Chapter 1

Introduction to Control Valves

What Is A Control Valve? cides what must be done to get the

process variable back to where it
Process plants consist of hundreds, or should be after a load disturbance oc-
even thousands, of control loops all curs. When all the measuring, com-
networked together to produce a prod- paring, and calculating are done,
uct to be offered for sale. Each of some type of final control element
these control loops is designed to must implement the strategy selected
keep some important process variable by the controller.
such as pressure, flow, level, temper-
The most common final control ele-
ature, etc. within a required operating
range to ensure the quality of the end ment in the process control industries
product. Each of these loops receives is the control valve. The control valve
and internally creates disturbances manipulates a flowing fluid, such as
gas, steam, water, or chemical com-
that detrimentally affect the process
pounds, to compensate for the load
variable, and interaction from other
disturbance and keep the regulated
loops in the network provides distur-
bances that influence the process process variable as close as possible
variable. to the desired set point.
Many people who talk about control
To reduce the effect of these load dis- valves or valves are really referring to
turbances, sensors and transmitters a control valve assembly. The control
collect information about the process valve assembly typically consists of
variable and its relationship to some the valve body, the internal trim parts,
desired set point. A controller then an actuator to provide the motive pow-
processes this information and de- er to operate the valve, and a variety
1
Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves
of additional valve accessories, which Backlash: The general name given
can include positioners, transducers, to a form of dead band that results
supply pressure regulators, manual from a temporary discontinuity be-
operators, snubbers, or limit switches. tween the input and output of a device
Other chapters of this handbook sup- when the input of the device changes
ply more detail about each of these direction. Slack, or looseness of a me-
control valve assembly components. chanical connection is a typical exam-
ple.
Whether it is called a valve, control
valve or a control valve assembly is Capacity* (Valve): The rate of flow
not as important as recognizing that through a valve under stated condi-
the control valve is a critical part of the tions.
control loop. It is not accurate to say Closed Loop: The interconnection
that the control valve is the most im-
of process control components such
portant part of the loop. It is useful to
that information regarding the process
think of a control loop as an instru-
variable is continuously fed back to
mentation chain. Like any other chain,
the controller set point to provide con-
the whole chain is only as good as its
tinuous, automatic corrections to the
weakest link. It is important to ensure
process variable.
that the control valve is not the weak-
est link. Controller: A device that operates
automatically by use of some estab-
Following are definitions for process
lished algorithm to regulate a con-
control, sliding-stem control valve, ro- trolled variable. The controller input
tary-shaft control valve, and other receives information about the status
control valve functions and character- of the process variable and then pro-
istics terminology. vides an appropriate output signal to
the final control element.
NOTE: Control Loop: (See Closed Loop.)
Definitions with an as- Control Range: The range of valve
terisk (*) are from the travel over which a control valve can
ISA Control Valve Ter- maintain the installed valve gain be-
minology standard tween the normalized values of 0.5
S75.05, used with per- and 2.0.
mission.
Control Valve: (See Control Valve
Assembly.)
Process Control
Control Valve Assembly: Includes
Terminology all components normally mounted on
Accessory: A device that is mount- the valve: the valve body assembly,
ed on the actuator to complement the actuator, positioner, air sets, transduc-
actuators function and make it a com- ers, limit switches, etc.
plete operating unit. Examples include Dead Band: The range through
positioners, supply pressure regula-
which an input signal can be varied,
tors, solenoids, and limit switches.
upon reversal of direction, without ini-
Actuator*: A pneumatic, hydraulic, tiating an observable change in the
or electrically powered device that output signal. Dead band is the name
supplies force and motion to open or given to a general phenomenon that
close a valve. can apply to any device. For the valve
assembly, the controller output (CO) is
Actuator Assembly: An actuator, the input to the valve assembly and
including all the pertinent accessories the process variable (PV) is the output
that make it a complete operating unit. as shown in figure 1-1. When the term
2
 Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves
ing fluid, such as gasses, steam, wa-
ter, or chemical compounds, to com-
pensate for the load disturbance and
keep the regulated process variable
as close as possible to the desired set
point.
First-Order: A term that refers to the
dynamic relationship between the in-
put and output of a device. A first-or-
der system or device is one that has
A7152 / IL
only one energy storage device and
Figure 1-1. Process Dead Band whose dynamic transient relationship
between the input and output is char-
acterized by an exponential behavior.
Friction: A force that tends to op-
Dead Band is used, it is essential that pose the relative motion between two
both the input and output variables surfaces that are in contact with each
