Ce Ker Evac 2004

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL AND ANALYTICAL METHODS IN GEOMECHANICS
Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech., 2004; 28:209228 (DOI: 10.1002/nag.332)
Experimental study of thermal eects on the mechanical

behaviour of a clay
Cane Cekerevac and Lyesse Lalouin,y

Soil Mechanics Laboratory, LMS Swiss Federal Institute of Technology at Lausanne,
EPFL CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
SUMMARY
The paper presents the results of an experimental study of thermal eects on the mechanical behaviour of a
saturated clay. The study was performed on CM clay (Kaolin) using a temperature-controlled triaxial
apparatus. Applied temperatures were between 22 and 908C: A comprehensive experimental program was
carried out, including: (i) triaxial shear tests at ambient and high temperatures for dierent initial
overconsolidation ratios; (ii) consolidation tests at ambient and high temperatures; and (iii) drained
thermal heating for dierent initial overconsolidation ratios. The obtained results provide observations
concerning a wide scope of the thermo-mechanical behaviour of clays. Test results obtained at 908C were
compared with tests performed at ambient temperature. Based on these comparisons, thermal eects on a
variety of features of behaviour are presented and discussed. Focus is made on: (i) induced thermal volume
change during drained heating; (ii) experimental evidence of temperature inuence on preconsolidation
pressure and on compressibility index; (iii) thermal eects on shear strength and critical state; and
(iv) thermal eects on elastic modulus. Thermal yielding is discussed and yield limit evolution with
temperature is presented. The directions of the induced plastic strains are also discussed. Several remarks
on the dierence in the mechanical behaviour at ambient and high temperatures conclude the paper.
Copyright # 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS: thermo-mechanical tests; laboratory testing; clays; temperature eects; experimental results;
thermal yielding
1. INTRODUCTION
Research interest in the thermo-mechanical behaviour of soils is growing as a result of an

increasing number of geomechanical problems involving thermal eects. These problems with
non-isothermal situations are mainly encountered in the eld of environmental geomechanics
[1]. The thermal eect is dominant in some applications such as geothermal structures where
heat exchanger piles are used [2]. These are foundation piles in which a channel system is
installed in order to permit the circulation of a heat carrier uid to exchange heat with the
ground. The parallel combination of several heat exchanger piles, usually linked to a heat pump,
n
Correspondence to: L. Laloui, Soil Mechanics Laboratory, LMS Swiss Federal Institute of Technology at Lausanne,
EPFL CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
y
E-mail: lyesse.laloui@ep.ch
Received 22 April 2003

Revised 22 October 2003
Copyright # 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 28 October 2003
210 C. CEKEREVAC AND L. LALOUI
permits the extraction of warmth from the ground to satisfy the need for heat in winter and to
expel excess heat resulting from air conditioning in summer. High temperatures are reached in
the soil close to the piles. Thermal eects are also relevant in other applications such as high-
level nuclear waste isolation, petroleum drilling, injection and production activities, improve-
ment of soft clay characteristics by thermal stabilization and zones around buried high-voltage
cables. Geomechanical applications to these problems require an understanding of the thermo-
mechanical behaviour of soils and their numerical modelling [3].
In spite of the practical relevance of the thermo-mechanical applications, the eect of high
temperatures on soil behaviour is not yet completely understood. This is due to the complex
inuence of temperature on the behaviour of soils, and the fact that thermo-mechanical testing
of soils is much more complex than conventional isothermal testing. An additional eld
variable, namely temperature, must be controlled, therefore necessitating an additional reliable
system with the following requirements [4]:
(i) The heating system should work independently of the other parts of the cell (mechanical
loading system, measuring and acquisition systems).
(ii) The heating system should impose a uniform temperature eld to the sample.
(iii) The time needed to bring the sample to the desired uniform temperature should be as
brief as possible.
(iv) The heater should be close to the sample (inside the cell) in order to improve temperature
control.
This paper is a contribution to the subject of thermal eects on the mechanical behaviour of
clays. It presents the principal results of an experimental laboratory investigation performed on
a saturated Kaolin clay. A new temperature-controlled triaxial apparatus developed by the
authors was used. Temperature eects were identied by comparing the results of tests
performed at high temperature 908C with the results of the same type of tests carried out at
ambient temperature 228C: Drained heating tests were also performed to analyse the thermal
induced volume change of isotropically stressed samples. This study provides a comprehensive
understanding of the thermo-mechanical behaviour of a saturated Kaolin clay.
2. MATERIAL, EQUIPMENT AND EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1. Tested material

