G 0 0 0 zz = 0
=
yz G 0 0 yz = 0
xz symm G 0 xz = 0

xy G xy
Expanding the matrix multiplication, we have
xx = ( + 2G ) xx
=
yy xx
zz = xx

yz = 0
xz = 0

xy = G xy
Comparing to the problem statement, we have

(1 ) E (1 0.3) 70
k = + 2G = = = 94.23 GPa
(1 + )(1 2 ) (1 + 0.3)(1 2 0.3)
--- ANS
(b) Plane stress problem:
In plane stress problems, we have
zz = yz = xz = 0
In this problem, we also have
yy = 0
2.11.2


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Therefore, the relation { } = aij [ ] { }

66
can be used to obtain:
1
E 0 0 0
E E

xx 0 xx
1
0 0
= 0 E E yy
yy
0 = 0
1
zz 0 0
zz
E
= = 0
yz
1
0 0 yz
xz G
xz = 0
1
xy symm 0 xy
G
1

G
1
xx = E ( xx yy )
1
yy = ( xx + yy ) = 0
E
= ( + )
zz
E
xx yy
yz = 0

xz = 0
1
xy = xy
G
Solving the first two equations leads to,
1 1 2
xx = ( xx yy ) = xx
E E
E 70
Thus, k = = = 76.92GPa under plane stress condition.
1 2
1 0 .3 2
--- ANS
2.11.3


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2.12 An aluminum 2024 T3 bar of unit cross-sectional area is subjected to a tensile

force in the longitudinal direction. If the lateral surface of the bar is confined
and not allowed to contract during loading, find the force that is needed to
produce a 1 percent longitudinal strain. Compare this with the corresponding
load for the bar under simple tension.
Solution:
xx xx

yy yy
zz zz
= cij[ ] 66 , where c ij are elastic constants.
yz yz
xz xz

xy xy
xx xx

yy yy
zz zz
[ ]
yz yz
xz xz

xy xy
If the material is isotropic, c ij and a ij are given by
c11 = c 22 = c33 = + 2G , c12 = c13 = c 23 = c 21 = c 31 = c 32 = ,

E E
where = and G =
(1 + )(1 2 ) 2(1 + )
1
or, a11 = a 22 = a33 = , a12 = a13 = a 23 = a 21 = a 31 = a32 = ,
E E
1
G
(a) Aluminum alloys are usually considered isotropic, so the above three-dimensional
stress-strain relations can be utilized. Also, we have the mechanical properties for
aluminum 2024 T3: E = 72GPa , = 0.33 .
(b) If the lateral surface of the bar is not allowed to contract during loading, we have
the conditions: zz = yy = 0 . Also, we need to produce a 1 percent longitudinal
2.12.1


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strain, which means xx = 0.01 and all shear strains vanish.
[ ] { }
So we can use the equation { } = cij 66
to obtain stresses.
xx + 2G 0 0 0 xx = 0.01

yy + 2G 0 0 0 yy = 0
zz + 2G 0 0 0 zz = 0
=
yz G 0 0 yz = 0
xz symm G 0 xz = 0

xy G xy = 0
Calculate and G for aluminum 2024-T3, we have:

E 0.33 72
= = = 52.5 GPa
(1 + )(1 2 ) (1 + 0.33)(1 2 0.33)
E 72
G= = = 27.1 GPa
2(1 + ) 2(1 + 0.33)
we have
xx = ( + 2G ) xx = (52.5431 + 2 27.0677) 0.01 = 1.07 GPa

yy = xx = 52.5431 0.01 = 0.525 GPa
zz = xx = 52.5431 0.01 = 0.525 GPa

With a unit cross-sectional area, we have the axial force
P = xx 1 = 1070 10 6 N to produce the required strain.
--- ANS
(c) Compare with the corresponding load for the bar under simple tension.
Under simple tension, we have zz = yy = 0 and the axial stress is
xx = E xx = 72 0.01 = 0.72 GPa .
The required axial force is P = xx A = 0.72GPa 1 = 720 106 N .
--- ANS
Note that for the material (Al 2024-T3) used in this illustration, the stresses produced
for a 1% strain for both cases have exceeded the yield stress of the material. However,
the results still reveal the fact that the longitudinal stiffness of a bar increases if its
lateral displacements are suppressed.
2.12.2


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2.13 Compare the axial stiffnesses of aluminum alloy 2024-T3 under plane strain
and plane stress conditions, respectively.
Solution:
xx xx

yy yy
zz zz
yz yz
xz xz

xy xy
xx xx

yy yy
zz zz
= aij[ ] 66 , where aij are elastic compliances.
yz yz
xz xz

xy xy
If the material is isotropic, c ij and a ij are given by
c11 = c 22 = c33 = + 2G , c12 = c13 = c 23 = c 21 = c 31 = c 32 = ,

E E
where = and G =
(1 + )(1 2 ) 2(1 + )
1
a11 = a 22 = a33 = , a12 = a13 = a 23 = a 21 = a 31 = a32 = ,
E E
1
G
(a) For aluminum 2024 T3, E = 72GPa , = 0.33
E E
=> = = 52 GPa , G= = 27 GPa
(1 + )(1 2 ) 2(1 + )
(b) Plane strain condition
In plane strain problem, we have
zz = yz = xz = 0
For axial loading alone, we have
xy = 0 and yy = 0
2.13.1


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Expanding
xx + 2G 0 0 0 xx

yy + 2G 0 0 0 yy
zz + 2G 0 0 0 zz = 0
=
yz G 0 0 yz = 0
xz symm G 0 xz = 0

xy G xy = 0
we have
xx = ( + 2G ) xx + yy
= + ( + 2G )
yy xx yy
zz = ( xx + yy )

yz = 0
xz = 0

xy = 0
Applying yy = 0 , we have
xx 4G ( + G )
xx = ( + 2G ) xx + = xx
( + 2G ) ( + 2G )
4(27.0677)(52.5431 + 27.0677)
= xx = 80.8 xx GPa
(52.5431 + 2 27.0677)
(c) Plane stress condition
In plane stress problem, we have
zz = yz = xz = 0
For this problem we also have
xy = 0 and yy = 0
Therefore, the { } = aij [ ] { }

66
can be used to obtain:
2.13.2


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1
E 0 0 0
E E

xx 1
0 0 0 xx
E E yy = 0
yy
0 = 0
1
zz E
0 0
zz
= = 0
yz
1
0 0 yz
xz G
xz = 0
0 xy = 0

1
xy symm
G
1
G
1
xx = E xx

yy = xx
E

zz = xx
E
yz = 0
=0
xz
xy = 0
Thus, xx = E xx = 72 xx GPa
(d) The above analysis indicates that the axial stiffness of an aluminum bar under the
plane strain condition is (80.8-72)/72 = 12% greater than that under the plane
stress condition.
--- ANS
2.13.3


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2.14 Show that the state of stress of a solid body of any shape placed in a pressured
chamber is a state of hydrostatic stress. Neglect the effect of the gravitational
force.
Solution:
Assume a solid body (without internal voids) with an arbitrary shape is placed in a
pressured chamber with a pressure 0 as shown the figure below.
We will show that the hydrostatic stress listed below is the solution.
0 0 0
[ ij ] = 0 0 0 --- (1)
0 0 0
First the constant stress field given by (1) satisfies the 3D equilibrium equations
(2.21 2.23). Second, this stress field satisfies the boundary condition, i.e., the
traction at any point on the surface of the body is given by
0 0 0 n x

{t} = [ ij ]{n} = 0 0 0 n y = 0 {n} ---(2)
0 0 0 n z
n x

where {n} = n y is the unit normal vector to the surface at the point of interest.
n
z
Last, the constant stress field given by (1) implies that the corresponding strain field is
also constant and the compatibility equations are also satisfied. Thus, the hydrostatic
stress field given by (1) is the solution.
2.14.1


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2.15 Write the strain energy density expression in terms of stress components by
using (2.95) for isotropic solids and show that the Poissons ratio is bounded by
-1 and 0.5.
Solution:
From equation (2.95), we have the strain energy density:
1 1
W = { }T [c ]{ } = { }T [ a ]{ } (2.15.1)
2 2
For isotropic material, the stress-strain relationship can be expressed in terms of
elastic constants or elastic compliances:
xx xx

yy yy
zz zz
yz yz
xz xz

xy xy
c11 = c 22 = c33 = + 2G , c12 = c13 = c 23 = c 21 = c 31 = c 32 = ,

E E
where = and G =
(1 + )(1 2 ) 2(1 + )
xx xx

yy yy
zz zz
[ ]
yz yz
xz xz

xy xy
1
a11 = a 22 = a33 = , a12 = a13 = a 23 = a 21 = a 31 = a32 = ,
E E
1
G
The strain energy density in terms of stress components can be derived from equation
(2.15.1) as
2.15.1


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xx

yy
zz
W =
1
{ xx yy zz yz xz [ ]
xy } aij 66
2 yz
xz

xy
1
= { xx + yy + zz 2 ( xx yy + xx zz + yy zz ) + 2(1 + )( xy + xz + yz )}
2 2 2 2 2 2
2E
If we choose to use the principal directions as the coordianate system, then
xx = 1, yy = 2 , zz = 3 , and xy = xz = yz = 0 , where 1, 2 , 3 are principal
stresses. The strain energy density can be expressed in the form

1
W = { 1 + 2 + 3 2 ( 1 2 + 1 3 + 2 3 )}
2 2 2
(2.15.2)
2E
Note that the strain energy of an isotropic material compounds of two parts,
dilatational and distortional effect, i.e.,
W = Wv + W d (2.15.3)
where Wv is the strain energy density associated with the volume dilatation and
Wd is the strain energy density associated with the shape distortion.
We know that the dilatation is given by

0 = K 0
1 V
where 0 = ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) is the average stress, 0 = 1 + 2 + 3 = is
3 V
E
unit volume change, K = is the bulk modulus.
3(1 2 )
1 1
Hence, Wv = 0 0 = 02 .
2 2K
The expression of Wd is obtained by subtracting Wd from the total strain energy W

given by equation (2.15.2). We obtain
1
Wd = J2
2G
where
1
J 2 = [( 1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + ( 3 1 ) 2 ]
6
2.15.2


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Thus,
1 1
W = 02 + J2 (2.15.4)
2K 2G
It is evident that W is always positive and vanishes only when all stresses components
vanish. To ensure that W be always positive, it is clear that K and G must be positive.
Noting the relations
E E
K= > 0 and G = >0
3( 1 2 ) 2( 1 + )
We conclude that
1 < < 0.5
--- ANS
2.15.3


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2.16 Derive the compatibility equation for plane elasticity problems in terms of
stresses, i.e.,
2 ( xx + yy ) = 0
Solution:
(a) For simplicity, we will use the following notations for differentiations with respect
2 xx 2 xx 2 xy
to x and y: xx , xx = , xx , yy = , and xy , xy = and so on. The
x 2 y 2 xy
same differentiation notations are applied to the strain components

(b) For 2D problems, the compatibility equation is given by
xx , yy + yy , xx = xy , xy
(c) The stress-strain relations for isotropic solids are

1
0
xx E E
1 xx
yy = 0 yy
E E
xy 0 1 xy
0
G
Substituting the strain components into the compatibility equation, we have
1 1 1
[ ( xx yy )], yy + [ ( xx + yy )], xx = ( xy ), xy
E E G
1 1 1 2(1 + )
=> ( xx , yy yy , yy ) + ( xx , xx + yy , xx ) = xy , xy = xy , xy --- (1)
E E G E
(d) Now we consider the equilibrium equations:
xx, x + xy , y = 0

xy , x + yy , y = 0
Differentiating the first equation by x and the second one by y, we have
xx, xx + xy , xy = 0
--- (2)
xy , xy + yy , yy = 0
Adding the above two equations in (2) we obtain

1
xy , xy = ( xx , xx + yy , yy ) --- (3)
2
(e) Now substituting equation (3) into equation (1), we have
2.16.1


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1
( xx , yy yy , yy ) + ( xx , xx + yy , xx ) = 2(1 + )[ ( xx , xx + yy , yy )]
2
=> xx , yy + yy , xx = ( xx , xx + yy , yy )
=> xx , yy + yy , xx + xx , xx + yy , yy = 0
=> 2 ( xx + yy ) = 0
2 2
where 2 = +
x 2 y 2
--- ANS
2.16.2


C.T. Sun
2.17 Consider a thin rectangular panel loaded as shown in Fig. 2.20. Show that the
Airy stress function
= c1 x 2 + c 2 xy + c3 y 2
solves the problem. Find the constants c1, c2, c3.

y
0 0
b x
Figure 2.20 Thin rectangular panel subjected to uniform tension
Solution:
(a) Since = c1 x 2 + c 2 xy + c3 y 2 is a second order equation in x and y it
automatically satisfies the compatibility equation, 2 2 = 0 . So the given Airy

stress function can be used to solve the problem if we can find c1, c2, c3 that
satisfies the boundary conditions.
(b) Stress matrix:
2
xx = , => xx = 2c3 ,
y 2
2
yy = , => yy = 2c1 ,
x 2
2
xy = => xy = c 2
xy
So we have,
2c c2
[ ] = 3
c 2 2c1
(c) Applying boundary conditions:

a
(i) at x = , => n x = 1 , n y = 0 , t x = 0 , t y = 0
2
we have [ ]{n} = {t}
2.17.1


C.T. Sun
2c3 c 2 1 0
c3 = 0
=> = =>
c 2 2c1 0 0 2
c 2 = 0
b
(ii) at y = , => n x = 0 , n y = 1 , t x = 0 , t y = 0
2
we have [ ]{n} = {t}
2c3 c 2 0 0 c 2 = 0
=> = =>
c 2 2c1 1 0 c1 = 0
(d) The given Airy stress function is the solution to the problem and the values of the
o
constants are c1 = 0 , c2 = 0 and c3 = .
2
--- ANS
2.17.2


C.T. Sun
2.18 Consider the a b rectangular panel shown in Fig. 2.20. Find the problem
that the Airys stress function = xy 3 solves. That is, find the tractions at the
boundary of the panel.
b x
Figure 2.20 Thin rectangular panel subjected to uniform tension
Solution:
(a) It is easy to verify that the stress function = xy 3 satisfies the compatibility
equation, 2 2 = 0 .
(b) The stresses are obtained from the stress function as
2
xx = , => xx = 6 xy ,
y 2
2
yy = 2 , => yy = 0 ,
x
2
xy = => xy = 3y 2
xy
So we have,
6xy 3y 2
[ ] =
3 y
2
0
(c) The tractions at the boundary

a
(i) On the vertical face at x = , => n x = 1 , n y = 0 ,
2
we have {t} = [ ]{n}
t x 6 xy 3 y 2 1 6 xy 3ay
=> = = 2
= 2
t y 3 y
2
0 0 3 y 3 y
--- ANS
2.18.1


C.T. Sun
a
(ii) On the vertical face at x = , => n x = 1 , n y = 0 ,
2
t x 6 xy 3 y 2 1 6 xy 3ay
=> = = 2 = 2
t y 3 y
2
0 0 3 y 3 y
--- ANS
b
(iii) On the top face at y = , => n x = 0 , n y = 1 ,
2
t x 6 xy 3 y 2 0 3 y 2 3 b 2
=> = = = 4
t y 3 y
2
0 1 0 0

--- ANS
b
(iv) On the bottom face at y = , => n x = 0 , n y = 1 ,
2
t x 6 xy 3 y 2 0 3 y 2 3 b 2
=> = = = 4
t y 3 y
2
0 1 0 0

--- ANS
Note: The tractions on the edges can also be found directly from the stress
components at the same locations.
2.18.2


C.T. Sun
3.1 Show that there is no warping in a bar of circular cross-section.
Solution:
(a) Saint-Venant assumed that as the shaft twists the plane cross-sections are warped
but the projections on the x-y plane rotate as a rigid body, then,
u = zy
v = zx (3.1.1)
w = ( x, y )
where ( x, y ) is some function of x and y, called warping function, and is
the angle of twist per unit length of the shaft and is assumed to be very small.
(b) From the displacement field above, it is easy to obtain that
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
So from the stress-strain relationship, we have
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
Therefore the equilibrium equations reduce to

xz yz
+ =0
x y
This equation is identically satisfied if the stresses are derived from a stress
function ( x, y ) , so that

xz = , yz = (3.1.2)
y x
(c) From the displacement field and stress-strain relationship, we can obtain
w u w
xz = + = y (3.1.3)
x z x
w v w
yz = + = + x (3.1.4)
y z y
yz xz
So it forms the compatibility equation = 2 ,
x y
2 2
or in terms of Prandtl stress function + = 2G (3.1.5)
x 2 y 2
(d) Boundary conditions,
d
= 0 , or = const . But for a solid sections with a single contour boundary,
ds
this constant can be chosen to be zero. Then we have the boundary condition
= 0 on the lateral surface of the bar.
(e) For a bar with circular cross-section, assume the Prandtl stress function as
3.1.1


C.T. Sun
x2 y2
= C( + 1) which satisfies the boundary conditions stated above.
a2 a2
1
Substitute into (3.1.5), we obtain C = a 2 G
2
G 2
Then = (x + y 2 a 2 )
2
Using (3.1.2), we have
1 1
xz = = y , and yz = = x
G y G x
Comparing with (3.1.3) and (3.1.4), we have
w w
xz = y = y => = 0 . Thus, w = f ( y )
x x
w w
yz = + x = x => = 0 , Thus, w = g (x )
y y
Hence we conclude w = const . This means that the cross-section remains plane
after torsion. In other words, there is no warping.
Therefore w( x, y ) = 0 can be verified, and it successfully expresses the

statement.
--- ANS
3.1.2


C.T. Sun
3.2 Show that the Prandtl stress function for bars of circular solid sections is also
valid for bars of hollow circular sections as shown in Fig. 3.34. Find the torsion
constant J in terms of the inner radius ai and outer radius a 0 , and compare
with the torsion constant obtained using (3.59) for thin-walled sections. What is
the condition on the wall thickness for the approximate J to be within 1
percent of the exact J ?
a0
ai
Figure 3.34 Bar of a hollow circular section
Solution:
Recall:
(a) Saint-Venant assumed that as the shaft twists the plane cross-sections are warped
u = zy
v = zx (3.2.1)
w = ( x, y )
where ( x, y ) is a function of x and y, called warping function, and is the
angle of twist per unit length of the shaft and is assumed to be very small.
(b) From the displacement field above, it is easy to obtain that
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
So from the stress-strain relationship, we have
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0

xz yz
+ =0
x y
This equation is identically satisfied if the stresses are derived from a stress
function ( x, y ) , so that
3.2.1


C.T. Sun

xz = , yz = (3.2.2)
y x
(c) From the displacement field and stress-strain relationship, we can obtain
w u w
xz = + = y (3.2.3)
x z x
w v w
yz = + = + x (3.2.4)
y z y
yz xz
So it forms the compatibility equation = 2 ,
x y
2
2
x 2 y 2
(d) Boundary conditions,
d
= 0 , or = const .
ds
---
1. To show that the Prandtl stress function for bars of circular solid sections is also
valid for bars of hollow circular sections, we have to show that the Prandtl stress
function for hollow circular sections satifies equilibrium equations, compatibility
equations as well as traction boundary conditions.
(1) Equilibrium equations
Prandtl stress functions by their definition must satify equilibrium
equations..
(2) Compatibility equations
Use the Prandtl stress function as it stated for bars of circular solid sections
x2 y2 x2 y2
= C( 2
+ 2
1) (here we use a 0 . Assuming = C ( 2
+ 2
1)
a0 a0 ai ai
would be fine too).

1 2
Then substitute into (3.2.5), we have C = a 0 G . Thus we have
2
Ga 0 x 2
2
y2
= ( 2 + 2 1) . (3.2.6)
2 a0 a0
Therefore we have a stress function for bars of hollow circular sections

satisfying the compatibility equation
(3) Traction boundary conditions
3.2.2


C.T. Sun
d
To satisfy the traction boundary conditions we must show = 0 on the
ds
traction free surfaces.
Ga0 ai d
2 2
(r = ai ) = ( 2 1) = const. that is | r = ai = 0
2 a0 ds
Ga 0 a0 d
2 2
(r = a0 ) = ( 2 1) = 0. that is | r = a0 = 0
2 a0 ds
It shows that the B.C.s have been satisfied.

(4) Since equilibrium equations, compatibility equations and traction boundary
conditions are all satisfied, the Prandtl stress function for bars of circular
solid sections is also valid for bars of hollow circular sections.
--- ANS
2. Compare torsion constant
(1) The torque produced by the stresses is

T = ( x y )dA (3.2.7)
A
x y
Substituting (3.2.6) into (3.2.7) and use polar coordinates to perform
integration, we have,
1
T = G ( x 2 + y 2 ) dA =G (r 2 )rdrd =G ( 2 )( r 4 ) | aai0 = G [ (a 0 ai )]
4 4
A A
4 2

Comparing with T = GJ , we have the torsion constant J = (a 0 ai )
4 4
2
(2) Using (3.59) in the textbook for thin-walled sections, we have the
2
4A
approximate torsion constant J app =
ds / t
where A is the area enclosed by the centerline of the wall section.
a + ai 2
A = ( 0 ) = (a 0 + ai ) 2 , and t = a0 ai
2 4
2
2 (a0 + ai ) 4
4A
Therefore J app = = 4 = (a 0 + ai ) 3 (a 0 ai )
(a 0 + ai )
ds / t 4
a 0 ai
3. In order to have the approximate J to be within 1 percent of the exact J , one
J app J
must have 0.01
J
3.2.3


C.T. Sun
Substituting J app and J into the above error equation, we have

((a 0 + ai ) 3 (a 0 ai ) (a 0 ai )
4 4
J app J (a 0 ai ) 2
= 4 2 = 0.01
J 2(a 0 + ai )
2 2
(a 0 ai )
4 4
2
Because ai and a 0 are positive real number, we have
(a0 ai ) 2 ai 2 a
0.01 => ( ) 2.040816( i ) + 1 0
2( a 0 + a i )
2 2
a0 a0
We can obtain the solution of the above equation as

a
0.8174 i 1.2235
a0
ai
Since a0 > ai we have the solution 0.8174
a0
Therefore the condition on the wall thickness t is
t = a 0 ai a 0 0.8174a 0 = 0.1826a0
1
(OR t = a 0 ai ai ai = 0.2235a i )
0.8174
--- ANS
3.2.4


C.T. Sun
3.3 Consider the straight bar of a uniform elliptical cross-section. The semimajor
and semiminor axes are a and b, respectively. Show that the stress function of
the form
x2 y2
= C ( 2 + 2 1)
a b
provides the solution for torsion of the bar.
Find the expression of C and show that
a 3 b 3
J=
a2 + b2
2Ty 2Tx
zx = , zy =
ab 3 a 3b
and the warping displacement
T (b 2 a 2 )
w= xy
a 3b 3G
Solution:
Recall:
1. Saint-Venant assumed that as the shaft twists the plane cross-sections are warped
u = zy
v = zx (3.3.1)
w = ( x, y )
where ( x, y ) is warping function, and is the angle of twist per unit length
of the shaft and is assumed to be very small.
2. From the displacement field above, it is easy to obtain that
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
From the stress-strain relationship, we have
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0

xz yz
+ =0
x y
which is identically satisfied if the stresses are derived from a stress function
( x, y ) , so that

xz = , yz = (3.3.2)
y x
3. From the displacement field and stress-strain relationship, we can obtain
3.3.1


C.T. Sun
w u w
xz = + = y (3.3.3)
x z x
w v w
yz = + = + x (3.3.4)
y z y
yz xz
The compatibility equation becomes = 2 ,
x y
2 2
x 2 y 2
4. The boundary condition along the bounding surface is
d
= 0 , or = const .
ds
---
x2 y2
(a) Let the stress function be of the form = C ( + 1) . In order to show this
a2 b2
stress function provides the solution for torsion of the bar, we have to show that
this stress function satisfies the equilibrium equations, compatibility equations and
traction boundary conditions.
(1) Equilibrium equations
2y 2x
xz = = C( 2 ) , yz = = C( 2 )
y b x a
Substituting the above stress expressions into the equilibrium equations, we
have
xz yz
+ =0+0= 0
x y
(2) Compatibility equations
x2 y2
Substituting = C ( 2 + 2 1) into (3.3.5) we get
a b
a 2b 2
C = G 2 . (3.3.6)
a + b2
Therefore we have a stress function satisfying compatibility equation
(3) Traction boundary conditions
d
To satisfy the traction boundary condition we must show = 0 on the
ds
traction free lateral surface.
Since the boundary of the cross section is given by the equation
3.3.2


C.T. Sun
x2 y2
+ 1 = 0 ,
a2 b2
x2 y2
it is easy to see that = C ( + 1) = 0 on the free surface and therefore
a2 b2
d
it satisfies the required condition =0
ds
Since equilibrium equations, compatibility equations and traction boundary
conditions are all satisfied, the stated stress function provides the solution
for torsion of the bar.
--- ANS
(b) Torsion constant J
(1) We have the torque produced by the stresses is

T = ( x y )dA (3.3.7)
A
x y
x2 y2
Substituting = C ( + 1) into (3.3.7), then we have,
a2 b2
2x 2y x2 y2
T = ( x(C 2 ) y (C 2 ))dA = C ( 2 + 2 )dA
A a b A a b
Note that the integral part of the above equation is the area of the elliptical
x2 y2
cross-section. It can be easily obtained that (
A
+ )dA = ab
a2 b2
So we have the torsion T = Cab
By substituting C and utilizing T = GJ , we have
a 2b 2
(G )ab
Cab a2 + b2 a 3b 3
J= = = 2 (3.3.8)
G G a + b2
--- ANS
2y T 2y 2Ty
(2) xz = = C( 2 ) = ( 2)= , (3.3.9)
y b ab b ab 3
2x 2Tx
and yz = = C ( 2 ) = 3 (3.3.10)
x a a b
--- ANS
(c) The warping displacement can be derived from (3.3.3), (3.3.4), (3.3.9), (3.3.10)
2Ty 2Tx
From (3.3.9) and (3.3.10), we have xz = and yz = .
Gab 3
Ga 3 b
T T (a 2 + b 2 )
Also we need to know = =
GJ Ga 3b 3
So from (3.3.3) and (3.3.4), we can rewrite in
3.3.3


C.T. Sun
w 2Ty T (a 2 + b 2 ) y T (b 2 a 2 ) y
= xz + y = + = (3.3.11)
x Gab 3 Ga 3b 3 Ga 3 b 3
w 2Tx T (a 2 + b 2 ) x T (b 2 a 2 ) x
= yz x = = (3.3.12)
y Ga 3 b Ga 3 b 3 Ga 3b 3
From (3.3.11), we can obtain
T (b 2 a 2 )
w( x, y ) = xy + f ( y ) (3.3.13)
Ga 3 b 3
Then differentiating (3.3.13) with respect to y, we have
w( x, y ) T (b 2 a 2 )
= x + f ( y ) .
y Ga 3b 3
Comparing this equation with (3.3.12) we have f ( y ) = 0 , that is f ( y ) = const .
For a symmetric cross-section w(0,0) = 0 , that is, f ( y ) = 0.

Thus, the warping displacement is
T (b 2 a 2 )
w( x, y ) = xy.
Ga 3 b 3
--- ANS
And it is easy to also find that the warping function

T (b 2 a 2 )
xy.
a2 b2
= Ga2 b 2
w( x, y ) 3 3
( x, y ) = = 2 xy
T (a + b ) a + b2
Ga 3 b 3
3.3.4


C.T. Sun
3.4 A thin aluminum sheet is to be used to form a closed thin-walled section. If the
total length of the wall contour is 100 cm, what is the shape that would achieve
the highest torsional rigidity? Consider elliptical (including circular), rectangular,
and equilateral triangular shapes.
Solution:
(a) We denote GJ as torsional rigidity, for the same material in comparison, only
the torsion constant J needs to be taken into consideration.
For the closed thin-walled section, the torsion constant J is
2
4A
J= (3.4.1)
ds / t
We now have a thin aluminum sheet with its thickness t , all shapes of products
made from this aluminum sheet will have the same thickness, t . Also, the total
length of the wall contour is 100cm. Then ds / t is the same for all shapes of the
cross-section. Consequently, only A needs to be taken into consideration in the

evaluation of the torsional rigidity.
(b) Comparison of A
(1) Elliptical cross-section
For the elliptical cross-section, the cross-sectional area is
A ellp = ab , (3.4.2)
where a and b are the semimajor and semiminor axes, respectively.