are identified, and that any tests to
measure dead band be under fully other. The friction force is a function of
the normal force holding these two
loaded conditions. Dead band is typi-
surfaces together and the characteris-
cally expressed as a percent of the
tic nature of the two surfaces. Friction
input span.
has two components: static friction
Dead Time: The time interval (Td) in and dynamic friction. Static friction is
which no response of the system is the force that must be overcome be-
detected following a small (usually fore there is any relative motion be-
0.25% - 5%) step input. It is measured tween the two surfaces. Once relative
from the time the step input is initiated movement has begun, dynamic fric-
to the first detectable response of the tion is the force that must be over-
system being tested. Dead Time can come to maintain the relative motion.
apply to a valve assembly or to the Running or sliding friction are colloqui-
entire process. (See T63.) al terms that are sometimes used to
describe dynamic friction. Stick/slip or
Disk: A valve trim element used to stiction are colloquial terms that are
modulate the flow rate with either lin- sometimes used to describe static fric-
ear or rotary motion. Can also be re- tion. Static friction is one of the major
ferred to as a valve plug or closure causes of dead band in a valve as-
member. sembly.
Equal Percentage Characteristic*: Gain: An all-purpose term that can
An inherent flow characteristic that, for be used in many situations. In its most
equal increments of rated travel, will general sense, gain is the ratio of the
ideally give equal percentage changes magnitude of the output change of a
of the flow coefficient (Cv) (figure 1-2). given system or device to the magni-
tude of the input change that caused
Final Control Element: The device the output change. Gain has two com-
that implements the control strategy ponents: static gain and dynamic
determined by the output of the con- gain. Static gain is the gain relation-
troller. While the final control element ship between the input and output and
can be a damper, a variable speed is an indicator of the ease with which
drive pump, or an on-off switching de- the input can initiate a change in the
vice, the most common final control output when the system or device is in
element in the process control indus- a steady-state condition. Sensitivity is
tries is the control valve assembly. sometimes used to mean static gain.
The control valve manipulates a flow- Dynamic gain is the gain relationship
3
Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves
through the valve to the change in
valve travel under conditions of con-
stant pressure drop. Inherent valve
gain is an inherent function of the
valve design. It is equal to the slope of
the inherent characteristic curve at
any travel point and is a function of
valve travel.
Installed Characteristic*: The rela-
tionship between the flow rate and the
closure member (disk) travel as it is
moved from the closed position to rat-
ed travel as the pressure drop across
A3449/IL
the valve is influenced by the varying
process conditions. (See Valve Type
Figure 1-2. Inherent Valve and Characterization in Chapter 2 for
Characteristics more details on how the installed
characteristic is determined.)
between the input and output when Installed Valve Gain: The magni-
the system is in a state of movement tude ratio of the change in flow
or flux. Dynamic gain is a function of through the valve to the change in
frequency or rate of change of the in- valve travel under actual process con-
put. ditions. Installed valve gain is the
valve gain relationship that occurs
Hysteresis*: The maximum differ- when the valve is installed in a specif-
ence in output value for any single in- ic system and the pressure drop is al-
put value during a calibration cycle, lowed to change naturally according
excluding errors due to dead band. to the dictates of the overall system.
The installed valve gain is equal to the
Inherent Characteristic*: The rela-
slope of the installed characteristic
tionship between the flow coefficient curve, and is a function of valve travel.
and the closure member (disk) travel (See Valve Type and Characterization
as it is moved from the closed position in Chapter 2 for more details on how
to rated travel with constant pressure the installed gain is determined.)
drop across the valve.
I/P: Shorthand for current-to-pres-
Typically these characteristics are
sure (I-to-P). Typically applied to input
plotted on a curve where the horizon- transducer modules.
tal axis is labeled in percent travel and
the vertical axis is labeled as percent Linearity*: The closeness to which a
flow (or Cv) (figure 1-2). Because curve relating to two variables approx-
valve flow is a function of both the imates a straight line. (Linearity also
valve travel and the pressure drop means that the same straight line will
across the valve, conducting flow apply for both upscale and downscale
characteristic tests at a constant pres- directions. Thus, dead band as de-
sure drop provides a systematic way fined above, would typically be con-
of comparing one valve characteristic sidered a non-linearity.)
design to another. Typical valve char-
acteristics conducted in this manner Linear Characteristic*: An inherent
are named Linear, Equal-Percentage, flow characteristic that can be repre-
and Quick Opening (figure 1-2). sented by a straight line on a rectan-
gular plot of flow coefficient (Cv) ver-
Inherent Valve Gain: The magni- sus rated travel. Therefore equal
tude ratio of the change in flow increments of travel provide equal in-
4
 Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves

