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Dynamic 2 PDF
Dynamic 2 PDF
dX
a1 + a0 X = f (t) ,
dt
dX
a1 + a0 X = 0
dt
The functional form of Xn is Xn = Kest (K and s are constants). Value of s can be found
by substituting the functional form in the homogeneous dierential equation:
dKest
a1 + a0 Kest = 0
dt
a0
a1 Ksest + a0 Kest = 0 a1 s + a0 = 0 s=
a1
Constant K is found from initial conditions. As the initial condition applies to X not Xn ,
K should be found after Xf is calculated.
Some functional forms of the forced solution, Xf , are given in the table below. To nd
Xf , the functional form is substituted in the original dierential equation and the constant
coecients of the functional form are found.
aet Aet
a cos(t) + b sin(t) A cos(t) + B sin(t)
Constants a and b are used to dene the general form of f (t).
Constants A and B in trial functions are found from substitution in
the dierential equation.
dv
+ 5v = 10
dt
dv
+ 5v = 0
dt
d st
Ke + 5Kest = 0
dt
Ksest + 5Kest = 0 s = 5
vn = Ke5t
dv dA
+ 5v = 10 + 5A = 10
dt dt
0 + 5A = 10 vf = A = 2
v = vn + vf = Ke5t + 2
v = e5t + 2
First order circuits include only one capacitor or inductor (after using series/parallel reduc-
tion). The solution of these circuits results in a rst-order linear dierential equation with
constant coecients. It requires one initial condition.
First-order RL Circuits
Consider a rst-order circuit containing only one inductor. The rest of the circuit contains
only resistors and voltage and current sources. Therefore, the rest of the circuit is a two-
terminal resistive subcircuit and can be reduced to a Thevenin or Norton form as shown.
Note that it is possible that the rest of circuit reduced to only a resistor, i.e., vT = 0.
iL RT iL iL
+ + +
Rest of +
vL L vT vL L iN R
the circuit - N vL L
- -
OR -
KVL: RT iL + vL vT = 0
diL
i-v Eq.: vL = L
dt
Substituting for vL in KVL, we arrive at the general form of dierential equation that
describes rst-order RL circuits:
diL
L + RT iL = vT
dt
If we use the Norton form for the resistive subcircuit, we will arrive at
L diL
+ iL = iN
RN dt
+ + +
Rest of +
vC C vT vC C iN R
the circuit - N vC C
- -
OR -
KVL: RT iC + vC vT = 0
dvC
i-v Eq.: iC = C
dt
Substituting for iC in KVL, we arrive at the general form of dierential equation that de-
scribes rst-order RC circuits:
dvC
RT C + vC = vT
dt
It is a good idea to write down the initial conditions (again) next to the dierential equation.
Since the RHS of the equation is zero, there is no forced solution. The functional form of the
natural solution is iL = Kest . Substituting this functional form in the dierential equation
(to nd s), we get:
diL
iL = Kest = Ksest
dt
R
LKsest + RKest = 0 Ls + R = 0 s=
L
iL = Ke(R/L)t
t
1 L
Dene time constant, , as = = iL = Ke
s R
t0 t0
+
iL (t = t+
0) = i0 = Ke K = i0 e
KVL: Ric + vC = 0 +
R C vC
dvC
RC + vC = 0
dt -
I.C.: vC (t = t+
0 ) = v0
t
1
Dene time constant, , as = = RC vC = Ke
s
t t0 t t0
v0
vC = v0 e and iC = e
R
vC i
C
vo t0 t
< 1% vo
t
t0 t0+5
1
u(t t0 ) = 0 for t t
0
u(t t0 ) = 1 for t t+
0 t
t0
Step functions are one way to illustrate switched circuit as is shown in the example below.
t = t0 R R
vs
+ +
C vs u(t-t ) C
0
- -
dvC
RC + vC = vs
dt
I.C.: vC (t = 0+ ) = v0
To nd the forced response, vC,f , we note that the RHS of the dierential equation is a
constant. Table of trial force functions on page 70 indicates that the forced response should
also be a constant, vC,f = A. Substituting for vC,f in the dierential equation, we get:
dA
RC + A = vs vC,f = A = vs
dt
t
vC = vC,n + vC,f = Ke + vs
0
+
vC (t = 0 ) = v0 = Ke + vs = K + vs K = v0 vs
t
vC (t) = (v0 vs )e + vs
vs t0 t0+5 t
v0
t -v s /R
t0 t0+5
If the switch was closed at time t = t0 instead of time zero, the capacitor voltage waveform
would be (let t = t t0 and switch closing at t = 0):
t t0
vC (t) = (v0 vs )e + vs
Since v0 is the initial value of vC and vs is its nal value , the above equation can be re-written
as:
t t0
vC Initial Value of Final Value of Final Value of
= e +
at Time t vC vC vC
In fact, all voltages and currents in the circuit (also called state variables) will have the
same waveform:
t t0
State Variable Initial Value of Final Value of Final Value of
= e +
at Time t State Variable State Variable State Variable
Alternatively, we can use the state variable formula identied above. Here the state
variable of interest is iL . The time constant of the circuit is = L/R. The nal value of
the state variable is iL (t ) when the switch is closed and circuit has reached a DC
steady state condition. Replacing the inductor with a short circuit, we nd iL (t ) = is .
