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Unit I PDF
Unit I PDF
ECONOMIC OPERATION
TOPICS: Optimal operation of Generators in Thermal Power Stations, - heat
rate Curve Cost Curve Incremental fuel and Production costs, input-
output characteristics, Optimum generation allocation without line losses,
Optimum generation allocation including the effect of transmission line
losses Loss Coefficients, General transmission line loss formula.
INTRODUCTION :
A good business practice is the one in which the production cost is minimized
without sacrificing the quality. This is not any different in the power sector as well. The
main aim here is to reduce the production cost while maintaining the voltage
magnitudes at each bus.
The operation economics can again be subdivided into two parts.
i) Problem of economic dispatch, which deals with determining the power output of
each plant to meet the specified load, such that the overall fuel cost is minimized.
ii) Problem of optimal power flow, which deals with minimum loss delivery, where in
the power flow, is optimized to minimize losses in the system.
The factors influencing the cost of generation are the generator efficiency, fuel
cost and transmission losses. The most efficient generator may not give minimum cost,
since it may be located in a place where fuel cost is high. Further, if the plant is located
far from the load centres, transmission losses may be high and running the plant may
become uneconomical. The economic dispatch problem basically determines the
generation of different plants to minimize total operating cost.
Modern generating plants like nuclear plants, geo-thermal plants etc, may
require capital investment of millions of rupees. The economic dispatch is however
determined in terms of fuel cost per unit power generated and does not include capital
investment, maintenance, depreciation, start-up and shut down costs etc.
The equality constraints are the basic load flow equations given by
Pp jQp Vp* Ip [at bus P]
But
I p YpqVq
q 1
n
Pp jQ p V *
p Y
q 1
V
pq q ----------------- (1)
Let V p e p jf p Vq eq jf q Ypq G pq jB pq
Substitute all the above values in eq(1) we get
n
Pp jQ p (e p jf p ) *
(G
q 1
pq jB pq )(eq jf q )
n
Pp jQ p (e p jf p ) (G pq jB pq )(eq jf q )
q 1
where ep and fp are the real and imaginary components of voltage at the pth node and
Gpq and Bpq are the nodal conductance and susceptance between the pth and qth nodes.
Similarly the maximum and minimum reactive power generation of a source are
limited. The maximum reactive power is limited because of overheating of the rotor and
minimum is limited because of the stability limit of the machine.
These constraints are required to meet: (i) the forced outages of one or more
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alternators on the system, and (ii) the unexpected load on the system.
The total generation should be such that in addition to meeting load demand and losses
a minimum spare capacity should be available i.e.,
G Pp + Pso
where G is the total generation and Pso is some prespecified power. A well planned
system is one in which this space capacity Pso is minimum.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
(I) INPUT OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
The idealized form of inputoutput characteristics of a steam unit is shown
in Fig. It establishes the relationship between the energy input to the turbine and the
energy output from the electrical generator. The input to the turbine shown on the
ordinate may be either in terms of the heat energy requirement, which is generally
measured in Btu(British Thermal unit)/hr or kCal/hr or in terms of the total cost of fuel
per hour in Rs./hr. The output is normally the net electrical power output of that steam
unit in kW or MW.
In practice, the curve may not be very smooth, and from practical data, such an
idealized curve may be interpolated. The steam turbine-generating unit curve consists
of minimum and maximum limits in operation, which depend upon the steam cycle
used, thermal characteristics of material, the operating temperature, etc.
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(II) HEAT RATE CURVE :
The heat rate characteristic obtained from the plot of the net heat rate in
Btu/kWh or kCal/kWh versus power output in kW is shown in Fig.
The thermal unit is most efficient at a minimum heat rate, which corresponds to
a particular generation PG. The curve indicates an increase in heat rate at low and high
power limits.
Thermal efficiency of the unit is affected by the following factors:
Condition of steam, steam cycle used, re-heats stages, condenser pressure, etc. The
efficiency of the units in practice is around 30%.
The IFC (IC) of the ith thermal unit is defined, for a given power output, as the
limit of the ratio of the increased cost of fuel input (Rs./hr) to the corresponding
increase in power output (MW), as the increasing power output approaches zero.
where the suffix i stands for the unit number. It generally suffices to fit a second degree
polynomial, i.e.
dC i
The slope of the cost curve, i.e. is called the incremental fuel cost(IC) and is
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dPGi
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It is that for a given load to be allocated between several generating units, the
most efficient unit identified by incremental cost of production should be the one to get
priority. When this is applied repeatedly to all the units the load allocation will become
complete when all of them that are involved in operation are all working at the same
incremental cost of production.
The above can be proved mathematically as follows:
Consider a power station having n number of units. Let us assume that each unit
does not violate the inequality constraints and let the transmission losses be neglected.
The economic dispatch problem is defined as
where FT is total fuel input to the system, Fn the fuel input to nth unit, PD the total load
demand and Pn the generation of nth unit.
To get the solution for the optimization problem, we will define an objective
function by augmenting Equation(1) with an equality constraint (Equation(2)) through
the Lagrangian multiplier () as
[OR
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FLOW CHART FOR ECONOMIC SCHEDULING : TRANSMISSION LOSSES NEGLECTED
[ ITERATIVE METHOD ]
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TRANSMISSION LOSS COEFFICIENTS : B-COEFFICIENTS
Consider a power system supplying nl loads. Let the load currents be iL1, iL2 .. ,
iLn. These loads are supplied by ng generators. Let the generator currents be ig1, ig2,
, igng. This is shown in the Fig.
Consider a network element K (an inter connected line in the system) carrying
current IK. Let generator 1 alone supply the entire load current IL where
and so on.
Now, if all the generators are connected to the power system simultaneously to supply
the same load, by the principle of super position.