This study was performed on CM clay, commercially known as Kaolin. Samples were obtained
by mixing de-aired distilled water with clay powder at a water content two times the liquid limit
of the soil. After preparation, isotropic consolidation of the slurry was carried out under a
conning pressure of 100 kPa: The soil samples, 55 mm diameter and 110 mm in height, were
then obtained by trimming the clay cakes. The grain size distribution revealed that about 97%
by weight was smaller than 0:06 mm and 45% was smaller than 0:002 mm: The unit weight of
the solid particles was gS 25:8 kN=m3 : The liquid limit was wL 45% and the plasticity limit
was wP 24%: The mineralogical content of the material obtained from X-ray diraction
analysis yielded 67% kaolinite, 2% illite or mica and 31% quartz.
Table I summarizes the state of the thermo-mechanically tested samples and shows initial and
nal characteristics. Tests carried out at ambient temperature are identied with the letter T
Copyright # 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech. 2004; 28:209228
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF A CLAY 211
Table I. List of tests in temperature controlled triaxial cell.

Initial state Final state
Shear
at OCR e0 gd w ef w Sr
No T 8C (}) (}) t=m3 (%) (}) (%) (%) Thermo-mechanical testing path
HT-T21 90 NC 0.930 1.361 35.80 0.517 } } C(600)-DH(90)-DSH(0.3)
T9 22 NC 0.920 1.368 35.50 0.548 23.70 100.0 C(600)-DSH(0.3)
HT-T16 90 1.2 0.971 1.333 37.00 0.602 } } C(600)-UNL(500)-DH(90)-DSH(0.3)
T24 22 1.2 0.909 1.376 35.03 0.591 25.00 95.5 C(600)-UNL(500)-DSH(0.3)
HT-T11 90 1.5 0.939 1.355 35.70 0.596 29.74 97.2 C(600)-UNL(400)-DH(90)-DSH(0.3)
T17 22 1.5 0.929 1.362 35.40 0.620 25.78 96.9 C(600)-UNL(400)-DSH(0.3)
HT-T15 90 2.0 0.920 1.368 35.80 0.634 } } C(600)-UNL(300)-DH(90)-DSH(0.3)
S2-T7 22 2.0 0.911 1.375 35.07 0.633 26.43 95.3 C(600)-UNL(300)-DSH(0.3)
HT-T12 90 3.0 0.919 1.369 35.00 0.662 28.58 96.2 C(600)-UNL(200)-DH(90)-DSH(0.3)
TI8 22 3.0 0.933 1.359 35.50 0.695 28.06 97.2 C(600)-UNL(200)-DSH(0.3)
HT-T28 90 6.0 0.966 1.336 35.11 0.728 29.06 97.2 C(600)-UNL(100)-DH(90)-DSH(0.3)
T28 22 6.0 0.913 1.373 34.70 0.734 29.40 97.5 C(600)-UNL(100)-DSH(0.3)
HT-T17 90 12.0 0.936 1.357 35.60 0.730 27.80 100.0 C(600)-UNL(50)-DH(90)-DSH(0.06)
T27 22 12.0 0.926 1.364 35.60 0.729 30.53 95.8 C(600)-UNL(50)-DSH(0.3)
T19 22 1.5 0.922 1.367 35.40 0.663 28.08 94.4 C(600)-UNL(400)-DSH(0.3, p0 =cst)
T25 22 1.1 0.908 1.377 35.20 0.584 24.81 97.4 C(600)-UNL(550)-DSH(0.3)
HT-T14 90 } 0.944 1.351 35.33 } 27.82 95.8 C(600)-UNL(300)-DH(90)-REL(900)
HT-T22 60 } 0.911 1.375 35.20 0.621 } } C(600)-UNL(300)-DH(60)-REL(900)
S2-T6 22 } 0.930 1.362 35.30 0.637 25.50 97.5 C(600)-UNL(200)-REL(1000)
S2-T8 22 } 0.940 1.354 35.80 0.642 } } C(600)-UNL(200)-REL(1000)
ISO-T1 90 NC 0.930 1.361 35.50 0.622 25.5 100 C(600)-DH(90)
ISO-T2 90 6.0 0.922 1.367 35.10 0.619 } } C(600)-UNL(100)-DH(90)
Note: C (kPa) is the value of the isotropic consolidation pressure, UNL (kPa) the value of the isotropic unloading
pressure, REL (kPa) the value of the isotropic reloading pressure, DH 8C the value of temperature after drained
heating, DSH (%/h) the value of strain rate in drained shearing.
while tests in non-isothermal conditions are identied using HT. Due to the breaking of the
neoprene membrane after a large deformation in ve tests (HT-T21, HT-T16, HT-T15, HT-T22
and ISO-T2), it was not possible to obtain their nal characteristics.
2.2. Equipment
The thermo-mechanical tests were performed in a new device developed for triaxial tests at
elevated temperatures. Figure 1 shows the layout of this cell, with the systems for control of
stresses, strains, pore-water pressure and temperature. The heating system consisted of the
heater (placed in the heating bath with water serving as the circulating uid), the circulating
device (pump), the insulation and the temperature controlling unit. Heating of the sample was
obtained indirectly by circulating water inside a metal tube placed spirally around the sample.
Temperature measurements were made by using two thermocouples diametrically placed at a
distance of about 0:5 cm from the sample (Tl and T2, Figure 1). One of these provides the
feedback signal to the heater and the second one is used for data acquisition. Since temperature
is measured near the sample (and not directly inside the sample in order to avoid disturbances),
preliminary calibration tests were performed to obtain the correlation between the measured
Figure 1. Triaxial apparatus with controlled temperatures.
temperature and the temperature inside the sample. Details of this triaxial controlled-
temperature, calibration tests and validation are presented elsewhere [4].
2.3. Experimental program