crements of flow coefficient, Cv (figure the set point or mean value of the
1-2). measured process variable and s is
the standard deviation of the process
Loop: (See Closed Loop.) variable.
Loop Gain: The combined gain of all Quick Opening Characteristic*: An
the components in the loop when inherent flow characteristic in which a
viewed in series around the loop. maximum flow coefficient is achieved
Sometimes referred to as open-loop with minimal closure member travel
gain. It must be clearly specified (figure 1-2).
whether referring to the static loop
gain or the dynamic loop gain at some Relay: A device that acts as a power
frequency. amplifier. It takes an electrical, pneu-
matic, or mechanical input signal and
Manual Control: (See Open Loop.) produces an output of a large volume
flow of air or hydraulic fluid to the ac-
Open Loop: The condition where tuator. The relay can be an internal
the interconnection of process control component of the positioner or a sep-
components is interrupted such that arate valve accessory.
information from the process variable
is no longer fed back to the controller Resolution: The minimum possible
set point so that corrections to the change in input required to produce a
process variable are no longer pro- detectable change in the output when
vided. This is typically accomplished no reversal of the input takes place.
by placing the controller in the manual Resolution is typically expressed as a
operating position. percent of the input span.

Packing: A part of the valve assem- Response Time: Usually measured

bly used to seal against leakage by a parameter that includes both
around the valve disk or stem. dead time and time constant. (See
T63, Dead Time, and Time Constant.)
Positioner*: A position controller When applied to the valve, it includes
(servomechanism) that is mechanical- the entire valve assembly.
ly connected to a moving part of a fi- Second-Order: A term that refers to
nal control element or its actuator and
the dynamic relationship between the
that automatically adjusts its output to input and output of a device. A sec-
the actuator to maintain a desired po- ond-order system or device is one that
sition in proportion to the input signal. has two energy storage devices that
Process: All the combined elements can transfer kinetic and potential ener-
in the control loop, except the control- gy back and forth between them-
ler. The process typically includes the selves, thus introducing the possibility
control valve assembly, the pressure of oscillatory behavior and overshoot.
vessel or heat exchanger that is being Sensor: A device that senses the
controlled, as well as sensors, pumps, value of the process variable and pro-
and transmitters. vides a corresponding output signal to
Process Gain: The ratio of the a transmitter. The sensor can be an
integral part of the transmitter, or it
change in the controlled process vari-
may be a separate component.
able to a corresponding change in the
output of the controller. Set Point: A reference value repre-
Process Variability: A precise statis- senting the desired value of the pro-
cess variable being controlled.
tical measure of how tightly the pro-
cess is being controlled about the set Shaft Wind-Up: A phenomenon
point. Process variability is defined in where one end of a valve shaft turns
percent as typically (2s/m), where m is and the other does not. This typically
5
Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves
occurs in rotary-style valves where the the closure member typically with
actuator is connected to the valve clo- units of opening percent of travel or
sure member by a relatively long degrees of rotation.
shaft. While seal friction in the valve
Trim*: The internal components of a
holds one end of the shaft in place,
rotation of the shaft at the actuator valve that modulate the flow of the
end is absorbed by twisting of the controlled fluid.
shaft until the actuator input transmits Valve: (See Control Valve Assembly.)
enough force to overcome the friction.
Volume Booster: A stand-alone re-
Sizing (Valve): A systematic proce- lay is often referred to as a volume
dure designed to ensure the correct booster or simply booster because it
valve capacity for a set of specified boosts, or amplifies, the volume of air
process conditions. supplied to the actuator. (See Relay.)
Stiction: (See Friction.)
Sliding-Stem Control
T63 (Tee-63): A measure of device Valve Terminology
response. It is measured by applying The following terminology applies to
a small (usually 1-5%) step input to
the physical and operating character-
the system. T63 is measured from the istics of standard sliding-stem control
time the step input is initiated to the
time when the system output reaches valves with diaphragm or piston ac-
63% of the final steady-state value. It tuators. Some of the terms, particular-
is the combined total of the system ly those pertaining to actuators, are
also appropriate for rotary-shaft con-
Dead Time (Td) and the system Time trol valves. Many of the definitions
Constant (t). (See Dead Time and
Time Constant.) presented are in accordance with ISA
S75.05, Control Valve Terminology,
Time Constant: A time parameter although other popular terms are also
that normally applies to a first-order included. Additional explanation is
element. It is the time interval mea- provided for some of the more com-
sured from the first detectable re- plex terms. Component part names
sponse of the system to a small (usu- are called out on accompanying fig-
ally 0.25% - 5%) step input until the ures 1-3 through 1-6. Separate sec-
system output reaches 63% of its final tions follow that define specific ro-
steady-state value. (See T63.) When tary-shaft control valve terminology,
applied to an open-loop process, the control valve functions and character-
time constant is usually designated as istics terminology, and other process
t (Tau). When applied to a closed-loop control terminology.
system, the time constant is usually Actuator Spring: A spring, or group
designated as (Lambda). of springs, enclosed in the yoke or ac-
Transmitter: A device that senses tuator casing that moves the actuator
stem in a direction opposite to that
the value of the process variable and
created by diaphragm pressure.
transmits a corresponding output sig-
nal to the controller for comparison Actuator Stem: The part that con-
with the set point. nects the actuator to the valve stem
and transmits motion (force) from the
Travel*: The movement of the closure actuator to the valve.
member from the closed position to an
intermediate or rated full open posi- Actuator Stem Extension: An ex-
tion. tension of the piston actuator stem to
provide a means of transmitting piston
Travel Indicator: A pointer and scale motion to the valve positioner (figure
used to externally show the position of 1-7).
6
 Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves
LOADING PRESSURE CONNECTION

DIAPHRAGM CASING

DIAPHRAGM AND STEM

SHOWN IN UP POSITION

DIAPHRAGM PLATE

ACTUATOR SPRING
DIRECTACTING ACTUATOR STEM
ACTUATOR SPRING SEAT

SPRING ADJUSTOR
STEM CONNECTOR
YOKE

TRAVEL INDICATOR

INDICATOR SCALE

W0363-1

COMPACT FIELD-REVERSIBLE
MULTI-SPRING ACTUATOR

INTEGRAL PNEUMATIC
PASSAGEWAYS

INTEGRATED POSITIONER
MOUNTING
NAMUR POSITIONER
AIRTOOPEN MOUNTING CAPABILITY
VALVE ASSEMBLY
ONE-PIECE SCREWED
PACKING FOLLOWER

STANDARD LIVE-LOADED
PACKING

CLAMPED BONNET DESIGN

W8486-3

BONNET
VALVE PLUG STEM
GASKET
PACKING FLANGE
SPIRAL ACTUATOR YOKE LOCKNUT
WOUND
PUSHDOWN GASKET PACKING
PACKING BOX
TOCLOSE
BONNET
VALVE BODY
ASSEMBLY
CAGE
GASKET VALVE PLUG