Substituting in the state variable formula above, we get
t t0
iL (t) = (i0 is )e + is
No-jump condition leads to the initial condition for t > 0: vC (0+ ) = vC (0 ) = 4.5 V. Note
that although we like to nd i, the initial condition is obtained for vC as no-jump condition
only applies to vC and i may have a discontinuity at the switching time.
vA vA vC vA
KCL at vA : + + =0
6 2 12
2
2vA + 6vA 6vC + vA = 0 vC
vA =
3
vC vA vC vA 1 dvC
KCL at vC : + iC = 0 + =0
2 2 12 dt
where we substituted for iC from the capacitor i-v equation. The above are two equations
in our two node-voltages vA and vC . Substituting for vA from rst into the second, we get:
2 dvC
6vC 6 vC + =0
3 dt
dvC
+ 2vC = 0 and vC (0+ ) = 4.5 V
dt
As the RHS of the dierential equation is zero, solution consists only of the natural solution.
Using the trial function of Kest , we nd:
sKest + 2Kest = 0 s = 2
vC (t) = Ke2t
2
vA (t) = vC (t) = 3e2t (V)
3
vA (t)
i(t) = = 0.25e2t (A)
12
i
2 2
12 6 6 || 12 = 6 1F
4 12
1F 1F
12 12
t t0
vC (t) = vC (t = t+
0 )e
with = RC
6
t0 = 0 and vC (t = t+ +
0 ) = vC (0 ) = 4.5 and = RC = = 0.5
12
vC (t) = 4.5e2t (V)
We now need to go back to the original circuit to calculate i, for example, by writing the
node-voltage equations and use vC to nd the other parameters as was done above.
Example 2: The circuit is in DC steady-state t=1s 50 50
for t < 1 s. Find iL for t > 1
We redraw the circuit at t < 1 (switch is in the 10 V 10 V iL
25
+ 150 mH
upper position) and replace the inductor with +
a short circuit. We also replace the 50 and
25 resistors in series with a 75 resistor.
As the 75 resistor is in parallel with a short 50
circuit, it will carry a current of zero. Then,
by KCL, the current in the 50 resistor will i iL i=0
10 V L
be iL . Then, + 75
KVL: 10 + 50iL = 0 iL = 0.2 A
As the RHS of the dierential equation is not zero, we need to nd both the natural and
forced solutions. The natural solution can be found by using trial function of iL,n = Kest :
To nd iL,f , we note that the RHS of the dierential equation is a constant. Using the
Table of trial functions for forced solution on page 70, we nd iL,f = A. Substituting in the
dierential equation, we get:
dA
5 103 + A = 0.2 iL,f = A = 0.2
dt
iL (t) = iL,n + iL,f = Ke200t 0.2
10 V iL 10 = 0.2 iL
75 75
150 mH 50 150 mH
+ 50
ic C
Example 3: Integrator Find vo if vC (t = 0) = 0.
+ vc
We replace the OpAmp with its circuit model. As
R
the current owing into the OpAmp is zero, the
current in the resistor is the same as iC . We also ic i=0 +
+
note the connection between output and inverting + v1u(t) vo
input terminal so negative feedback exists:
Negative Feedback: vn = vp = 0
t dv
t
v1 dvo o 1
= C
dt = v1 (t )dt
R dt 0 dt RC 0
t
1
vo (t) = v1 (t )dt
RC 0
Substituting for iC from Ohms law into capacitor i-v equation, we get:
vo dv1 dv1
=C vo (t) = RC
R dt dt
C= 1/R
t
c vA = 0 vs (t )dt
R
vA R R
+
vs vo
R +
vo = vA vB
t
R
v R = 10vs (t)+ 0 vs (t )dt
B
+
vB = 10vs (t)
d2 vo dvo
2
= 2 vo + vs (t)
dt dt
vs Inverting vs
Amp. 2
dv0 dv0
v0 Inverting v0
dt2 dt
Summer Integrator Integrator
dv0
dt
vs R
R R
C= 1/R
+ C= 1/R
R
R
R vo
0.5 R +
+
+