In this study, the samples were tested under several thermo-mechanical paths. Figure 2 shows
the paths followed in three-dimensional space (mean eective stressshear stresstemperature).
Generally, the procedure for carrying out the tests in triaxial conditions was as follows:
(i) Isotropic consolidation (path 0 ! 1), followed by an unloading in some cases (path
1 ! 10 ).
(ii) Drained heating (path 1 or 10 ! 2).
(iii) Drained shearing (path 2 ! 4; and 1 or 10 ! 5 for tests at ambient temperature), by
applying a standard triaxial shearing path @q=@p0 3 or by applying a constant p 0
path. q and p0 are the shear and the eective mean stresses, respectively.
(iv) Drained consolidation at high temperature (path 2 ! 3).
To ensure saturation of the samples, a constant back pressure of 100 kPa was applied during
isotropic consolidation and kept constant during the subsequent mechanical and/or thermal
loadings. Back pressure also reduces evaporation of water in the drainage system. The value of
100 kPa was chosen after tests with dierent back pressures (100300 kPa) to ensure that the
obtained results were independent of the back pressure value. Based on preliminary tests, the
heating rate of 108C per 3 h was chosen to avoid excess pore pressure generation during heating.
Figure 2. Thermo-mechanical testing paths.
This was conrmed by the measurement of pore water pressure during heating. The
consolidation step took about 2 days and heating from 22 to 908C about 4 days. Shear tests
were carried out with a strain rate of 0.3%/h in drained conditions.
The testing history of the samples and a summary of the initial and nal characteristics is
presented in Table I.
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
3.1. Thermal volume change

The loading path for drained heating is shown in Figure 2. After mechanical consolidation up to
a mean eective stress of 600 kPa (point 1), unloading to dierent values of overconsolidation
ratio (OCR) (1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 6.0 and 12, point 10 ). The temperature of the samples was
then increased in drained conditions (path 10 2 from 22 to 908C). Calibration tests showed that
the time lag between the start of heating and equilibration of the temperature in the sample was
about 50 min [4]. One important aspect refers to the calculation of the drained thermal
volumetric strain. The calculation was done based on procedure suggested by Campanella and
Mitchell [5] and then improved by Baldi et al. [6]. According to this concept, the volumetric
strain of a soil during drained heating can be calculated from the volume of water expelled from
a saturated sample. The obtained thermally induced volumetric strain of the Kaolin specimen is
shown in Figure 3 for 5 dierent OCR: 1, 1.5, 2, 6 and 12. The test in normally consolidated
state (NC) was made twice in order to show the reproducibility of the results. Figure 3 reveals
that the thermal volumetric strain depends on stress history (OCR). Heating of the normally
consolidated samples (NC, HT-T21 and ISO-T2) produced contraction. Lightly overconsoli-
dated samples (OCR=1.5; HT-T11 and OCR=2; HT-T15) showed smaller thermal contraction
Figure 3. Thermal volumetric strain of Kaolin clay during drained heating from 22 to 908C;
initial consolidation pressure 600 kPa:
Figure 4. Inuence of overconsolidation ratio on the thermal volumetric strain of clays.
compared with the NC samples, while highly OC sample (OCR=12, HT-T17) showed thermal
expansion. It may be observed that the expansion (dilation) increased with an increase in OCR.
This result is in agreement with those of other authors [710] as shown in Figure 4, where
thermal volumetric strain is plotted with respect to the OCR ratio for dierent temperature
value changes for dierent materials. OCR values at which transition from contractant to
dilatant behaviour occurs depends on the soil type.
3.2. Thermal dependency of the isotropic yield limit