Unfortunately, the length of the perimeter of an elliptical cross-section is
much more complicated to evaluate. The formula for the length of the
perimeter can be found from many math handbook It is
/2
L = 4a 1 k 2 sin 2 d ,
0
a2 b2
where k = = eccentricity
a
For the purpose to just comparing the area enclosed by the centerline of the
wall section, We approximate the perimeter with
a2 + b2
L = 2 (3.4.3)
2
By changing the form of (3.4.3) se have
3.4.1


C.T. Sun
L 2 L
b = 2( ) a 2 = C 2 a 2 , where C = 2( ) 2 (3.4.4)
2 2
Substituting (3.4.4) into (3.4.2) we have,
A ellp = a C 2 a 2
A
We can find the optimum solution by = 0 , by some operations leads to
a
A C 2 2a 2 C2
= = 0 , therefore we have a = for a, b > 0
a C 2 a2 2
C2
Substitute it back to (3.4.4), we have b = =a (3.4.5)
2
That means the optimum cross-section for elliptical shapes is a circle.
C2 2 L 2 L
Then from (3.4.5) we have a = b = = ( ) =
2 2 2 2
Finally, for a circle, the area enclosed by the centerline is
L 2
Acir = a 2 = ( ) = 0.0796 L2
2
--- ANS
(2) Rectangular section
For rectangular section, the perimeter is
L = 2( p + q ) , (3.4.6)
where p and q are length and width, respectively.
The cross-sectional area of rectangular sections is simply,
A rec = pq , (3.4.7)
Substituting (3.4.6) into (3.4.7), we have

L
A rec = pq = p ( p )
2
A
We use = 0 to find the optimal solution,
p
A L L
= 2 p = 0 , we have p = , and from (3.4.6), it is clear that
p 2 4
L
p=q= , i.e., the optimal cross-section for rectangular shapes is a square.
4
Finally, for a square thin-walled section, the area enclosed by the centerline
L 2
is Asqu = pq = ( ) = 0.0625 L2
4
3.4.2


C.T. Sun
--- ANS
(3) Equilateral triangular section.
L
For a equilateral triangle, the length of the lateral side is l = .
3
The area enclosed by the centerline of this triangular thin-walled section is
3 2 3 L 2
Atri = l = ( ) = 0.048 L2
4 4 3
--- ANS
(c) Comparison
From the results above we can easily tell
A cir > A squ > A tri
Consequently we can conclude that the shape achieving the highest torsional
rigidity is a CIRCLE.
--- ANS
b q
NOTE: It is interesting to compare in details with variables and from 0~1.
a p
(We here assume a>b and p>q)
a2 + b2 ab L 1 1
For ellipse, A ellp = ab = ab ( 2 )(2( ) 2 ) = ( ) L2
a +b
2 2
a +b 2
2 2 b a
+
a b
q
( p + q) 2
pq L 1 p
For rectangle, A rec = pq = pq = ( )2 = L2
( p + q) 2
( p + q) 2
2
4 q
(1 + ) 2
p
3 2
For equilateral triangle, A tri = L
36
A b q
We can illustrate 2
in terms of and , and have the plot of torsional rigidity
L a p
of different shapes vs. variable aspect ratios.
3.4.3


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3.4.4


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3.5 The two-cell section in Fig.3.35 is obtained from the single-cell section of
Fig.3.36 by adding a vertical web of the same thickness as the skin. Compare the
torsional rigidity of the structures of Figs. 3.35 and 3.36 with L1 = L2 = 10cm
and L1 = 5cm , L2 = 15cm , respectively.
t = 0.3cm
Figure 3.35 Two-cell thin-walled section
Figure 3.36 Single-cell section
Solution:
We denote GJ as torsional rigidity. For the same material in comparison, only the
torsion constant J needs to be considered.
(a) Single-cell thin-walled section
The torsion constant J is
2
4A
J= (3.5.1)
ds / t
We have A = ( L1 + L2 ) L3 = 20 10 = 200cm 2 . The torsion constant J can be
simply derived as
3.5.1


C.T. Sun
2
4A 4[( L1 + L2 ) L3 ] 2 4(200) 2
J 1cell = = = = 800cm 4
ds / t 2( L1 + L2 + L3 ) / t 2(20 + 10) 0.3
(b) Two-cell thin-walled section

(1) General Form
We denote the shear flow on the left cell by q1 , and the shear flow on the
right cell by q 2 . The shear flow in the vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2
Also, we have the torque for two-cell section
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2 (3.5.2)
where A1 = L1 L3 , A 2 = L2 L3
The twist angle of the section is obtained from eirher cell. For left cell we
have
1 qds 1
1 =
2G A1
cell 1 t
=
2GL1 L3 t
(q1 ( 2 L1 + L3 ) + (q1 q 2 ) L3 ) (3.5.3)
and for the right cell

1 qds 1
2 =
2G A 2 cell 2 t
=
2GL2 L3 t
(q 2 ( 2 L2 + L3 ) ( q1 q 2 ) L3 ) (3.5.4)
Since the entire thin-wall section must rotate as a rigid body in the plane, we
require the compatibility condition
1 = 2 = (3.5.5)
From (3.5.3) to (3.5.5), we derive the relation between q1 and q 2 ,
L3 L3
(2 + 2
+ )
L1 L2
q2 = q (3.5.6)
L3 L3 1
(2 + 2 + )
L2 L1
T
Substituting (3.5.6) into (3.5.2) and using J = and (3.5.3), we have
G
(2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2 ) 4 L1 L3 ( L1 L3 q1 + L2 L3 q 2 )t
J= =
1 (2q1 L1 + 2q1 L3 q 2 L3 )
G (q1 (2 L1 + L3 ) + (q1 q 2 ) L3 )
2GL1 L3 t
(3.5.7)
(2) Case 1: L1 = L2 = 10cm and L3 = 10cm
From (3.5.6), q 2 = q1 , then substituting into (3.5.7) we have

4 L L ( L L q + L2 L3 q 2 )t
J 2 cell 1 = 1 3 1 3 1 = 800cm 4
(2q1 L1 + 2q1 L3 q 2 L3 )
3.5.2


C.T. Sun
--- ANS
(3) Case 2: L1 = 5cm , L2 = 15cm and L3 = 10cm
10 10
(2 + 2
+ )
From (3.5.6), q 2 = 5 15 q = 1.25q
10 10 1 1
(2 + 2 + )
15 5
Then substituting into (3.5.7) we have
4 5 10(5 10q1 + 15 10 1.25q1 ) 0.3
J 2 cell 2 == = 814.2857cm 4
(2q1 5 + 2q1 10 1.25q1 10)
--- ANS
(c) Comparison
From the results above we have
814.2857 cm 4 = J 2 cell 2 > J 2 cell 1 = J 1cell = 800cm 4
Adding a vertical web does not significantly improve the torsional rigidity.
--- ANS
3.5.3


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3.6 Find the torsional rigidity if the side wall of one of the two cells in Fig. 3.35
(with L1 = L2 = 10cm ) is cut open. What is the reduction of torsional rigidity
compared with the original intact structure?
t = 0.3cm
Figure 3.35 Two-cell thin-walled section
Solution:
We denote torsional rigidity by GJ as.
(a) Closed sidewall
From the solution of Problem 3.5, we have the torsion constant J 2 cell 1 of the
case with L1 = L2 = 10cm
4 L L ( L L q + L2 L3 q 2 )t
J 2 cell 1 = 1 3 1 3 1 = 800cm 4
(2q1 L1 + 2q1 L3 q 2 L3 )
So we have the original torsional rigidity GJ 2 cell 1 = 800G (3.6.1)
(b) With one side wall cut open
Assuming that the cell is cut open as shown in the figure, the torsional rigidity can
be derived from
GJ cut open = GJ cell not cut + GJ cell cut (3.6.2)
(1) + (2)
Where
3.6.1


C.T. Sun
4( A not cut ) 2
J cell not cut = , and A not cut = L2 L3 (3.6.3)
ds / t
4(10 10) 2 0.3
=> J cell not cut = = 300cm 4
2(10 + 10)
and
1 3
J cell cut = bi t i (3.6.4)
i 3
1
=> J cell cut = (10 + 10 + 10) 0.33 = 0.27cm 4
3
So, from (3.6.2) we get
GJ cut open = GJ cell not cut + GJ cell cut = 300.27G
---ANS
(c) The reduction of torsional rigidity is obtained as
GJ 2 cell 1 GJ cut open 800 300.27
R= = = 0.625 = 62.5%
GJ 2 cell 1 800
--- ANS
3.6.2


C.T. Sun
3.7 Find the torque capability of the thin-walled bar with the section shown in Fig.
3.36. Assume that the shear modulus G = 27GPa and the allowable shear
stress of allow = 187 MPa .
t = 0.3cm
Figure 3.36 Single thin-walled section
Solution:
Since the thickness of all walls are equal to t = 0.3cm , we can obtain the allowable
shear flow from allowable shear stress, that is
qallow = allowt = 187 106 0.003 = 5.61 10 5 N/m
Then we have the torque capability as
Tallow = 2 Aqallow = 2( 0.1 0.2 ) 5.61 10 5 = 22440 N m
--- ANS
3.7.1


C.T. Sun
3.8 A two-cell thin-walled member with the cross-section shown in Fig. 3.37 is
subjected to a torque T. The resulting twist angle is 3o / m . Find the shear
flows of the applied torque, and the torsion constant. The material is aluminum
alloy 2024-T3.
Figure 3.37 Two-cell section
Solution:
(a) Assume the material is linearly elastic under the twist angle . For aluminum
alloy 2024-T3, we have the shear modulus
E 72
G= = = 27 GPa
2( 1 + ) 2( 1 + 0.33 )
(b) We denote the shear flow on the left cell q1 , and the shear flow on the right cell
q 2 . The shear flow in the vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2 , are the positive directions
as shown in the figure above.
Also, we have the torque for two-cell sections
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2 (3.8.1)
d 2 ( 0.5 )2
where A1 = A2 = = = 0.098 m 2 ,
8 8
The twist angle of the left cell is
1 qds 1 s s
1 =
2G A1 cell1 t
= ( 1 q1 + 12 (q1 q 2 ))
2G A1 t1 t12
(3.8.2)
d
where s1 = = 0.785 m is the length of the left side wall, and s12 = 0.5m is
2
the length of the vertical web.
The twist angle of the right cell is
1 qds 1 s s
2 =
2G A 2 cell 2 t
= ( 2 q 2 12 (q1 q 2 ))
2G A 2 t 2 t12
(3.8.3)
3.8.1


C.T. Sun
d
Again, we have s2 = = 0.785 m , the length of the right side wall.
2
1 = 2 = = 3o / m = 0.0524 rad / m (3.8.4)
From (3.8.2) to (3.8.4) and noting that A1 = A 2 , we derive the relation between
q1 and q 2 by substituting all the known quantities,
0.785398 0 .5 0.785398 0 .5
q1 + q12 = q2 q12
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.002
Substituting q12 = q1 q 2 , in the equation above, we obtain
q2 = 1.687 q1 (3.8.5)
Back substituting into (3.8.2) and (3.8.4), we have
( 785.398 250( 1.69732 1 ))
1 = 0.0524 rad / m = q1
2( 27.0677 10 9 )( 0.098175 )
From which we obtain
q1 = 453,500 N / m
Subsequently from (3.8.5) we obtain
q2 = 1.687 q1 = 765000 N / m
--- ANS
(c) The applied torque
From (3.8.1), we compute the applied torque
T = 2 A1q1 + 2 A2 q2 = 2( 0.098 )( 453500 + 765000 )
= 239300 N m = 2.393 10 5 N m
--- ANS
(d) The torsion constant J
From the fundamental relationship of torque and twist angle, we have T = GJ
So the torsion constant can be derived as
T 239300
J= = = 1.69 10 4 m 4
G ( 27 10 9 )( 0.0524 )
--- ANS
3.8.2


C.T. Sun
3.9 For the bar of Fig. 3.37, find the maximum torque if the allowable shear stress is
allow = 187 MPa . What is the corresponding maximum twist angle ?
Figure 3.37 Two-cell section
Solution:
(a) Assume the material is linearly elastic under the twist angle . For aluminum
E 72
G= = = 27 GPa
2( 1 + ) 2( 1 + 0.33 )
(b) We denote the shear flow on the left cell as q1 and that on the right cell as q 2 .
The shear flow in the vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2 . The positive directions for the
shear flows are shown in the figure above.
The torque for two-cell section is
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2 (3.9.1)
d 2 ( 0.5 )2
where A1 = A2 = = = 0.098 m 2 ,
8 8
1 qds 1 s s
1 =
2G A1
cell1 t
= ( 1 q1 + 12 (q1 q 2 ))
2G A1 t1 t12
(3.9.2)
d
where s1 = = 0.785 m is the length of the left side wall, and s12 = 0.5m is
2
the length of the vertical web.
Also we have the twist angle of the right cell as
1 qds 1 s s
2 =
2G A 2
cell 2 t
= ( 2 q 2 12 (q1 q 2 ))
2G A 2 t 2 t
(3.9.3)
d
where s2 = = 0.785 m is the length of the right side wall.
2
(c) Since the entire thin-wall section must rotate as a rigid body in the plane, we
3.9.1


C.T. Sun
1 = 2 = (3.9.4)
From (3.9.2) to (3.9.4) and note that A1 = A 2 , we derive the relation between q1
and q 2 by substituting all the known quantities,

0.785398 0 .5 0.785398 0 .5
q1 + q12 = q2 q12
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.002
In view of the relation q12 = q1 q 2 we obtain
q2 = 1.687 q1 (3.9.5)
Back substituting (3.9.5) into (3.9.2) and (3.9.4), we have
(785.398 250(1.69732 1))
= q1 , and then
2( 27.0677 10 9 )(0.098175)
q1 = 8662000
Subsequently, (3.9.6)
q2 = 1.687 q1 = 14 ,600 ,000 (3.9.7)
q12 = q1 q2 = 5 ,953,000 (3.9.8)
Note the units are in rad / m , and q1 , q2 , q12 are in N/m.
(d) Stress in the wall
From the above quantities of shear flow, we can then compute the shear stress in
q
each wall by = . We have
t
q 8662028
1 = 1 = = 8.66 10 9 (3.9.9)
t1 0.001
q2 14615612
2 = = = 4.87 10 9 (3.9.10)
t2 0.003
q12 5953584
12 = = = 2.98 10 9 (3.9.11)
t12 0.002
(e) From the above stresses (3.9.9) to (3.9.11), because the negative value just denote
the negative direction, the maximum absolute magnitude of shear stress is
1 = 8.66 10 9 allow = 187 106
Therefore the maximum twist angle is
max = 0.0216 rad / m = 1.24o / m
--- ANS
(f) The maximum torque can be solved by using (3.9.1), (3.9.6), (3.9.7) and the
maximum twist angle, that is
T = 2 A1q1 + 2 A2 q2 = 2( 0.098 )( 8662000 + 14600000 )( 0.0216 )
= 98700 N m
--- ANS
3.9.2


C.T. Sun
3.10 Find the shear flow and twist angle in the two-cell three-stringer thin-walled
bar with the cross-section shown in Fig. 3.38. The material is Al2024-T3. The
applied torque is 2 10 5 N m .
Figure 3.38 Two-cell three-stringer thin-walled section
Solution:
(a) Assume the material is linearly elastic under the applied torque. For aluminum
E 72
G= = = 27GPa
2(1 + ) 2(1 + 0.33)
(b) Denote the shear flow on the left cell as q1 , and the shear flow on the right cell as
q 2 ; both are considered positive if counterclockwise. The shear flow in the
vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2 , which is positive if it is in the same direction as q1 .
We have the torque for the two-cell section as
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2 (3.10.1)
d 2 (1.2) 2
where A1 = = = 0.565 m 2 ,
8 8
bh 2(1.2)
and A 2 = = = 1 .2 m 2
2 2
The twist angle of the left. cell is
1 qds 1 s s
1 =
2G A1 cell1 t
= ( 1 q1 + 12 (q1 q 2 ))
2G A1 t1 t1
(3.10.2)
d
where s1 = = 1.88 m is the length of the left half circular wall, and
2
s12 = 1.2m is the length of the vertical web.
The twist angle of the right. cell is
3.10.1


C.T. Sun
1 qds 1 s s s
2 =
2G A 2
cell 2 t
= ( 2 q 2 + 3 q 2 12 (q1 q 2 ))
2G A 2 t 2 t3 t1
(3.10.3)
Again, we have s2 = 2 m , the length of the lower wall,
and s3 = 2 2 + 1.2 2 = 2.33 m , the length of the inclined wall of thickness t3 in
the right cell.

1 = 2 = (3.10.4)
Solving the two equations, (3.10.2) and (3.10.4), we obtain
1 1.885 1 .2 1 2 2.332 1 .2
( q1 + q12 ) = ( q2 + q2 q12 )
0.565 0.005 0.005 1.2 0.007 0.007 0.005
Eliminating q12 from the equation above using q12 = q1 q 2 we obtain
q2 = 1.132q1 (3.10.5)
(c) To find the shear flow , we back substitute (3.10.5) into (3.10.1) and have
T = 2 A1q1 + 2 A2 q2 = ( 2 A1 + 2.265 A2 ) q1
T 2 105
=> q1 = = = 51966 N / m
2 A1 + 2.265 A2 (2)(0.565) + (2.265)(1.2)
--- ANS
From (3.10.5),
q2 = 1.132q1 = 58844 N / m
--- ANS
(d) For the twist angle, we can utilize the shear flows and equations (3.10.2) and
(3.10.4) to get,
1.885 1.2
( + (1 1.132)) 51966
1 s1 s12
= 1 = ( q1 + (q1 q2 )) = 0.005 0.005
--- ANS
2G A1 t1 t1 2(27 109 )(0.565)
= 5.86 10 4 rad / m = 0.0336o / m
3.10.2


C.T. Sun
3.11 What is the maximum torque for the structure of Fig. 3.38 if the allowable twist
angle is 2 o / m ?
Figure 3.38 Two-cell three-stringer thin-walled section
Solution:
(a) Assume the material used is still Aluminum alloy 2024-T3. For aluminum alloy
2024-T3, we have the shear modulus
E 72
G= = = 27 GPa
2( 1 + ) 2( 1 + 0.33 )
(b) Denote the shear flow on the left cell as q1 , and the shear flow on the right cell as
q 2 . Both are assumed positive in the counterclockwise direction. The shear flow
in the vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2 , from bottom to top.
The torque for two-cell section is
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2 (3.11.1)
d 2 ( 1.2 )2
where A1 = = = 0.56 m 2 ,
8 8
bh 2(1.2)
and A 2 = = = 1 .2 m 2
2 2
1 qds 1 s s
1 =
2G A1
cell1 t
= ( 1 q1 + 12 (q1 q 2 ))
2G A1 t1 t1
(3.11.2)
d
where s1 = = 1.88 m is the length of the left half circular wall, and
2
s12 = 1.2m is the length of the vertical web.
The twist angle of the right cell is
1 qds 1 s s s
2 =
2G A 2
cell 2 t
= ( 2 q 2 + 3 q 2 12 (q1 q 2 ))
2G A 2 t 2 t3 t1
(3.11.3)
3.11.1


C.T. Sun
where s2 = 2 m is the length of the lower straight wall of thickness t2, and
s3 = 2 2 + 1.2 2 = 2.33 m is the length of the inclined wall of thickness t3.
1 = 2 = (3.11.4)
From (3.10.2) to (3.10.4), we can derive the relation between q1 and q 2 by
substituting all the known quantities,
1 1.88 1 .2 1 2 2.33 1 .2
( q1 + q12 ) = ( q2 + q2 q12 )
0.566 0.005 0.005 1.2 0.007 0.007 0.005
Substituting q12 = q1 q 2 into the above equation, we obtain
q2 = 1.13q1 (3.11.5)
(c) Since we have the condition allowable = 2o / m = 0.035rad / m , and, thus,
1 = 2 = < allowable = 0.035rad / m . By equations (3.11.2),

1.88 1.2
( + ( 1 1.13 )) q1
1 s1 s12
= 1 = ( q1 + ( q1 q2 )) = 0.005 0 .005
2G A1 t1 t1 2( 27 10 9 )( 0.565 )
= 1.13 10 8 q1 ( rad / m ) < allowable = 0.035 ( rad / m )
We then have q1 3,095,000 N / m
(d) To find the maximum torque, we can use equation (3.11.1)
T = 2 A1q1 + 2 A2 q2 = ( 2 A1 + 2.264708 A2 )q1

< [( 2 )( 0.56 ) + ( 2.26 )( 1.2 )] 3 ,095 ,000 = 1.19 107 N m
Therefore the maximum torque is
Tmax = 1.19 107 N m
--- ANS
It should be noted that under this torque the shear stress has already exceeded the
yield condition of Al 2024-T3. Consequently, this solution may not be of practical
significance if allowable stress condition is to be satisfied too.
3.11.2


C.T. Sun
3.12 The two shafts of thin-walled cross-sections shown in Fig. 3.39a and b,
respectively. Contain the same amount of aluminum alloy. Compare the
torsional rigidities of the two shafts without end constraints.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.39 Cross-sections of two shafts
Solution:
(a) Fig. 3.39a is a cross-section of an open thin-wall, its torsional rigidity is GJ a
1 1
GJ a = G biti 3 = 3( )( 200 )( 3 )3 G = 5400G mm4
i 3 3
--- ANS
(b) Fig. 3.39b is a cross-section of a closed thin-wall, its torsional rigidity is GJ b
2
4A 3b 2
GJ b = G , where A = ,
ds 4
t
2
4A 3b 4 t b 3 t
GJ b = G =G = G = 6 10 6 Gmm 4
ds 4(3b) 4
t
--- ANS
(c) The ratio of the torsional rigidities is
GJ b 6 106 G
= = 1111
GJ a 5400G
--- ANS
3.12.1


C.T. Sun
3.13 Find the distributions of the primary warping displacement on the cross-sections
shown in Fig. 3.39b. Due to symmetry, the center of twist coincides with the
centroid of the section, and warp at the midpoint of each flat sheet section is zero.
Sketch the warping displacement along the wall.
(b)
Figure 3.39 Cross-sections of two shafts
Solution:
(a) Observation.
Because of the symmetry, the center of twist coincides with the centroid of the
section, and warp at the midpoint of each flat sheet section is zero.
So from the figure above we set w = 0 at the midpoint of each flat sheet. First
we assume the warp at point A is positive of z-direction. While going from A to B,
we pass the midpoint and then the warp goes from positive into negative part, then
end at point B with the maximum negative warping. Using the same concept on
sheet BC will result in a maximum positive warping at point C. Now we consider
the sheet CA by using the same conclusion, we will surprisingly find the warping
at A is negative of z-direction. Hence it contradicts our assumption of A being
3.13.1


C.T. Sun
positive. By applying the assumption of A is negative direction we will conclude

in another contradiction. Therefore, we can confidently assure that there is no
warping in this equilateral triangular thin-walled cross-section. In the following
we will approve it by further derivatives.
(b) For the closed thin-walled section, we have
w u s w
sz =+ = + , (3.13.1)
s z s
where is the distance from the center of twist to the tangent line of point P of
interest, w is the warping that we are seeking. Also, we have
sz qs
sz = = (3.13.2)
G Gt
where q s is the shear flow along s-direction, t is the thickness of the wall and G
is the shear modulus.
Again, recall from the relationship between applied torque and shear flow, we
T
have q s = (3.13.3)
2A
Combining (3.13.1) to (3.13.3) results in
w T w T
+ = , or =
s 2 AGt s 2 AGt
T s s s T
=> w( s) w(0) = ds ds = ds 2 As (3.13.4)
0 0 0
2 AGt 2 AGt
Also the twist angle can be derived from
1 ds
=
2G A t
(3.13.5)
(c) Assume the applied torque is uniformly applied to the cross-section. Also, the
material is isotropic so that the shear modulus is constant.
For the equilateral triangular section, we have
3b 2
A= (3.13.6)
4
And since the section is symmetric, we can just take the sheet CA into
consideration and applied to all other sheets. Assume the origin of s is on the
midpoint of sheet CA, so w(0) = 0 , then we have
3bs
As = (3.13.7)
12
From (3.13.4) to (3.13.7), we obtain
3bs
2( )(3b)T
s T Ts Ts 2 ( 3 / 8)b 2
w( s ) = ds 2 As = 12 = ( )
0
2 AGt 2G At 4G ( A) 2 t Gt 3b 2 (3 / 16)b 4
3.13.2


C.T. Sun
=> w( s ) = 0
This approves our observation in part (a).
--- ANS
3.13.3


C.T. Sun
3.14 A shaft with a channel section shown in Fig. 3.40 is subjected to a torque T.
Assume that neither end is constrained. Find the warping distribution on the
cross-section, the maximum warp, and the location of the maximum warp.
Figure 3.40 Dimensions of a channel section
Solution:
(a) For the open thin-walled section, we have
w u s w
sz = + = + = 0 , (3.14.1)
s z s
where is the distance from the center of twist to the tangent line of point P of
interest, w is the warping that we are seeking. So, we have
w
=
s
s
=> w( s ) w(0) = ds = 2 As (3.14.2)
0
Also the twist angle can be derived from

T
= (3.14.3)
GJ
where the torsional constant is
1 3
J = bi t i (3.14.4)
i 3
for thin rectangular sections of thickness t and length b (see equation (3.38) in the
textbook).
(b) For the channel section in Fig. 3.40, assume the shear modulus is G. We can first
derive some needed properties.
The moment of inertia with respect to x axis is
3.14.1


C.T. Sun
1 t 1 t
Ix = (b + )(2h + t ) 3 (b )(2h t ) 3 = 1729080 mm 4
12 2 12 2
( Since the thickness of walls is relatively small, there are some approximated
t b
solutions such as I x = (2h) 3 + 2 [ t 3 + bth 2 ] = 1728270 mm 4 , or
12 12
t
Ix = (2h) 3 + 2(bth 2 ) = 1728000 mm 4 are all the acceptable approximations)
12
tb 2 h 2 3( 60 )4
The eccentric distance e = = = 22.49 mm (3.14.5)
Ix 1729080
The torsional constant is
1 3 60 33 120 33
J = bi t i = 2( )+ = 2160mm 4
i 3 3 3
and the twist angle per unit length can be obtained from
T T
= = (3.14.6)
GJ 2160G
(c) Break up the contour s into two straight parts s1 and s2 , as shown below
For contour s1 , we have

1
A s1 =es1 (3.14.7)
2
and for contour s2 (the point s2 = 0 is at upper left corner of the section) we have
1
A s 2 = hs 2 (3.14.8)
2
(d) On the contour s1 , the warping displacement w is calculated from equation
(3.14.2):
s T T
w ( s1 ) = 0 ds = 2 As 1 = es1 = 0.0104 s1
2160G G
In which the condition w( 0 ) = 0 has been used. This is obvious since the warping
at the middle point of the vertical web is zero because of anti-symmetry. Also note
that
3.14.2


C.T. Sun
T
w ( s1 = h ) = w ( h = 60 mm ) = 0.62
G
--- ANS
(e) On the contour s2 , the warping can be obtained from equation (3.14.2) by
integrating from s1=0 to any point s2. Thus,
w( s2 ) = w( s1 = h ) 2 As 2
T T
=> w( s2 ) = 0.62 + 0.028s2 --- ANS
G G
So the warping displacement at the left upper corner is
T
w( s1 = h) = 0.62
G
and at the right upper edge is
T
w( s2 = b) = 1.04
G
--- ANS
(f) Similar calculations show that the warping displacement is anti-symmetric with
respect to the x-axis. From the above calculations, the maximum warp (absolute
value) is
T
wmax = w2 ( s2 = b) = 1.04
G
and are located at both free edges.
--- ANS
T
w1 ( s1 ) = 0.0104 s1
G
T T
w2 ( s 2 ) = 0.0278 s 2 0.62
G G
3.14.3


C.T. Sun
3.15 Consider the shaft of the channel section shown in Fig. 3.40. If one end of the
shaft is built in and the other end is free, find the effective torsional rigidity as a
function of the distance from the built-in end. Assume that the length L of the
shaft is sufficiently large so that near the free end the Saint-Venant torsion
assumptions are valid. Compare the total twist angle with that for a free-free
shaft for L = 2m .
Solution:
(a) The government equation for the twist angle under an applied torque T end
constraints is
d 2 T
k2 2
= , (3.15.1)
dz GJ
E 1 3
= 4 A s tds and J = bi t i
s1
where k 2 =
2
, (3.15.2)
GJ i 3
s0
The general solution is

T
= h + p = (1 + C1e z / k + C 2 e z / k ) (3.15.3)
GJ
(b) Applying boundary conditions
We assume the shaft is built in at z = 0 and free at z = L where the torque T is
applied.
(1) First, assume the length L of the shaft is sufficiently large so that near the
free end the Saint-Venant torsion assumptions are valid, so that T = GJ
(Saint-Venant torsion) when z L . To satisfy this condition, we require
that C1 = 0 , then (3.15.3) will converge to T = GJ .
(2) Second, at the built-in end ( z = 0 ), warping suppressed and w = 0 . From
the equation w( s, z ) = ws ( s ) ( z ) , we conclude that = 0 . Thus, we have
3.15.1


C.T. Sun
C 2 = 1 .
From (1) and (2), we have the solution becoming
T T
= (1 e z / k ) =
GJ GJ eff
Then the effective torsion constant is
J
J eff = (3.15.4)
1 ez / k
(c) In Fig. 3.40, the channel cross-section has the properties from (3.15.2).
1 3 60 33 120 33
J = bi t i = 2( )+ = 2160mm 4 = 2.16 10 9 m 4
i 3 3 3
s1
= 4 A s tds
2
s0
Because of the symmetric w.r.t x-axis, it is more convenient to measure distance

from the middle point of the vertical web.
From the solution of Problem 3.14, we have

tb 2 h 2 3(60) 4
ecot = = = 22.49mm = 0.02249m
Ix 1729080
Therefore,
s1 h 1 h +b 1 1
4 A s tds = 2 { 4( ecot s1 ) 2 tds1 + 4[ ecot h h( s1 h)] 2 tds1 }
2
s0 0 2 h 2 2
~~~~~~A~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~B~~~~~~~~~
Part A:
h 1 2 1 1 2
4( ecot s1 ) 2 tds1 = ecot t ( ) s1 |0h = ecot th 3 = 1.09 10 10 m 6
3
0 2 3 3
Part B:
3.15.2


C.T. Sun
h+b 1 1
h
4[ ecot h h( s1 h)]2 tds1
2 2
bb 2 1
= (ecot h hs2 ) 2 tds2 = t (ecot h 2b ecot h 2b 2 + h 2b3 ) = 2.31 1010 m6
2
0 3
s1
=> = 4 As tds = 2( PartA + PartB) = 6.8 1010 m6
2
s0
Taking E = 70GPa and G = 27GPa for aluminum, then

E
k= = 0.904
GJ
Thus, the effective torsional rigidity is obtained as
GJ 27 109 2.16 109 58.32
GJ eff = z / k
= z / 0.904
=
1 e 1 e 1 e z / 0.904
--- ANS
(d) The total twist angle.
For the case with end constraints,
L T 2 T
fixed = dz = (1 e z / 0.904 )dz = ( z + 0.904e z / 0.904 ) |02
0 58.32 0 58.32
T
= (2 0.805) = 0.0205T
58.32
For the case with free-free end,
TL 2T
free = L = = = 0.0343T
GJ 58.32
The ratio of the two twist angles is
fixed
= 0.6
free
--- ANS
It is clear that the end constraints reduce the twist angle. In other words, end
constraints increase the torsional stiffness.
3.15.3


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3.16 Calculate the distributions of normal stress zz and shear flow distributions at
the built-in end for Problem 3.15.
Solution:
(a) The solution for problem 3.15 is
T T
= (1 e z / k ) = (1 e z / 0.904 ) (3.16.1)
GJ 58.32
(b) The normal stress is
w( z , s ) d
zz ( z , s ) = E zz ( z , s ) = E = Ews ( s ) (3.16.2)
z dz
where ws ( s ) = 2 A s
Substituting (3.16.1) into (3.16.2) we have

T e z / 0.904
zz ( z, s ) = (70)(2 As )( )( ) = 2.656T As e z / 0.904 (3.16.3)
58.32 0.904
We can find the value from the solution of problem 3.15,
1
On the vertical web s : 0 ~ s1 => A s = ecot s1 (3.16.4)
2
1 1
On the horizontal sheet s : 0 ~ s 2 => A s = ecot h hs 2 (3.16.5)
2 2
tb 2 h 2
where ecot = = 0.0225m
Ix
(c) The distribution of normal stress zz at the built-in end ( z = 0 )
On the vertical web, we can calculate the normal stress with (3.16.3) and
(3.16.4)
3.16.1


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1
zz ( z , s ) |z = 0 = 2.656T ( ecot s1 )e z / 0.904 |z = 0 = 0.0299 s1T
2
--- ANS
At s1 = 0 , zz (0,0) = 0
At s1 = h = 0.06m , zz = 0.0299 0.06T = 1.79 103 T ( N / m 2 )
On the horizontal sheet, we can derive the normal stress with (3.16.3) and
(3.16.5)
1 1
zz ( z, s ) |z = 0 = 2.656T ( ecot h hs2 )e z / 0.904 |z = 0
2 2
3
= (1.79 10 + 0.0797 s2 )T
--- ANS
At s 2 = 0 , zz = 1.79 10 T 3
At s 2 = b = 0.06m ,
zz = (1.79 103 + 0.0797 0.06)T = 2.99 103 T ( N / m 2 )
The distribution of normal stress on the cross-section is anti-symmetric. The
distribution can be illustrated as the figure below.
--- ANS
(d) The distribution of shear flow at the built-in end ( z = 0 ).
From the equation (3.85) in the textbook, the shear flow at any location s at the
built-in end ( z = 0 ) is
d 2 s
q ( s) | z =0 = E
dz 2
| z =0
s0
ws tds (3.16.6)
where ws ( s ) = 2 A s
3.16.2


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Substituting (3.16.1) in (3.16.6), we have

T 1 2 z / 0.904 s
q ( s ) | z = 0 = (70)( )(( ) e ) |z = 0 (2 0.003) As ds
58.32 0.904 s0
(3.16.7)
s
= 8.82 10 T As ds
3
s0
Here it is important to emphasize that the s-direction is measured from the point
where shear flow vanishes. Hence s begins from the free end of the horizontal
sheet as shown in the figure below. Also, due to the symmetry w.r.t. x axis, we
only need to consider the part above x-axis. This allows us to modify equation of
A s from (3.16.4) and (3.16.5).
For the horizontal sheet, we have

1
As = hs1 , s1 : 0 b (3.16.8)
2
Moving along the vertical web, we have
1
A s = ecot s 2 s2 : 0 h (3.16.9)
2
On the horizontal sheet, we can derive the shear flow from (3.16.8) and
(3.16.7)
s1 1
q1 ( s ) |z = 0 = 8.82 10 3 T hxdx
0 2
x 2 s1
= 2.646 10 4 T ( ) |0 = 1.323 10 4 s1 T
2
2
--- ANS
At s1 = 0 , q (0) = 0
At s1 = b = 0.06m ,
q1 (0.06) = 1.323 104 (0.06) 2 T = 4.762 107 T N /m
On the vertical web, we can derive the shear flow with (3.16.9) and (3.16.7).
Since the shear flow is continuous, we have
s2 1
q2 ( s2 ) | z = 0 q1 ( s1 = b) |z = 0 = 8.818341 10 3 T ( ecot x)dx
0 2
2
x s2
= 9.914 10 5 T |0 = 4.957 10 5 s2 T
2
2
3.16.3


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=> q2 ( s2 ) |z = 0 = (4.957 105 s2 4.762 107 )T

2
--- ANS
7
At s 2 = 0 , q2 (0) = 4.762 10 T
At s 2 = h = 0.06m ,
q2 ( s2 = 0.06) = (4.957 10 5 (0.06) 2 4.762 107 )T
= 2.977 10 7 T
The distribution of the shear flow at the fixed end is sketched in the figure below.
--- ANS
3.16.4


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3.17 Assume that the shaft of the channel section of Fig. 3.40 is built in at both ends.
Find the torque that is necessary to produce a relative twist angle = 5 o
between two ends. Assume that L = 1m , Youngs modulus E = 70GPa , and
shear modulus G = 27GPa . Compare this with the free-free case.
Solution:
(a) Since both end of the channel are built-in, it allows us to set z = 0 at the middle
of the channel as shown above.
(b) The governing equation for the twist angle under an applied torque T end
constraints is
d 2 T
k2 2
= , (3.17.1)
dz GJ
E
where k 2 = , (3.17.2)
GJ
1 3
= 4 A s tds and J = bi t i for open thin-walled section.
s1 2
(3.17.3)
i 3
s0
The general solution of differential equation (3.17.1) is
3.17.1


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T z z
= h + p = (1 + C1 cosh + C 2 sinh ) (3.17.4)
GJ k k
1 3
(c) Compute J = bi ti and = 4 A s tds .
s1 2
i 3
s 0
1 3 60 33 120 33
J = biti = 2( )+ = 2160mm4 = 2.16 109 m 4
i 3 3 3
s1
= 4 A s tds
2
s0
Because of symmetry w.r.t x axis, it is more convenient to set up the s contour

with the origin at the middle point of the vertical web as shown in the figure
below.
From the solution of Problem 3.14, we have

tb 2 h 2 3(60) 4
ecot = = = 22.485946mm = 0.0225m
Ix 1729000
Therefore,
s1 h 1 h +b 1 1
4 A s tds = 2 { 4( ecot s1 ) 2 tds1 + 4[ ecot h h( s1 h)] 2 tds1 }
2
s0 0 2 h 2 2
~~~~~~A~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~B~~~~~~~~~
Part A:
h 1 2 1 1 2
4( ecot s1 ) 2 tds1 = ecot t ( ) s1 |0h = ecot th 3 = 1.092 10 10 m 6
3
0 2 3 3
h+b 1 1
h
4[ ecot h h( s1 h)]2 tds1
2 2
Part B:
bb 2 1
= (ecot h hs2 ) 2 tds2 = t (ecot h 2b ecot h 2b 2 + h 2b3 ) = 2.31 1010 m6
2
0 3
s1
=> = 4 A s tds = 2( PartA + PartB) = 6.804 10 10 m 6
2
s0
3.17.2