CAGE
SEAT SEAT RING GASKET
RING
W0989 VALVE BODY

Figure 1-3. Major Components of Typical Sliding-Stem Control Valve Assemblies

7
Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves

DIAPHRAGM CASINGS

DIAPHRAGM AND
STEM SHOWN IN
DOWN POSITION
DIAPHRAGM
PLATE
LOADING PRESSURE
CONNECTION

ACTUATOR SPRING

ACTUATOR STEM

SPRING SEAT

SPRING ADJUSTOR

STEM CONNECTOR

YOKE

TRAVEL INDICATOR

INDICATOR SCALE
W0364-1/IL

Figure 1-4. Typical Reverse-Acting

Diaphragm Actuator

W0667/IL

W6434/IL

Figure 1-5. Extension Bonnet Figure 1-6. Bellows Seal Bonnet

Actuator Stem Force: The net force stem or actuator, and the other port is
from an actuator that is available for at a right angle to the valve stem.
actual positioning of the valve plug. (See also Globe Valve.)
Angle Valve: A valve design in which Bellows Seal Bonnet: A bonnet that
one port is co-linear with the valve uses a bellows for sealing against
8
 Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves

ACTUATOR STEM

CYLINDER

PISTON SEAL
PISTON

ACTUATOR
STEM SEAL
CYLINDER
CYLINDER SEAL
CLOSURE SEAL

TRAVEL SEAL BUSHING

INDICATOR SCALE

YOKE

STEM CONNECTOR

TRAVEL INDICATOR
W7447-1/IIL

Figure 1-7. Typical Double-Acting Piston Actuator with Bias Spring

leakage around the closure member Bottom Flange: A part that closes a
stem (figure 1-6). valve body opening opposite the bon-
net opening. It can include a guide
Bonnet: The portion of the valve that bushing and/or serve to allow reversal
contains the packing box and stem of the valve action.
seal and can guide the stem. It pro- Bushing: A device that supports and/
vides the principal opening to the or guides moving parts such as valve
body cavity for assembly of internal stems.
parts or it can be an integral part of
the valve body. It can also provide for Cage: A part of a valve trim that sur-
the attachment of the actuator to the rounds the closure member and can
valve body. Typical bonnets are bolt- provide flow characterization and/or a
ed, threaded, welded, pressure-seals, seating surface. It also provides stabil-
or integral with the body. (This term is ity, guiding, balance, and alignment,
often used in referring to the bonnet and facilitates assembly of other parts
and its included packing parts. More of the valve trim. The walls of the
properly, this group of component cage contain openings that usually
parts should be called the bonnet as- determine the flow characteristic of
sembly.) the control valve. Various cage styles
are shown in figure 1-8.
Bonnet Assembly: (Commonly Bon- Closure Member: The movable part
net, more properly Bonnet Assembly): of the valve that is positioned in the
An assembly including the part flow path to modify the rate of flow
through which a valve stem moves through the valve.
and a means for sealing against leak-
age along the stem. It usually pro- Closure Member Guide: That por-
vides a means for mounting the actua- tion of a closure member that aligns
tor and loading the packing assembly. its movement in either a cage, seat
9
Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves

W0957/IL
W0958/IL W0959/IL

QUICK OPENING LINEAR EQUAL PERCENTAGE

Figure 1-8. Characterized Cages for Globe-Style Valve Bodies

ring, bonnet, bottom flange, or any

two of these.
Cylinder: The chamber of a piston
actuator in which the piston moves
(figure 1-7).
Cylinder Closure Seal: The sealing
element at the connection of the pis-
ton actuator cylinder to the yoke.
Diaphragm: A flexible, pressure re-
sponsive element that transmits force
to the diaphragm plate and actuator
stem.
Diaphragm Actuator: A fluid pow-
ered device in which the fluid acts up-
on a flexible component, the dia- W0467/IL

phragm. Figure 1-9. Reverse Double-Ported

Globe-Style Valve Body
Diaphragm Case: A housing, con-
sisting of top and bottom section,
used for supporting a diaphragm and Globe Valve: A valve with a linear
establishing one or two pressure motion closure member, one or more
chambers. ports, and a body distinguished by a
globular shaped cavity around the port
Diaphragm Plate: A plate concentric region. Globe valves can be further
with the diaphragm for transmitting classified as: two-way single-ported;
force to the actuator stem. two-way double-ported (figure 1-9);
angle-style (figure 1-10); three-way
Direct Actuator: A diaphragm actua- (figure 1-11); unbalanced cage-guided
tor in which the actuator stem extends (figure 1-3); and balance cage-guided
with increasing diaphragm pressure. (figure 1-12).
Extension Bonnet: A bonnet with Lower Valve Body: A half housing
greater dimension between the pack- for internal valve parts having one
ing box and bonnet flange for hot or flow connection. The seat ring is nor-
cold service. mally clamped between the upper
10
 Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves

W0992/IL
W0971/IL

Figure 1-12. Valve Body with

Figure 1-10. Flanged Angle-Style Con- Cage-Style Trim, Balanced Valve
trol Valve Body Plug, and Soft Seat

member stem. Included in the com-

plete packing box assembly are vari-
ous combinations of some or all of the
following component parts: packing,
packing follower, packing nut, lantern
ring, packing spring, packing flange,
packing flange studs or bolts, packing
flange nuts, packing ring, packing wip-
er ring, felt wiper ring, belleville
springs, anti-extrusion ring. Individual
packing parts are shown in figure
1-13.
Piston: A movable pressure respon-
sive element that transmits force to
the piston actuator stem (figure 1-7).
Piston Type Actuator: A fluid pow-
W0665/IL ered device in which the fluid acts up-
Figure 1-11. Three-Way Valve with on a movable piston to provide motion
Balanced Valve Plug to the actuator stem. Piston type actu-
ators (figure 1-7) are classified as ei-
ther double-acting, so that full power
valve body and the lower valve body can be developed in either direction,
in split valve constructions. or as spring-fail so that upon loss of
supply power, the actuator moves the
Offset Valve: A valve construction valve in the required direction of trav-
having inlet and outlet line connec- el.
tions on different planes but 180 de-
grees opposite each other. Plug: A term frequently used to refer
to the closure member.
Packing Box (Assembly): The part
of the bonnet assembly used to seal Port: The flow control orifice of a
against leakage around the closure control valve.
11
Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves

12A7837-A 13A9775-E 14A1849-E

STANDARD
TFE VRING GRAPHITE PACKING ARRANGEMENTS

B2565 / IL 1 LOCATION OF SACRIFICIAL ZINC WASHER,

IF USED.
Figure 1-13. Comprehensive Packing Material Arrangements
for Globe-Style Valve Bodies

Retaining Ring: A split ring that is Seat Load: The net contact force be-
used to retain a separable flange on a tween the closure member and seat
valve body. with stated static conditions. In prac-
tice, the selection of an actuator for a
Reverse Actuator: A diaphragm ac- given control valve will be based on
tuator in which the actuator stem re- how much force is required to over-
tracts with increasing diaphragm pres- come static, stem, and dynamic un-
sure. Reverse actuators have a seal balance with an allowance made for
bushing (figure 1-4) installed in the seat load.
upper end of the yoke to prevent leak- Seat Ring: A part of the valve body
age of the diaphragm pressure along assembly that provides a seating sur-
the actuator stem. face for the closure member and can
provide part of the flow control orifice.
Rubber Boot: A protective device to
Separable Flange: A flange that fits
prevent entrance of damaging foreign
material into the piston actuator seal over a valve body flow connection. It
bushing. is generally held in place by means of
a retaining ring.
Seal Bushing: Top and bottom bush- Spring Adjustor: A fitting, usually
ings that provide a means of sealing threaded on the actuator stem or into
the piston actuator cylinder against the yoke, to adjust the spring com-
leakage. Synthetic rubber O-rings are pression.
used in the bushings to seal the cylin-
der, the actuator stem, and the actua- Spring Seat: A plate to hold the
tor stem extension (figure 1-7). spring in position and to provide a flat
surface for the spring adjustor to con-
tact.
Seat: The area of contact between
the closure member and its mating Static Unbalance: The net force pro-
surface that establishes valve shut-off. duced on the valve stem by the fluid
12
 Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves
pressure acting on the closure mem- Valve Body Assembly (Commonly
ber and stem with the fluid at rest and Valve Body or Valve, more properly
with stated pressure conditions. Valve Body Assembly): An assembly
of a valve, bonnet assembly, bottom
Stem Connector: The device that flange (if used), and trim elements.
connects the actuator stem to the
valve stem. The trim includes the closure member,
which opens, closes, or partially ob-
Trim: The internal components of a structs one or more ports.
valve that modulate the flow of the
controlled fluid. In a globe valve body,
trim would typically include closure Valve Plug: A term frequently inter-
member, seat ring, cage, stem, and changed with plug in reference to the
stem pin. closure member.
Trim, Soft-Seated: Valve trim with an
elastomeric, plastic or other readily
deformable material used either in the Valve Stem: In a linear motion valve,
closure component or seat ring to pro- the part that connects the actuator
vide tight shutoff with minimal actuator stem with the closure member.
forces.

Upper Valve Body: A half housing Yoke: The structure that rigidly con-
for internal valve parts and having one nects the actuator power unit to the
flow connection. It usually includes a valve.
means for sealing against leakage
along the stem and provides a means
for mounting the actuator on the split
valve body.

Valve Body: The main pressure Rotary-Shaft Control Valve

boundary of the valve that also pro-
vides the pipe connecting ends, the Terminology
fluid flow passageway, and supports
the seating surfaces and the valve The definitions that follow apply spe-
closure member. Among the most cifically to rotary-shaft control valves.
common valve body constructions
are: a) single-ported valve bodies
having one port and one valve plug; b) Actuator Lever: Arm attached to ro-
double-ported valve bodies having
tary valve shaft to convert linear ac-
two ports and one valve plug; c)
two-way valve bodies having two flow tuator stem motion to rotary force to
connections, one inlet and one outlet; position disk or ball of rotary-shaft
d) three-way valve bodies having valve. The lever normally is positively
three flow connections, two of which connected to the rotary shaft by close
can be inlets with one outlet (for con- tolerance splines or other means to
verging or mixing flows), or one inlet minimize play and lost motion.
and two outlets (for diverging or di-
verting flows). The term valve body, or
even just body, frequently is used in Ball, Full: The flow-controlling mem-
referring to the valve body together
with its bonnet assembly and included ber of rotary-shaft control valves using
trim parts. More properly, this group of a complete sphere with a flow pas-
components should be called the sage through it. The flow passage
valve body assembly. equals or matches the pipe diameter.
13
Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves

W4920/IL
SEGMENTED BALL VALVE

W4641

CONVENTIONAL DISK
BUTTERFLY VALVE

W6213/IL
ECCENTRIC DISK VALVE

W5477/IL
CONTOURED DISK BUTTERFLY VALVE

Figure 1-14. Typical Rotary-Shaft Control Valve Constructions

14
 Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves
Ball, Segmented: The flow-control- Flangeless valves are held between
ling member of rotary shaft control ANSI-class flanges by long
valves using a partial sphere with a through-bolts (sometimes also called
flow passage through it. wafer-style valve bodies).