First studies on the thermo-mechanical behaviour of soils dealt with temperature inuence on
the hydrostatic yield limit. Some recent results from the literature [1216] have shown that
preconsolidation pressure decreases with temperature (Figure 5). Preconsolidation pressure, s0c ,
is considered as the pseudo-elastic limit which separates elastic pre-yield from plastic post-
yield behaviour in isotropic or oedometric conditions. It is evaluated as the stress value at the
intersection of the two linear parts of the compression curves (logarithm of mean/vertical
eective stress vs void ratio).
To analyse thermal eects on the preconsolidation pressure of the CM clay, four
consolidation tests were carried out at dierent constant temperatures: 228C (S2-T6 and S2-
T8), 608C (HT-T22) and 908C (HT-T14). The following steps were carried out (Figure 6):
* Mechanical isotropic consolidation up to a mean eective stress of 600 kPa (path A ! B).
This was followed by unloading until either 300 kPa (in tests HT-T14 and HT-T22) or
200 kPa (in tests S2-T6 and S2-T8) at ambient temperature. A constant back pressure of
100 kPa was applied to ensure saturation of the sample.
* Drained heating (path C0 ! E or G). A typical thermal compaction of lightly over-
consolidated clay (OCR=2) was obtained during this step.
* Mechanical isotropic re-consolidation up to 900 kPa (HT22 and HT14) or 1000 kPa (S2-T6
and S2-T8).
Figure 5. Inuence of temperature on preconsolidation pressure.
Figure 6. Isotropic thermo-mechanical paths.
Figure 7. (a) Isotropic compression curves at various temperatures; and (b) inuence of temperature on
preconsolidation pressure of Kaolin clay.
The obtained isotropic compression curves are shown in Figure 7. The consolidation test at
ambient temperature was carried out twice. The comprehensive results are similar except that
the thermal compactions for temperatures of 60 and 908C induce dierences in the void ratios.
Based on all above results (Figures 5 and 7), the preconsolidation pressure is an explicit
function of two formally independent variables: volumetric plastic strain and temperature. The
thermal inuence on the preconsolidation pressure may be represented by the following
expression [17]:
s0c T s0c T0 f1 g logT =T0 g 1
where s0c T0 is the preconsolidation pressure at a reference temperature T0 ; s0c T is the

preconsolidation stress at a given temperature T ; and g is a material parameter. This equation
was validated through several experimental results. It is possible, with only one material
parameter, to follow the decrease of the preconsolidation pressure with heating.
3.3. Temperature eect on the consolidation line

Eects of temperature on the normal consolidation line (NCL) was examined by comparing a
NCL obtained at ambient 228C and high 908C temperatures (Figure 8).
The obtained slopes of the NCL, known as the compression index, are:
Cc 0:24 at T 228C based on 10 tests
Cc 0:23 at T 908C based on 9 tests
The NCLs are almost parallel for the two tested temperatures (22 and 908C) and could be
considered independent of temperature. The lower values of void ratio for the higher
temperature are due to the induced thermal compaction.
Figure 8. Normal consolidation lines (NCL) for samples consolidated at 22 and 908C:
3.4. Thermal eects on shear strength

In order to quantify the inuence of temperature on shear strength, drained triaxial compression
shear tests with the same initial states and dierent temperatures (22 and 908C) were compared
for several OCR values (Figure 9). The initial conning pressure was 600 kPa:
The results indicate that specimens tested at high temperature show higher shear strength
(Figure 9(a)). However, at large strains where @q=@es @ev =@es 0 the shear stresses obtained
for high temperature tend to the same critical state as samples tested at ambient temperature (es
is the deviatoric strain). No clear trend can be seen on the volume variation for samples sheared
at dierent temperatures (Figure 9(c)).
3.5. Temperature eects on elastic modulus

Initial secant moduli were computed from the stressstrain curves at dierent temperatures
shown in Figure 9(a). The elastic moduli were determined for an axial strain of 0.5%. Figure 10
includes secant elastic moduli obtained from triaxial shear tests carried out at 22 and at 908C at
both normally consolidated and overconsolidated states. It may be seen that initial secant
modulus increases with increasing in temperature for all of the samples. For further comparison,
the results were normalized with respect to conning eective pressure s03 (Figure 10(b)).
3.6. Temperature eects on the critical state line