Let the individual load currents remain a constant complex ratio of the total load
current IL. It is assumed that (X/R) ratio for all the line elements or branches in the
network remains the same. The factors dKl will then be real and not complex.
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The individual generator currents may have phase angles 1, 2, ., ng with
respect to a reference axis. The generator currents can be expressed as :
Let ng=3,
But we know, the currents interms of powers supplied by the generators are
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The power losses in the network comprising of nb network elements or branches PLOSS
is given by
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The following assumptions including those mentioned already are necessary,
if B-coefficients are to be treated as constants as total load and load sharing between
plants vary. These assumptions are:
1, All load currents maintain a constant ratio to the total current.
2. Voltage magnitudes at all plants remain constant.
3. Ratio of reactive to real power, i.e. power factor at each plant remains constant.
4. Voltage phase angles at plant buses remain fixed. This is equivalent to assuming that
the plant currents maintain constant phase angle with respect to the common reference,
since source power factors are assumed constant as per assumption 3 above.
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OPTIMUM GENERATION ALLOCATION INCLUDING THE EFFECT OF TRANSMISSION
LINE LOSSES
(OR)
OPTIMUM LOAD DISPATCH INCLUDING TRANSMISSION LOSSES
Consider the Fig. shown which consists of two identical generators i.e.,
generators with identical incremental production cost. If generator 2 has a local load,
according to equal incremental production criterion, the total load must be shared
equally by both the generators, i.e., each generator should supply half of the total load.
The common sense tells us that it is more economical to let generator 2 supply
most of the local load because generator 1 has to supply in addition to the load, the
transmission losses also. Therefore, the criterion of sharing load by equal incremental
production cost does not hold well under such situation and a strategy must be evolved
which takes into account the transmission losses also.
where PL is the total system loss which is assumed to be a function of generation and
the other term have their usual significance.
Making use of the Lagrangian multiplier , the auxiliary function is given by
The partial differential of this expression when equated to zero gives the condition for
Optimal load dispatch, i.e.,
PL
Here the term is known as the incremental transmission loss at plant n and is
Pn
known as the incremental cost of received power in Rs. per MWhr.
The above equation is a set of n equations with (n + 1) unknowns. Here n
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generations are unknown and is also unknown. These equations are known as
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coordination equations because they coordinate the incremental transmission losses
with the incremental cost of production.
To solve these equations the loss formula equation is expressed in terms of
generations and is approximately expressed as
where Pm and Pn are the source loadings, Bmn the transmission loss coefficients. The
formula is derived under the following assumptions:
1. The equivalent load current at any bus remains a constant complex fraction of the
total equivalent load current.
2. The generator bus voltage magnitudes and angles are constant.
3. The power factor of each source is constant.
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GENERAL TRANSMISSION LINE LOSS FORMULA
An exact formula for calculating transmission losses is derived by making use of
the bus powers and the system parameters.
Let Si be the total injected bus power at bus i and is equal to the generated
power minus the load at bus i. The summation of all such powers over all the buses
gives the total losses of the system, i.e.,
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The above expression can be rewritten by using index notation as
The transmission loss has been expressed in terms of bus currents. In an actual
power plant, the system operators usually know the bus powers and the nodal voltages;
therefore, it is more practical to express PL in terms of these quantities.
We have expressed here the real and imaginary components of bus currents in
terms of bus powers and the bus voltages. Substituting these values in the expression
for power loss, we get after some algebraic manipulations, 18
By making use of this expression for transmission losses along with the
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Determine the economic operating schedule and the corresponding cost of generation if
the maximum and minimum loading on each unit is 100 MW and 25 MW, the demand is
180 MW, and transmission losses are neglected. If the load is equally shared by both the
units, determine the saving obtained by loading the units as per equal incremental
production cost.
SOL:
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2) The fuel cost of two units are given by
C1 = C1 (PG1) = 1.0 + 25 PG1 + 0.2 PG1 Rs/hr
2
If the total demand on the generators is 200 MW, Find the economic load scheduling
of the two units.
SOL:
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By solving the above equations,
3) Three power plants of total capacity of 500 MW are scheduled for operation to
supply total system load of 350 MW. Find the optimum scheduling if plants have
incremental cost characteristics of
SOL:
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4) The IFC for two plants are
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The loss coefficients are given as B11 = 0.0015/MW, B12 = B21 = 0.0004/MW, and B22 =
0.0032/MW for = 25 Rs./MWh. Find the real-power generations, total load demand,
and the transmission power loss.
SOL:
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5) On a system consisting of two generating plants, the incremental costs in Rs./MWh
with PG1 and PG2 in MW are
The system is operating on economic dispatch with PG1 = PG2 = 500MW and
PL
0.2 . Find the penalty factor of Plant-1.
PG 2
SOL:
Given that the system operates on economic dispatch with PG1 = PG2 = 500 MW,
the condition for this optimal operation when considering the transmission loss is
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and also given that ITL of Plant-2,
or 12 L1 = 18.75
or L1 = 1.5625
Penalty factor of Plant-1 = 1.5625.
SOL:
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7) Assume that the fuel input in Btu per hour for units 1 and 2 are given by
The maximum and minimum loads on the units are 100 MW and 10 MW respectively.
Determine the minimum cost of generation when the following load (Fig.) is supplied.
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8) The fuel input characteristics for two thermal plants are given by
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9) Determine the saving in fuel cost in Rs./hr for the economic distribution of a total
load of 225 MW between the two units with IFCs:
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10) Given a two bus system as shown in Fig
It is observed that when a power of 75MW is imported to bus 1, the loss amounted to
5MW. Find the generation needed from each plant and also the power received by the
load, if the system is given by Rs.20/MWHr. The incremental fuel cost at the two
plants are given by
SOL:
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