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Taking E = 70GPa and G = 27GPa for aluminum, then

E
k= = 0.904
GJ
(d) Applying boundary conditions
(1) First, because of symmetry of with respect to z , the odd function
sinh( z / k ) should be dropped. This is accomplished by setting C 2 = 0 .
(2) Second, at the built-in end ( z = L / 2 ), warping is suppressed and w = 0 .
Since w( s, z ) = ws ( s) ( z ) , we conclude that = 0 . Thus, we have
T L
(1 + C1 cosh ) = 0
GJ 2k
1
Then C1 =
L
cosh
2k
Since L = 1 m and k = 0.904 m , we have
1
C1 = = 0.864
1
cosh( )
2 (0.904)
Thus the solution for the rate of twist angle is
T z T z
= (1 0.864 cosh ) = (1 0.864 cosh )
GJ k 58.32 0.904
The twist angle related to distance z from the middle of the channel then is
T u
= dz =
z z
(1 0.864 cosh )du
0 0 58.32 0.904
(3.17.5)
T z
= ( z 0.78 sinh )
58.32 0.904
This is the twist angle measured from the middle of the channel bar to the built-in
end.
(e) If we produce a relative twist angle = 5 o , then the twist angle from the middle
of the channel to the built-in end ( z = L / 2 = 0.5m ) is
5o
= = 2.5o = 0.0436 rad .
2
From equation (3.17.5) we can determine the required torque to produce such an
angle.
T 0 .5
0.0436 = (0.5 0.78 sinh ) = 7.795 10 4 T
58.32 0.904
Then T = 55.97 N m
--- ANS
(f) For the free-free end case
3.17.3


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0.0436
T free end = GJ = GJ = 58.32 = 5.089 N m .
z 0 .5
The ratio of built-in ends case and free-ends case is
Tbuilt in 55.974
= = 11
T free end 5.0894
It is likely that the rigidity of the built-in ends case is enhanced eleven times more
than the free-ends case.
--- ANS
3.17.4


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4.1 A uniform beam of a thin-walled angle section as shown in Fig. 4.19 is
subjected to the bending M y ( M z = 0 ). Find the neutral axis and bending
stress distribution over the cross-section.
Figure 4.19 Thin-walled angle section
Solution:
(a) For finding the location of the centroid, we select the corner of the thin-walled
section as the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system with the horizontal and
vertical distances between the centroid and the origin denoted by y c and z c ,
respectively.
h t ( h / 2) h
yc = =
2ht 4
h t ( h / 2) h
zc = =
2ht 4
--- ANS
(b) Set up a Cartesian coordinate system (y, z) in the pane of the section with the
origin at the centroid. The moments of inertia with respect to this coordinate
system are (assume t << h)
th 3 ht 3 5 3
Iy = + th( h zc )2 + + thzc2 = th in which parallel axis theorem for
12 12 24
ht 3
moments of inertia has been employed and the term has been neglected.
12
th 3 ht 3 5 3
Iz = + th( h yc )2 + + thyc2 = th
12 12 24
1
I yz = yzdA = yzdA + yzdA = th 3
A1 A2
8
h zc z 2 h zc 1 3
where, yzdA =
A1
zc
y c ztdz = y c t (
2
) | zc = th
16
4.1.1


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h yc y 2 h yc 1 3
A2
yzdA = yc
z c ytdy = z c t (
2
) | yc = th
16
(c) Using equation (4.25) in the textbook,
I y M z I yz M y I z M y I yz M z
xx = y+ z
I y I z I yz I y I z I yz
2 2
By substituting the known values we obtain

(1 / 8) M y (5 / 24) M y
xx = y + z
[(5 / 24)(5 / 24) (1 / 8) 2 ]th 3 [(5 / 24)(5 / 24) (1 / 8) 2 ]th 3
My
= (15 z 9 y )
2th 3
--- ANS
Maximum positive stress:
3 h
At z = h z c = h and y = y c =
4 4
My 27 M y
xx = (15 z 9 y ) =
2th 3 4th 2
Maximum negative stress:
h 3
At z = z c = and y = h y c = h
4 4
My 21M y
xx = 3
(15 z 9 y ) =
2th 4th 2
27 M y
The absolute maximum stress is xx =
4th 2
(d) The neutral axis is located along xx =0
My
xx = (15 z 9 y ) = 0 => 15 z 9 y = 0
2th 3
So the neutral plane is located at 15 z 9 y = 0 in the y-z coordinate system (the
centroid is the origin of this coordinate system).
--- ANS
4.1.2


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4.2 Rotate the angle section of Fig. 4.19 counterclockwise for 45 o . Find the neutral
axis and the maximum bending stress. Compare the load capacity with that of
the original section given by Fig. 4.19.
Figure 4.19 Thin-walled angle section
Solution:
Remove the primes
in the coordinates
Set up a temporary Cartesian coordinate system with the origin at the corner of the
thin-walled section to find the centroid. The horizontal and vertical distances from the
centroid to the origin are denoted by yc and zc , respectively.
Because of the symmetry, yc = 0 . Assuming t << h , we obtain
2h t ( h / 2 2 ) h
zc = =
2ht 2 2
--- ANS
(a) Moment of inertia
2t h 3 th 3
Iy = 2 ( ) =
12 2 12
2t h 3 th 3
Iz = 2 ( ) =
3 2 3
I xy = yzdA = 0 (this is always true for symmetric sections)
(b) Set up a new coordinate system (y, z). Using equation (4.25) in the textbook,
4.2.1


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xx = y '+ z'
2 2
and substituting the values of moments of inertia in the equation above, we obtain
My My
xx = z = 12 z
Iy th 3
--- ANS
Maximum positive stress is at
h 3 2M y
z= , => xx =
2 2 th 2
Maximum negative stress is at
h 3 2M y
z= , => xx =
2 2 th 2
3 2M y
The absolute maximum stress is xx =
th 2
(c) The neutral axis (plane) is located along xx = 0 ,
My
xx = 12 z = 0 => z = 0
th 3
So the neutral axis coincides with the centroidal axis.
Note that this section in this particular position is symmetric with respect to the
y-z coordinate system. For symmetric sections the neutral axis always coincides
with the location of the centroid.
--- ANS
(d) The load capacity with the original section
For the same maximum bending stress in both beams,
3 2 M y ,rotate 27 M y ,origin
xx = =
th 2 4th 2
M y ,rotate 27
=> = = 1.59
M y ,origin 12 2
The load capacity of the rotated section is 1.59 times that of the original section.
--- ANS
4.2.2


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4.3 The stringer-web sections shown in Figs. 4.20, 4.21, and 4.22 are subjected to
the shear force Vz 0 , while V y = 0 . Find the bending stresses in the stringers
for the same bending moment M y . Which section is most effective in bending?
Figure 4.20 Stringer-web section
Solution:
The contribution of the thin sheets to bending is assumed to be negligible. Thus the
neutral axis is only depends on the cross-sectional area of the stringers. Also, assume
4.3.1


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y and z are the horizontal axis and vertical axis, respectively. The origin of the system
is located at the centroid.
(a) Figure 4.20.
(1) Because of symmetry, the centroid is located at the middle of the vertical
web.
(2) Moment of inertia
I y = Ai z i = 2( 2 A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2
I z = Ai y i = 2( 2 A 0 2 ) = 0
2
I yz = Ai y i z i = 0
i
(3) Bending stress. Considering M y 0 and M z = 0
My My
xx = z= z
Iy 4 Ah 2
The stresses at the stringer are

My My
. At z = h , xx = 2
z=
4 Ah 4 Ah
My My
. At z = h , xx = 2
z=
4 Ah 4 Ah
--- ANS
(b) Figure 4.21.
(1) Because of symmetry (when neglecting the effects of webs), the centroid is
located at the center of the section as shown in the figure.
I y = Ai z i = 4( A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2
h
I z = Ai y i = 4( A ( ) 2 ) = Ah 2
2
i 2
i
I yz M y IzM y My
xx = y+ z= z
2 2
Iy
The stresses at the stringers are (y position is not involved)
4.3.2


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My My
. At z = h , xx = z=
4 Ah 2 4 Ah
My My
. At z = h , xx = z=
4 Ah 2 4 Ah
--- ANS
(c) Figure 4.22.
(1) Again, when neglecting the effects of webs, the centroid is located at the
middle of the vertical web.
I y = Ai z i = 4( A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2
I z = Ai y i = 2( A h 2 ) = 2 Ah 2
2
I yz = Ai y i z i = 2( A h ( h)) = 2 Ah 2
i
I yz M y IzM y 2M y 2M y
xx = y+ z= y+ z
I y I z I yz
2
I y I z I yz
2
[4 2 (2) 2 ] Ah 2 [4 2 (2) 2 ] Ah 2
My My
= y+ z
2 Ah 2 2 Ah 2
The stresses at the stringer are

At z = h , y = h ,
My My My
xx = 2
y+ 2
z= ( h + h) = 0
2 Ah 2 Ah 2 Ah 2
. At z = h , y = 0 ,
My My My My
xx = y+ z= (0 + h ) =
2 Ah 2 2 Ah 2 2 Ah 2 2 Ah
. At z = h , y = 0 ,
My My My My
xx = y+ z= (0 h) =
2 Ah 2 2 Ah 2 2 Ah 2 2 Ah
. At z = h , y = h ,
My My My
xx = 2
y+ 2
z= ( h h) = 0
2 Ah 2 Ah 2 Ah 2
--- ANS
4.3.3


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(d) Comparing the above results, sections in Figure 4.20 and Figure 4.21 are both
more effective than the section in Figure 4.22 for this particular loading.
--- ANS
4.3.4


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4.4 Compare the bending capabilities of the two sections of Figs. 4.21 and 4.22 if
M y = 0, Mz 0.
Solution:
The thin sheets are assumed to be negligible in bending. Thus, the location of the
centroid of the cross-section only depends on stringers. The coordinates (y, z) are set
up with the origin at the centroid with y and z designating the horizontal axis and
vertical axis, respectively.
(a) Figure 4.21.
(1) The centroid is located at the center of of the space defined by the four
stringers.
I y = Ai z i = 4( A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2
4.4.1


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h
I z = Ai y i = 4( A ( ) 2 ) = Ah 2
2
i 2
i
(3) Bending stress.

Considering M y = 0 and M z 0 we have
IyM z I yz M z Mz
xx = y+ z= y
2 2
Iz
The stresses in stringers 1 and 4 are:

h M
At y = , xx = z2 y
2 Ah
The stresses in stringers 2 and 3 are
h M
At y = , xx = z2 y
2 Ah
--- ANS
(b) Figure 4.22.
(1) The centroid is located at the middle of the vertical web.
I y = Ai z i = 4( A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2
I z = Ai y i = 2( A h 2 ) = 2 Ah 2
2
I yz = Ai y i z i = 2( A h ( h)) = 2 Ah 2
i
(3) Bending stress.

For M y = 0 and M z 0
I yM z I yz M z 4M z 2M z
xx = y+ z= y+ z
I y I z I yz
2
I y I z I yz
2
[4 2 (2) ] Ah
2 2
[4 2 (2) 2 ] Ah 2
Mz Mz
= 2
y+ z
Ah 2 Ah 2
The stress in stringer 1 is

At z = h , y = h
4.4.2


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Mz Mz Mz M
xx = 2
y+ 2
z= 2
(2h + h) = z
Ah 2 Ah 2 Ah 2 Ah
Stringer 2:
Mz Mz Mz Mz
At z = h , y = 0 , xx = 2
y + 2
z = 2
(0 + h) =
Ah 2 Ah 2 Ah 2 Ah
Stringer 3:
Mz Mz Mz Mz
At z = h , y = 0 , xx = y + z = ( 0 h ) =
Ah 2 2 Ah 2 2 Ah 2 2 Ah
Stringer 4:
Mz Mz Mz Mz
At z = h , y = h , xx = 2
y+ 2
z= 2
( 2 h h) =
Ah 2 Ah 2 Ah 2 Ah
--- ANS
(c) Comparing the above results, we see that sections in Figure 4.21 and Figure 4.22
have the same bending efficiency; they both reach the same maximum bending
stress under the same moment.
--- ANS
4.4.3


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4.5 Figure 4.23 shows the cross-section of a four-stringer box beam. Assume that
the thin walls are ineffective in bending and the applied bending moments are
M y = 500,000 N cm
M z = 200,000N cm .
Find the bending stresses in all stringers.
Figure 4.23 Thin-walled section
Solution:
(a) Set up a temporary coordinate system with stringer 1 as the origin. The location of
the centroid is
Ai yi ( 2 200 + 1 200 )
yc = i
= = 54.5cm
Ai (4 + 2 +1+ 4 )
i
Ai zi ( 1 50 + 4 100 )
zc = i
= = 40.9 cm
zi (4 + 2 +1+ 4 )
i
(b) The moment of inertia

I y = Ai zi = ( 4 + 2 )( 40.909091 )2 + 1 ( 50 40.909091 )2 + 4 ( 100 40.909091 )2
2
= 240901cm 4
Similarly,
I z = Ai yi 2 = 87273cm4
i
4.5.1


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I yz = Ai yi zi = 14545 cm 4
i
It is more convenient to put in the chart, for instance:

2 2
Stringer Ai yi zi Ai z i Ai yi Ai y i z i
No. (cm 2 ) (cm ) (cm ) (cm 4 ) (cm 4 ) (cm 4 )
1 4 -54.5 -40.9 6694 11901 89256
2 2 145.5 -40.9 3347 42314 -11901
3 1 145.5 9.1 82.6 21157 1322
4 4 -54.5 59.1 13967 11901 -12893
= 24091 87273 -14545
(c) Bending stress in the stringers.

By using the equation: xx = y+ z , and
2 2
M y = 500,000 N cm
M z = 200,000N cm .
I y = 24090.909cm 4
I z = 87272.727cm 4
I yz = 14545.455cm 4
We obtain xx = 1.298 y 21.54 z
Therefore the bending stresses in the stringers are:

Stringer yi zi xx
No. (cm ) (cm ) ( N / cm 2 )
1 -54.54 -40.91 951.92
2 145.45 -40.91 692.31
3 145.45 9.09 -384.62
4 -54.54 59.09 -1201.92
--- ANS
4.5.2


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4.6 Find the neutral axis in the tin-walled section of Fig. 4.23 for the loading given
in Problem 4.5.
M y = 500,000 N cm
M z = 200,000N cm .
Find the bending stresses in all stringers.
Figure 4.23 Thin-walled section
Solution:
(a) From Problem 4.5 we get the centroid position as follows.
yc = 54.5 cm , zc = 40.9 cm
These are the horizontal and vertical distances, respectively, from stringer 1.
(b) Set up the coordinate system (y,z) with the origin located at the centroid. Neutral
plane is located at the position that centroid is the origin. From the bending stress
formulas we find the neutral plane by setting the bending stress to zero, i.e.,
xx = 1.298 y 21.538 z = 0
On the cross-section, this equation represents the line passing through the centroid
with y = 16.59 z and an angle
z 1
= tan 1( ) = tan 1( ) = 3.45o
y 16.59
--- ANS
4.6.1


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4.7 Find the bending stresses in the stringers at the fixed end of the box beam loaded
as shown in Fig. 4.24. Assume that the thin sheets are negligible in bending.
Find the neutral axis.
Figure 4.24 Loaded box beam
Solution:
(a) Name the stringers from top to bottom and left to right as stringer 1, stringer 2,
and stringer 3, respectively. Relative to string 2 the centroid position is given by
Ai yi 4 80
yc = i
= = 26.67 cm
Ai 34
i
Ai zi 4 40
zc = i
= = 13.33cm
Ai 3 4
i
(b) The bending moments at the fixed end of the box beam produced by the loads are
M y = 2 PL = 2( 200)(500) = 200000 N cm ( M y is positive in positive y)
M z = 2 PL = 2(200)(500) = 200000N cm ( M z is positive in negative z)

(c) Set up the coordinate system (x,y,z) with the origin at the centroid.
Moment of inertia (see table below for details):
I y = Ai zc 2 = 4( 2 13.332 + 26.67 2 ) = 4266 cm4

i
I z = Ai yc 2 = 4( 2 26.67 2 + 53.332 ) = 17067 cm4

i
4.7.1


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I yz = Ai yc zc = 4266 cm 4
i
2 2
No. (cm 2 ) (cm ) (cm ) (cm 4 ) (cm 4 ) (cm 4 )
1 4 -26.67 26.67 2844 2844 -2844
2 4 -26.67 -13.33 711 2844 1422
3 4 53.33 -13.33 711 11377 -2844
= 4266 17067 -4267
(d) Bending stress in the stringers.

Using the equation xx = y+ z,
2 2
we obtain xx = 31.25 y 78.125 z

and the bending stresses in the stringers are:
Stringer yi zi xx
No. (cm ) (cm ) ( N / cm 2 )
1 -26.67 26.67 -1250
2 -26.67 -13.33 1875
3 53.33 -13.33 -625
--- ANS
(e) Neutral plane by angle .
Neutral plane is located at the position where bending stresses vanish under this
particular loading. We have
xx = 31.25 y 78.125 z = 0
It is the line passing through the centroid with y = 2.5 z
z 1
= tan 1( ) = tan 1( ) = 21.8 o
y 2.5
--- ANS
4.7.2


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4.8 Find the deflection of the box beam of Fig. 4.24 using the simple beam theory.
Solution:
(a) Name the stringers from top to bottom and then left to right as stringer 1, stringer
2, and stringer 3, respectively. From the solution of problem 4.7, we have the
following moments of inertia:
I y = 4266 cm 4
I z = 17066 cm 4
I yz = 4266 cm 4
Let the origin ( x = 0 ) of the coordinate system be located at the fixed end.
The bending moments produced by the forces applied at the free end are
M y = 400 (500 x ) N cm
M z = 400 (500 x) N cm
(b) The governing equations (see p. 122 in the book) for the bidirectional bending are
d 2v I y M z I yz M y
E 2 = = 0.063(500 x) ( N / cm 3 ) ,
I y I z I yz
2
dx
d 2w I z M y I yz M z
E = = 0.156(500 x) ( N / cm 3 )
I y I z I yz
2 2
dx
Integrating twice the above differential equations, we obtain
4.8.1


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x3
Ev = 0.063(250 x ) + C1 x + C 2
2
6
x3
Ew = 0.156(250 x ) + C 3 x + C 4
2
6
By applying the boundary conditions, the integration constants are solved as
dv
v ( x = 0) = 0 , ( x = 0) = 0 => C1 = C 2 = 0
dx
dw
w( x = 0) = 0 , ( x = 0) = 0 => C 3 = C 4 = 0
dx
Then the lateral (in y-direction) and vertical (in z-direction) deflections are,
respectively,
0.063 x3
v( x) = (250 x 2 )
E 6
0.156 x3
w( x) = (250 x 2 )
E 6
In the expressions above, distance x is measured in cm, and the units of Youngs
modulus and deflection are N / cm 2 and cm , respectively.
--- ANS
As an example, consider Aluminum 2024-T3, E = 72GPa = 72 10 5 ( N / cm 2 ) .

The deflections in y and z directions at the free end are:
0.063 5003
v( x = 500) = (250 500
2
) = 0.36cm
72 105 6
0.156 5003
w( x = 500) = (250 500
2
) = 0.90cm
72 105 6
4.8.2


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4.9 Find the bending stresses in the stringers of the box beam in Fig. 4.24 for the
bending moments given in Problem 4.5.
M y = 500,000 N cm
M z = 200,000N cm .
Solution:
(a) Name the stringers from top to bottom and then left to right as stringer 1, stringer
2, and stringer 3, respectively. The centroid position is given by
Ai yi 4 80
yc = i
= = 26.67 cm
Ai 34
i
Ai zi 4 40
zc = i
= = 13.33cm
Ai 3 4
i
relative stringer 2.
(b) Moment of inertia (see the table below for details)
I y = Ai zc 2 = 4( 2 13.332 + 26.67 2 ) = 4267 cm4

i
I z = Ai yc 2 = 4( 2 26.666667 2 + 53.3333332 ) = 17067 cm4

i
I yz = Ai yc zc = 4267 cm 4
i
4.9.1


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2 2
No. (cm 2 ) (cm ) (cm ) (cm ) 4
(cm )4
(cm 4 )
1 4 -26.67 26.67 2844 2844 -2844
2 4 -26.67 -13.33 711 2844 1422
3 4 53.33 -13.33 711 11378 -2844
= 4267 17067 -4267
(c) Bending stress in the stringers.

Subsituting the moments and moments of inertia in the bending stress formula
xx = y+ z,
2 2
we obtain xx = 23.44 y 140.62 z
Therefore the bending stresses in the stringers are:

Stringer yi zi xx
No. (cm ) (cm ) ( N / cm 2 )
1 -26.67 26.67 -3125
2 -26.67 -13.33 2500
3 53.33 -13.33 625
--- ANS
4.9.2


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4.10 A cantilever beam of a solid rectangular cross-section is loaded as shown in Fig.
4.25. Assume that the material is isotropic. Find the deflections of the beam
using the simple beam theory and Timoshenko beam theory, respectively. Plot
the ratio of the maximum deflections of the two solutions (at the free end)
5
versus L/h. Use the shear correction factor k = .
6
x h
t
L
Figure 4.25 Cantilever beam subjected to a shear force P
Solution:
(a) Simple beam theory
The displacement equilibrium equations for the simple beam theory is:
d 4 w0
EI y = pz (4.10.1)
dx 4
1 3
In this particular problem, we have I y = th , p z = 0 . Thus,
12
d 4 w0
EI y =0 (4.10.2)
dx 4
Integrating the equation (4.10.2) and applying boundary conditions,
d 3 w0
EI y = C 0 = P (shear force)
dx 3
Integrating again, we obtain
d 2 w0
EI y = Px + C1 . (4.10.3)
dx 2
d 2 w0
At x = L , M = EI y ( x = L) = 0 = PL + C1
dx 2
=> C1 = PL
From (4.10.3),
4.10.1


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dw0 1
EI y = Px 2 + PLx + C 2
dx 2
dw0
At x = 0 , = 0 => C 2 = 0
dx
1 1
Finally, EI y w0 ( x) = Px 3 + PLx 2 + C 3 , and C 3 = 0 because w0 = 0
6 2
at x = 0 .
Therefore, the deflection curve is

1 1 1 P x L x
w0 ( x) = ( Px 3 + PLx 2 ) = [2( ) 3 + 6 ( ) 2 ]
EI y 6 2 Et h h h
--- ANS
The maximum deflection occurs at x = L :
P L L L 4P L 3
wmax,S = [ 2( ) 3 + 6 ( ) 2 ] = ( )
Et h h h Et h
--- ANS
(b) Timoshenko beam theory
The displacement equilibrium equations for Timoshenko beam theory are:
d 2 y dw0
EI y 2
kGA( + y ) = 0 (4.10.4)
dx dx
d 2 w0 d y
kGA( 2 + ) + pz = 0 (4.10.5)
dx dx
and can be combined into the following equation,
d 4 w0 EI y d 2 p z
EI y = p z (4.10.6)
dx 4 GA dx 2
1 3
In this particular problem, we have I y = th , and p z = 0 . Hence we have
12
d 4 w0
EI y = 0 as the governing equation.
dx 4
The concentrated loading at the free end produces a constant shear force along the
beam, so we have
dw0
kGA( + y ) = shear force = P (4.10.7)
dx
Substituting (4.10.7) in (4.10.4) yields
4.10.2


C.T. Sun
d 2 y
EI y =P (4.10.8)
dx 2
Integrating equation (4.10.8) twice, we obtain
1 2
EI y y = Px + B0 x + B1 (4.10.9)
2
Using (4.10.7) and (4.10.9), we obtain
dw0 P P 1 1 2
= y = ( Px + B0 x + B1 )
dx kGA kGA EI y 2
Integrating the equation above,

P 1 1 3 1
w0 ( x) = x ( Px + B0 x 2 + B1 x) + B2 (4.10.10)
kGA EI y 6 2
The following boundary conditions are used to determine the arbitrary constants in
(4.10.10):
d y
M ( x = L) = EI y ( x = L) = 0 => B0 = PL
dx
y ( x = 0) = 0 (no rotation of the cross-section) => B1 = 0
w0 ( x = 0) = 0 => B2 = 0
Then the deflection equation (4.10.10) becomes
P 1 1 3 1
w0 ( x) = x ( Px PLx 2 )
kGA EI y 6 2
5 1 E
With k = , A = th , I y = th 3 , and G = , we obtain
6 12 2(1 + )
12(1 + ) P x P x L x
w0 ( x) = ( ) [ 2( ) 3 6 ( ) 2 ]
5 Et h Et h h h
--- ANS
The maximum deflection occurs at x = L :
12(1 + ) P L 4 P L 3
wmax,T = ( )+ ( )
5 Et h Et h
--- ANS
(c) The ratio of the maximum deflections of the two solutions versus L/h
Assume the material to be Aluminum 2024-T3 with E = 72GPa , = 0.33 . For
L
convenience, we let =.
h
The maximum deflection according to the simple beam theory:
4.10.3


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4P P
wmax, S = ( ) 3 = 0.055556 3
72t t
The maximum deflection according to the Timoshenko beam theory:
12(1 + 0.33) P 4P P P
wmax,T = ( ) + ( ) 3 = 0.044333 + 0.055556 3
5(72)t 72t t t
Maximum deflections vs. L/h
14
12
10
(w = P/t)
6 Simple
Timoshenko
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
L/h
wmax,T wmax, S
Define Error (%) = 100%
wmax,T
Error (%) vs. L/h
100
90
80
70
60
Error (%)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
L/h
4.10.4


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4.11 A thin-walled beam of length 2 m long with one end built into a rigid wall and
the other end is subjected to a shear force Vz = 5000 N . The cross-section is
given by Fig. 4.21 with h = 0.2m and the wall thickness = 0.002m . The
material is aluminum 2024-T3 with E = 70GPa , G = 27GPa , and the
cross-sectional area of each stringer is 25cm 2 . Assume that thin walls carry
only shear stresses. Find the deflections at the free end using the simple beam
theory and the Timoshenko beam theory, respectively. Compare the transverse
shear stress in the vertical web obtained from the two theories.
Solution:
(1) The displacement equilibrium equation for the simple beam theory is:
d 4 w0
EI y =0 (4.11.1)
dx 4
Integrate the equation (4.11.1) and apply shear force boundary condition to yield,
d 3 w0
EI y = C 0 = V z (shear force)
dx 3
Integrate again to obtain
d 2 w0
EI y = V z x + C1 ,
dx 2
d 2 w0
At the free end, x = L , M = EI y ( x = L) = 0 = V z L + C1
dx 2
=> C1 = V z L
4.11.1


C.T. Sun
Again by integration, we have
dw0 1
EI y = V z x 2 + V z Lx + C 2 .
dx 2
At the fixed end, x = 0 , the rotation of the cross-section vanishes, i.e.,
dw0
y = = 0 => C 2 = 0
dx
Thus, we have, after integration,
1 1
EI y w0 ( x) = V z x 3 + V z Lx 2 + C 3
6 2
In which the integration constant C3 is determined by the boundary condition
w0 = 0 at x = 0 => C 3 = 0 .
The deflections curve is

1 1 1
w0 ( x) = ( V z x 3 + V z Lx 2 ) (4.11.2)
EI y 6 2
(2) Properties of the cross-section

I y = Ai z i = 4 Ah 2 = 4( 25 10 4 )(0.2) 2 = 4 10 4 m 4
2
E = 70GPa
L = 2m
Vz = 5000 N
(3) Deflections
Compute deflection curve (4.11.2):
1 1 1
w0 ( x) = 4
( (5000) x 3 + (5000)(2) x 2 )
(70 10 )(4 10 ) 6
9
2
= 2.9762 10 5 x 3 + 1.7857 10 4 x 2 ( m)
Deflection at the free end:
w0 ( x = 2m) = 2.9762 10 5 (2) 3 + 1.7857 10 4 (2) 2
= 4.762 10 4 m
0.48 mm
--- ANS
(1) The displacement equilibrium equations for the Timoshenko beam theory
are:
4.11.2


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d 2 y dw0
EI y 2
GA( + y ) = 0 (4.11.3)
dx dx
d 2 w0 d y
GA( + ) + pz = 0 (4.11.4)
dx 2 dx
which can be combined into the following equation,
d 4 w0 EI y d 2 p z
EI y = p z (4.11.5)
dx 4 GA dx 2
In the equations above, the area A in the GA term is the effective area of the
thin-walled section that carries shear stress and should not be confused with the
stringer cross-sectional area.
Since p z = 0 we have
d 4 w0
EI y = 0 as the governing equation.
dx 4
The concentrated shear loading at the free end produces a constant shear force
along the beam; so we have
dw0
GA( + y ) = Vz (4.11.6)
dx
Substitution of (4.11.6) in (4.11.3) yields
d 2 y
EI y = Vz (4.11.7)
dx 2
Integrating (4.11.7), we obtain
1
EI y y = V z x 2 + B0 x + B1 (4.11.8)
2
Using (4.11.6) and (4.11.8), we have
dw0 Vz V 1 1
= y = z ( Vz x 2 + B0 x + B1 )
dx GA GA EI y 2
Integrating the above equation with the result,