According to the critical state concept, perfect plasticity is expressed as a state at which large
shear distortion occurs with no change in stress or specic volume @q=@es @ev =@es 0:
Considering only the drained shear tests carried out at temperatures of 22 and 908C where such
a condition was veried, we plotted the obtained critical state lines (CSL) in the void
Figure 9. Drained triaxial tests at ambient 228C and high 908C temperatures: Consolidation pressure
600 kPa; 228C}dashed lines, 908C}solid lines: (a) Deviator stress vs axial strain; (b) p0 q plane; (c)
volumetric strain vs axial strain; and (d) void ratio vs mean eective stress.
ratiolog p plane in Figure 11. The slopes of the CSLs obtained for the two dierent
temperatures, expressed as a compression index, Cc ; are:
Cc 0:18 at 228C based on 10 tests
Cc 0:18 at 908C based on 7 tests
Therefore, the slopes of the CSL in the volumetric plane seem independent of temperature. Also,
it is clear that the slopes of the CSL and the NCL are slightly dierent: 0.18 and 0.23,
respectively, which is not in accordance with the commonly admitted hypothesis of parallel
lines.
Figure 10. Secant elastic moduli obtained from tests at ambient 228C and high 908C temperatures.
3.7. Temperature eects on friction angle at critical state

The strength envelope at critical state of Kaolin clay at ambient temperature shows a straight
line, with a slope M 0:8 that corresponds to a friction angle of f0 218: Figure 12 combines
the results of drained shear tests at critical state obtained at ambient and high temperatures
908C: It is clearly shown that the strength envelope at critical state is independent of testing
temperature. When these results are combined with those of other authors [1821] (Figure 13), it
may be observed that the friction angle is always independent of testing temperature, except for
one result.
Figure 11. Inuence of temperature on critical state line (CSL) in the volumetric plane.
Figure 12. Friction angle at critical state for temperatures of 22 and 908C:
4. THERMAL YIELDING
Thermal yielding represents the evolution of the yield limit induced by heating. The evolution
for the hydrostatic limit was shown in the previous section. We will focus here on the deviatoric
yield limit. Starting with isotropic consolidation up to 600 kPa; an isotropic unloading to
dierent values of conning pressures was applied. The dened yield limit then corresponded to
a mean eective stress of 600 kPa and a specic void ratio. The unloading steps moved the stress
state inside this yield surface. Since the stress point was within the yield surface, initial strains
Figure 13. Eect of temperature on friction angle at critical state.
due to a shear stress would be mainly elastic, until the stress point reached the yield surface, and
after that it became plastic (Figure 14). The combination of pre- and post-yield linearity permits
bilinear extrapolation techniques for identifying the yield point [22]. Yield points were
determined from a stressstrain criterion by using various procedures, and some of which are
shown in Figure 15. The results are presented in terms of the following eective stress and strain
components (indices 1 and 3 are related to the triaxial axis, and d is the increment):
Effective mean stress : p0 s01 2s03 =3

Deviator stress : q s01 s03
P
Dissipated strain energy : W s01 de1 2s03 de3
Volumetric strain increment : dev de1 2de3
Distortional strain increment : des 23 de1 de3
No unique stressstrain criterion can be found that can be used with all stress paths to identify
the yield limit. Crooks and Graham [23] suggested that the dimensionless scalar quantity
absorbed energy per unit volume could provide a useful criterion. They concluded that the
contours of total energy, developed along various stress paths, assume shapes similar to those of
the limit state surfaces. The study by Tavenas et al. [24] shows that the limit state surface does
not correspond to a line of equal energy; it seems that the threshold energy is a function of the
stress state at the considered location on the limit state surface. Figure 15(d) shows typical
results on Kaolin clay in terms of dissipated strain energy during shearing, W : An approximately
linear increase of W with respect to the ratio q=p0 may be seen. The point at which W became
non-linear is considered as a point of the pseudo-elastic yield limit, Y : Signicant agreement was
obtained from dierent criteria (Table II) and nal values of the yield points were obtained as
average values.
Figure 14. Testing paths used for shearing at 22 and 908C:
Figure 15. (a)(f) Identication of the yield points from dierent stressstrain criterion (for test T17,
T 228C; OCR=1.5): (a) Deviatoric stress vs axial strain; (b) volumetric strain vs mean eective pressure;
(c) deviatoric stress vs volumetric strain; (d) dissipated strain energy vs q=p 0 ; (e) volumetric strain vs axial
strain; and (f) deviatoric strain vs distortional strain.
4.1. Normalization of the yield limit