Ball, V-notch: The most common Plug, Eccentric: Style of rotary con-
type of segmented ball control valve. trol valve with an eccentrically rotating
The V-notch ball includes a polished plug which cams into and out of the
or plated partial-sphere surface that seat, which reduces friction and wear.
rotates against the seal ring through- This style of valve has been well suit-
out the travel range. The V-shaped ed for erosive applications.
notch in the ball permits wide range-
Reverse Flow: Flow from the shaft
ability and produces an equal percent-
age flow characteristic. side over the back of the disk, ball, or
plug. Some rotary-shaft control valves
Note: are capable of handling flow equally
The balls mentioned well in either direction. Other rotary
designs might require modification of
above, and the disks
actuator linkage to handle reverse
which follow, perform a
flow.
function comparable to
the valve plug in a Rod End Bearing: The connection
globe-style control often used between actuator stem and
valve. That is, as they actuator lever to facilitate conversion
rotate they vary the size of linear actuator thrust to rotary force
and shape of the flow- with minimum of lost motion. Use of a
stream by opening more standard reciprocating actuator on a
or less of the seal area rotary-shaft valve body commonly re-
to the flowing fluid. quires linkage with two rod end bear-
Disk, Conventional: The symmetri- ings. However, selection of an actua-
tor specifically designed for
cal flow-controlling member used in
rotary-shaft valve service requires on-
the most common varieties of butterfly
ly one such bearing and thereby re-
rotary valves. High dynamic torques duces lost motion.
normally limit conventional disks to 60
degrees maximum rotation in throttling Rotary-Shaft Control Valve: A valve
service. style in which the flow closure mem-
ber (full ball, partial ball, disk or plug)
Disk, Dynamically Designed: A but- is rotated in the flowstream to control
terfly valve disk contoured to reduce the capacity of the valve (figure 1-14).
dynamic torque at large increments of
rotation, thereby making it suitable for Seal Ring: The portion of a ro-
throttling service with up to 90 de- tary-shaft control valve assembly
grees of disk rotation. corresponding to the seat ring of a
globe valve. Positioning of the disk or
Disk, Eccentric: Common name for ball relative to the seal ring deter-
valve design in which the positioning mines the flow area and capacity of
of the valve shaft/disk connections the unit at that particular increment of
causes the disk to take a slightly ec- rotational travel. As indicated above,
centric path on opening. This allows some seal ring designs permit bi-di-
the disk to be swung out of contact rectional flow.
with the seal as soon as it is opened,
thereby reducing friction and wear. Shaft: The portion of a rotary-shaft
control valve assembly corresponding
Flangeless Valve: Valve style com- to the valve stem of a globe valve. Ro-
mon to rotary-shaft control valves. tation of the shaft positions the disk or
15
Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves
ball in the flowstream and thereby Effective Area: In a diaphragm ac-
controls capacity of the valve. tuator, the effective area is that part of
the diaphragm area that is effective in
Sliding Seal: The lower cylinder seal producing a stem force. The effective
in a pneumatic piston-style actuator area of a diaphragm might change as
designed for rotary valve service. This it is stroked, usually being a maximum
seal permits the actuator stem to at the start and a minimum at the end
move both vertically and laterally with- of the travel range. Molded dia-
out leakage of lower cylinder pres- phragms have less change in effective
sure. area than flat sheet diaphragms; thus,
Standard Flow: For those ro- molded diaphragms are recom-
mended.
tary-shaft control valves having a sep-
arate seal ring or flow ring, the flow Equal Percentage Flow Character-
direction in which fluid enters the istic: (See Process Control Terminol-
valve body through the pipeline adja- ogy: Equal Percentage Flow Charac-
cent to the seal ring and exits from the teristic.)
side opposite the seal ring. Some-
Fail-Closed: A condition wherein the
times called forward flow. (See also
Reverse Flow.) valve closure member moves to a
closed position when the actuating en-
Trunnion Mounting: A style of ergy source fails.
mounting the disk or ball on the valve Fail-Open: A condition wherein the
shaft or stub shaft with two bearings
valve closure member moves to an
diametrically opposed.
open position when the actuating en-
ergy source fails.
Control Valve Functions Fail-Safe: A characteristic of a valve
and Characteristics and its actuator, which upon loss of
actuating energy supply, will cause a
Terminology valve closure member to be fully
Bench Set: The calibration of the ac- closed, fully open, or remain in the
tuator spring range of a control valve last position, whichever position is de-
to account for the in-service process fined as necessary to protect the pro-
forces. cess. Fail-safe action can involve the
use of auxiliary controls connected to
Capacity: Rate of flow through a the actuator.
valve under stated conditions.
Flow Characteristic: Relationship
Clearance Flow: That flow below the between flow through the valve and
minimum controllable flow with the percent rated travel as the latter is
closure member not seated. varied from 0 to 100 percent. This
term should always be designated as
Diaphragm Pressure Span: Differ-
either inherent flow characteristic or
ence between the high and low values installed flow characteristic.
of the diaphragm pressure range. This
can be stated as an inherent or in- Flow Coefficient (Cv): A constant
stalled characteristic. (Cv) related to the geometry of a
valve, for a given travel, that can be
Double-Acting Actuator: An actua- used to establish flow capacity. It is
tor in which power is supplied in either the number of U.S. gallons per minute
direction. of 60_F water that will flow through a
Dynamic Unbalance: The net force valve with a one pound per square
inch pressure drop.
produced on the valve plug in any
stated open position by the fluid pres- High-Recovery Valve: A valve de-
sure acting upon it. sign that dissipates relatively little
16
 Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves
flow-stream energy due to streamlined the flowpath. Consequently, pressure
internal contours and minimal flow tur- downstream of the valve vena con-