Vz 1 1 1
w0 ( x) = x ( Vz x3 + B0 x 2 + B1 x) + B2 (4.11.9)
GA EI y 6 2
Applying boundary conditions to equation (4.11.8) and (4.11.9), we have

d y
M ( x = L) = EI y ( x = L) = 0 => B0 = V z L
dx
y ( x = 0) = 0 => B1 = 0
4.11.3


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w0 ( x = 0) = 0 => B2 = 0
Then equation (4.11.9) becomes
Vz V 1 1
w0 ( x) = x z ( x3 Lx 2 ) (4.11.10)
GA EI y 6 2
(2) Properties of the cross-section

In the Timoshenko beam theory the area A (in the GA term) of the
thin-walled cross-section is
Ashear = 2ht = 2(0.2)(0.002) = 8 10 4 m 2
I y = Ai z i = 4 Ah 2 = 4( 25 10 4 )(0.2) 2 = 4 10 4 m 4
2
E = 70GPa , G = 27GPa
L = 2m
Vz = 5000 N
(3) Deflection
Compute the deflection curve (4.11.10) using the above properties:
5000
w0 ( x) = x (2.9762 10 5 x 3 1.7857 10 4 x 2 )
(27 10 9 )(8 10 4 )
= 2.3148 10 4 x + 1.7857 10 4 x 2 2.9762 10 5 x 3 ( m)
Deflection at the free end is
w0 ( x = 2m) = 2.3148 10 4 (2) + 1.7857 10 4 (2) 2 2.9762 10 5 (2) 3
= 9.391 10 4 m
0.94 mm
--- ANS
The difference between the two theories is
w0 ,Tim w0 ,Sim 9.391 4.762

Error(%) = = 100% = 49.3%
w0 ,Tim 9.391
(c) Transverse Shear Stress

(1) Simple beam theory
From the derivation of the simple beam theory, we assume xy = 0 as an
approximation. As a result, the transverse shear stress can not be directly

obtained from the stress-strain relations. It is obtained usually from the
4.11.4


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equilibrium equation. We have
Vz 5000
xz = = 4
= 6.25 106 N / m 2 = 6.25MPa
Ashear 8 10
(2) Timoshenko beam theory
Vz
xz = G xz = = 6.25MPa
Ashear
--- ANS
4.11.5


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4.12 A 2024-T3 aluminum box beam with a thin-walled section is shown in Fig.
4.26. Assume that thin walls (thickness t = 0.3 cm) are ineffective in bending.
The cross-sectional area of each stringer is 20 cm2. Find the deflections at the
free end using the simple beam theory for shear loads Vz = 5000 N and
V y = 5000 N separately. Solve the same problem using Timoshenko beam
theory. In which loading case is the simple beam theory more accurate in
predicting the deflection? Explain.
Figure 4.26 Box beam with a triangular thin-walled section
Solution:
(a) First, we need to know the centroid of this section.
Take stringer 2 as the origin of a coordinate system. Then the centroid is located at
A y i i
20 60
yc = i
= = 20 cm
A i
i 3 20
Az i i
20 (40 + 20)
zc = i
= = 20 cm
A i
i 3 20
The moments of inertia with respect to the coordinate system with the origin at the
centroid are
I y = Ai z c = 20( 20 2 + ( 20) 2 ) = 16000 cm 4
2
I z = Ai y c = 20( 40 2 + 2 ( 20) 2 ) = 48000 cm 4

2
4.12.1


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I yz = Ai y c z c = 4[40 0 + (20) 20 + (20) (20)] = 0 (This should be

i
obvious because the section is symmetric with respect to y-axis)

For 2024-T3, E = 72GPa = 72 10 5 N / cm 2 , = 0.33
=> G = 27.068 10 5 N / cm 2
(b) Simple beam theory

The displacement equilibrium equations for the simple beam theory are:
d 4 w0
EI y = 0, for V z loading (4.12.1)
dx 4
d 4 v0
EI z = 0, for V y loading (4.12.2)
dx 4
Integrating the above equations, we get
d 3 w0
EI y = V z (4.12.3)
dx 3
d 3 v0
EI z = V y (4.12.4)
dx 3
Thus,
d 3 w0 V z 5000
= = = 4.3403 10 8 (1 / cm 2 )
dx 3
EI y 72 10 5 16000
d 3 v0 V y 5000
= = = 1.4468 10 8 (1 / cm 2 )
dx 3
EI z 72 10 5 48000
Integrating the above equations, we have
1
w0 ( x ) = 7.234 10 9 x 3 + C1 x 2 + C 2 x + C 3
2
1
v0 ( x) = 2.411 10 9 x 3 + C 4 x 2 + C 5 x + C 6
2
The arbitrary constants are determined by the boundary conditions,
For w0 ( x)
w0 ( x = 0) = 0 , => C 3 = 0
dw0
( x = 0) = 0 => C 2 = 0
dx
4.12.2


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d 2 w0
EI y ( x = L) = M ( x = L) = 0
dx 2
d 2 w0
=> EI y 2
( x = 200cm) = 5000(200) + (72 10 5 16000)C1 = 0
dx
=> C1 = 8.681 10 6
So, w0 ( x ) = 7.234 10 9 x 3 + 4.340 10 6 x 2 (4.12.5)
For v 0 ( x )
v0 ( x = 0) = 0 , => C 6 = 0
dv0
( x = 0) = 0 => C 5 = 0
dx
d 2 v0
EI z ( x = L) = M ( x = L) = 0
dx 2
d 2 v0
=> EI z 2
( x = 200cm) = 5000(200) + (72 10 5 48000)C 4 = 0
dx
=> C 4 = 2.894 10 6
So, v 0 ( x ) = 2.411 10 9 x 3 + 1.447 10 6 x 2 (4.12.6)

---
Therefore deflections at the free end can be obtained from (4.12.5) and (4.12.6) by
setting x = 200cm :
w0 ( x = 200cm) = 7.234 10 9 (200) 3 + 4.340 10 6 (200) 2
= 0.116 cm
v 0 ( x = 200cm) = 2.411 10 9 (200) 3 + 1.447 10 6 (200) 2

= 0.039 cm
--- ANS
(c) Timoshenko beam theory
The displacement equilibrium equations for Timoshenko beam theory for V z
loading are:
d 2 y dw0
EI y 2
GAz ( + y ) = 0 (4.12.7)
dx dx
d 2 w0 d y
GAz ( 2 + ) + pz = 0 (4.12.8)
dx dx
4.12.3


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which can be combined into the following equation,
d 4 w0 EI y d 2 p z
EI y = p z (4.12.9)
dx 4 GAz dx 2
Note that Az is the projection of the cross-sectional area of the thin sheets onto
z-axis. In this case, Az = 2 40 0.3 = 24cm 2 .
In this particular problem, we have p z = 0 . Hence
d 4 w0
EI y =0
dx 4
is the governing equation.
The concentrated shear loading at the free end produces a constant shear force
along the beam, so we have
dw0
GAz ( + y ) = Vz (4.12.10)
dx
Substituting the above in equation (4.12.7) yields
d 2 y
EI y = Vz (4.12.11)
dx 2
Integrating equation (4.12.11), we obtain
1
EI y y = V z x 2 + B0 x + B1 (4.12.12)
2
Using equation (4.11.10) and (4.11.12), we have
dw0 V V 1 1
= z y = z ( V z x 2 + B0 x + B1 )
dx GAz GAz EI y 2
Integrating the above equation,

Vz 1 1 1
w0 ( x) = x ( V z x 3 + B0 x 2 + B1 x) + B2 (4.12.13)
GAz EI y 6 2
Applying boundary conditions to equation (4.12.13)

d y
M ( x = L) = EI y ( x = L) = 0 => B0 = V z L
dx
y ( x = 0) = 0 => B1 = 0
w0 ( x = 0) = 0 => B2 = 0
Vz V 1 1
w0 ( x) = x z ( x 3 Lx 2 ) (4.12.14)
GAz EI y 6 2
4.12.4


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Similarly, the deflection in y-direction due to V y is
Vy Vy 1 1
v0 ( x) = x ( x 3 Lx 2 ) (4.12.15)
GAy EI z 6 2
where Ay is the projection of the cross-sectional area of the thin sheets onto y-axis.
We have Ay = 2 60 0.3 = 36cm 2 .
The deflection due to V z is

5000 5000 1 1
w0 ( x) = x ( x 3 (200) x 2 )
(27.068 10 )(24)
5
(72 10 )(16000) 6
5
2
= 7.697 10 5 x (7.234 10 9 x 3 4.340 10 6 x 2 )
And for V y :
5000 5000 1 1
v0 ( x) == x ( x 3 (200) x 2 )
(27.068 10 )(36)
5
(72 10 )(48000) 6
5
2
= 5.131 10 5 x (2.411 10 9 x 3 1.447 10 6 x 2 )
---
At the free end the respective deflection can be obtained from (4.12.5) and
(4.12.6) by substituting in x = 200cm
w0 ( x = 200cm) = 7.697 10 5 (200) [7.234 10 9 (200) 3 4.340 10 6 (200) 2 ]
= 0.131 cm
v 0 ( x = 200cm) = 5.131 10 5 (200) [2.411 10 9 (200) 3 1.447 10 6 (200) 2 ]

= 0.049cm
--- ANS
(d) Summary
(1) Deflections at the free end
Simple Beam Timoshenko

Error (%)
Theory Beam Theory
(1) Vz = 5000 N 0.116 cm 0.131 cm 11.5
(2) V y = 5000 N 0.039 cm 0.049 cm 20.4
d Timoshenko d Simple
Error (%) = , where d = w0 or v0
d Timoshenko
4.12.5


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(2) Case 1 ( V z = 5000 N ) of the above results is more accurate. It is mainly
because of the reason that I y is smaller than I z , and, as a result, the bending
behavior for z-direction is more likely to resemble a slender beam than that
for y-direction.
--- ANS
4.12.6


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4.13 Consider the structure with a cutout as shown in Fig. 4.17. Find the axial force
distribution in stringers 3-4 and 5-6. Assume that both stringers and webs have
the same material properties of E = 70GPa and G = 27GPa . Also assume
that b = 200mm , the thickness of the web t = 2mm , and the cross-sectional
area of the stringer A = 64mm 2 . Hint: The zero-stress condition in the web at
the cutout cannot be enforced because of the simplified assumption that shear
stress and strain are uniform across the width of the web. Use the known
condition that the force in the side stringers is 1.5P at the cutout.
1 2
P
3 4 5 6
P
P
L1 L2
Figure 4.17 Cutout in a stringer sheet panel
Solution:
(a) First, we consider the part left hand side of the cutout.
F1 1.5P
3 4
F2 b
F1 1.5P
L1
The balance of forces in the x-direction yields

2 F1 + F2 = 3P (4.13.1)
Also we have the differential equation
4.13.1


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1 dF1
= (4.13.2)
t dx
d G F F
= ( 1 2) (4.13.3)
dx E (b / 2) A1 A2
Combining equations (4.13.2) and (4.13.3), we have
1 d 2 F1 G F F 6G
2
= ( 1 2)= ( F1 P)
t dx E (b / 2) A1 A2 EAb
d 2 F1 6Gt 6Gt
=> = ( F1 P) , let 2 =
dx 2 EAb EAb
d 2 F1
=> 2 F1 = 2 P (4.13.4)
dx 2
The general solution of this second-order differential equation is
F1 ( x) = C1 cosh x + C 2 sinh x + P
e x + e x e x e x
(where cosh x = and sinh x = )
2 2
Applying the boundary conditions,
dF1
At x = 0 (fixed end) => = 0 , that is ( x = 0) = 0
dx
dF1
=> ( x = 0) = C 2 = 0 => C 2 = 0
dx
At x = L1 => F1 ( x = L1 ) = 1.5P
=> F1 ( x = L1 ) = C1 cosh L1 + P = 1.5P

P
=> C1 =
2 cosh L1
Therefore the solution of the differential equation is
cosh x
F1 ( x ) = P ( + 1) (4.13.5)
2 cosh L1
---
The axial force distribution in stringers 3-4 can be obtained from (4.13.1) and (4.13.5),
that is
cosh x
F2 ( x) = 3P 2 F1 ( x ) = P(1 )
cosh L1
6Gt 6(27 10 9 )(2 10 3 )

with = = = 19.016 (1 )
EAb (70 10 9 )(64 10 6 )(0.2) m
4.13.2


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--- ANS
(b) Next, we consider the part to the right of the cutout:
1.5P F1
5
F2
1.5P F1
x
From the balance of forces in the x-direction we have

2 F1 + F2 = 3P (4.13.6)
Also we have the differential equation
1 dF1
= (4.13.7)
t dx
d G F F
= ( 1 2) (4.13.8)
dx E (b / 2) A1 A2
Combining equations (4.13.7) and (4.13.8), we have
1 d 2 F1 G F F 6G
2
= ( 1 2)= ( F1 P)
t dx E (b / 2) A1 A2 EAb
d 2 F1 6Gt 6Gt
=> = ( F1 P) , let 2 =
dx 2 EAb EAb
d 2 F1
=> 2
2 F1 = 2 P (4.13.9)
dx
The general solution of this second-order differential equation is
F1 ( x) = C1 cosh x + C 2 sinh x + P
Applying the boundary conditions,
at x = 0 => F1 ( x = 0) = 1.5P
=> F1 ( x = 0) = C1 + P = 1.5P => C1 = 0.5P
at x = L2 => F1 ( x = L2 ) = P
=> F1 ( x) = 0.5P cosh L2 + C 2 sinh L2 + P = P
4.13.3


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P
=> C 2 =
2 tanh L2
The solution of the differential equation is
P sinh x
F1 ( x ) = (cosh x + 2) (4.13.10)
2 tanh L2
---
The axial force distribution in stringer 5-6 can be obtained from (4.13.6) and (4.13.10),
that is
sinh x
F2 ( x) = 3P 2 F1 ( x) = P (1 cosh x + )
tanh L2
6Gt 6(27 10 9 )(2 10 3 )

where = = = 19.016 ( 1 )
EAb (70 10 9 )(64 10 6 )(0.2) m
--- ANS
4.13.4


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5.1 Find the flexural shear flow produced by the transverse shear force Vz = 1000N
in the beam with the thin-walled section given by Fig. 5.30.
Figure 5.30 Thin-walled section with a side cut
Solution:
(a) Assume that the transverse shear force acts through the shear center, and, thus, no
torsional effect exists. Assume that the loss of material at the cut is negligible.
Hence the centroid of the cross-sectional area is obviously at the center as shown
in Fig. 5.30.
The shear flow is obtained by
VQ
qs = z (5.1.1)
Iy
where Q = zdA = As z c is the first moment of area As (the area measured
As
along the wall from an free edge to the current position of interest), and z c is the
vertical distance from the centroid of As to the y-axis. We have
1
Iy = [(0.1 + 0.002)(0.2 + 0.002) 3 (0.1 0.002)(0.2 0.002) 3 ] = 6.6676 10 6 m 4
12
(b) Setup the shear flow contour as shown in the figure below.
5.1.1


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(1) On s1 : 0 ~ 0.1m
s
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s1t )( 1 ) = 0.001s1
2
As
2
1000 0.001s1
2
VQ
qs = z = = 1.5 10 5 s1
2
6
Iy 6.6676 10
At s1 = 0 , q s = 1.5 10 5 0 2 = 0
At s1 = 0.1 , qs = 1.5 105 0.12 = 1500 N / m (The negative sign
means that the actual direction of this shear flow is opposite to contour
direction of s1 .
--- ANS
(2) On s 2 : 0 ~ 0.1m
The first moment Q for this segment must include the entire first moment of the
segment covered by contour s1. Thus,
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 + 0.002 s 2 (0.1) = 10 5 + 2 10 4 s 2
Vz Q 1000 (10 5 + 2 10 4 s 2 )
qs = = 6
= 1500 3 10 4 s 2
Iy 6.6676 10
Note that the distribution of the shear flow is linear along the contour.
At s2 = 0 , qs = 1500 N / m
At s 2 = 0.1m , qs = 1500 3 10 4 0.1 = 4500 N / m
--- ANS
5.1.2


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(3) On s 3 : 0 ~ 0.1m
In a similar manner, the first moments for the previous two segments must be
added to that for the additional area along contour s3. We have
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 + 0.002(0.1) 2 + 0.002 s 3 (0.1 0.5s3 )

= 3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 3 5s3 )
2
1000 [3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 3 5s3 )]
2
Vz Q
qs = =
Iy 6.6676 10 6
= 4500 30000 s 3 + 150000 s3
2
At s3 = 0 , qs = 4500 30000 (0) + 150000 (0) 2 = 4500 N / m
At s3 = 0.1m , qs = 4500 30000 (0.1) + 150000 (0.1) 2 = 6000 N / m
--- ANS
(4) On s 4 : 0 ~ 0.1m
For convenience, we start another contour s4 from the other free edge at the cut.
s4
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s 4 t )( ) = 0.001s 4
2
As
2
V Q 1000 0.001s 4
2
qs = z = = 1.5 10 5 s 4
2
6
Iy 6.6676 10
At s4 = 0 , q s = 1.5 10 5 0 2 = 0
At s 4 = 0.1m , q s = 1.5 10 5 0.12 = 1500 N / m
--- ANS
(5) On s 5 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 0.002 s 5 (0.1) = 10 5 2 10 4 s 5
V z Q 1000 (10 5 + 2 10 4 s5 )
qs = = 6
= 1500 + 3 10 4 s 5
Iy 6.6676 10
5.1.3


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s 5 = 0m , q s = 1500 N / m
s5 = 0.1m , q s = 15003 10 4 0.1 = 4500 N / m
--- ANS
(6) On s 6 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 0.002(0.1) 2 0.002 s 6 (0.1 0.5s 6 )

= 3 10 5 2 10 4 ( s 6 5s 6 )
2
V z Q 1000 [3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 6 5s 6 )]
2
qs = =
Iy 6.6676 10 6
= 4500 + 30000 s 6 150000 s 6
2
s 6 = 0m , q s = 4500 + 30000 (0) 150000 (0) 2 = 4500 N / m
s 6 = 0.1m , q s = 4500 + 30000 (0.1) 150000 (0.1) 2 = 6000 N / m
--- ANS
(c) The complete shear flow along the entire section is shown below.
5.1.4


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5.2 Find the shear flow of the wide-flange beam (Fig. 5.31) subjected to
Vz = 1000N .
Figure 5.31 Section of an I-beam
Solution:
(a) Assume that the transverse shear force acts through the shear center and produces
no torsion. From symmetry, it is obvious that the centroid of the section is located
at the mid point of the vertical web.
The shear flow is obtained by
VQ
qs = z (5.2.1)
Iy
where Q = zdA = As z c is the first moment of area As , and z c is the vertical
As
distance from the centroid of As to the y-axis.

The moment of inertia of the cross-section is
1
Iy = [(0.1)(0.1 + 0.003) 3 (0.1 0.003)(0.1 0.003) 3 ] = 1.7286 10 6 m 4
12
(b) Set up the shear flow contours as in the following figure.
5.2.1


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(1) On s1 : 0 ~ 0.05m
h 0.1
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s1t )( ) = (0.003s1 )( ) = 1.5 10 4 s1
As
2 2
Vz Q 1000 1.5 10 4 s1
qs = = 6
= 8.678 10 4 s1
Iy 1.7286 10
At s1 = 0 , q s = 8.678 10 4 0 = 0
At s1 = 0.05m , q s = 8.678 10 4 0.05 = 4339 N / m
--- ANS
(2) On s 2 : 0 ~ 0.05m
This is similar to s1
q s = 8.678 10 4 s 2
At s2 = 0 , q s = 0
At s 2 = 0.2m , q s = 8.678 10 4 0.05 = 4339 N / m
--- ANS
(3) On s3 : 0 ~ 0.05m
Q = 0.003(0.1)(0.05) + 0.003s3 (0.05 0.5s3 )

= 1.5 10 5 + 1.5 10 4 ( s3 10s3 )
2
1000 [1.5 10 5 + 1.5 10 4 ( s3 10 s3 )]

2
Vz Q
qs = =
Iy 1.7286 10 6
= 8678 86775s3 + 867754 s3
2
At s3 = 0 , qs = 8678 86775(0) + 867754 (0) 2 = 8678 N / m
At s 3 = 0.05m , qs = 8678 86775(0.05) + 867754 (0.05) 2 = 10847 N / m
--- ANS
(4) On s 4 : 0 ~ 0.05m & s5 : 0 ~ 0.05m
The equation is the same as that of s1 and s2 with opposite sign.

--- ANS
(5) On s 6 : 0 ~ 0.05m
5.2.2


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The equation is the same as that of s 3 with opposite sign.

--- ANS
(c) Shear flows in the cross-section
5.2.3


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5.3 Find the shear center y sc for the sections of Figs. 5.30 and 5.32. For the
four-stringer section (Fig. 5.32), assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in
bending.
Figure 5.32 Open four-stringer section
Solution:
(a) Figure 5.30
(1) Since this cross-section is symmetric with respect to y axis, shear center is
located on the y axis. So it is only necessary to determine the y position of the
shear center.
(2) Also, the centroid is at the center of the section as shown in Fig.5.30.
Assume that the transverse shear force V z ( and V y = 0 ) acts through the
shear center, at the distance y sc to the right-top corner. The shear flow can be
obtained by
VQ
qs = z (5.3.1)
Iy
where Q = zdA = As z c is the first moment of area As , and z c is the
As
vertical distance from the centroid of As to the y-axis.
5.3.1


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1
Iy = [(0.1 + 0.002)(0.2 + 0.002) 3 (0.1 0.002)(0.2 0.002) 3 ]
12
= 6.6676 10 6 m 4
(3) Setup the shear flow contour as the following figure,
y sc
Vz
i. On s1 : 0 ~ 0.1m
s
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s1t )( 1 ) = 0.001s1
2
As
2
V 0.001s1
2
VQ
qs = z = z = 150V z s1
2
6
Iy 6.6676 10
ii. On s 2 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 + 0.002 s 2 (0.1) = 10 5 + 2 10 4 s 2
Vz Q V (10 5 + 2 10 4 s 2 )
qs = = z = 1.5V z 30V z s 2
Iy 6.6676 10 6
iii. On s 3 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 + 0.002(0.1) 2 + 0.002 s 3 (0.1 0.5s3 )

= 3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 3 5s3 )
2
V z [3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s3 5s3 )]
2
Vz Q
qs = =
Iy 6.6676 10 6
= 4.5V z 30V z s 3 + 150V z s3
2
iv. On s 4 : 0 ~ 0.1m
s4
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s 4 t )( ) = 0.001s 4
2
As
2
5.3.2


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V Q V 0.001s 4
2
qs = z = z = 150V z s 4
2
6
Iy 6.6676 10
v. On s 5 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 0.002 s 5 (0.1) = 10 5 2 10 4 s 5
V z Q V z (10 5 + 2 10 4 s5 )
qs = = = 1.5V z + 30V z s5
Iy 6.6676 10 6
vi. On s 6 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 0.002(0.1) 2 0.002 s 6 (0.1 0.5s 6 )

= 3 10 5 2 10 4 ( s 6 5s 6 )
2
V z Q V z [3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 6 5s 6 )]
2
qs = =
Iy 6.6676 10 6
= 4.5V z + 30V z s 6 150V z s 6
2
(4) Shear center

The moment produced by Vz and the shear flow about the right-top corner
must be equal. And we can see that only q s 3 , q s 5 , q s 6 produce the
moment with respect to the right-top corner.
i. moment produced by Vz
M Vz = V z y sc (counterclockwise)
ii. moment produced by q s 3
0.1 0.1
M q 3 = ( q s 3 )(0.1) ds 3 = ( 4.5V z 30V z s 3 + 150V z s 3 )(0.1)ds 3
2
0 0
= ( 0.45V z s 3 1.5V z s 3 + 5V z s3 ) | 00.1 = 0.055V z

2 3
(counterclockwise)
iii. moment produced by q s 5
0.1 0.1
M q 5 = ( q s 5 )(0.2) ds 5 = (1.5V z + 30V z s5 )(0.2)ds 5
0 0
= (0.3V z s5 + 3V z s3 ) | = 0.06V z
2 0.1
0
(clockwise)
iv. moment produced by q s 6
0.1 0.1
M q 6 = ( q s 6 )(0.1)ds 6 = (4.5V z + 30V z s 6 150V z s 6 )(0.1)ds 6
2
0 0
= (0.45V z s 6 + 1.5V z s 6 5V z s 6 ) | 00.1 = 0.055V z

2 3
(clockwise)
5.3.3


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So we can determine the shear center by M V = M q
=> V z y sc = (0.055V z ) 0.06V z 0.055V z

=> y sc = 0.17 m
The negative sign indicates the opposite side as we assumed.
--- ANS
(b) Figure 5.32
(1) Since this cross-section is symmetric with respect to y axis, shear center is
located in the y axis. So it is only necessary to determine the y position of the
shear center.
(2) Assume that the transverse shear force Vz ( and V y = 0 ) acts through the
shear center and produces no torsion to the cross-section. Also assume that
the thin sheets are ineffective in bending. Let the left-bottom stringer be the
center of origin. We can now determine the centroid of this four-stringer
section.
A y i i
2(2 A0 )(2h)
yc = i
= = 1.3333h
A i
i 2( A0 ) + 2(2 A0 )
A y i i
(3 A0 )(h)
yc = i
= = 0.5h
A i
i 2( A0 ) + 2(2 A0 )
Now set the y and z axis to match the centroid.

The moment of inertia then can be obtained
I y = Ai z i = 2(3 A0 )(0.5h) 2 = 1.5 A0 h 2
2
I z = Ai y i = 2( 2 A0 )(0.6667 h) 2 + 2( A0 )(1.3333h) 2 = 5.3333 A0 h 2

2
(3) The shear flow of the stringer section is

VQ
qi = z i (5.3.2)
Iy
i
where Qi = Ak z k is the first moment of stringer area Ak , and z k is
k =1
the vertical distance from the centroid of Ak to the y-axis.
5.3.4


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i. On s1
Q1 = (2 A0 )(0.5h) = A0 h
V z Q1 V A0 h 0.6667V z
q1 = = z 2
=
Iy 1.5 A0 h h
ii. On s2
Q2 = (3 A0 )(0.5h) = 1.5 A0 h
V z Q2 V 1.5 A0 h V
q2 = = z 2
= z
Iy 1.5 A0 h h
iii. On s 3
Q3 = (3 A0 )(0.5h) ( A0 )(0.5h) = 1A0 h
V z Q3 V A0 h 0.6667V z
q3 = = z 2
=
Iy 1.5 A0 h h
(4) Shear center
The moment produced by Vz and the shear flow about the centroid must be
equal.
i. moment produced by Vz
M Vz = V z y sc (counterclockwise)
ii. moment produced by q1
0.6667V z
M q1 = (q1 )(2h)(0.5h) = ( )(2h)(0.5h) = 0.6667V z h
h
(counterclockwise)
iii. moment produced by q 2
1 V
M q 2 = 2 A(q 2 ) = 2( h 2 )( z ) = 0.7854V z h
8 h
(counterclockwise)
iv. moment produced by q 3
0.6667V z
M q 3 = (q3 )(2h)(0.5h) = ( )(2h)(0.5h) = 0.6667V z h
h
(counterclockwise)
5.3.5


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So we can determine the shear center by M V = M q
=> V z y sc = 0.6667V z h 0.7854V z 0.6667V z h = 2.1188V z h

=> y sc = 2.1188h
The negative sign indicates the opposite side as we assumed.
--- ANS
5.3.6


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5.4 Find the flexural shear flow in the section of Fig. 5.32 for Vz = 5000 N .
Figure 5.32 Open four-stringer section
Solution:
(a) Assume that the transverse shear force acts through the shear center and produces
no torsion to the cross-section. Also assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in
bending. Let the left-bottom stringer be the origin of a coordinate system with
respect to which we now determine the centroid of this four-stringer section. We
obtain
Ay i i
2(2 A0 )(2h)
yc = i
= = 1.33h
A i
i 2( A0 ) + 2(2 A0 )
Az i i
(3 A0 )(h)
zc = i
= = 0 .5 h
A i
i 2( A0 ) + 2(2 A0 )
Now we set up the (y, z) coordinate system with the origin located at the centroid.
The moments of inertia with respect to y-axis and z-axis are obtained as
I y = Ai z i = 2(3 A0 )(0.5h) 2 = 1.5 A0 h 2
2
I z = Ai yi = 2( 2 A0 )(0.67 h) 2 + 2( A0 )(1.33h) 2 = 5.33 A0 h 2

2
(b) The shear flow calculation

The shear flow formula for symmetric and open sections
VQ
qi = z i (5.4.1)
Iy
Is used with the contour direction shown in Fig.5.32.
(1) On s1
5.4.1


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Q1 = (2 A0 )(0.5h) = A0 h
V z Q1 5000 A0 h 3333.33
q1 = = 2
=
Iy 1.5 A0 h h
--- ANS
(2) On s2
Q2 = (3 A0 )(0.5h) = 1.5 A0 h
V z Q2 5000 1.5 A0 h 5000
q2 = = 2
=
Iy 1.5 A0 h h
--- ANS
(3) On s 3
Q3 = (3 A0 )(0.5h) ( A0 )(0.5h) = 1A0 h
V z Q3 5000 A0 h 3333.33
q3 = = 2
=
Iy 1.5 A0 h h
--- ANS
The negative signs indicates that the actual shear flow direction is opposite to the
assumed direction of the contour.
5.4.2


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5.5 Find the shear flow for the three-stringer section shown in Fig. 5.33 for
Vz = 5000 N and V y = 0 . Given shear modulus G = 27GPa , find the twist
angle per unit length. Also determine the shear center. Is the shear flow statically
determinate?
Figure 5.33 Single-cell closed section
Solution:
(a) Assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in bending. Let stringer 2 be the
reference point for the location of the centroid of this four-stringer section. We
have the horizontal and vertical distances of the centroid from stringer 2 as
A y i i
(10)(80)
yc = i
= = 26.6667cm = 0.2667 m
A i
i 3(10)
Az i i
(10)(20) + (10)(10)
zc = i
= = 10cm = 0.1m
A i
i 3(10)
Now we set up the y and z axes with the origin at the centroid. The moments of inertia
are
I y = Ai z i = 2(10 10 4 )(0.1) 2 = 2 10 5 m 4
2
I z = Ai y i = 2(10 10 4 )(0.2667) 2 + (10 10 4 )(0.8 0.2667) 2

2
= 4.2667 10 4 m 4
(b) Shear flows

Since this cross-section is symmetric with respect to y axis, the shear center is located
on the y axis. Hence only the y position of the shear center needs to be found. We first
5.5.1


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make a fictitious cut between stringers 1 and 3 and consider the shear flow as the
superposition of two shear flow systems as shown in the figure below.
(1) First, calculate the shear flows by assuming a cut in the wall between stringers
1 and 3. Then q '31 = 0 , and the shear on the cut section is calculated by using
V z Qi
q'i = (5.5.1)
Iy
i
where Qi = Ak z k is the first moment of stringer area Ak , and z k is the
k =1
vertical distance from the centroid of Ak to the y-axis. We obtain
V z Q1 5000(10 10 4 0.1)
q '12 = = = 25000 N / m
Iy 2 10 5
V z Q2 5000(10 10 4 0.1 10 10 4 0.1)

q ' 23 = = =0
Iy 2 10 5
(2) Adding the shear flow q0 from the second part, we have the total shear flow as
q12 = q '12 + q 0 = 25000 + q 0
q 23 = q ' 23 + q0 = q 0
q31 = q '31 + q 0 = q 0
The resulting moment of the total shear flow must be equal to the moment
produced by V z . Taking moment about stringer 1, we have
V z 0 = 2 A12 q12 + 2 A123 q 23
(0.8)(0.2)
= 2( (0.2) 2 )(25000 + q 0 ) + 2 q0
8 2
= 785.4 + 0.1914q 0 = 0
=> q0 = 4103N / m
Note: A12 is the area enclosed by the curved sheet and the line connecting
stringers 1 and 2; A123 is the area enclosed by the lines connecting stringers 1,
2, and 3. Also note that the shear flow passes stringer 1 and, thus, does not
produce any moment.
5.5.2


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The final shear flows are

q12 = 25000 + q0 = 20897 N / m
q23 = q0 = 4103 N / m
q31 = q0 = 4103N / m
--- ANS
(c) Twist angle per unit length

The equation of the twist angle per unit length is
1 q
=
2G A t
ds (5.5.2)
We can obtain the twist angle per unit length as

0.2
20896 ( ) + 2 4103 (0.806)
1 q 51.54
= ds =

2 =
2(27 109 )( 0.22 + 0.2 0.8 / 2)(0.001) 5.17 10
6
2G A t
8
6 4
= 9.97 10 rad / m = 5.7 10 deg/ m
--- ANS
(d) Shear center

To determine the horizontal location of the shear center, we assume that the shear
force V z acts through the shear center which is assumed to be located at a horizontal
distance e to the right of stringer 1. We now rewrite the moment equation as
(V z )(e) = 2 A12 q12 + 2 A123 q 23
(0.8)(0.2)
= 2( (0.2) 2 )(25000 + q 0 ) + 2 q0
8 2
= 785.40 + 0.19q 0 = 5000e
We can solve q 0 in terms of e ,
=> q 0 = 26123.30e + 4103.44
So that the shear flows within each sheet are
q12 = q '12 + q 0 = 25000 + q 0 = 26123.30e 20896.56
q 23 = q' 23 + q 0 = q 0 = 26123.30e + 4103.44
q31 = q '31 + q 0 = q 0 = 26123.30e + 4103.44
Since the shear force V z passes through the shear center, the twist angle is equal to
1 q
zero, i.e. =
2G A t
ds = 0
1 q12 q q
=> ( s12 + 23 s 23 + 31 s31 ) = 0
2G A t t t
5.5.3


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=>
1 0.2
[(26123.30e 20896.56)( ) + 2 (26123.30e + 4103.44)(0.806)] = 0
2G At 2
=> 50328.09e + 51.54 = 0
=> e = 1 10 3 m
The negative sign means that the shear center is to the left of stringer 1.
--- ANS
5.5.4


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5.6 Do Problem 5.5 for Vz = 5000 N and V y = 10,000 N .
Figure 5.33 Single-cell closed section
Solution:
(a) Assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in bending. The centroid of this
four-stringer section is
A y i i
(10)(80)
yc = i
= = 26.6667cm = 0.2667 m
A i
i 3(10)
Az i i
(10)(20) + (10)(10)
zc = i
= = 10cm = 0.1m
A i
i 3(10)
The distance is measured from stringer 2.