Thermo-mechanical testing paths are illustrated in q : v : p 0 space in Figure 16 (v: specic
volume). As was mentioned above, starting from a preconsolidation pressure of 600 kPa (point
0), all samples were isotropically unloaded to dierent eective mean pressures (for example to
point A or B) before being sheared. Isotropic unloading allows changes of the specic volume
v 1 e along the swelling line with an elastic strain. Thus, the initial specic volume in
Table II. Yield stresses from dierent yield criteria; nal yield stress
in this case py0 460 kPa; qy 180 kPa:
Mean eective pressure Deviatoric stress
Criterion used at yield (kPa) at yield (kPa)
q vs e1 460 181
ev vs p0 462 186
q vs ev 462 185
W vs q=p0 457 171
ev vs e1 457 172
q vs es 462 187
Note: Experimental results from test T17.
Figure 16. Thermo-mechanical testing paths illustrated in q : v : p 0 space.
isothermal conditions is dierent for the dierent samples depending on the values of isotropic
stress (for example, vA vs vB : Moreover, samples tested at high temperature were submitted to
drained heating which caused a change of specic volume at a constant conning pressure
B ! C; starting from dierent v constant sections (either point A or B). Thus, samples at the
Figure 17. Procedure of obtaining the equivalent pressure, pe0 corresponding to

0
the yield point Y pY ; qY ; vY :
same conning pressures and dierent temperatures also had dierent initial void ratios (for
example, vB vs vC ). During drained shearing (path C ! D; v changes and so the paths will move
through an innity of constant v sections of the Roscoe surface [25]. Because of that, obtained
yield points will be situated in dierent v constant planes.
If we suppose that each v constant section is of the same shape but dierent in size, we can
scale them down to the same form. The scaling factor depends on specic volume and could be
dened as the equivalent pressure on the normal consolidation line at a given specic volume, pe0 :
The value pe0 could be obtained from the normal consolidation line by using specic volume at
yielding, vY (Figure 17).
0
If we suppose that the sample yields at point Y pY ; qY ; vY ; the equivalent pressure is
obtained by tracing a line v constant to the NCL and then reading the corresponding value of
the mean eective stress [26].
4.2. Yield locus at 228C and 908C

The yield stresses were identied by using the method explained above for the tests presented in
Table III. All tests were performed with an initial conning pressure of 600 kPa: Specic volume
at yielding was observed from initial moisture contents and volume change during shearing.
Identied yield stresses were normalized with respect to the equivalent pressure, which were
calculated using specic volume at yielding. Normalized yield envelopes, interpolated through
these yield points, are shown in Figure 18.
Based on this result, it may be concluded that the pseudo-elastic yield limit shrinks with
increase in temperature. It is clear that this decrease of the yield surface is not homothetic and
depends on stress history. In other words, drained heating produces thermal softening. In order
to sustain constant eective stress during drained heating, thermal softening must be
compensated by strain hardening in NC or lightly OC samples (Figure 3). As a result, the
strain hardening stressstrain curves obtained at high temperature are dierent from those
obtained at ambient temperature (Figure 9).
The shrinkage of the yield limit can be related to the previously presented results on the
induced thermal eect on preconsolidation pressure.
Table III. List of tests used to determine the yield surface at

ambient 228C and high 908C temperatures.
Tested at 908C Tested at 228C OCR (})
HT-T14 S2-T6, S2-T8 }
} T25 1.1
} T24 1.2
HT-T11 T17 1.5
} T19 1.5
HT-T15 S2-T7 2.0
HT-T12 T18 3.0
HT-T28 T28 6.0
HT-T17 T27 12.0
Note: Consolidation pressure 600 kPa:
Figure 18. Normalized yield envelope of Kaolin clay at T 22 and 908C; CSL is the critical state line.
4.3. Plastic strain increments