Now we set up the (y, z) coordinate with the origin at the centroid.
The moments of inertia are obtained as
I y = Ai z i = 2(10 10 4 )(0.1) 2 = 2 10 5 m 4
2
I z = Ai y i = 2(10 10 4 )(0.2667) 2 + (10 10 4 )(0.8 0.2667) 2

2
= 4.2667 10 4 m 4
(b) Shear flows

We can solve the problem by considering the two applied forces separately and
then superposed the two solutions. Alternatively, we can calculate the shear flows
by taking advantage of the fact that they are statically determinate shear flows.
5.6.1


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Denote the shear flows by q12 , q 23 , q 31 , respectively, in the sheet between
stringers 1 and 2, stringers 2 and 3, and stringers 3 and 1, as shown in the figure
below.
From the condition that the resultants of the shear flows must be equal to the
applied shear forces, we have
F y = V y , => q 23 (0.8) q31 (0.8) = 10000 (5.6.1)
F z = V z , => q 23 (0.1) + q31 (0.1) q12 (0.2) = 5000 (5.6.2)
M o
= moment about x-axis passing through o
0.22
=> q12 ( ) + (q23 + q31 )(0.8)(0.1) = 5000 0 + 10000 0.1 (5.6.3)
4
Solving the equations (5.6.1) to (5.6.3), we obtain
q12 = 15672 N / m
q23 = 15577 N / m
q31 = 3077 N / m
--- ANS
(c) Twist angle per unit length

The equation for twist angle per unit length is
1 q
=
2G A t
ds (5.6.4)
0.2
15672 ( ) + (15577 + 3077) (0.806)
= 2

2(27 109 )( 0.22 + 0.2 0.8 / 2)(0.001)
8
10115
= = 1.97 10 3 rad / m = 0.11o / m
5.168 106
--- ANS
5.6.2


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(d) Shear center

Since shear center is independent of applied forces, it should be the same as in the
solution for Problem 5.5.
--- ANS
5.6.3


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5.7 Find the shear flow on the four-stringer section (Fig. 5.34) subjected to
Vz = 5000 N . Assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in bending.
Figure 5.34 Unsymmetrical open section
Solution:
(a) The centroid of this four-stringer section is located at
A y i i
2(10)(80)
yc = i
= = 32cm
A i
i 2(15) + 2(10)
Az i i
(15)(40) + (10)(20)
zc = i
= = 16cm
A i
i 2(15) + 2(10)
from stringer 2.
Now set up the (y,z) coordinate system with the origin at the centroid..
The moments of inertia are obtained as
I y = Ai z i = (15)(24 2 + 16 2 ) + (10)(4 2 + 16 2 )
2
= 15200cm 4
I z = Ai y i = 2(15)(32) 2 + 2(10)(80 32) 2

2
= 76800cm 4
I yz = Ai y i z i = (15)[(32)(24) + (32)(16)]
i
+ (10)[(48)(16) + (48)(4)] = 9600cm 4

(b) Shear flows
Assume the shear force acts through the shear center and no torsion is produced..
The shear flow in the unsymmetrical thin-walled section is calculated using
5.7.1


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q s = (k yV y k yzV z )Q z ( k zV z k yzV y )Q y (5.7.1)
Iy Iz I yz
where k y = , kz = , k yz =
I y I z I yz I y I z I yz I y I z I yz
2 2 2
and Q z = ydA , Q y = zdA

As As
In this problem, we have

Iy 15200
ky = = = 1.413 10 5
I y I z I yz 2
( 15200 )( 76800 ) ( 9600 ) 2
Iz 76800
kz = = = 7.143 10 5
I y I z I yz
2
( 15200 )( 76800 ) ( 9600 ) 2
I yz 9600
k yz = = = 0.893 10 5
I y I z I yz 2
( 15200 )( 76800 ) ( 9600 ) 2
Given Vz = 5000 N , V y = 0 , we have from (5.7.1)
q s = (k yV y k yzV z )Q z (k zV z k yzV y )Q y
(5.7.2)
= 4.4645 10 2 Q z 35.7145 10 2 Q y
The shear flow contour direction is indicated in the figure below.
(1) For shear flow q1

Q z = (15)(32) = 480cm 3
Q y = ( 15 )( 24 ) = 360cm 3
From equation (5.7.2) we have
q1 = 4.4645 10 2 ( 480 ) 35.7145 10 2 ( 360 )

= 107.14 N / cm
5.7.2


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(Negative sign indicates the opposite direction)

--- ANS
(2) For shear flow q 2
Q z = 2(15)(32) = 960cm 3
Q y = (15)(24 16) = 120cm 3
q 2 = 4.4645 10 2 ( 960 ) 35.7145 10 2 ( 120 ) = 0
--- ANS
Q z = 2(15)(32) + (10)(48) = 480cm 3
Q y = (15)(24 16) + (10)(16) = 40m 3
q3 = 4.4645 10 2 ( 480 ) 35.7145 10 2 ( 40 )

= 35.71 N / cm
--- ANS
5.7.3


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5.8 Find the shear center ( y sc , z sc ) for the open section in Fig. 5.34.
Figure 5.34 Unsymmetrical open section
Solution:
four-stringer section is located at
A y i i
2(10)(80)
yc = i
= = 32cm = 0.32m
A i
i 2(15) + 2(10)
Az i i
(15)(40) + (10)(20)
zc = i
= = 16cm = 0.16m
A i
i 2(15) + 2(10)
from stringer 2.
Now set up the (y , z) coordinate system with the origin at the centroid as shown
in Fig. 5.34.
The moments of inertia are
I y = Ai z i = (15 10 4 )(0.24 2 + 0.16 2 ) + (10 10 4 )(0.04 2 + 0.16 2 )
2
= 1.52 10 4 m 4
I z = Ai y i = 2(15 10 4 )(0.32) 2 + 2(10 10 4 )(0.8 0.32) 2

2
= 7.68 10 4 m 4
I yz = Ai y i z i = (15 10 4 )[(0.32)(0.24) + ( 0.32)(0.16)]

i
+ (10 10 4 )[(0.48)(0.16) + (0.48)(0.04)] = 0.96 10 4 m 4

(b) Shear flows
Assume the shear force acts through the shear center and no torsion is produced.
The shear flow in an unsymmetrical thin-walled section is calculated using the
5.8.1


C.T. Sun
equation
Iy Iz I yz
2 2 2

As As
Iy 1.52
ky = = 10 4 = 1.4137 10 3
I y I z I yz
2
(1.52)(7.68) (0.96) 2
Iz 7.68
kz = = 10 4 = 7.1429 10 3
I y I z I yz
2
(1.52)(7.68) ( 0.96) 2
I yz 0.96
k yz = = 10 4 = 0.8929 10 3
I y I z I yz
2
(1.52)(7.68) (0.96) 2

(5.8.2)
= (1.4137V y + 0.8929V z ) 10 3 Q z (7.1429V z + 0.8929V y ) 10 3 Q y
Assume that the shear center is located at ( y sc , z sc ) with respect to stringer 2 as

shown in the figure above
Q z = (15 10 4 )(0.32) = 4.8 10 4 m 3
Q y = (15 10 4 )(0.24) = 3.6 10 4 m 3
5.8.2


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q1 = ( 1.4137V y + 0.8929V z ) 10 3 Q z ( 7.1429V z + 0.8929V y ) 10 3 Q y

= ( 1.4137V y + 0.8929V z )( 4.8 ) 10 1 ( 7.1429V z + 0.8929V y )( 3.6 ) 10 1
= 0.357V y 2.143V z

Q z = 2(15 10 4 )(0.32) = 9.6 10 4 m 3
Q y = (15 10 4 )(0.24 0.16) = 1.2 10 4 m 3

q 2 = (1.4137V y + 0.8929V z ) 10 3 Q z (7.1429V z + 0.8929V y ) 10 3 Q y
= (1.4137V y + 0.8929V z )(9.6) 10 1 (7.1429V z + 0.8929V y )(1.2) 10 1
= 1.25V y

Q z = 2(15 10 4 )(0.32) + (10 10 4 )(0.48) = 4.8 10 4 m 3
Q y = (15 10 4 )(0.24 0.16) + (10 10 4 )(0.16) = 0.4 10 4 m 3

q 3 = ( 1.4137V y + 0.8929V z ) 10 3 Q z ( 7.1429V z + 0.8929V y ) 10 3 Q y
= ( 1.4137V y + 0.8929V z )( 4.8 ) 10 1 ( 7.1429V z + 0.8929V y )( 0.4 ) 10 1
= 0.714V y + 0.714V z
Check balance of forces:
F y = q 2 s 2 = (1.25V y )(0.8) = V y
Fz = q1 s 1 + q 3 s 3
Satisfied!
= ( 0.357V y 2.143V z )( 0.4 ) + ( 0.714V y + 0.714V z )( 0.2 ) = V z
(c) Shear center ( y sc , z sc )
(1) To determine y sc , we consider the case V y = 0 and Vz 0 , and consider
moment about stringer 2.
M = (q s ) s
2
3 3 2 = V z y sc
5.8.3


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( 0.714308V z )( 0.2 )( 0.8 )

=> y sc = = 0.114 m
Vz
(2) For z sc we consider the case V y 0 and Vz = 0 . We have
M = (q s ) s
2
3 3 2 = V y z sc
( 0.714292V y )( 0.2 )( 0.8 )

=> z sc = = 0.114 m
Vy
So the shear center is located at ( 0.114 m ,0.114 m ) with respect to stringer 2.

This says that the shear center is located below the sheet between stringers 2 and
3.
--- ANS
5.8.4


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5.9 Find the shear center of the z section given by Fig. 4.8.
Figure 4.8 Thin-walled Z-section
Solution:
(a) The centroid of this Z-section is obviously located at the midpoint of the vertical
web. The moments of inertia are
2
h 2bt 3 th 3 tbh 2 t 3 b th 3
I y = 2bt + + = + +
2 12 12 2 6 12
2
b 2tb 3 ht 3 2tb 3 t 3 h
I z = 2bt + + = +
2 12 12 3 12
b h tb h
2
bh
I yz = bt + bt =
22 2 2 2
(b) Shear flows
Assume the shear force acts through the shear center and results without
producing torsion. The shear flow in the unsymmetrical thin-walled section is
calculated using
Iy Iz I yz
where k y = , kz = , k yz = (5.9.2)
2 2 2
and Q z = ydA , Q y = zdA (5.9.3)

Calculate shear flow q1 from the lower left end of the Z-section.
5.9.1


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1 1
Q z = ydA = (b s1 )ts1 = ( s1 b)ts1
2 2
h 1
Q y = zdA = ( )ts1 = ths1
2 2
q1 ( s1 ) = (k yV y k yzV z )Q z (k zV z k yzV y )Q y
1 2 1
= (k yV y k yzV z )( ts1 tbs1 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( ths1 )
2 2
Then the resultant force of shear flow q1 is
b b 1 2 1
V1 = q1 ds1 = [(k yV y k yzV z )( ts1 tbs1 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( ths1 )]ds1
0 0 2 2
1 3 1 1
= [(k yV y k yzV z )( ts1 tbs1 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( ths1 )] |b0
2 2
6 2 4
1 1
= tb 3 (k yV y k yzV z ) + tb 2 h(k zV z k yzV y )
3 4
1
Q z = ydA = tb 2
2
1 1
Q y = zdA = tbh + ts 2 ( s 2 h)
2 2
q 2 ( s 2 ) = (k yV y k yzV z )Q z (k zV z k yzV y )Q y
1 1 1 1 2
= (k yV y k yzV z )( tb 2 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( tbh ths 2 + ts 2 )
2 2 2 2
Then the resultant force of shear flow q 2 is
h
V2 = q 2 ds 2
0
h 1 1 1 1 2
= [(k yV y k yzV z )( tb 2 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( tbh ths 2 + ts 2 )]ds 2
0 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 3
= [(k yV y k yzV z )( tb 2 s 2 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( tbhs 2 ths 2 + ts 2 )] |0h
2
2 2 4 6
1 1 1
= tb 2 h(k yV y k yzV z ) + ( tbh 2 + th 3 )(k zV z k yzV y )
2 2 12
1 1 2
Q z = ydA = tb 2 + ts3
2 2
1 1
Q y = zdA = tbh + ths3
2 2
5.9.2


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q3 ( s3 ) = (k yV y k yzV z )Qz (k zV z k yzV y )Q y

1 1 2 1 1
= (k yV y k yzV z )( tb 2 + ts3 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( tbh + ths3 )
2 2 2 2
Then the resultant force of shear flow q 3 is
b
V3 = q 3 ds3
0
b 1 1 2 1 1
= [(k yV y k yzV z )( tb 2 + ts 3 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( tbh + ths3 )]ds3
0 2 2 2 2
1 1 3 1 1
= [(k yV y k yzV z )( tb 2 s 3 + ts 3 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( tbhs3 + ths 3 )] |b0
2
2 6 2 4
1 1
= tb 3 (k yV y k yzV z ) + tb 2 h(k zV z k yzV y )
3 4
We find that V3 = V1
(c) Shear center ( y sc , z sc )
(1) To determine ysc , we let V y = 0 and Vz 0
The moment about the centroid by the shear force must be equal to that produced
by the shear flow:
h h
M = V 2 V 2 = V
c
1 3 z y sc
Since V3 = V1 , we conclude y sc = 0
(2) To determine zsc , we consider the case V y 0 and Vz = 0
Thus,
h h
M = V 2 V 2 = V
c
1 3 y z sc
=> z sc = 0
The shear center is at the centroid of the Z-section.
--- ANS
5.9.3


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5.10 Find the shear flow in the two-cell section loaded as shown in Fig. 5.35 for
Vz = 5000 N . Given G = 27GPa , find the twist angle .
Figure 5.35 Two-cell closed section
Solution:
(a) Assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in bending. Because of symmetry, the
centroid of this two-cell section is obviously located at the mid point of the
vertical web. Set up the (y, z) coordinate system with the origin at the centroid.
The moment of inertia with respect to y axis is
I y = Ai z i = 2(10 10 4 )(0.2 2 ) = 8 10 5 m 4
2
(b) Shear flows
Cuts are made on the curved webs as shown in the above figure. Note that the cut
section is basically reduced to a single vertical web and, thus, the shear flows are
simply:
r =0
q'12l = q12
Vz 5000
q'12 v = = 12 ,500 N / m
h 0 .4
So the shear flows in the original section are
q12 v = q'12 v q1 + q 2 = 12500 q1 + q 2
q12l = q1
5.10.1


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q12 r = q 2
where q1 and q2 are the constant shear flows in the left and the right cells,
respectively. Note that q1 and q2 are both assumed to be positive if
counterclockwise.
(1) Moment equation
Take the moment about the centroid of this cross-section, we have
Vz 0 = 2 A1q1 + 2 A2 q2
1
where A1 = A2 = h 2 = 0.0628 m 2
8
=> q1 + q 2 = 0 (5.10.2)
(2) Compatibility equation
1 q
=
2G A t
ds
We have = 1 = 2 ,
1 h 1 h
[(q12l )( ) + (q12v )(h)] = [(q12v )(h) + (q12 r )( )]
2G A1t 2 2G A2 t 2
=> 0.6283q1 0.6283q 2 = 10000 0.8q1 + 0.8q 2
=> q1 q2 = 7001( N / m ) (5.10.3)
Solving equations (5.10.2) and (5.10.3), we have
q1 = 3500( N / m )
q2 = 3500( N / m )
Then the final shear flows are
q12 v = 12500 q1 + q2 = 5498 N/m
q12l = q1 = 3500 N / m
q12 r = q2 = 3500 N / m
Negative sign means the actual direction is opposite to the assumed.
--- ANS
And the twist angle is
1 q [(3500.67)(0.6283) + (5498.66)(0.4)]
= 1 =
2G A1 t
ds =
2(27 10 9 )(0.06283)(0.001)
= 0(rad / m)
= 0o / m
As expected, there is no twist angle produced since the vertical load is applied
through the shear center.
--- ANS
5.10.2


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5.11 Find the shear flow of the structure with the cross-section given in Fig. 5.35 if
the vertical force V z is applied at 20cm to the right of the stringers. Also
find the corresponding angle of twist .
Figure 5.35 Two-cell closed section
Solution:
(a) Assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in bending. Because of the symmetry to
both y and z axis, the centroid of this two-cell section is obviously located at the
center of the vertical web. So we can shift the y and z axis to match the centroid as
a new origin of the new coordinate system.
The moment of inertia with respect to y axis is
I y = Ai z i = 2(10 10 4 )(0.2 2 ) = 8 10 5 m 4
2
(b) Shear flows
Assume both a cut on the circular webs, as shown in the above figure. So the shear
flow in the vertical web can be obtained by
VQ
q'i = z i (5.11.1)
Iy
i
where Qi = Ak z k is the first moment of stringer area Ak , and z k is the
k =1
vertical distance from the centroid of Ak to the y-axis, and V z = 5000N . We
obtain
5.11.1


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V z Q1 5000(10 10 4 0.2)
q '12 v = = = 12500 N / m
Iy 8 10 5
So the shear flows on the thin-wall segments are

q12 v = q'12 v q1 + q 2 = 12500 q1 + q 2
q12l = q1
q12 r = q 2
where q12l and q12 r are shear flows, respectively, in the left and right curved
walls. q1 and q 2 are constant shear flows, in the left and right cells,
respectively. Both are assumed to be counterclockwise.
(1) Moment equation
Take moment about the centroid of this cross-section, we have
1
V z (0.2) = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A2 q 2 , where A1 = A2 = h 2 = 0.063m 2
8
=> q1 + q2 = 7957.98( N / m ) (5.11.2)
1 q
=
2G A t
ds
We have = 1 = 2 ,
1 h 1 h
[(q12l )( ) + (q12v )(h)] = [(q12v )(h) + (q12 r )( )]
2G A1t 2 2G A2 t 2
=> 0.6283q1 0.6283q 2 = 10000 0.8q1 + 0.8q 2
=> q1 q 2 = 7001.33( N / m) (5.11.3)
q1 = 478.33( N / m)
q 2 = 7479.65( N / m)
Then the complete solution for the shear flows is
q12 v = 12500 q1 + q 2 = 5498.66( N / m)
q12l = q1 = 478.33( N / m)
q12 r = q 2 = 7479.65( N / m)
Negative sign means the actual direction is opposite to the assumed.
--- ANS
The twist angle is
1 q [( 478.33 )( 0.6283 ) + ( 5498.66 )( 0.4 )]
= 1 = ds =
2G A1 t 2( 27 10 9 )( 0.06283 )( 0.001 )
= 7.37 10 4 rad / m = 0.042 o / m
--- ANS
5.11.2


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An alternative approach in solving the problem is to consider the shift of the

vertical force to the center position as in Problem 5.10 in conjunction with a
torque of 0.2Vz. Thus the shear flow produced by the off-center load can be
considered as the superposition of the shear flows produced by the vertical load
(applied at the center location) and the torque. Since the shear flows of the first
problem have been solved by in Problem 5.10, we need only to solve the second
torsion problem with a torque of 0.2Vz. Because of symmetry, the shear flow
along the vertical web is zero and the constant shear flow along the circular wall is
T
q= (5.11.4)
2A
2
h
in which A = = 0.1257 m2, and T = 0.2Vz = 1000 Nm
2
Thus,
q = 3978 N /m (counterclockwise)
and the complete shear flows are, after adding q to the shear flow solution
for Problem 4.10.
q12 v = 5498 + 0 = 5498 N / m
q12l = 3500 + q = 3500 + 3978 = 478 N / m
q12 r = 3500 + q = 3500 + 3978 = 7478 N / m
5.11.3


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5.12 Solve Example 5.9 by assuming cuts on the webs between stringers 1 and 2
and stringers 6 and 3.
Figure 5.27 Assumed cuts and shear flow contours
Solution:
(a) Because the section is symmetric with respect to y axis, the centroid is located on
y axis. The moment of inertia with respect to y axis is
I y = Ai z i = 2(1 + 2 + 3)(20 2 ) = 4800cm 4
2
(b) Shear flows
The shear flows in the cut section as shown in the left figure above are calculated
first. We have
VQ 4800(1)(20)
q' 23 = z 1 = = 20 N / cm
Iy 4800
4800(1 + 2)(20)
q '34 = = 60 N / cm
4800
4800(1 + 2 + 3)(20)
q ' 45 = = 120 N / cm
4800
4800[(1 + 2 + 3)(20) + 3( 20)]
q '56 = = 60 N / cm
4800
5.12.1


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4800[(1 + 2 + 3)( 20) + (3 + 2)(20)]

q ' 61 = = 20 N / cm
4800
Thus, the shear flows are given by
q12 = q1
q 23 = q' 23 + q1 = 20 + q1
q36 = q1 q 2
q34 = q '34 + q 2 = 60 + q 2
q 45 = q' 45 + q1 = 120 + q 2
q56 = q '56 + q 2 = 60 + q 2
q 61 = q ' 61 + q1 = 20 + q1
in which q1 and q2 are the two assumed constant shear flows in the left and right
cells of the original closed section..
(1) Moment equation
The moment produced by the shear force Vz must be equal to that produced by
the shear flows. Taking moment about stringer 1, we have
Vz 0 = q23 (40)(40) + q36 (40)(40) + q34 (40)(40) + q45 (40)(80)
=> q1 + q2 = 160 N / cm (5.12.2)
1 q
=
2G A t
ds
We have = 1 = 2 ,
1 (q12 )(40) (q23 )(40) (q36 )(40) (q61 )(40)
[ + + + ]
2G A1 0 .1 0 .1 0 .1 0 .1
1 (q63 )(40) (q34 )(40) (q45 )(40) (q56 )(40)
= [ + + + ]
2G A2 0 .1 0 .2 0 .2 0 .2
=> 10q1 7q2 = 160 N / cm (5.12.3)
q1 = 56.47 N / cm
q2 = 103.53 N / m
Then the shear flows are

q12 = q1 = 56.47 N / cm
q23 = 20 + q1 = 36.47 N / cm
q36 = q1 q2 = 47.06 N / cm
q34 = 60 + q2 = 43.53 N / cm
q 45 = 120 + q 2 = 16.47( N / cm)
q56 = 60 + q2 = 43.53 N / cm
q61 = 20 + q1 = 36.47 N / cm
5.12.2


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The negative sign means the actual shear flow is opposite to the assumed
direction.
--- ANS
5.12.3


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5.13 A thin-walled box beam is obtained by welding the cut of the section shown in
Fig. 5.30. Find the shear flow produced by a vertical shear force Vz = 1000N
applied at 100mm to the right of the vertical wall that contains the original
cut.
Solution:
The shear flow in the welded section loaded by the off center shear force Vz is of
interest.
To solve the problem, we first make a fictitious cut at the original gap of the wall as
shown in Fig. 5.30. The centroid is at the center of the section for both welded and the
cut sections The moment of inertia about y axis is
1
Iy = [(0.1 + 0.002)(0.2 + 0.002) 3 (0.1 0.002)(0.2 0.002) 3 ]
12
= 6.6676 10 6 m 4
(a) Consider the shear flow in the cut section first. Setup the shear flow contours in
the thin wall segments as shown in the figure below. Since this is an open section,
the shear flow can be calculated using the formula
VQ
q'i = z i
Iy
(1) On s1 : 0 ~ 0.1m
s
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s1t )( 1 ) = 0.001s1
2
As
2
1000 0.001s1
2
VQ
q1 = z = = 1.5 10 5 s1
2
6
Iy 6.6676 10
(2) On s 2 : 0 ~ 0.1m
5.13.1


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Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 + 0.002 s 2 (0.1) = 10 5 + 2 10 4 s 2
Vz Q 1000 (10 5 + 2 10 4 s 2 )
q2 = = 6
= 1500 3 10 4 s 2
Iy 6.6676 10
(3) On s 3 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 + 0.002(0.1) 2 + 0.002 s 3 (0.1 0.5s3 )

= 3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 3 5s3 )
2
1000 [3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 3 5s 3 )]
2
Vz Q
q3 = =
Iy 6.6676 10 6
= 4500 30000 s 3 + 150000 s 3
2
(4) On s 4 : 0 ~ 0.1m
s4
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s 4 t )( ) = 0.001s 4
2
As
2
V Q 1000 0.001s 4
2
q4 = z = = 1.5 10 5 s 4
2
6
Iy 6.6676 10
(5) On s 5 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 0.002 s 5 (0.1) = 10 5 2 10 4 s 5
V z Q 1000 (10 5 + 2 10 4 s5 )
q5 = = = 1500 + 3 10 4 s 5
Iy 6.6676 10 6
(6) On s 6 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 0.002(0.1) 2 0.002 s 6 (0.1 0.5s 6 )

= 3 10 5 2 10 4 ( s 6 5s 6 )
2
V z Q 1000 [3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 6 5s 6 )]
2
q6 = =
Iy 6.6676 10 6
= 4500 + 30000 s 6 150000 s 6
2
(b) The shear flow in the welded section is that in the cut section plus a constant shear
flow q 0 along the contour of the wall. This unknown constant shear flow is
needed to produce the same moment as produced by the vertical shear force
Vz = 1000N applied at 100mm to the right of the vertical wall that contains the
original cut.
5.13.2


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Take moment about the out-of-plane axis that passes through the upper right
corner of the thin-walled section. The moment produced by the shear flow must be
equal to the moment produced by the applied shear force about the same axis, i.e.,
M =V y z
1000 0.1 = [ q3 ds3 q6 ds 6 ] 0.1 [ q5 ds5 ] 0.2

0.1
= [ (4500 30000s3 + 150000s3 + q 0 )ds3
2
0
0.1
(4500 + 30000s 6 150000s 6 q 0 )ds 6 ] 0.1
2
0
0.1
[ (1500 + 3 10 4 s5 q 0 )ds5 ] 0.2
0
=> 100 = 170 + 0.04q0

=> q 0 = 6750 N / m
(c) Shear flows in the cross-section are shown
q1 = 6750 1.5 10 5 s1
2
q 2 = 5250 3 10 4 s 2
q3 = 2250 30000s3 + 150000s3

2
q 4 = 6750 + 1.5 10 5 s 4
2
q 5 = 5250 + 3 10 4 s 5
q6 = 2250 + 30000s 6 150000s 6

2
--- ANS
5.13.3


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5.14 Show that the shear center for the section of Fig. 5.36 is at a distance
a ( a + b )
e=
(a + b)(1 + )
to the left of stringer 1.
Figure 5.36 Four-stringer thin-walled section
Solution:
four-stringer section is located at
A y i i
2(A)(a ) a
yc = i
= =
A i
i 2( A + A) 1 +
Az i i
( A + A)(b) b
zc = i
= =
A i
i 2( A + A) 2
relative to stringer 3. We set up the (y,z) coordinate system with the origin placed
at the centroid as shown in Fig. 5.36.
b 1+ 2
I y = Ai z i = 2( A + A)( ) 2 =
2
b A
i 2 2
a 2 a 2 2a 2 A
I z = Ai y i = 2( A)( ) + 2(A)(a ) =
2
i 1+ 1+ 1+
(b) Shear flows
Since this cross-section is symmetric with respect to y axis, the shear center is
located on the y axis. Hence it is only necessary to determine the y position of the
shear center. We can consider a fictitious cut section with shear flow q ' plus the
existing constant shear flow q 0 .
(1) First, calculate the shear flows by assuming a cut in the wall between stringers
1 and 4. Then
5.14.1


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q' 41 = 0
b
V z (A)( )
VQ
q'12 = z 1 = 2 = V z
Iy 1+ 2 (1 + )b
b A
2
b
V z (1 + ) A( )
VQ 2 = Vz
q' 23 = z 2 =
Iy 1+ 2 b
b A
2
b b
V z [(1 + ) A( ) + A( )]
VQ
q '34 = z 3 = 2 2 = V z
Iy 1+ 2 (1 + )b
b A
2
(2) The total shear flow and their resultant forces are,
aV z
q12 = q '12 + q 0 => V1 = q12 a = + q0 a
(1 + )b
q 23 = q ' 23 + q0 => V2 = q 23 b = V z + q 0 b
aV z
q34 = q '34 + q0 => V3 = q 34 a = + q0 a
(1 + )b
q 41 = q' 41 + q 0 = q 0 => V4 = q 41b = q 0 b
Assume that the force V z is acting through the shear center and, thus, twist
angle is produced. Consequently, we require
1 q
=
2G A t
ds = 0
aV z aV z
=> ( + q 0 a ) + ( V z + q 0 b) + ( + q 0 a ) + ( q 0 b) = 0
(1 + )b (1 + )b
2a + (1 + )b
=> q 0 = Vz
2(1 + )(a + b)b
5.14.2


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aV z (1 ) a
V1 = q12 a = + q0 a = Vz
(1 + )b 2(1 + )(a + b)
2 a b b
V2 = q 23 b = V z + q 0 b = Vz
2(1 + )(a + b)
aV z (1 ) a
V3 = q34 a = + q0 a = Vz
(1 + )b 2(1 + )(a + b)
2a + (1 + )b
V4 = q 41b = q 0 b == Vz
2(1 + )(a + b)
Take moment about stringer 1.The moment equivalence condition gives
2a 2 ab ab + ab ab
Vz ysc = V2 a + V3 b = Vz
2(1 + )(a + b)
a ( a + b )
= Vz
(1 + )(a + b)
a ( a + b )
=> y sc =
(1 + )(a + b)
The negative sign indicates that the shear center is to the left of stringer 1.It is
noted that if = 1 , then the shear center is at the center of the square section as
expected.
--- ANS
5.14.3


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5.15 Find the shear flow in the two-cell thin-walled section for Vz = 5000 N
shown in Fig. 5.37. Also determine the shear center. Assume thin sheets to be
ineffective in bending.
Figure 5.37 Assumed cuts and shear flow contours
Solution:
(a) The centroid of this four-stringer section is
A y i i
2 A(40)
yc = i
= = 26.67cm
A i
i 3A
Az i i
A(20)
zc = i
= = 6.67cm
A i
i 3A
relative to stringer 1. Set up the (y,z) coordinate system with the origin place at the
centroid.
20 40
I y = Ai z i = 2(10)( ) 2 + (10)( ) 2 = 2666.67cm 4
2
i 3 3
40 2 80
I z = Ai y i = 2(10)( ) + (10)( ) 2 = 10666.67cm 4
2
i 3 3
I yz = Ai y i z i = 2666.67cm 4
i
(b) Shear flows

First we make fictitious cuts in the sheet between stringers 1 and 2 and the vertical
sheet between stringers 2 and 3. The shear flow in the unsymmetrical thin-walled
section is calculated using the formula below.
5.15.1


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Iy Iz I yz
where k y = , kz = , k yz = (5.15.2)
2 2 2
and Q z = ydA , Q y = zdA (5.15.3)

As As
Iy Iz
ky = = 1.25 10 4 cm 4 , kz = = 5 10 4 cm 4
2 2
I yz
k yz = = 1.25 10 4 cm 4 , Vz = 5000 N , Vy = 0
I y I z I yz
2
(5.15.4)
= 0.625Q z 2.5Q y
(1) For shear flow q'12

80
Q z = (10)( ) = 266.67cm 3
3
20
Q y = (10)( ) = 66.67cm 3
3
q'12 = 0.625(266.67) 2.5(66.67) = 0
(2) For shear flow q ' 23c (in the curved sheet)
Q z = 133.33cm 3
Q y = 133.33cm 3

q ' 23c = 0.625(133.33) 2.5(133.33) = 250( N / cm)
The total shear flow is obtained by adding the constant counterclockwise shear
flows q1 and q 2 in the left and right cells, respectively. Thus,
q12 = q'12 + q1 = q1
q 23v = q1 q 2 (vertical sheet)
q 23c = q ' 23c + q 2 = 250 + q 2
q31 = q1
5.15.2


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(1) Moment equation

Take moment about stringer 1, We have
1 1
V z 0 = 2q 23c [( 20 2 ) + 20 40] + 2q 23v 20 40
8 2 2
=> 800q1 + 314.16q2 = 278540 (5.15.5)

1 q
=
2G A t
ds
We have = 1 = 2 ,
1 1
[40q12 + 20q 23v + 44.7214q31 ] = [20(q 23v ) + 10q 23c ]
2G A1t 2G A2 t
=> 155.65q1 155.93q 2 = 20000 (5.15.6)
Solve equations (5.15.5) and (5.15.6), we have
q1 = 210.78( N / cm)
q 2 = 349.88( N / cm)
Then the shear flows in each sheet are

q12 = 210.78( N / cm)
q 23v 139.10( N / cm)
q 23c = 99.88( N / cm)
q31 210.78( N / cm)
Negative sign means the actual direction of the shear flow is opposite to the
assumed.
--- ANS
Check:
F y = 40(210.78) + 40(210.78) = 0 (OK)
F z = 20(139.10) + 20(99.88) + 20(210.78) = 5000 N (OK)
(c) Shear center

Assume the shear force is acting through the shear center which is assumed to be
at a distance e y to the right of stringer 3.
(1) Moment equation

Take moment about stringer 3. We have
1
5000(e y ) = 2q12 (40)(20) + 2q23c ( 20 2 )
2 8
5.15.3


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=> 800 q1 + 314.16q 2 = 5000e y 25000 (5.15.7)

1 q
=
2G A t
ds
We have = 1 = 2 = 0 when the force acts through the shear center, then
1
[40q12 + 20q 23v + 44.7214q31 ] = 0
2G A1t
=> q 2 = 5.236q1 (5.15.8)
1
and [20(q 23v ) + 10q 23c ] = 0
2G A2 t
=> 51.416q 2 20q1 + 7853.98 = 0 (5.15.9)
q1 = 31.52 ( N / cm)
q 2 = 165.01 ( N / cm)
Substituting back to equation (5.15.7), we obtain
e y = 0.3cm (to the right of stringers 2 and 3)
--- ANS
5.15.4


C.T. Sun
5.16 Find the shear flow in the five-stringer thin-walled section produced by the
loads shown in Fig. 5.38.
Figure 5.38 Three-cell closed section
Solution:
(a) The centroid of this four-stringer section is at
A y i i
2 A( h) + A(2h)
yc = i
= = 0.8h = 32cm
A i
i 5A
Az i i
2 A(h)
zc = i
= = 16cm
A i
i 5A
relative to stringer 1.
The origin of the coordinate system (y, z) is at the centroid.
I y = Ai z i = 3(10)( 16) 2 + 2(10)( 24) 2 = 19200cm 4
2
I z = Ai y i = 2(10)(32) 2 + 2(10)(8) 2 + (10)( 48) 2 = 44800cm 4

2
I yz = Ai yi z i = 10[(32)(16) + (8)(16) + (48)(16) + (8)(24) + (32)(24)]

i
= 9600cm 4
(b) Shear flows
First we make three fictitious cuts as shown in Fig.5.38. The shear flow in the
unsymmetrical thin-walled section is calculated with the formulas:
5.16.1


C.T. Sun
Iy Iz I yz
2 2 2

As As
Iy Iz
ky = = 2.5 10 5 cm 4 , k z = = 5.8333 10 5 cm 4
2 2
I yz
k yz = = 1.25 10 5 cm 4 , Vz = 5000 + 3000 = 8000 N , V y = 0
I y I z I yz
2
(5.16.2)
= 0.1Q z 0.4667Q y
(1) For shear flow q'12

Q z = (10)(32) = 320cm 3
Q y = (10)(16) = 160cm 3

q'12 = 0.1(320) 0.4667(160) = 106.67( N / cm)
(2) For shear flow q ' 23

Q z = (10)(32 + 8) = 240cm 3
Q y = (10)(16 16) = 320cm 3

q'23 = 0.1(240) 0.4667(320) = 173.33 N / cm
Q z = (10)(32 + 8 + 48) = 240cm 3
Q y = (10)(16 16 16) = 480cm 3

q '34 = 0.1(240) 0.4667(480) = 200 N / cm

Q z = 240 + (10)(8) = 320cm 3
5.16.2


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Q y = 480 + (10)(24) = 240cm 3

q '45 = 0.1(320) 0.4667(240) = 80 N / cm
Now three counterclockwise constant shear flows q1 , q 2 , and q 3 must be added to
the three cells from left to right, respectively. Thus, the shear flows on the segments
of the thin walls are
q12 = q'12 + q 2 = 106.67 + q 2
q 23 = q 23 + q3 = 173.33 + q3
q34 = q '34 + q 3 = 200 + q3
q 45 = q ' 45 + q 2 = 80 + q 2
q51c = q1 (curved sheet)
q15v = q1 q 2 (vertical sheet)
q 24 = q 2 q 3
(1) Moment equation

Take the moment about stringer 1. We have

3000(40) = q51c (2)( 40 2 ) + q34 ( 40)(60) + q 24 ( 40)(40) + q 45 ( 40)(40)
8
=> 10q1 + 80q 2 + 40q3 = 16200 (5.16.5)

1 q
=
2G A t
ds
We require 1 = 2 ,
1 1
[20q51c + 40q15v ] = [40q12 + 40q 24 + 40q 45 40q15v ]
2G A1t 2G A2 t
=> 7.5465q1 6.546q 2 + q3 = 186.67 (5.16.6)
and 2 = 3 ,
1 1
[40q12 + 40q 24 + 40q 45 40q15v ] = [40q 23 + 40 2q34 40q 24 ]
2G A2 t 2G A3t
=> q1 6q 2 + 7.828q3 = 725.69 (5.16.7)
Solving equations (5.15.5) to (5.15.7), we have

q1 = 42.437 N / cm
q2 = 102.801 N / cm
5.16.3


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q3 = 166.068 N / cm
Then the complete shear flows are

q12 = 106.67 + q 2 = 3.869( N / cm)
q 23 = 173.33 + q3 = 7.262( N / cm)
q34 = 200 + q3 = 33.932( N / cm)
q 45 = 80 + q 2 = 22.801( N / cm)
q 51c = q1 = 42.437( N / cm) (curved sheet)
q15v = q1 q 2 = 60.364( N / cm) (vertical sheet)
q 24 = q 2 q3 = 63.267( N / cm)
The negative sign means that the actual shear flow direction is opposite to the
assumed direction. The assumed directions are shown in Fig.5.38 .
--- ANS
5.16.4


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6.1 Derive the distortional energy expression for plane stress.
Solution:
The stress-strain relation can be expressed as
0 = K 0 (6.1.1)
1
where 0 = ( xx + yy + zz ) is the average stress, 0 = xx + yy + zz is the
3
E
dilatation for small strain, and K = is the bulk modulus.
3(1 2 )
For the state of plane stress, we have zz = 0 and zz = ( xx + yy )
1 1
Thus, 0 = ( xx + yy + zz ) = ( xx + yy )
3 3
and 0 = xx + yy + zz = (1 )( xx + yy )
The strain energy density associated with the volume dilatation is given by,
1 1 1
Wv = 0 0 = 02 = ( xx + yy ) 2 (6.1.2)
2 2K 18 K
The total strain energy density for plane stress is

1
W = ( xx xx + yy yy + xy xy )
2 (6.1.3)
1 1
= ( xx + yy 2 xx yy ) + xy 2
2 2
2E 2G
1 1 1
where xx = ( xx yy ) , yy = ( xx + yy ) , and xy = xy
E E G
The strain energy associated with distortional deformation is obtained as

Wd = W Wv
E
Substituting (6.1.2) and (6.1.3) in W and Wv, and using G = we have
2(1 + )
1 1 1
Wd = ( xx + yy 2 xx yy ) + xy 2 ( xx + yy ) 2
2 2
2E 2G 18 K
1 1 + 2 1 2
= ( xx + yy 2 xx yy ) + xy ( xx + yy + 2 xx yy )
2 2 2 2
2E E 6E
6.1.1


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1 1+ 2
= [3 xx + 3 yy 6 xx yy (1 2 )( xx + yy + 2 xx yy )] + xy
2 2 2 2
6E E
1 1+ 2
= [( 2 + 2 ) xx + (2 + 2 ) yy (2 + 2 ) xx yy ] + xy
2 2
6E E
1+
= [ xx + yy xx yy + 3 xy ]
2 2 2
3E
1
= [( xx yy ) 2 + xx + yy + 6 xy ]
2 2 2
12G
We can rewrite this equation in

1
Wd = J2
2G
1
where J 2 = [( xx yy ) 2 + xx + yy + 6 xy ]
2 2 2
6.1.2


C.T. Sun
6.2 A thin-walled hollow sphere 2 m in diameter is subjected to internal pressure

p 0 . The wall thickness is 5 mm and the yield stress of the material is 250 MPa.
Use both Tresca and von Mises yield criteria to determine the maximum internal
pressure p 0 that does not cause yielding.
Solution:
The stresses caused by the internal pressure p 0 is
1
p 0 ( D 2 )
4 p D 2 p0
xx = yy = = 0 = = 100 p 0 , xy = 0 , zz = 0
(D)t 4t 4(0.005)
where x and y are orthogonal axes in the directions tangential to the surface at the
point of interest, and z is perpendicular to the surface at the same point. There are
only normal stresses presnt. Thus,
1 = xx = 100 p 0 , 2 = yy = 100 p 0 , 3 = 0
(1) Tresca yield criterion

Yielding occurs when
1 2 Y (6.2.1a)
2 3 Y (6.2.1b)
3 1 Y (6.2.1c)
After substituting the stress values, all three inequalities become one:
100 p0 Y = 250 MPa . Thus, the maximum internal pressure p 0 that does not
cause yielding is p 0 = 2.5MPa
--- ANS
(2) von Mises yield criterion

von Mises yiled criterion is
1 1
J2 = [( 1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2 ] = Y 2 (6.2.2)
6 3
or in plane stress form ( 3 = 0 )
1 1 1
J2 = [( 1 2 )2 + 12 + 2 2 ] = ( 12 1 2 + 2 2 ) = Y 2 (6.2.2a)
6 3 3
Substituting the values to equation (6.2.2) (or (6.2.2a)), we have
2( 100 p0 )2 = 2 Y 2 = 2( 250 )2 ,
6.2.1


C.T. Sun
so the maximum internal pressure p 0 that does not cause yielding is p 0 = 2.5MPa
--- ANS
Both criteria give the same maximum pressure of p 0 = 2.5MPa .
6.2.2


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6.3 Consider the problem of Example 6.2. Find the maximum p 0 without causing
yielding if N = 5 10 6 N (compression).
Solution:
From example 6.2, we have yield stress Y = 280 MPa , the radius of the thin-walled
hollow cylinder is a = 1m , and its thickness is t = 5 10 3 m .
N 5
Axial stress: xx = = = 159.16 MPa
(2a )t ( 2 )(1)(5 10 3 )
Shear stress: xy = 0
p 0 ( 2a ) L p 0 a p0
Hoop stress: yy = = = = 200 p0
2tL t 0.005
By von Mises yielded criterion for plane stress,
1 1 2
J 2 = [( xx yy ) 2 + xx + yy + 6 xy ] = y
2 2 2
(6.3.1)
6 3
Substituting the values, we have
(200 p 0 + 159.16) 2 + (200 p 0 ) 2 + (159.16) 2 = 2 y = 2(280) 2

2
80000 p0 + 63664 p0 106136.2 = 0

2
=> p 0 = 0.82Mpa , p 0 = 1.62 Mpa

Since inner pressure p 0 should be positive, the negative solution is neglected.
Thus, the maximum p 0 without causing yielding is p 0 = 0.82Mpa .
--- ANS
6.3.1


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6.4 An aluminum alloy 2024-T651 (see Table 6.1) panel is subjected to biaxial
loading as shown in Fig. 6.24. Assume that 1 = 300MPa and 2 can be
either tension or compression. Find the maximum values of 2 in tension and
compression that the panel can withstand before yielding according to von
Mises yield criterion.
1 1
Figure 6.24 Material under biaxial stress
Solution:
From Table 6.1, we have the yield stress Y = 415MPa for aluminum 2024-T651.
By von Mises yield criterion for plane stress,
1 1
( 1 2 1 2 + 2 2 ) = Y 2 (6.4.1)
3 3
Substituting 1 = 300MPa and Y = 415MPa , we have
300 2 300 2 + 2 = 415 2

2
=> 2 300 2 82225 = 0 , solve for 2

2
=> 2 = 473.61MPa or 2 = 173.61MPa
The maximum values of 2 is
In tension: 2 = 473.61MPa
In compression: 2 = 173.61MPa
This solution indicates that if loads in both directions are tensile (or compressive), it
would be more difficult to yield the material than if one is tensile and the other is
compressive.
--- ANS
6.4.1


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6.5 Find the total strain energy release rate for the split beam loaded as shown in
Figs. 6.25 and 6.26.
2
3
1
Figure 6.25 Split beam subjected to shear force
2
3
1
Figure 6.26 Split beam subjected to extension and bending
Solution:
(1) Figure 6.25
The strain energy stored in the beam due to a bending moment M is
M2L
U = dx (6.5.1)
0 2 EI
For segment 1, the strain energy is

a ( Px) 2 P 2a3 2P 2a3 th 3
U1 = dx = = , where I 1 =
0 2 EI1 6 EI1 Eth 3 12
For segment 2,
U2 = 0
For segment 3,
L ( Px) 2 P 2 ( L3 a 3 ) P 2 ( L3 a 3 ) t (2h) 3 2th 3
U3 = dx = = , where I 3 = =
a 2 EI 3 6 EI 3 4 Eth 3 12 3
The total strain energy stored in the entire split beam is
2 P 2 a 3 P 2 ( L3 a 3 )
U = U1 + U 2 + U 3 = +
Eth 3 4 Eth 3
The strain energy release rate is
6.5.1


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1 dU 1 6 P 2 a 2 3P 2 a 2 21 P 2 a 2
G= = ( ) =
t da t Eth 3 4 Eth 3 4 Et 2 h 3
--- ANS
(2) Figure 6.26
h
Assume the axial load acting on segment 1 is located at the distance of from the
2
center of the entire split beam. The strain energy stored in the beam due to an axial
force P is
P2L
U= (6.5.2)
2 EA
For segment 1, the strain energy is
P2a P2a
U1 = = , where A1 = th
2 EA1 2 Eth
For segment 2,
2 2
a (M 0 ) 2 M a 6M 0 a th 3
U2 = dx = 0 = , where I 2 =
0 2 EI 2 2 EI 2 Eth 3 12
For segment 3, the load consists of an axial force of P and bending moment of
h
M0 + P . Strain energy stored in segment 3 is
2
h
(M 0 + P ) 2
P ( L a)
2
L
U3 = + 2 dx
2 EA3 a 2 EI 3 ,
P ( L a ) 3M 0 ( L a) 3M 0 Ph( L a ) 3P h ( L a )
2 2 2 2
= + + +
4 Eth 4 Eth 3 4 Eth 3 16 Eth 3
t (2h) 3 2th 3
where A3 = 2th , and I 3 = =
12 3
U = U1 + U 2 + U 3
P 2 a 6 M 0 a P ( L a ) 3M 0 ( L a ) 3M 0 Ph( L a ) 3P 2 h 2 ( L a )
2 2
= + + + + +
2 Eth Eth 3 4 Eth 4 Eth 3 4 Eth 3 16 Eth 3
2 2
1 dU 1 P 2 6M 0 P2 3M 0 3M 0 Ph 3P 2
G= = ( + )
t da t 2 Eth Eth 3 4 Eth 4 Eth 3 4 Eth 3 16 Eth
2
1 P2 21 M 0 3M 0 P
= 2
+ 2 3

16 Et h 4 Et h 4 Et 2 h 2
--- ANS
6.5.2


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6.6 Consider the split beam with loading shown in Fig. 6.27. Loadings in both
Fig.6.11 and 6.27 are antisymmetric, and both are mode II fracture problems.
For the same value of P, which loading is more efficient in cracking the beam?
Assume that the beam dimensions and the elastic properties are
E = 70GPa , = 0.3
a = 10 10 2 m , t = 2 10 2 m
L = 15 10 2 m , h = 1 10 2 m
2
3
1
Figure 6.27 Split beam subjected to shear forces
2
3
1
Figure 6.11 Split beam subjected to horizontal forces
Solution:
(1) Figure 6.11
The strain energy stored in the beam due to an axial load P is
P2L
U= (6.6.1)
2 EA
The strain energy stored in the beam due to a bending moment M is
M2
L
U = dx (6.6.2)
0 2 EI
For segments 1 and 2, the strain energy is

P2a P2a
U1 = U 2 = = , where A1 = th
2 EA1 2 Eth
6.6.1


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For segment 3, the two axial forces are assumed to be completely cancelled out by
themselves and only the unbalanced couple Ph is taken up by this segment of beam.
L ( Ph) 2 P 2 h 2 ( L a ) 3P 2 ( L a ) t (2h) 3 2th 3
U3 = dx = = , where I 3 = =
a 2 EI 3 2 EI 3 4 Eth 12 3
P2a 3P 2 ( L a )
U = U 1 + U 2 + U 3 = 2( )+
2 Eth 4 Eth
1 dU 1 P 2 3P 2 1 P2
G6.11 = = ( )=
t da t Eth 4 Eth 4 Et 2 h
(2) Figure 6.27
For segment 1 and 2, the strain energy is
a ( Px) 2 P 2 a 3 2P 2 a 3 th 3
U1 = U 2 = dx = = , where I 1 = = I2
0 2 EI 1 6 EI 1 Eth 3 12
For segment 3,
L (2 Px) 2 2 2
L 2P x P2
U3 = dx = 3
dx = 3
( L3 a 3 ) ,
a 2 EI 3 a 2th Eth
E( )
3
t (2h) 3 2th 3
where I 3 = =
12 3
2P 2 a 3 P2
U = U 1 + U 2 + U 3 = 2( 3
)+ 3
( L3 a 3 )
Eth Eth
1 dU 1 12 P 2 a 2 P2 9P 2 a 2
G6.27 = = [ + ( 3a 2
)] =
t da t Eth 3 Eth 3 Et 2 h 3
(3) Comparison
9P 2 a 2
G6.27 2 3 a2 10
= Et 2h = 36 2 = 36( ) 2 = 3600
G6.11 P h 1
2
4 Et h
It is obvious to see that the loading in Fig. 6.27 produces more energy release and is
much more efficient in cracking the beam.
--- ANS
6.6.2


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6.7 To further split the beam of Fig. 6.27, a rigid pin of diameter d = 0.5cm is
inserted as shown in Fig. 6.28. How far does one have to drive the cylinder in
order to split the beam? Assume a plane strain fracture condition with
K Ic = 50MPa m .
Figure 6.28 Split beam opened by a cylinder
Solution:
Use the beam dimensions and the material properties in Problem 6.6.
E = 70GPa , = 0.3 a = 10 10 2 m , t = 2 10 2 m
L = 15 10 2 m , h = 1 10 2 m
The vertical displacement of each split beam at the position of the cylinder is
d
= = 0.25cm . This is an approximate value because the exact contact points may
2
not be diametric.
Consider the upper leg as a cantilever beam subjected to a vertical load P at a distance
a - c from the crack tip. The load-deflection relation can be found in any mechanics of
solid book:
3EI 1 3(70 10 9 )(1.6667 10 9 ) 0.875
P= = 0.0025 = (6.7.1)
(a c) 3
(0.1 c) 3
(0.1 c) 3
th 3 (2 10 2 )(1 10 2 ) 3
where I = = = 1.6667 10 9 m 4
12 12
Let x measures the distance from the load to a location to the right. The total strain
energy stored in the upper and lower beams due to a bending is
a c ( Px) 2 P 2 (a c) 3
U = 2 dx =
0 2 EI 1 3EI 1
1 dU P 2 (a c) 2
GI = =
t da tEI 1
6.7.1


C.T. Sun
0.875 2 ( 0.1 c )2 0.3281

=( ) 9
=
( 0.1 c )3
( 0.02 )( 70 10 )( 1.6667 10 ) ( 0.1 c )4
9
Relation between K and G

For plane strain fracture condition,
1 2 1 0.32
GIc = K Ic = ( 50 106 )2 = 32500 N m / m 2
2
E 70 10 9
Crack grows when G I G Ic

0.3281
32500
( 0 .1 c ) 4
=> 0.1 c 0.05637
=> c 0.0436 m
When the cylinder is driven to c = 0.0436 m , the beam would start to split.
--- ANS
6.7.2


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6.8 Consider a long thin-walled cylinder of a brittle material subjected to an internal

pressure p 0 . The diameter of the cylinder is 2 m, the wall thickness is 5 mm,
and the mode I fracture toughness of the material (of the same thickness of the
wall) is K Ic = 5MPa m (here, K Ic may not be the plane strain fracture
toughness). If there is a through-the-thickness longitudinal crack of 5 cm in

length on the cylinder, estimate the maximum internal pressure that the cracked
cylinder can withstand. If the cracked cylinder is subjected to a torque and the
mode II toughness of the material is the same as that of mode I, estimate the
maximum torque. Provide justifications of the approach employed in the
estimation.
Solution:
(1) Under the internal pressure p 0 .
The only nonvanishing stress is the hoop stress which is given by
p 0 ( 2r ) L p 0 r p0
yy = = = = 200 p 0
2tL t 0.005
For a large cylinder with a small crack that is perpendicular to the uniform hoop stress
it can be approximated as a flat plate subjected to a remotely applied uniform tension
as shown in the figure below. Then the stress intensity factor can be approximately
taken as
yy
0.05
K I = yy a = 200 p0 ( ) = 56.05 p0
2
yy
The mode I fracture toughness of the material is K Ic = 5 MPa m .
Therefore, the maximum internal pressure that the cracked cylinder can withstand is
estimated as
K I = K Ic => 56.05 p0 = 5
Thus, p0 = 0.0892 MPa = 89.2 KPa

--- ANS
(2) Under a torque T (without internal pressure p 0 )
6.8.1


C.T. Sun
The state of stress in the uncracked thin-walled cylinder is
xx = yy = 0 ,
q T T
= = = = 31.83 T N / m2
t 2 At 2 ( 1 ) ( 0.005 )
2
where is the shesr stress associated with the shear flow q along the wall
produced by the torque T. If there is a small longitudinal crack on the cylinder of a
larger diameter, then in region of the crack may be approximated by a flat plat
subjected to antisymmetric shear loading as shown in the figure below.

So this is a mode II fracture problem and the large plate solution for stress intensity
factor may be used. We have
0.05
K II = 0 a = 31.83T ( ) = 8.92T
2
The mode II fracture toughness of the material is K IIc = 5MPa m .
Therefore, the maximum torque that the cracked cylinder can withstand is estimated
as
K II = K IIc => 8.92T = 5
Thus, the maximum torque is T = 0.56 MN m = 560 KN m

--- ANS
6.8.2


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6.9 Consider the thin-walled box beam in Fig. 6.17. The top wall contains a crack
parallel to the x-axis. The crack length is 0.02 m (i.e., a = 0.01m ). Assume that
the material is brittle and that modes I and II have the same toughness value of
5MPa m . If the box beam has already been subjected to a torque
T = 100kN m , estimate the maximum additional axial force N by using the
mixed mode fracture criterion.
Figure 6.17 Box of a rectangular thin-walled section

(w/ crack parallel to x-axis)
Solution:
(1) Under the torque T
Without the crack, a constant shear flow in the thin wall is produced by the torque and
in the top panel the state of uniform stress would be
T 100
xx = zz = 0 , xz = = = 20000kPa = 20 MPa ,
2 At 2(0.5)(0.005)
Since the crack is small as compared with the panel, the top panel with the crack can
be approximated as a large panel subjected to a remote shear stress condition as
depicted in the figure below.
6.9.1


C.T. Sun
This is a mode II fracture problem and the stress intensity factor can be approximated
by the expression for a crack in an infinite plate:
K II = xz a = 20 (0.01) = 3.545 MPa m
The mode II fracture toughness of the material is K IIc = 5 MPa m .
(2) Under the axial force N

xx = 0 , xz = 0
N N
zz = = = 66.67 N Pa
A 2(1 + 0.5)(0.005)
This is a mode I fracture problem. Again, using the large panel (relative to the crack
size) argument, we approximate the mode I stress intensity factor as
K I = zz a = 66.67 N (0.01) = 11.82 N
The mode I fracture toughness of the material is K Ic = 5 MPa m .
(3) Mix mode fracture criterion

2 2
KI K II
+ = 1
K Ic K IIc
2
11.82 N max 3.545 10
2 6
=> +
= 1
5 10 5 10
6 6
=> N max = 298487 Newton

--- ANS
6.9.2


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6.10 Derive the strain energy (bending and shear together) per unit length of a
Timoshenko beam with a solid rectangular cross-section. The counterpart of
the simple beam theory is given by (6.26). Use this expression to derive the
mode I strain energy release rate for the split beam of Fig. 6.10. Compare the
Timoshenko beam solution with the simple beam solution. How long (in terms
of a / h ) does the crack length have to be for the simple beam solution to be
within 5 percent of the Timoshenko beam solution.
2
3
1
Figure 6.10 Loaded split beam
Solution:
The strain energy in a Timoshenko beam consists of two parts; one part is associated
with bending deformation and the other part is transverse shear deformation.
(1) Strain energy associated with bending deformation
M2 L
UM = dx (6.10.1)
0 2 EI
For this particular problem, M = Px in beams 1 and 2, and M = 0 in beam 3, and

th 3
I1 = I 2 =
12
a ( Px) 2 2P 2 a 3
U M1 = U M 2 = dx = , UM3 = 0
0 th 3 Eth 3
2E( )
12
4P 2 a 3
Thus, U M = U Mi =
i Eth 3
(2) Strain energy associated with transverse deformation
The strain energy density for the transverse shear deformation is
1 G
W = = 2
2 2
where is the transverse shear stress and is the transverse shear strain. By the
6.10.1


C.T. Sun
Timoshenko beam theory, the transverse shear strain produced by the shear force V is
dw0 V
= + y =
dx kGA
5
where k = for the rectangular solid cross-section.
6
Then the total stain energy associated with the transverse shear deformation in a
Timoshenko beam is
L G V 2 L V2
U V = WdV = A 2 kGA
( ) dAdx = 0 2k 2 GA dx (6.10.2)
0
V
For this particular problem, V = P in beams 1 and 2, and V = 0 in beam 3, and

A1 = A2 = th
a ( P) 2 18 P 2 a
UV1 = UV 2 = dx = , UV 3 = 0
0 2k 2 G (th) 25Gth
Thus the total strain energy associated with the transverse shear deformation is
36 P 2 a
UV = UV 1 + UV 2 =
25Gth
(3) Total strain energy
E
Assume Poissons ratio = 0.3 , G = = 0.385E
2(1 + )
4P 2 a 3
U Sim = U M = ( ) (6.10.3)
Et h
U Tim = U M + U V
4P2 a 3 36 P 2 a P2 a P2 a
U Tim = ( ) + ( ) = 4 ( )3 + 3.74 ( ) (6.10.4)
Et h 25(0.385E )t h Et h Et h
--- ANS
(4) Energy release rate G for the Timoshenko beam theory
1 dU P 2a 2 P2
G= = 12 2 3 + 3.74 2
t da Et h Et h
--- ANS
a
(5) The rate of within 5% error
h
a
Let = q , from (6.10.3) and (6.10.4), we have
h
U Tim U Sim 3.744q

Err = 0.05 , => 0.05
U Tim 4q + 3.744q
3
6.10.2


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=> q 4.22 or 4.22 q 0

a a
Since = q is positive, we have = q 4.22
h h
--- ANS
6.10.3


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6.11 Compare the plastic zone sizes for plane strain mode I fracture at failure in Al
2024-T651 and Al 7075-T651.
Solution:
The plastic zone size under plane strain is
2
KI
rp = (1 2 ) 2
(6.11.1)
2 Y
2
(1) For Al 2024-T651 ( = 0.33 )
The plane strain toughness is K Ic = 24MPa m ,
and the yield stress is Y = 415MPa .

At failure, the plastic zone is
2
K Ic (24) 2
rp = (1 2 ) 2 = (1 2 0 . 33) 2
= 6.153 10 5 m = 0.062 mm
2 Y
2
2 ( 415 ) 2
--- ANS
(2) For Al 7075-T651 ( = 0.33 )
The plane strain toughness is K Ic = 29MPa m ,
and the yield stress is Y = 505MPa .