The directions of the plastic strain increments are an important feature of post-yielding analysis.
Post-yield straining comprises an elastic component, so plastic strain increment can be
calculated as
depv dev deev 2
deps des dees 3

where, depvand depsare volumetric and deviatoric plastic strain increments, and deev
are dees
volumetric and deviatoric elastic strain increments, dev and des are total volumetric and
deviatoric strain increments. Plastic strain vectors were calculated for stress increments of Ds
0:1s0c 60 kPa:
Figure 19 presents plastic strain increment vectors plotted on the normalized yield envelopes.
The results indicate that plastic strain vectors deviate from normality to the yield envelope
obtained at 22 and at 908C; i.e. the normality rule is not satised. The normality rule is further
examined in Figure 20. The deviation angle between the plastic strain increment vector and the
normal to the yield envelope is plotted against the direction of the yield point, b = arctan
0 0
qY =pY ; originating from the point A shown in Figure 19 pA =pe0 0:5 and qA =pe0 0: Thus,
Figure 19. Normalized yield envelope of Kaolin clay at T 22 and 908C and
plastic strain increment vectors.
Figure 20. Deviation of the plastic strain increment vectors from normal to the yield envelope
for the tests carried out at 22 and 908C:
angle b becomes a measure where the stress probe intersects the yield envelope. Clock-wise
deviation is considered as positive and normality corresponds to zero deviation.
The deviation of the plastic strain increment vectors for tests carried out at 228C
continuously decrease from an angle of 388; for b 148 (test T28) to 228; for b 1518 (test
T25) (Figure 20). However, the deviation at high temperature always remains positive (clock-
wise direction); it starts from 368 for b 88 (test HT-T17) and then decreases to about 128 for
b 1188 (test HT-T11).
It may be seen that for a small value of b 108; which corresponds to a highly
overconsolidated state, the deviation is not inuenced by an increase in temperature. Contrary
to this, for higher values of b (from about 601208) the directions of the plastic strain increments
obtained from tests carried out at 908C are quite dierent from those carried out at 228C; the
dierence is about 108:
5. CONCLUSIONS
The results of a comprehensive laboratory study using a temperature controlled triaxial cell has
been presented. Thermal eects on the mechanical behaviour of a Kaolin clay were analysed by
comparing tests at ambient 228C and high 908C temperatures. Several thermo-mechanical
loading paths were used to gain insight into the eect of temperature on the behaviour of clays.
The main conclusions drawn from this study are as follows:
* Thermal volumetric strain depends on the stress history (overconsolidation ratio). Heating
of the normally consolidated sample produces a contraction while overconsolidated
samples dilate.
* Initial elastic moduli increase with heating.
* Preconsolidation pressure decreases with increasing temperature.
* High temperatures induce a more ductile mechanical behaviour. The heated specimen
exhibited a higher shear strength. This eect is slightly more important for samples initially
normally consolidated than for overconsolidated ones. At large strain when the critical
state is reached the deviator stress drops and has almost the same value as for samples
tested at ambient temperature.
* The yield limit shrinks with increase in temperature. The ow rule depends on temperature.
* Friction angle at critical state (CSL) and the normally consolidated line (NCL) seem to be
independent of temperature.
REFERENCES
1. Vulliet L, Laloui L, Harding R. Environmental geomechanics: an introduction. In Environmental Geomechanics,
Vulliet L, Laloui L, Schreer B (eds). EPFL-Press: Lausanne, 2002; 312.
2. Laloui L, Moreni M, Vulliet L. Comportemnent dun pieu bi-fonction, fondation et e! changeur de chaleur. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 2003; 40(2):388402.
3. Laloui L. Thermo-mechanical behaviour of soils. Revue Francaise de ge!nie civil 2001; 5(6):809843.
4. Cekerevac C, Laloui L, Vulliet L. Thermo-mechanical testing of soils: equipment, procedures and experimental
results, Geotechnical Testing Journal 2003, submitted for publication.
5. Campanella RG, Mitchell JK. Inuence of temperature variations on soil behavior. Journal of the Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Division ASCE 1968; 94(SM3):709734.
6. Baldi G, Hueckel T, Pelegrini R. Thermal volume changes of the mineral-water system in low-porosity clay soils.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal 1988; 25:807825.
7. Plum L, Esrig MI. Some temperature eects on soil compressibility and pore water pressure. Special report, Report
103, Highway Research Board, Washington, 1969.
8. Baldi G, Hueckel T, Peano A, Pellegrini R. Developments in modelling of thermo-hydro-geomechanical behaviour