The plastic zone is
2
K Ic ( 29) 2
rp = (1 2 ) 2
= (1 2 0.33) 2
= 6.067 10 5 m = 0.061 mm
2 Y
2
2 (505) 2
--- ANS
The plastic zone sizes for plane strain mode I fracture at failure in Al 2024-T651 and
Al 7075-T651 are almost identical.
6.11.1


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6.12 A center-cracked thin Al 2024-T651 flat panel with a very large width-to-crack
length ratio is subjected to uniform remote tensile stress. The initial crack
length is 50 mm and it grows to 55 mm when the applied load reaches the
maximum value of 136 MPa. Determine the fracture toughness using Irwins
plastic zone adjustment method. Is the crack length valid for this method?
Solution:
By using Irwins plastic zone adjustment method, the fracture toughness can be
characterized by KI evaluated at a eff which is
aeff = a0 + rp
where a0 = 27.5 mm. Since rp depends on K I , which in turn depends on a eff , the
determination of a eff requires a few iterations. We start with
K I = 0 a 0 = 136 (0.0275) = 39.97 MPa m
The plastic zone under plane stress is
(136) 2 0.0275
2
KI
rp1 = = = 1.477 10 3 m
2 Y
2
2 (415) 2
The effective crack length is obtained as

a eff 1 = a 0 + rp1 = 0.02898m
Then we can compute the new stress intensity factor by using the new effective crack
length, that is
K I ( eff )1 = 0 a eff 1 = 136 (0.02898) = 41.04 MPa m
Thus, the new plastic zone is

2
K I ( eff )1 (39.123866) 2
rp 2 = = = 1.556 10 3 m
2 y
2
2 (415) 2
It produces the new effective crack length

a eff 2 = a 0 + rp 2 = 0.02906 m
In the same manner, after 5 iterations we obtain the converged values of

a eff = 0.029060425 m = 0.291 m
K I ( eff ) = 41.1 MPa m
This is the fracture toughness obtained using Irwins plastic zone adjustment
6.12.1


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method.
r p = 0.001560466 m = 0.00156 m
rp 0.00156
Since = = 0.057 < 0.1 , this crack is valid for Irwins method.
a0 0.0275
--- ANS
6.12.2


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6.13 The split beam of Fig. 6.10 is subjected to a pair of cyclic opening forces P
with
Pmax = 2000 N , Pmin = 0
The initial crack length a 0 is 40 mm. The material is 2024-T651 Al, and
t = 2 10 2 m , h = 1 10 2 m . The crack growth rate is given by

da
= 1.6 10 11 (K I ) 3.59 m / cycle
dN
in which K I is in MPa m . Find the number of cycles to failure (at which
the crack becomes unstable under the load Pmax ). Assume that the plane strain
condition exists.
Figure 6.10 Loaded split beam
Solution:
Assume a plane strain fracture condition so that
1 2
GI =
2
KI (6.13.1)
E
Since the strain energy release rate for the split beam is
P2a2
GI = (6.13.2)
tEI
Comparing (6.13.1) and (6.13.2), we have
P2a2
KI =
2
(6.13.3)
(1 2 )tI
For this problem, we have
Pmax = 2000 N , Pmin = 0 ,
6.13.1


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th 3
2 2
t = 2 10 m , h = 1 10 m => I = = 1.6667 10 9 m 4
12
For the material of 2024-T651 Al,
Plane strain toughness K Ic = 24MPa m , and E = 72GPa , = 0.33
When K I = K Ic = 24MPa m , the crack becomes unstable under the load Pmax .
Thus, using all the numerical values in (6.13.3) and setting K I = K Ic , we obtain the
crack length ac at which fracture occurs. We have

K Ic 24 10 6
a c = (1 2 )tI = (1 0.33 2 )(0.02)(1.6667 10 9 )
Pmax 2000
= 0.0654m = 65.4mm
For the given cyclic loading

Pmax a 2000 a
K I = = = 366.964a MPa m
(1 )tI
2
(1 0.33 )(0.02)(1.6667 10 9 )
2
The crack growth rate is given by

da
= 1.6 10 11 ( K I ) 3.59 = 1.6 10 11 (366.964a ) 3.59 = 0.0257702 a 3.59
dN
da
=> = 0.0257702 dN
a 3.59
Integrating the above differential equation, we have
a 13.59 ac
| a = 0.0257702 N
1 3.59 0
Substituting a 0 = 0.04m and ac = 0.0654m in the equation above, we find the
number of cycles to failure, N = 45045 cycles .
--- ANS
6.13.2


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6.14 Consider Example 6.6. Instead of a static torque, a cyclic torque with
Tmax = 0.1 MN m , Tmin = 0
da
is applied. The Paris law for the material is = 5 10 11 ( K I ) 3 m/cycle.
dN
Find the number of cycles for the crack of initial length a 0 = 0.01m to grow
to a length a = 0.02m .
Solution:
The maximum crack opening stress is 1(max) . Since the member is under pure
torsion, 1(max) = max in which max can be determined by
Tmax = 2 At max = 0.1 MN m
Tmax 0 .1
=> max = = = 20 MPa
2 At 2 (0.5 1) 0.005
and min = 0 MPa
Therefore, 1 = 20 0 = 20 MPa
da
Now, the Paris fatigue model for the material is = 5 10 11 (K I ) 3 m/cycle.
dN
da
=> = 5 10 11 (K I ) 3 = 5 10 11 ( 1 a ) 3
dN
da
=> 3/ 2
= 5 10 11 ( 20 ) 3 dN (6.14.1)
a
The number of cycles (N) required for a crack to grow from ao to a is then obtained
from integrating (6.14.1),
a N
da
a a 3 / 2 = 0 5 10 (20 ) dN
11 3
a 01 / 2 a 1 / 2
=> N = = 897936 (a01 / 2 a 1 / 2 )
1
5 10 11 (20 ) 3
2
For a crack grown from ao = 0.01m to a = 0.02m, the number of cycle required is
6.14.1


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N = 897936 (a 01 / 2 a 1 / 2 ) = 2630000
= 2.63 10 6 cycles
--- ANS
6.14.2


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7.1 The truss structure consists of two bars connected by a pin-joint (which allows
free rotation of the bars). The other ends of the bars are hinged as shown in Fig.
7.26. A weight W is hung at the joint. Find the maximum weight the truss can
sustain before buckling occurs.
Figure 7.26 Two-bar truss
Solution:
From equilibrium, axial forces of the bars can be easily determined as
W
N 12 = (Tension)
sin
W cos
N 13 = N 12 cos = (Compression)
sin
Only the compressed bar 13 may suffer buckling when the weight W increases. Since
bar 13 is connected with pin at both ends, its buckling load is
2 EI
Pcr =
L2
When the axial force N 13 reaches the critical load Pcr , buckling occurs. That is
Wmax cos 2 EI
N13,max = = 2 = Pcr
sin L
2 EI
=> Wmax = tan
L2
--- ANS
7.1.1


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7.2 A bar is built-in at the left end and supported at the tight end by a linear spring
with spring constant . Find the equation for buckling loads. Hint: The
boundary conditions are w = 0 and dw / dx = 0 at the left end; and M = 0
and V = w at the right end.
Figure 7.27 Bar with a built-in end and an elastically supported end
Solution:
The equilibrium equation in terms of deflection is
d 4w 2
2 d w
+k =0 (7.2.1)
dx 4 dx 2
P
where k =
EI
w = C1 sin kx + C 2 cos kx + C 3 x + C 4
Its first, second and third derivatives, respectively, are
dw
= C1 k cos kx C 2 k sin kx + C 3
dx
d 2w
2
= C1 k 2 sin kx C 2 k 2 cos kx
dx
d 3w
3
= C1 k 3 cos kx + C 2 k 3 sin kx
dx
Boundary conditions:
At the left end, x = 0 ,
w=0 => C 2 + C 4 = 0 (7.2.2a)
dw / dx = 0 => C1 k + C 3 = 0 (7.2.2b)
At the right end, x = L ,
d 2w
M = EI =0 => k 2 (C1 sin kL + C 2 cos kL) = 0 (7.2.2c)
dx 2
d 3w dw d 3w dw w
V = EI 3
P = w => 3
+ k2 =
dx dx dx dx EI
7.2.1


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C1 k 3 cos kL + C 2 k 3 sin kL + Ck 3 cos kL C 2 k 3 sin kL + C3 k 2

=>
= (C1 sin kL + C 2 cos kL + C3 L + C 4 )
EI

=> C 3 k 2 = (C1 sin kL + C 2 cos kL + C 3 L + C 4 ) (7.2.2d)
EI
From (7.2.2c), C 2 = C1 tan kL

From (7.2.2b), C 3 = C1 k
From (7.2.2a), C 4 = C 2 = C1 tan kL
Plug into (7.2.2d), we have

C1 k 3 = [C1 sin kL + (C1 tan kL) cos kL + ( C1 k ) L + C1 tan kL]
EI

=> C1 [ k 3 + ( kL + tan kL)] = 0
EI
Since C1 = 0 leads to trivial solution, the value inside the bracket must vanish, that
is,

k3 + ( kL + tan kL) = 0
EI
EI
=> tan kL kL + k 3 = 0,

Letting = kL , then the equation for buckling loads is
EI
tan + 3 =0
L3
--- ANS
7.2.2


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7.3 Two steel bars ( E = 210GPa ) are connected by a hinge as shown in Fig. 7.28.
The square cross-section of the bar is 5cm 5cm . Find the buckling load for the
bar with a built-in end. Hint: Treat the simply support beam as an elastic spring
and find the effective elastic constant first.
Figure 7.28 Two-bar structure
Solution:
0.05 4
Lab = 3m , Lcd = 2m , I ab = I cd = = 5.21 10 7 m 4 , E ab = E cd = 210GPa
12
By treating the simply support beam as an elastic spring, the effective elastic constant
can be found by the following procedure,
The deflection at the midpoint of the simply support beam caused by a vertical
concentrated force F at the mid span of the beam can be found from books on
mechanics of solids as
3
FLcd
m =
48 E cd I cd
The above relation can be expressed in the form F = m with the effective elastic
constant given by
48Ecd I cd
= 3
(7.3.1)
Lcd
And this structure can be reconsidered equivalent to the structure loaded as shown in
the figure below. This is exactly the problem 7.2. The solution procedure is given as
7.3.1


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follows.

d 4w 2
2 d w
+ k =0 (7.3.2)
dx 4 dx 2
P
where k =
E ab I ab
Foe convenience, we let E ab = E , Lab = L and I ab = I .

The general solution for equation (7.3.2) is
dw
dx
d 2w
2
dx
d 3w
3
dx
w=0 => C 2 + C 4 = 0 (7.3.3a)
dw / dx = 0 => C1 k + C 3 = 0 (7.3.3b)
At the right end, x = L
d 2w
M = EI 2 = 0 => k 2 (C1 sin kL + C 2 cos kL) = 0 (7.3.3c)
dx
d 3w dw d 3w dw w
V = EI 3 P = w => 3
+ k2 =
dx dx dx dx EI
=>
EI

=> C 3 k 2 = (C1 sin kL + C 2 cos kL + C 3 L + C 4 ) (7.3.3d)
EI
7.3.2


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From (7.3.3c), C 2 = C1 tan kL

From (7.3.3b), C 3 = C1 k
From (7.3.3a), C 4 = C 2 = C1 tan kL
Substituting the above into (7.3.3d), we have

C1 k 3 = [C1 sin kL + (C1 tan kL) cos kL + ( C1 k ) L + C1 tan kL]
EI

=> C1 [ k 3 + ( kL + tan kL)] = 0
EI
Since C1 = 0 will lead to trivial solution, the value inside the bracket must vanish,
that is

k3 + ( kL + tan kL) = 0
EI
EI
=> tan kL kL + k 3 =0

This is the buckling equation Letting = kL = kLab , E = E ab and I = I ab , then the
equation for buckling loads becomes
E I
tan + 3 ab ab3 = 0 (7.3.4)
Lab
Now plug in all the values to equation (7.3.4)

3
EI ab Lcd E ab I ab 1 2 3 1
= = ( ) =
Lab 3 48Ecd I cd Lab 3
48 3 162
1 3
=> tan + =0 (7.3.5)
162
The buckling equation (7.3.5) can be solved by numerical methods. The easiest way
to find the numerical solution for is to plot the value of the quantity on the left
hand side of (7.3.5) vs incremental value of . The lowest value of that makes
the left hand side quantity in (7.3.5) equal to zero is the solution. We have
Pcr
4.462 = kLab = Lab
Eab I ab
=> Pcr = 242 kN
where Pcr is the buckling load.

--- ANS
7.3.3


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7.4 Find the buckling load equation for the bar with the left end built-in and the
right end simply supported but constrained by a rotational spring (see Fig. 7.29).
The spring constant relates the bending moment M and the rotation
= dw / dx by M = .
Figure 7.29 Bar with a built-in end and a rotationally constrained end
Solution:
d 4w 2
2 d w
+k =0 (7.4.1)
dx 4 dx 2
P
where k =
EI
dw
dx
d 2w
2
dx
d 3w
3
dx
w=0 => C 2 + C 4 = 0 (7.4.2a)
dw / dx = 0 => C1 k + C 3 = 0 (7.4.2b)
w=0 => C1 sin kL + C 2 cos kL + C 3 L + C 4 = 0 (7.4.2c)
2
d w dw
M = EI 2
= =>
dx dx
EI (C1 k 2 sin kL C 2 k 2 cos kL ) = (C1 k cos kL C 2 k sin kL + C 3 ) (7.4.2d)
7.4.1


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From (7.4.2a), C 4 = C 2
From (7.4.2b), C 3 = C1 k

Plug into (7.4.2c) and (7.4.2d), let = , we have
EI
C1 (sin kL kL) + C 2 (cos kL 1) = 0 (7.4.3a)
C1 k sin kL + C 2 k cos kL = (C1 k cos kL C 2 k sin kL C1 k )
2 2
=> C1 (k sin kL cos kL + ) + C 2 (k cos kL + sin kL) = 0 (7.4.3b)

For a non-trivial solution of equations (7.4.3a) and (7.4.3b), we need
sin kL kL cos kL 1
=0
k sin kL cos kL + k cos kL + sin kL
Expanding the above equation leads to the buckling load equation:

(2 + k 2 L) cos kL + (kL k ) sin kL 2 = 0
Pcr
where k = and =
EI EI
--- ANS
7.4.2


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7.5 Two steel bars of a 4-cm circular cross-section are rigidly connected into a
T-shaped structure. The diameter of the bars is 4 cm. Three ends are built-in as
shown in Fig. 7.30. At the joint, a roller support is provided to prevent vertical
deflection of the joint. Compression is applied as shown in the figure. Find the
lowest buckling load.
Solution:
Lab = 3m , Lcd = 2m ,
(0.04) 2
Cross-sectional area: Aab = Acd = = 1.256637 10 3 m 2
4
(0.04) 4
Moment of inertia: I ab = I cd = = 1.256637 10 7 m 4
64
(0.04) 4
Torsional constant: J ab = J cd = = 2.513274 10 7 m 4
32
Young's modulus: E ab = E cd = 210GPa , Poissons ratio: = 0.32
210
Shear modulus: Gab = Gcd = = 79.5455GPa
2(1.32)
Two key procedures for this problem:
(1) Force applied to bar AB

Considering the free body diagram as shown,
The force applied to bar AB is denoted Pab . By compatibility of displacement, the
7.5.1


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deflection at the middle of bar CD, named cd ,m , is equal to the axial displacement of
bar AB, ab . That is,
( P Pab ) Lcd
3
Pab Lab
cd ,m = = ab =
192 E cd I cd E ab Aab
from which we obtain Pab = 0.992852 P (7.5.1)
(2) Rotational constraint

By treating bar CD as an elastic rotational spring, the effective rotational spring
constant can be found by determining the torque needed when a unit angle of
twist is produced at the mid span of the rod CD. Because of symmetry, the total torque
is two times the torque taken by each half of the rod of length Lcd/2. For each half rod
the torque is
2Gcd J cd
T = GJ = Gcd J cd =
Lcd / 2 Lcd
where is the rotation angle at the mid span of rod CD. Thus the effective rotational
spring constant provided by rod CD is given by
4G J
= cd cd (7.5.2)
Lcd
Now the loading condition and boundary conditions on rod AB are depicted by the
figure below.
4Gcd J cd
In this problem, = = 39984 N m
Lcd
Derive the buckling load:

In the following derivation, simply let Lab = L , ( EI ) ab = EI , Pab = P
The displacement equilibrium equation for rod AB is

d 4w 2
2 d w
+ k =0 (7.5.3)
dx 4 dx 2
P
where k =
EI
7.5.2


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Its general solution is

And its first, second and third derivatives, respectively, are
dw
dx
d 2w
2
dx
d 3w
3
dx
w=0 => C 2 + C 4 = 0 (7.5.4a)
dw / dx = 0 => C1 k + C 3 = 0 (7.5.4b)
w=0 => C1 sin kL + C 2 cos kL + C 3 L + C 4 = 0 (7.5.4c)
d 2w dw
M = EI 2
= =>
dx dx
From (7.5.4a), C 4 = C 2
From (7.5.4b), C 3 = C1 k

Using the above relations in (7.5.4c) and (7.5.4d), and letting = , we obtain
EI
C1 (sin kL kL) + C 2 (cos kL 1) = 0 (7.5.5a)
C1 k sin kL + C 2 k cos kL = (C1 k cos kL C 2 k sin kL C1 k )
2 2
=> C1 (k sin kL cos kL + ) + C 2 (k cos kL + sin kL) = 0 (7.5.5b)

For a non-trivial solution for equations (7.5.5a) and (7.5.5b), the determinant of the
coefficient matrix must vanish, i.e.,
sin kL kL cos kL 1
=0

(2 + k 2 L) cos kL + (kL k ) sin kL 2 = 0
Pab ,cr
where k = , = and L = Lab
E ab I ab E ab I ab
7.5.3


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Substituting all the known numerical values into the buckling load equation, we have

= = 1.515474 and L = Lab = 3 m
E ab I ab
The buckling load equation becomes
(3.030948 + 3k 2 ) cos 3k + (3.546422k ) sin 3k 3.030948 = 0 (7.5.6)
Solve (7.5.6) by any numerical method. The result is
Pab ,cr
k = 1.797181807 1.7972 =
E ab I ab
=> Pab ,cr = 85234 N
The buckling load in terms of the total force P is obtained from (7.5.1) as
Pab ,cr
Pcr = = 85847 N
0.992852
--- ANS
7.5.4


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7.6 For the structure of Problem 7.5, find the buckling load if the roller support at
the joint is removed.
(With the roller support removed)
Solution:
Lab = 3m , Lcd = 2m ,
(0.04) 2
Cross-sectional area: Aab = Acd = = 1.256637 10 3 m 2
4
(0.04) 4
Moment of inertia: I ab = I cd = = 1.256637 10 7 m 4
64
(0.04) 4
Torsional constant: J ab = J cd = = 2.513274 10 7 m 4
32
Young's modulus: E ab = E cd = 210GPa , Poissons ratio: = 0.32
210
Shear modulus: Gab = Gcd = = 79.5455GPa
2(1.32)
Two key procedures for this problem:
(1) Force applied to bar AB

Considering the free body diagram as shown,
The force applied to bar AB is denoted Pab . By compatibility of the displacement, the
deflection at the middle of bar CD, named cd ,m , is equal to the axial displacement of
7.6.1


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bar AB, ab . That is,
( P Pab ) Lcd
3
Pab Lab
cd ,m = = ab =
192 E cd I cd E ab Aab
Plugging in the numbers gets Pab = 0.992852 P (7.6.1)
(2) Lateral and torsional constraints

This structure can be reconsidered as the following figure.
By treating bar CD as an elastic torsional spring, the effective elastic torsional

constant can be found by determining the torque needed when a unit twist angle
is produced. Using the torsion of a rod of a circular cross-section, we have
4G J
= cd cd (7.6.2)
Lcd
4Gcd J cd
In this problem, = = 39983.93 N m
Lcd
In addition, the rod CD also provides vertical support to rod AB. This support to rod
AB can be viewed as an effective elastic spring with an elastic constant . This
elastic spring constant can be obtained by considering a vertical force applied at the
mid span of rod CD and the resulting vertical deflection. The result gives
192 E cd I cd
= 3
(7.6.3)
Lcd
192 Ecd I cd
In this problem, = 3
= 633345 N / m
Lcd
Derive the equation of buckling load for rod AB under Pab:

In the following derivation, we let Lab = L , ( EI ) ab = EI , Pab = P

d 4w 2
2 d w
+k =0 (7.6.4)
dx 4 dx 2
7.6.2


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P
where k =
EI
Its general solution is
And its first, second and third derivatives, respectively, are
dw
dx
d 2w
2
dx
d 3w
3
dx
w=0 => C 2 + C 4 = 0 (7.6.5a)
dw / dx = 0 => C1 k + C 3 = 0 (7.6.5b)
d 3w dw d 3w dw w
V = EI 3 P = w => 3
+ k2 =
dx dx dx dx EI
=>
EI

=> C 3 k 2 = (C1 sin kL + C 2 cos kL + C 3 L + C 4 ) (7.6.5c)
EI
d 2w dw
M = EI 2
= =>
dx dx
From (7.6.5a), C 4 = C 2
From (7.6.5b), C 3 = C1 k

Eliminating C3 and C4 from (7.6.5c) and (7.6.5d), and letting = = , we
EI EI
obtain
C1 ( sin kL kL + k 3 ) + C 2 ( cos kL ) = 0 (7.6.6a)
C1 (k sin kL cos kL + ) + C 2 (k cos kL + sin kL) = 0 (7.6.6b)
For a non-trivial solution for equations (7.6.6a) and (7.6.6b), the determinant of the
7.6.3


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coefficient matrix muse vanish, i.e.,
sin kL kL + k 3 cos kL
=0

(k 4 k 2 L 2 ) cos kL + (k 3 kL + k ) sin kL + 2 = 0
Pab ,cr
where k = , = , = and L = Lab
E ab I ab E ab I ab E ab I ab
By substituting all the known numerical values

= = 24 , = = 1.515152 and L = Lab = 3 m
E ab I ab E ab I ab
in the buckling load equation, the buckling load equation becomes
(k 4 72k 2 72.727296) cos 3k

(7.6.7)
+ (1.515152 k 3 85.090944 k ) sin 3k + 72.727296 = 0
Solve (7.6.7) by any numerical method to find the minimum value for k.
Pab ,cr
k = 1.796869538 1.7969 =
E ab I ab
=> Pab , cr = 85204 N
Thus, the buckling load of total force P, from (7.6.1), is

Pab ,cr
Pcr = = 85818 N
0.992852
--- ANS
7.6.4


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7.7 A simply supported bar has doubly symmetrical cross-section consisting of a

thin web and thin flanges as shown in Fig. 7.31. Find the length of the bar at
which the flexural buckling load is equal to the torsional buckling load.
Figure 7.31 Cross-section of a simply supported bar
Solution:
In this problem, the (y, z) coordinate system is set up with the origin at the centroid
(the mid pont of the vertical web). We have (assume b, h >> t )
Cross-sectional area: A = 2bt + ht

th 3 tbh 2 tb 3
Moment of inertia: Iy = + Iz =
12 2 6
th 3 tbh 2 tb 3
I0 = I y + I z = + +
12 2 6
(2b + h)t 3
Torsional constant: J=
3
th 2 b 3
Warping constant: Cw =
24
Young's modulus: E Poissons ratio:
E
Shear modulus: G=
2(1 + )
Flexural buckling load:
For simply supported bar,

2 EI z 2 Etb 3
Pcr , z = =
L2 6L2
2 EI y 2 Eth 2 (h + 6b)
Pcr , y = =
L2 12 L2
It should be noticed that for typical I-cross-sectional bar, I y > I z , hence Pcr , y > Pcr , z
7.7.1


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and Pcr , z is the flexural buckling load.
Torsional buckling load:

A 2 12(2b + h) (2b + h)t 3 2th 2b3
PcrT = (GJ + 2 ECw ) = 3 [ + ]E
I0 L (h + 6bh 2 + 2b3 ) 6(1 + ) 24 L2
If the flexural buckling load is to equal the torsional buckling load, the length of the
bar can be calculated from the condition Pcr , z = PcrT . We have
2 Etb 3 12(2b + h) (2b + h)t 3 2 th 2 b 3

= [ + ]E
6 L2 (h 3 + 6bh 2 + 2b 3 ) 6(1 + ) 24 L2
2 (1 + )b 4 ( 2h 2 + b 2 )
=> L2 =
6t 2 (2b + h) 2
b 2 (1 + )(2h 2 + b 2 )
=> L =
t (2b + h) 6
--- ANS
7.7.2


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7.8 A simply supported aluminum ( E = 70GPa , G = 27GPa ) bar 2 m in length has

the cross-section shown in Fig. 7.32. Find the lowest three buckling loads.
Figure 7.32 Cross-section of a thin-walled bar
Solution:
In this problem, the cross-sectional area is
A = 2(0.02)(0.002) + (0.04)(0.002) = 1.6 10 4 m 4
It is easy to verify that the centroid is located at mid point of the vertical web, and that
the shear center coincides with the centroid. The moments of inertia with respect to
the centroid and the coordinate system shown in the figure are
(0.002)(0.04) 3 (0.02)(0.002) 3
Iy = + 2 [ + (0.02)(0.002)(0.02) 2 ]
12 12
8
= 4.269 10 m 4
(0.04)(0.002) 3 (0.002)(0.04) 3
Iz = + = 1.069 10 8 m 4
12 12
I yz = 2(0.02)(0.002)(0.01)(0.02) = 1.6 10 8 m 4
To determine the buckling load, the principal centroidal axes are used and its
corresponding moments of inertia are utilized in the equilibrium equations. The
moments of inertia about these principal axes can be found by solving the eigenvalue
problem, that is,
Iy I yz 4.269 1.6
= =0
I yz Iz 1.6 1.069
=> = 4.932 or = 0.407
It gives the moments of inertia about the principal axes as

I 1 = 4.932 10 8 m 4
7.8.1


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I 2 = 0.407 10 8 m 4
Because the shear center coincides with the centroid, the polar moment of inertia is
I 0 = I 1 + I 2 = 5.339 10 8 m 4
The torsion constant is

[2(0.02) + 0.04](0.002) 3
J= = 2.1339 10 10 m 4
3
The warping constant can be found in Table 7.2 of the textbook. For the current
section, it is
b3h 2
Cw = [2t f (b 2 + bh + h 2 ) + 3t w bh] = 2.6697 10 12 m 6
12(2b + h) 2
For the material of aluminum, Young's modulus is E = 70GPa and the shear
modulus is G = 27GPa .
Flexural and torsional buckling loads:
For simply supported bar, the general solutions are given by (7.119) through (7.121)
in the text book. They are reproduced here:
( P Pcr ,1 )C1 + Pz 0 C 3 = 0 (7.8.1)
( P Pcr , 2 )C 2 + Py 0 C 3 = 0 (7.8.2)
I0
Pz 0 C1 Py 0 C 2 + ( P P )C3 = 0 (7.8.3)
A
where ( y0 , z0 ) is the position of the shear center relative to the centroid. Since the
shear center coincides with the centroid, thus, y 0 = z 0 = 0 and Equations (7.8.1)
(7.8.3) reduce to
( P Pcr ,1 )C 1 = 0
( P Pcr , 2 )C 2 = 0
I0
( P P )C 3 = 0
A
A nontrivial solution for C1 , C2 , and C 3 exists only if the determinant of the
coefficient matrix vanishes, i.e.,

I0
( P Pcr ,1 )( P Pcr , 2 ) ( P P ) = 0
A
7.8.2


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where in this problem

2 EI 1 2 (70 10 9 )(4.9329 10 8 )
Pcr ,1 = = = 8518.6 N
L2 22
2 EI 2 2 (70 10 9 )(0.407 10 8 )
Pcr , 2 = = = 702.3 N ,
L2 22
A 2 1.6 10 4
P = (GJ + EC w 2 ) = 8
[(27 10 9 )(2.133 10 10 )
I0 L 5.339 10
12 2
+ (70 10 )(2.667 10
9
) ] = 18643.1 N
22
So the three possible roots for P are
Pcr = 702.3 N
Pcr = 8518.6 N
Pcr = 18643 .1 N
And these are the three lowest buckling loads.