of Boom clay and clay-based buer materials, Report 13365/2 EN, Commission of the European Communities,
1991.
9. Demarks KR, Charles RD. Soil volume changes induced by temperature cycling. Canadian Geotechnical Journal
1982; 19:188194.
10. Kuntiwattanakul P. Eect of High Temperature on Mechanical Behaviour of Clays. Doctoral thesis, University of
Tokyo, 1991.
11. Cekerevac C. Thermal eects on the mechanical behaviour of saturated clays: an experimental and constitutive
study. Doctoral thesis No 2828, Ecole polytechnique F!ed!erale de Lausanne, 2003.
12. Tidfors M, S.allfors S. Temperature eect on preconsolidation pressure. Geotechnical Testing Journal 1989;
12(1):9397.
13. Eriksson LG. Temperature eects on consolidation properties of sulphide clays. Proceedings of the12th International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Rio de Jeneiro, 1989; 20872090.
14. Moritz L. Geotechnical properties of clay at elevated temperatures. Report: 47, Swedish Geotechnical Institute,
Linko. ping, 1995.
15. Boudali M, Leroueil S, Sinivasa Murthy BR. Viscous behaviour of natural clays. Proceedings of the 13th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, New Delhi, 1994; 411416.
16. Delage P, Sultan N, Cui YJ. On the thermal consolidation of Boom clay. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 2000;
37:343354.
17. Laloui L, Cekerevac C. Thermo-plasticity of clays: an isotropic yield mechanism. Computers and Geotechnics 2003;
30(8):649660.
18. Hueckel T, Baldi G. Thermoplasticity of saturated clays: experimental constitutive study. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering 1990; 116(12):17681796.
19. Hueckel T, Pellegrini R. Modeling of thermal failure of saturated clays. International Symposium on Numerical
Models in Geomechanics}NUMOG, L. Pietruszczak S, Pande GN (eds), 1989; 8190.
20. Burghignoli A, Desideri A, Miliziano S. A laboratory study on the thermomechanical behaviour of clayey soils.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal 2000; 37:764780.
21. Graham J, Tanaka N, Crilly T, Alfaro M. Modied cam-clay modelling of temperature eects in clays. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 2001; 38:608621.
22. Graham J, Pinkney RB, Lew KV, Trainor PGS. Curve tting and laboratory data. Canadian Geotechnical Journal
1982; 19:201205.
23. Crooks JHA, Graham J. Geotechnical properties of the Belfast estuarine deposits. G!eotechnique 1976; 26(2):293315.
24. Tavenas F, Rosiers J-P, Leroueil S, La Rochelle P. The use of strain energy as a yield and creep criterion for lightly
overconsolidated clays. Ge!otechnique 1979; 29:285304.
25. Schoeld A, Wroth P. Critical State Soil Mechanics. McGraw-Hill: London, 1968.
26. Atkinson JH, Bransby PL. The Mechanics of Soils}An Introduction to Critical State Soil Mechanics. McGraw-Hill:
London, 1978.

Ce Ker Evac 2004

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ce Ker Evac 2004

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL AND ANALYTICAL METHODS IN GEOMECHANICS

Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech., 2004; 28:209228 (DOI: 10.1002/nag.332)

Experimental study of thermal eects on the mechanical

Cane Cekerevac and Lyesse Lalouin,y

Research interest in the thermo-mechanical behaviour of soils is growing as a result of an

Received 22 April 2003

2. MATERIAL, EQUIPMENT AND EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

2.1. Tested material

Table I. List of tests in temperature controlled triaxial cell.

Figure 1. Triaxial apparatus with controlled temperatures.

2.3. Experimental program

Figure 2. Thermo-mechanical testing paths.

3.1. Thermal volume change

Figure 4. Inuence of overconsolidation ratio on the thermal volumetric strain of clays.

3.2. Thermal dependency of the isotropic yield limit

Figure 5. Inuence of temperature on preconsolidation pressure.

Figure 6. Isotropic thermo-mechanical paths.

where s0c T0 is the preconsolidation pressure at a reference temperature T0 ; s0c T is the

3.3. Temperature eect on the consolidation line

3.4. Thermal eects on shear strength

3.5. Temperature eects on elastic modulus

3.6. Temperature eects on the critical state line

Cc 0:18 at 228C based on 10 tests

Cc 0:18 at 908C based on 7 tests

3.7. Temperature eects on friction angle at critical state

Figure 13. Eect of temperature on friction angle at critical state.

Effective mean stress : p0 s01 2s03 =3

Figure 14. Testing paths used for shearing at 22 and 908C:

4.1. Normalization of the yield limit

Figure 16. Thermo-mechanical testing paths illustrated in q : v : p 0 space.

Figure 17. Procedure of obtaining the equivalent pressure, pe0 corresponding to

4.2. Yield locus at 228C and 908C

Table III. List of tests used to determine the yield surface at

4.3. Plastic strain increments

deps des dees 3

8. Baldi G, Hueckel T, Peano A, Pellegrini R. Developments in modelling of thermo-hydro-geomechanical behaviour

You might also like