--- ANS
7.8.3


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7.9 Find the buckling load of a 1 m long and simply supported bar having a
thin-walled circular cross-section 50 mm in diameter and 2 mm wall thickness.
If the closed section is made into an open one by cutting a longitudinal slit over
the entire length of the bar, what is the buckling load? Assume that E = 70GPa
and G = 27GPa .
Solution:
The cross-sectional area can be obtained by assuming small thickness,
A 2at = 3.142 10 4 m 4
The centroid is located at center of the circular section, and that the shear center
coincides with the centroid. The moments of inertia with respect to the centroid are
I y = I z a 3t = 9.817 10 8 m 4
Closed thin-walled circular cross-section
Because the shear center coincides with the centroid, the polar moment of inertia is
I 0 = I y + I z = 19.635 10 8 m 4
The warping constant for closed circular section is zero, C w = 0

( P Pcr , y )C1 = 0 (7.9.1)
( P Pcr , z )C 2 = 0 (7.9.2)
I0
( P P )C 3 = 0 (7.9.3)
A
Since the above three equations are not coupled, they can be solved individually. Thus
the possible buckling loads are
2 EI y
P = Pcr , y = Pcr , z = = 67826 N or
L2
A
P = P = (GI 0 ) = 8482301 N
I0
Therefore the global buckling load is the flexural buckling load given by
Pcr = 67826.2 N .
--- ANS
7.9.1


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Opened thin-walled circular cross-section
When the cross-section is cut into an open one, shear center then is no longer
coincided with the centroid. Assume that the cut is at the wall to the left of the
centroid (y = -0.025m, z = 0) as shown in the figure below.
y
C
The position of the shear center can be found in Table 7.2 in the textbook for the case
of = . We have
sin cos sin cos
e = 2a = 2(0.025) = 0.05 m
sin cos sin cos
where e is the distance from the centroid to the shear center.
=> y 0 = 0.05 m , z0 = 0
The polar moment of inertia is still I 0 = I 1 + I 2 = 5.339 10 8 m 4
The torsion constant is

bt 3
J= = 4.189 10 10 m 4
3
The warping constant can be found in Table 7.2 of the textbook. For the current
section, it is
2ta 5 3 6(sin cos ) 2 2(0.002)(0.025) 5 3 6( ) 2
Cw = [ ]= [ ]
3 sin cos 3
= 1.583 10 10 m 6
( P Pcr , y )C1 + Pz 0 C 3 = 0 (7.9.4)
( P Pcr , z )C 2 Py 0 C 3 = 0 (7.9.5)
7.9.2


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I0
Pz 0 C1 Py 0 C 2 + ( P P )C3 = 0 (7.9.6)
A
where
2 EI y
Pcr , y = Pcr , z = = 67826.2 N or
L2
A 2
P = (GJ + EC w 2 ) = 193065.6 N
I0 L
Plugging in the numbers and the equations (7.9.4) to (7.9.6) become
( P 67826.2)C1 = 0 (7.9.7)
( P 67826.2)C 2 0.05 PC 3 = 0 (7.9.8)
0.05PC 2 + 0.000625( P 193065.6)C 3 = 0 (7.9.9)
Since (7.9.7) is not coupled with the other two equations, it can be solved individually
and the solution for nontrivial coefficients is
P = 67826 N
This is the buckling load for buckling about the y axis in which the cut lies in the
neutral plane of bending.
In order to have a nontrivial solution for (7.9.8) and (7.9.9), we require that
P 67826.2 0.05 P
=0
0.05P 0.000625( P 193065.6)
=> 0.001875 P 2 + 163.051375 P 8184316 = 0
=> P = 35611 N or P = 122572 N
The possible lowest buckling load is Pcr = 35611 N . This buckling mode involves
coupled torsion and bending. Apparently, the thin-walled tube with a longitudinal cut
is weaker in buckling strength than the tube with a closed section.
--- ANS
7.9.3


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8.1 Given a carbon/epoxy composite panel under uniaxial loading, i.e., xx = 0 ,
yy = xy = 0 , plot xy as a function of the fiber orientation . The composite
properties are
E1 = 140GPa , E 2 = 10GPa , G12 = 7GPa , 12 = 0.3
Solution:
The strain-stress relation can be written as,
xx xx

[]

yy = S yy (8.1.1)

xy xy
where
S 11 = S11 cos 4 + (2S12 + S 66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + S 22 sin 4
S 12 = S 21 = S12 (sin 4 + cos 4 ) + ( S11 + S 22 S 66 ) sin 2 cos 2
S 22 = S11 sin 4 + (2S12 + S 66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + S 22 cos 4 (8.1.2)
S 16 = S 61 = (2S11 2S12 S 66 ) sin cos 3 + (2S12 2S 22 + S 66 ) sin 3 cos
S 26 = S 62 = (2S11 2S12 S 66 ) sin 3 cos + (2S12 2S 22 + S 66 ) sin cos 3
S 66 = 2(2S11 + 2S 22 4S12 S 66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + S 66 (sin 4 + cos 4 )
and
1 1
S11 = = = 7.143 10 12 m 2 / N
E1 140 109
12 0 .3
S 21 = = = 2.143 10 12 m 2 / N
E1 140 109
21
S12 = = S 21 = 2.143 10 12 m 2 / N
E2
1 1
S 22 = = = 100 10 12 m 2 / N
E 2 10 10 9
1 1
S 66 = = = 142.857 10 12 m 2 / N
G12 7 109
S16 = S 61 = S 26 = S 62 = 0
8.1.1


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From (8.1.1),
xy = S 61 xx + S 62 yy + S 66 xy = S 61 0
and from (8.1.2)

S 61 = (2 S11 2 S12 S66 ) sin cos3 + (2 S12 2 S 22 + S66 ) sin 3 cos
= [132.857 sin cos3 52.857 sin 3 cos ] 10 12
So
xy = S 61 0 = [132.857 sin cos3 52.857 sin 3 cos ] 1012 0
(Unit: 10 12 0 )
60
40
20
0
0 45 90 135 180
-20
Gamma(xy)
-40
-60
--- ANS
8.1.2


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8.2 Consider a rectangular composite panel with = 45 o (material properties are
given in Problem 8.1) subjected to xx = 10 MPa , yy = 0 , xy = . Find
that is necessary to keep the deformed shape rectangular.
Solution:
The composite properties are
E1 = 140GPa , E 2 = 10GPa , G12 = 7GPa , 12 = 0.3
The strain-stress relation can be written as,
xx xx

[]

yy = S yy (8.2.1)

xy xy
where
S 11 = S11 cos 4 + (2S12 + S 66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + S 22 sin 4
S 12 = S 21 = S12 (sin 4 + cos 4 ) + ( S11 + S 22 S 66 ) sin 2 cos 2
S 22 = S11 sin 4 + (2S12 + S 66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + S 22 cos 4 (8.2.2)
S 16 = S 61 = (2S11 2S12 S 66 ) sin cos 3 + (2S12 2S 22 + S 66 ) sin 3 cos
S 26 = S 62 = (2S11 2S12 S 66 ) sin 3 cos + (2S12 2S 22 + S 66 ) sin cos 3
S 66 = 2(2S11 + 2S 22 4S12 S 66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + S 66 (sin 4 + cos 4 )
and
1 1
S11 = = = 7.142857 10 12 m 2 / N
E1 140 10 9
12 0.3
S 21 = = = 2.142857 10 12 m 2 / N
E1 140 10 9
21
S12 = = S 21 = 2.142857 10 12 m 2 / N
E2
1 1
S 22 = = = 100 10 12 m 2 / N
E 2 10 10 9
1 1
S 66 = = = 142.857142 10 12 m 2 / N
G12 7 10 9
8.2.1


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S16 = S 61 = S 26 = S 62 = 0
To keep the deformed shape rectangular implies xy = 0 in this problem.
From (8.2.1),
xy = S 61 xx + S 62 yy + S 66 xy = 0
and from (8.1.2)

S 61 = (2 S11 2 S12 S 66 ) sin cos3 + (2 S12 2 S 22 + S66 ) sin 3 cos
2 2 2 2
= [124.285714( )( )3 61.428571( )3 ( )] 10 12
2 2 2 2
= 46.429 10 12 m 2 / N
S 66 = 2(2 S11 + 2S 22 4S12 S66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + S66 (sin 4 + cos 4 )

2 2 2 2 2 2
= [160( ) ( ) + 142.857142(( ) 4 + ( ) 4 )] 1012
2 2 2 2
= 111.286 1012 m 2 / N
Thus,
xy = S 61 xx + S 62 yy + S 66 xy
= (46.429 10 12 )(10 106 ) + (111.286 10 12 ) = 0
=> = 4.172 MPa
--- ANS
Alternative solution:
From the strain-stress relation, we have
x , xy y , xy 1
xy = xx + yy + xy
Ex Ey G xy
For the specific loading case, it becomes
x , xy 1 10 x , xy
0= 10 + => = G xy ( MPa) (8.2.3)
Ex G xy Ex
From (8.17) in the text book, we have
x ,xy 2 2 1 2 2 12 1 3
= + 12 sin cos 3 + sin cos
Ex E1 E1 G12 E2 E1 G12
8.2.2


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and
1 1 1 1 2 12 1 2
= + 4 + + sin cos 2
G xy G12 E1 E 2 E1 G12
Let = 45 0 , then the relation becomes
x , xy 1 1 1 E 2 E1
= = (8.2.4)
Ex 2 E1 E 2 2 E1 E 2
and
1 1 1 2 12 E1 + E 2 (1 + 2 12 )
= + + = (8.2.5)
G xy E1 E 2 E1 E1 E 2
Combining (8.2.4) and (8.2.5) into (8.2.3) and plugging in the numbers, we have
5(E1 E 2 )
= = 4.167 MPa
E1 + E 2 (1 + 2 12 )
--- ANS
8.2.3


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8.3 Plot the extension-shear coupling coefficients x, xy and xy , x versus for
the composite given in Problem 8.1. Find the s that correspond to the
maximum values of x, xy and xy , x , respectively.
Solution:
The composite properties are
E1 = 140GPa , E 2 = 10GPa , G12 = 7GPa , 12 = 0.3
The strain-stress relation in an arbitrary coordinate system (x,y) can be written as,
1 yx xy , x

xx x
E Ey G xy

xy 1 xy , y xx
yy = yy (8.3.1)
E x Ey G xy

xy x , xy y , xy 1 xy

E x Ey G xy
where
1
1 1 2 1
E x = cos 4 + ( 12 ) sin 2 cos 2 + sin 4
E1 G12 E1 E2
1 1 212 1
xy = E x 12 ( + + ) sin 2 cos 2
E1 E1 E2 E1 G12
1
1 1 2 1
E y = sin 4 + ( 12 ) sin 2 cos 2 + cos 4 (8.3.2)
E1 G12 E1 E2
1
1 1 1 212 1
G xy = + 4( + + ) sin 2 cos 2
G12 E1 E 2 E1 G12
2 212 1 2 2 1
x , xy = E x ( + ) sin cos 3 ( + 12 ) sin 3 cos
E1 E1 G12 E2 E1 G12
2 212 1 2 2 1
y , xy = E y ( + ) sin 3 cos ( + 12 ) sin cos 3
E1 E1 G12 E2 E1 G12
8.3.1


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Plugging in the numbers and then some properties are obtained.

1
1 1 2 1
E x = cos 4 + ( 12 ) sin 2 cos 2 + sin 4
E1 G12 E1 E2
[
= 7.142857 cos 4 + 138.571429 sin 2 cos 2 + 100 sin 4 ]
1
1012
2 212 1 2 212 1
x , xy = E x ( + ) sin cos 3 ( + ) sin 3 cos
E1 E1 G12 E2 E1 G12
[ ]
= E x 124.285714 sin cos 3 61.428571sin 3 cos 10 12
124.285714 sin cos 3 61.428571sin 3 cos

=
7.142857 cos 4 + 138.571429 sin 2 cos 2 + 100 sin 4
x,xy
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 45 90 135 180
-0.5
-1
x,xy
-1.5
-2
-2.5
From the plot above, the maximum values of x, xy are obtained as follows.
= 12.73 o => x , xy = 1.989
= 167 .27 o => x , xy = 1.989
--- ANS
8.3.2


C.T. Sun
G xy
From the relation of S 16 = S 61 , we have xy , x = x , xy
Ex
1
1 1 1 212 1
G xy = + 4( + + ) sin 2 cos 2
where G12 E1 E 2 E1 G12
[
= 142.857142 108.571428 sin 2 cos 2 ]1
1012
so
2 212 1 2 212 1
xy , x = G xy ( + ) sin cos 3 ( + ) sin 3 cos
E1 E1 G12 E2 E1 G12
[
= G xy 124.285714 sin cos 3 61.428571sin 3 cos 10 12 ]
124.285714 sin cos 3 61.428571sin 3 cos
=
142.857142 108.571428 sin 2 cos 2
xy,x
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 45 90 135 180
-0.1
-0.2 xy,x
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
By numerical analysis, the maximum values of xy , x can be obtained as follows.
= 38.96 o => xy , x = 0.416
= 141 .04 o => xy , x = 0.416
--- ANS
8.3.3


C.T. Sun
8.4 If the carbon/epoxy composite panel is subjected to a shear stress xy , find
(a) the fiber orientation at which 11 is maximum.
(b) the fiber orientation at which xy is minimum.
Compare the result with that of Problem 8.3.
Solution:
(a) The two sets of stress components with respect to these two coordinates systems
are related by the transformation matrix [T ] ,
11 xx

22 = [T ] yy (8.4.1)

12 xy
where
cos 2 sin 2 2 sin cos

[T ] = sin 2 cos
2
2 sin cos

(8.4.2)
sin cos sin cos cos 2 sin 2

If the carbon/epoxy composite panel is subjected to a shear stress xy , then
11 = 2 sin cos xy (8.4.3)
The maximum value of (8.4.3) can be determined by

11
=0 => = = 45 o
4
--- ANS
(b) The strain-stress relation in an arbitrary coordinate system (x,y) can be written as,
1 yx xy , x

xx x
E Ey G xy

xy 1 xy , y xx
yy = yy (8.4.4)
E x Ey G xy

xy x , xy y , xy 1 xy

E x Ey G xy
where
8.4.1


C.T. Sun
1
1 1 2 1
E x = cos 4 + ( 12 ) sin 2 cos 2 + sin 4
E1 G12 E1 E2
1 1 212 1
xy = E x 12 ( + + ) sin 2 cos 2
E1 E1 E2 E1 G12
1
1 1 2 1
E y = sin 4 + ( 12 ) sin 2 cos 2 + cos 4 (8.4.5)
E1 G12 E1 E2
1
1 1 1 212 1
G xy = + 4( + + ) sin 2 cos 2
G12 E1 E 2 E1 G12
2 212 1 2 2 1
x , xy = E x ( + ) sin cos 3 ( + 12 ) sin 3 cos
E1 E1 G12 E2 E1 G12
2 212 1 2 2 1
y , xy = E y ( + ) sin 3 cos ( + 12 ) sin cos 3
E1 E1 G12 E2 E1 G12
If the carbon/epoxy composite panel is subjected to a shear stress xy only, then
xy
xy = (8.4.6)
Gxy
Assume the composite properties as E1 = 140GPa , E 2 = 10GPa , G12 = 7GPa ,
12 = 0.3 , and then
1
1 1 1 212 1
G xy = + 4( + + ) sin 2 cos 2
G12 E1 E 2 E1 G12
[
= 142.857 125.714 sin 2 cos 2 ]
1
1012
From (8.4.6) the shear strain becomes
xy
xy =
Gxy
[ ]
= 142.857 125.714 sin 2 cos 2 1012 xy (8.4.7)
The minimum value of (8.4.7) can be determined by

xy
=0 => = = 45 o
4
--- ANS
8.4.2


C.T. Sun
The maximum value of 12 and the minimum value of xy both appear at = 45 o ,
whereas in Problem 8.3, the minimum values of x, xy and xy , x appear at
= 13.22 o and = 43.996 o , respectively.

--- ANS
8.4.3


C.T. Sun
8.5 Consider a [ 45]s laminate. If the constituent composite material is highly

anisotropic, i.e.,
E1 >> E 2 and E1 >> G12
show that the effective engineering moduli for the laminate can be expressed
approximately as
E x 4Q66 4G12
Q11 E1
G xy
4 4
Q 4Q66 E1 4G12
xy 11
Q11 + 4Q66 E1 + 4G12
Compare these approximate values with the exact values for AS4/3501-6
carbon/epoxy composite.
Solution:
For the [ 45]s laminate, the effective moduli can be expressed explicitly as
A A A12
2
E x = 11 22 (8.5.1)
hA22
A66
G xy = (8.5.2)
h
A
xy = 12 (8.5.3)
A22
where in this case the extensional stiffnesses are
( 45) ( 45 )
Aij = 2t (Q ij + Q ij ) (8.5.4)
and the thickness is h = 4t
From equation (8.11) of the textbook, we have
Q11 = Q11 cos 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + Q22 sin 4
Q12 = Q 21 = Q12 (sin 4 + cos 4 ) + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2
Q 22 = Q11 sin 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + Q22 cos 4 (8.5.5)
Q16 = Q 61 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin cos 3 + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos
Q 26 = Q 62 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin cos 3
8.5.1


C.T. Sun
Q 66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 2Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + Q66 (sin 4 + cos 4 )
For = 45 o and = 45 o
1 1 1
Q11 = Q11 + (Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22
4 2 4
1 1
Q 12 = Q 21 = Q12 + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 )
2 4
1 1 1
Q 22 = Q11 + (Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22
4 2 4
1 1 1
Q 66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 2Q66 ) + Q66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 )
4 2 4
Plug in (8.5.4), we have
( 45 ) ( 45 )
A11 = 2t (Q 11 + Q 11 ) = t[Q11 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22 ]
( 45 ) ( 45 )
A12 = 2t (Q 12 + Q 12 ) = t[ 2Q12 + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 )]
( 45 ) ( 45 )
A22 = 2t (Q 22 + Q 22 ) = t[Q11 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22 ]
( 45 ) ( 45 )
A66 = 2t (Q 66 + Q 66 ) = t[(Q11 + Q22 2Q12 )]
(1) Effective modulus E x
A11 A22 A12

2
Ex =
hA22
t 2 [Q11 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22 ] 2 t 2 [2Q12 + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 )]2
=
4t t[Q11 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22 ]
where
E1 12 E 2
Q11 = , Q12 = Q21 =
1 12 21 1 12 21
E2
Q22 = , Q66 = G12
1 12 21
Expand the above equation and use the highly anisotropic assumption in the statement,
i.e.,
Q12 Q22 Q
0, 0, and 66 0
Q11 Q11 Q11
8.5.2


C.T. Sun
E1 E2
Also Q11 = E1 because 21 = 12 0
1 12 21 E1
The above equation therefore can be simplified as
4(Q12 + 2Q66 ) 2(Q22 4Q66 ) 1
Ex = Q12 Q22 + 4Q66 4Q66 = 4G12
4 2
(2) G xy
A66 t[(Q11 + Q22 2Q12 )] Q11 E1

G xy = =
h 4t 4 4
(3) xy
A12 t[2Q12 + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 )] Q11 4Q66 + 2Q12 + Q22

xy = = =
A22 t[Q11 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22 ] Q11 + 4Q66 + 2Q12 + Q22
E1 4G12

E1 + 4G12
--- ANS
The material properties for AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite are

E1 = 140 GPa E 2 = 10 GPa G12 = 7 GPa 12 = 0.3
E 10
=> 21 = 2 12 = (0.3) = 0.021
E1 140
therefore,
140
Q11 = = 140.89 GPa
1 (0.3)(0.021)
12 E 2 (0.3)(10)
Q12 = Q21 = = = 3.02 GPa
1 12 21 1 (0.3)(0.021)
E2 10
Q22 = = = 10.06 GPa
1 12 21 1 (0.3)(0.021)
Q66 = G12 = 7 GPa
(a) Exact effective engineering moduli

[Q + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22 ] 2 [2Q12 + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 )]2
E x = 11
4[Q11 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22 ]
[140.89 + 2(3.02 + 2 7) + 10.06] 2 [2 3.02 + (140.89 + 10.06 4 7)]2
=
4[140.89 + 2(3.02 + 2 7) + 10.06]
= 23.76 GPa
8.5.3


C.T. Sun
[(Q11 + Q22 2Q12 )] (140.89 + 10.06 2 3.02)

G xy = = = 36.23 GPa
4 4
[2Q12 + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 )]
xy =
[Q11 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22 ]
(2 3.02 + 140.89 + 10.06 4 7)
= = 0.70 GPa
[140.89 + 2 (3.02 + 2 7) + 10.06]
(b) Approximate effective engineering moduli
E x 4Q66 = 4G12 = 4 7 = 28 GPa Err (%) = 17.85%

Q11 E1 140
G xy = = 35 GPa Err (%) = 3.4%
4 4 4
E 4G12 140 4 7
xy 1 = = 0.67 GPa Err (%) = 4.3%
E1 + 4G12 140 + 4 7
8.5.4


C.T. Sun
8.6 Compare the in-plane longitudinal stiffnesses in the x-direction for [ 30 / 0]s
and [30 2 / 0]s laminates of AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite. Which is
stiffer?
Solution:
The effective engineering moduli in the x-direction for the laminate is
1
Ex = (8.6.1)
hA11 '
where
[A'] = [A]1 (8.6.2)
and in this case

( 30 ) ( 30 ) ( 0)
Aij = 2t (Q ij + Q ij + Q ij ) (8.6.3)
also the thickness is h = 6t
Q11 = Q11 cos 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + Q22 sin 4
Q12 = Q 21 = Q12 (sin 4 + cos 4 ) + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2
Q 22 = Q11 sin 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + Q22 cos 4 (8.6.4)
Q16 = Q 61 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin cos 3 + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos
For = 30 o
9 3 1
Q 11 = Q11 + (Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22
16 8 16
5 3
Q 12 = Q 21 = Q12 + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 )
8 16
1 3 9
Q 22 = Q11 + (Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22
16 8 16
8.6.1


C.T. Sun
3 3 3
Q 16 = Q 61 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 )
16 16
3 3 3
Q 26 = Q 62 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 )
16 16
3 5 3 1
Q 66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 2Q66 ) + Q66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 ) Q66
16 16 16 16
It can be written in the following form,
Q11 Q12 Q22 Q16 Q26 Q66
9 3 1 3
Q11 0 0
16 8 16 4
3 5 3 3
Q 12 0 0
16 8 16 4
1 3 9 3
Q 22 0 0
16 8 16 4
3 3 3 3 3
Q 16 0 0
16 8 16 4
3 3 3 3 3
Q 26 0 0
16 8 16 4
3 3 3 1
Q 66 0 0
16 8 16 16
For = 30 o
Q11 Q12 Q22 Q16 Q26 Q66
9 3 1 3
Q11 0 0
16 8 16 4
3 5 3 3
Q 12 0 0
16 8 16 4
1 3 9 3
Q 22 0 0
16 8 16 4
3 3 3 3 3
Q 16 0 0
16 8 16 4
3 3 3 3 3
Q 26 0 0
16 8 16 4
3 3 3 1
Q 66 0 0
16 8 16 16
8.6.2


C.T. Sun
For = 0 o
Q11 Q12 Q22 Q16 Q26 Q66
Q11 1 0 0 0 0 0
Q 12 0 1 0 0 0 0
Q 22 0 0 1 0 0 0
Q 16 0 0 0 0 0 0
Q 26 0 0 0 0 0 0
Q 66 0 0 0 0 0 1
For AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite material, the elastic moduli are

E1 = 140GPa , E 2 = 10GPa , G12 = 6.9GPa , 12 = 0.3
E 10
=> 21 = 2 12 = 0.3 = 0.02143
E1 140
And the reduced stiffnesses can be obtained by
E1 E
Q11 = = 140.906 GPa , Q12 = Q21 = 12 2 = 3.0194 GPa
1 12 21 1 12 21
E2
Q22 = = 10.0647 GPa , Q66 = G12 = 6.9 GPa
1 12 21
Q16 = Q61 = Q26 = Q62 = 0
For [ 30 / 0]s laminates of AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite

The extensional stiffnesses are
9 3 1 3
A11 = 2t[( 2 + 1)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16 8 16 4
= 626.5958t
3 5 3 3
A12 = 2t[( 2)(140.906) + ( 2 + 1)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16 8 16 4
= 106.1153t
8.6.3


C.T. Sun
1 3 9 3
A22 = 2t[( 2)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2 + 1)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16 8 16 4
= 103.2306t
A16 = 0
A26 = 0
3 3 3 1
A66 = 2t[( 2)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2 + 1)(6.9)]
16 8 16 16
= 120.7739t
That is
626.596 106.115 0

[A] = 106.115 103.231 0 t (10 9 N / m)
0 0 120.774
Hence,
1.921 1.975 0
1
[A] 0
1
= 1.975 11.717 (10 12 m / N )
t
0 0 8.280
From (8.6.1) and (8.6.2), the effective engineering moduli in the x-direction for the
laminate is
1 1
Ex = = = 86.8 GPa (*)
hA11 ' 1.921 10 12
(6t )( )
t
For [30 2 / 0]s laminates of AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite

9 3 1 3
A11 = 2t[( 2 + 1)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16 8 16 4
= 626.5958t
3 5 3 3
A12 = 2t[( 2)(140.906) + ( 2 + 1)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16 8 16 4
= 106.1153t
8.6.4


C.T. Sun
1 3 9 3
A22 = 2t[( 2)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2 + 1)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16 8 16 4
= 103.2306t
3 3 3 3 3
A16 = 2t[( 2)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16 8 16 4
= 169.3478t
3 3 3 3 3
A22 = 2t[( 2)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16 8 16 4
= 62.5057t
3 3 3 1
A66 = 2t[( 2)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2 + 1)(6.9)]
16 8 16 16
= 120.7739t
Thus,
626.596 106.115 169.348

[A] = 106.115 103.231 62.506 t (10 9 N / m)
169.348 62.506 120.774
Hence,
2.602 0.678 3.298
1
[A] = 0.678 14.285 6.442
1
(10 12 m / N )
t
3.298 6.442 16.238
From (8.6.1) and (8.6.2), the effective engineering moduli in the x-direction for the
laminate is
1 1
Ex = = = 64.1 GPa (**)
hA11 ' 2.602 10 12
(6t )( )
t
By comparing (*) and (**), [ 30 / 0]s laminates is stiffer in the x-direction.

--- ANS
8.6.5


C.T. Sun
8.7 Plot the effective moduli E x , G xy , and xy versus for the angle-ply
laminate [ ]s of AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite.
Solution:
The effective engineering moduli for the symmetric laminate are
A A A12
2
E x = 11 22 (8.7.1)
hA22
A66
G xy = (8.7.2)
h
A
xy = 12 (8.7.3)
A22
and in this case
( ) ( )
Aij = 2t (Q ij + Q ij ) (8.7.4)
Also, the thickness is h = 4t

( )
Q 11 = Q11 cos 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + Q22 sin 4
( ) ( )
Q 12 = Q 21 = Q12 (sin 4 + cos 4 ) + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2
( )
Q 22 = Q11 sin 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + Q22 cos 4
( ) ( )
Q 16 = Q 61 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin cos 3 + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos
( ) ( )
( )
For the case of
( )
Q 11 = Q11 cos 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + Q22 sin 4
( ) ( )
Q 12 = Q 21 = Q12 (sin 4 + cos 4 ) + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2
( )
Q 22 = Q11 sin 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + Q22 cos 4
8.7.1


C.T. Sun
( ) ( )
Q 16 = Q 61 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin cos 3 (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos
( ) ( )
Q 26 = Q 62 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin cos 3
( )

E1 = 140GPa , E 2 = 10GPa , G12 = 6.9GPa , 12 = 0.3
E 10
=> 21 = 2 12 = 0.3 = 0.02143
E1 140
and the reduced stiffnesses are obtained from
E1 E
Q11 = = 140.906 GPa , Q12 = Q21 = 12 2 = 3.0194 GPa
1 12 21 1 12 21
E2
Q22 = = 10.0647 GPa , Q66 = G12 = 6.9 GPa
1 12 21
Q16 = Q61 = Q26 = Q62 = 0
For [ ]s laminates of AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite

A11 = 2t[2(140.906) cos 4 + 4(3.0194 + 2 6.9) sin 2 cos 2 + 2(10.0647 ) sin 4 ]
= t[563.624 cos 4 + 134.5552 sin 2 cos 2 + 40.2588 sin 4 ]
A12 = 2t[2(140.906 + 10.0647 4 6.9) sin 2 cos 2 + 2(3.0194)(sin 4 + cos 4 )]

= t[493.4828 sin 2 cos 2 + 12.0776(sin 4 + cos 4 )]
A22 = 2t[2(140.906) sin 4 + 4(3.0194 + 2 6.9) sin 2 cos 2 + 2(10.0647) cos 4 ]

= t[563.624 sin 4 + 134.5552 sin 2 cos 2 + 40.2588 cos 4 ]
A16 = 0
A26 = 0
A66 = 2t[2((140.906 + 10.0647 2 3.0194 2 6.9) sin 2 cos 2 + 2(6.9)(sin 4 + cos 4 )]
= t[524.5276 sin 2 cos 2 + 27.6(sin 4 + cos 4 )]
Effective engineering moduli

From (8.7.1) to (8.7.3), we have
8.7.2


C.T. Sun
A11 A22 A12

2
A66 A12
Ex = , G xy = , xy =
hA22 h A22
Where h = 4t
After plugging in the values of extensional stiffness, the effective engineering moduli
can be plotted as follows.
Ex :
Ex
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
Ex
20
0
0 45 90 135 180
G xy :
Gxy
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
Gxy
0
0 45 90 135 180
8.7.3


C.T. Sun
xy :
xy
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
xy
0.2
0
0 45 90 135 180
--- ANS
8.7.4


C.T. Sun
8.8 Find the shear strains ( xy ) in the AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite [ 45]s
and [0 / 90]s laminates subjected to the shear loading N xy = 1000 N / m . Also
find the lamina stresses 11 , 22 , and 12 . If the maximum shear strength of
the composite is 12 = 100MPa , what are the shear loads ( N xy ) the two
laminates can carry?
Solution:
E1 = 140GPa , E 2 = 10GPa , G12 = 7GPa , 12 = 0.3
E2 10
=> 21 = 12 = 0.3 = 0.02143
E1 140
The ply thickness = 0.127 mm.
And the reduced stiffnesses are
E1 12 E 2
Q11 = = 140.9 GPa , Q12 = Q21 = = 3.02 GPa
1 12 21 1 12 21
E2
Q22 = = 10.06 GPa , Q66 = G12 = 7 GPa
1 12 21
Q16 = Q61 = Q26 = Q62 = 0
The following stiffness matrices are readily calculated:
140.9 3.02 0
[Q]0o = 3.02 10.06 0 10 9 Pa

0 0 7.0
10.6 3.02 0
[Q]90o = 3.02 140.9 0 10 9 Pa

0 0 7.0
46.25 32.25 32.71

[Q] 45o

= 32.25 46.25 32.71 10 9 Pa
32.71 32.71 36.23
(1) For [ 45]s laminate,
23.495 16.383 0
[A] = 16.383 23.495 0 10 6 N / m

0 0 18.405
8.8.1


C.T. Sun
82.842 57.765 0
[A] 0 10 9 m / N
1
= 57.765 82.842
0 0 54.333
The strains are
xx 0 0
1
yy = [A] 0 = 0
N 54.333 10 6
xy xy
--- ANS
Note:
Since only the load N xy = 1000 N / m exists, and in addition, A16 = A26 = 0 , we can
1
just consider the 66-component, which is xy = N xy . Therefore the resulting shear
A66
strain can be also easily found as
1 1000
xy = N xy = = 54.333 10 6
A66 18.405 10 6
The laminar stresses are
xx 0 1777.23

yy []
= Q 45o 0 = 1777.23 103 Pa
1968.48
xy 45o xy
and
11 xx cos 2 sin 2 2 sin cos xx

22 = [T ] yy = sin cos 2 sin cos yy
2 2

12
sin cos
xy sin cos cos 2 sin 2 xy
Therefore
11 0.5 0.5 1 xx 3745.71

22 = 0.5 0.5 m 1 yy = m 191.25 KPa

12 45o m 0.5 0.5 0 xy 0
--- ANS
8.8.2


C.T. Sun
(2) For [0 / 90]s laminate,
Similarly,
38.481 1.534 0
[A] = 1.534 38.481 0 10 6 N / m

0 0 3.556
23.323 1.038 0
[A] 0 10 9 m / N
1
= 1.038 23.323
0 0 281.215
Hence, the strains are
xx 0 0
1
yy = [A] 0 = 0
N 281.215 10 6
xy xy
--- ANS
The laminar stresses are
xx 11 0

[]
yy = 22 = Q 0 o { } = 0 10 Pa
3
1968.48
xy 0 o 12
xx 22 0

[]
yy = 22 Q 90 o { } = 0 10 Pa
3
1968.48
xy 90 o 12
--- ANS
If the maximum shear strength 12 = 100MPa of the composite is the only failure
condition, then the maximum shear load Nxy can be obtained as follows.
For [ 45]s laminate, 12 = 0 , then theoretically the laminate can carry unbounded
shear loads. In reality, of course, other failure mechanisms would take over, and result
in a finite maximum shear load.
8.8.3


C.T. Sun
For [0 / 90]s laminate, 1.96848x 100 , => x 50.8 . The maximum shear load
is N xy , max = 50.8 kN / m
--- ANS
8.8.4

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Name: Mohamed Naleer Abdul Gaffor Email: muhammed_naleer@yahoo.com IP: 184.162.144.

Solution Manual for

Mechanics of Aircraft Structures

Prepared with the assistance of Mr. Hsin-Haou Huang, graduate

Address: 1650, BLVD DE MAISONNEUVE Apt. 904, Montreal, QC H3H2P3, CAN

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

Figure 1.16 Closed thin-walled section

Address: 1650, BLVD DE MAISONNEUVE Apt. 904, Montreal, QC H3H2P3, CAN

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

(3) Two approaches are employed to find the solution.

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Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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1.2 Do problem 1.1 with M = T where = 0 to .

Figure 1.16 Closed thin-walled section

(3) Two approaches are employed to find the solution.

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Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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Mechanics of Aircraft structures

(4) From the above two approaches, we have the conclusions.

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Mechanics of Aircraft structures

Figure 1.17 Dimensions of the cross-section of an I-beam

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The weights-per-unit length is defined as

ASt = (200 5) 5 + 2 50 5 = 1475( mm 2 )

wSt = St ASt = 7.8 10 3 1475 = 11.5( g / mm )

(ii) For the Aluminum beam

AAl = ( 200 5 ) 5 + 2 196.97 5 = 2945( mm 2 )

w Al = Al AAl = 2.78 10 3 2944.7 = 8.2( g / mm )

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1.4 Use AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite to make the I-beam as stated in

Figure 1.17 Dimensions of the cross-section of an I-beam

(3) For the condition ( EI ) Composite = ( EI ) Steel

Thus the width of the cross-section is obtained as b = 84.7 mm

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Mechanics of Aircraft structures

(i) For the composite beam

Com = 1.55( g / cm 3 ) = 1.55 10 3 ( g / mm 3 )

ACom = ( 200 5 ) 5 + 2 84.67 5 = 1822( mm 2 )

wCom = Com ACom = 1.55 10 3 1821.7 = 2.8( g / mm )

This indicates that the AS4/3501-6 CARBON/EPOXY COMPOSITE BEAM IS

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Mechanics of Aircraft structures

1.5 Derive the relations given by (1.4) and (1.5).

(3) Now consider the length to be extremely small, therefore V x dV x as well as

V y dV y . The horizontal component and the vertical component of the shear

force V x , V y can be verified as following:

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Figure 1.18 Coordinate system for a beam

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Figure 1.19 Cross-sections of two beams

cross-section and the right-hand-side cross-section are El and Er ,

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Mechanics of Aircraft structures

let Al=Ar => b = 2.7568cm , then we have

(i) If Er < 0.12 El