bulence. Therefore, pressure tracta recovers to a lesser percentage
down-stream of the valve vena con- of its inlet value than is the case with
tracta recovers to a high percentage a valve having a more streamlined
of its inlet value. Straight-through flow flowpath. Although individual designs
valves, such as rotary-shaft ball vary, conventional globe-style valves
valves, are typically high-recovery generally have low pressure recovery
valves. capability.
Inherent Diaphragm Pressure Modified Parabolic Flow Character-
Range: The high and low values of istic: An inherent flow characteristic
pressure applied to the diaphragm to that provides equal percent character-
produce rated valve plug travel with istic at low closure member travel and
atmospheric pressure in the valve approximately a linear characteristic
body. This range is often referred to for upper portions of closure member
as a bench set range because it will travel.
be the range over which the valve will Normally Closed Valve: (See
stroke when it is set on the work
Fail-Closed.)
bench.
Normally Open Valve: (See
Inherent Flow Characteristic: The
Fail-Open.)
relationship between the flow rate and
the closure member travel as it is Push-Down-to-Close Construction:
moved from the closed position to rat- A globe-style valve construction in
ed travel with constant pressure drop which the closure member is located
across the valve. between the actuator and the seat
ring, such that extension of the actua-
Installed Diaphragm Pressure tor stem moves the closure member
Range: The high and low values of toward the seat ring, finally closing the
pressure applied to the diaphragm to valve (figure 1-3). The term can also
produce rated travel with stated condi- be applied to rotary-shaft valve con-
tions in the valve body. It is because structions where linear extension of
of the forces acting on the closure the actuator stem moves the ball or
member that the inherent diaphragm disk toward the closed position. (Also
pressure range can differ from the in- called direct acting.)
stalled diaphragm pressure range.
Push-Down-to-Open Construction:
Installed Flow Characteristic: The A globe-style valve construction in
relationship between the flow rate and which the seat ring is located between
the closure member travel as it is the actuator and the closure member,
moved from the closed position to rat- so that extension of the actuator stem
ed travel as the pressure drop across moves the closure member from the
the valve is influenced by the varying seat ring, opening the valve. The term
process conditions. can also be applied to rotary-shaft
valve constructions where linear ex-
Leakage: (See Seat Leakage.)
tension of the actuator stem moves
Linear Flow Characteristic: (See the ball or disk toward the open posi-
tion. (Also called reverse acting.)
Process Control Terminology: Linear
Characteristic.) Quick Opening Flow Characteristic:
(See Process Control Terminology:
Low-Recovery Valve: A valve de-
Quick Opening Characteristic.)
sign that dissipates a considerable
amount of flowstream energy due to Rangeability: The ratio of the largest
turbulence created by the contours of flow coefficient (Cv) to the smallest
17
Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves
flow coefficient (Cv) within which the Other Process Control
deviation from the specified flow char-
acteristic does not exceed the stated Terminology
limits. A control valve that still does a The following terms and definitions
good job of controlling when flow in- not previously defined are frequently
creases to 100 times the minimum encountered by people associated
controllable flow has a rangeability of with control valves, instrumentation,
100 to 1. Rangeability can also be ex- and accessories. Some of the terms
pressed as the ratio of the maximum (indicated with an asterisk) are quoted
to minimum controllable flow rates. from the ISA standard, Process Instru-
mentation Terminology, ISA 51.1. Oth-
Rated Flow Coefficient (Cv): The ers included are also popularly used
flow coefficient (Cv) of the valve at rat- throughout the control valve industry.
ed travel. ANSI: Abbreviation for American Na-
tional Standards Institute.
Rated Travel: The distance of move-
ment of the closure member from the API: Abbreviation for American Pe-
closed position to the rated full-open troleum Institute.
position. The rated full-open position ASME: Abbreviation for American
is the maximum opening recom- Society of Mechanical Engineers.
mended by the manufacturers.
ASTM: Abbreviation for American
Relative Flow Coefficient: The ratio Society for Testing and Materials.
of the flow coefficient (Cv) at a stated Automatic Control System*: A con-
travel to the flow coefficient (Cv) at rat- trol system that operates without hu-
ed travel. man intervention.
Bode Diagram*: A plot of log ampli-
Seat Leakage: The quantity of fluid
passing through a valve when the tude ratio and phase angle values on
valve is in the fully closed position a log frequency base for a transfer
with pressure differential and tempera- function (figure 1-15). It is the most
ture as specified. (ANSI leakage clas- common form of graphically present-
sifications are outlined in Chapter 5.) ing frequency response data.
Calibration Curve*: A graphical rep-
Spring Rate: The force change per resentation of the calibration report
unit change in length of a spring. In (figure 1-15). Steady state output of a
diaphragm control valves, the spring device plotted as a function of its
rate is usually stated in pounds force steady state input. The curve is usual-
per inch compression. ly shown as percent output span ver-
sus percent input span.
Stem Unbalance: The net force pro- Calibration Cycle*: The application
duced on the valve stem in any posi- of known values of the measured vari-
tion by the fluid pressure acting upon able and the recording of correspond-
it. ing values of output readings, over the
range of the instrument, in ascending
Vena Contracta: The portion of a and descending directions (figure
flow stream where fluid velocity is at 1-15). A calibration curve obtained by
its maximum and fluid static pressure varying the input of a device in both
and the cross-sectional area are at increasing and decreasing directions.
their minimum. In a control valve, the It is usually shown as percent output
vena contracta normally occurs just span versus percent input span and
downstream of the actual physical re- provides a measurement of hystere-
striction. sis.
18
 Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves

Figure 1-15. Graphic Representation of Various Control Terms

19
Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves
Clearance Flow: That flow below the instability in the control system or the
minimum controllable flow with the valve positioner.
closure general member not seated.
Hysteresis: A retardation of an effect
Controller*: A device that operates when the forces acting upon a body
automatically to regulate a controlled are changed (as if from viscosity or
variable. internal friction).

Enthalpy: A thermodynamic quantity ISA: Abbreviation for the Instrument

that is the sum of the internal energy Society of America. Now recognized
of a body and the product of its vol- as the International Society for Mea-
ume multiplied by the pressure: H = U surement and Control.
+ pV. (Also called the heat content.) Instrument Pressure: The output
Entropy: The theoretical measure of pressure from an automatic controller
that is used to operate a control valve.
energy that cannot be transformed in-
to mechanical work in a thermody- Loading Pressure: The pressure
namic system. employed to position a pneumatic ac-
tuator. This is the pressure that actual-
Feedback Signal*: The return signal
ly works on the actuator diaphragm or
that results from a measurement of piston and it can be the instrument
the directly controlled variable. For a pressure if a valve positioner is not
control valve with a positioner, the re- used.
turn signal is usually a mechanical in-
dication of closure member stem posi- NACE: Used to stand for National
tion that is fed back into the positioner. Association of Corrosion Engineers.
As the scope of the organization be-
FCI: Abbreviation for Fluid Controls came international, the name was
Institute. changed to NACE International.
NACE is no longer an abbreviation.
Frequency Response Characteris-
tic*: The frequency-dependent rela- OSHA: Abbreviation for Occupational
tion, in both amplitude and phase, be- Safety and Health Act. (U.S.A.)
tween steady-state sinusoidal inputs
Operating Medium: This is the fluid,
and the resulting fundamental sinusoi-
dal outputs. Output amplitude and generally air or gas, used to supply
phase shift are observed as functions the power for operation of valve posi-
of the input test frequency and used to tioner or automatic controller.
describe the dynamic behavior of the Operative Limits*: The range of op-
control device. erating conditions to which a device
Hardness: Resistance of metal to can be subjected without permanent
impairment of operating characteris-
plastic deformation, usually by in-
tics.
dentation. Resistance of plastics and
rubber to penetration of an indentor Range: The region between the limits
point into its surface. within which a quantity is measured,
received, or transmitted, expressed by
Hunting*: An undesirable oscillation stating the lower and upper range val-
of appreciable magnitude, prolonged ues (for example: 3 to 15 psi; -40 to
after external stimuli disappear.
+212_F; -40 to +100_C).
Sometimes called cycling or limit cy-
cle, hunting is evidence of operation Repeatability*: The closeness of
at or near the stability limit. In control agreement among a number of con-
valve applications, hunting would ap- secutive measurements of the output
pear as an oscillation in the loading for the same value of the input under
pressure to the actuator caused by the same operating conditions, ap-
20
proaching from the same direction, for
full range traverses. It is usually mea-
sured as a non-repeatability and ex-
pressed as repeatability in percent of
span. It does not include hyesteresis
(figure 1-15).

Sensitivity*: The ratio of the change

in output magnitude to the change of
the input that causes it after the
steady-state has been reached.

Signal*: A physical variable, one or

more parameters of which carry infor-
mation about another variable the sig-
nal represents.

Signal Amplitude Sequencing (Split

Ranging)*: Action in which two or
more signals are generated or two or
more final controlling elements are ac-
tuated by and input signal, each one
responding consecutively, with or
Chapter 1. Introduction to Control Valves
without overlap, to the magnitude of
that input signal (figure 1-15).
Span*: The algebraic difference be-
tween the upper and lower range val-
ues (for example: Range = 0 to
150_F; Span = 150_F; Range = 3 to
15 psig, Span = 12 psig).
Stiction: the force required to cause
one body in contact with another to
begin to move.
Supply Pressure*: The pressure at
the supply port of a device. Common
values of control valve supply pres-
sure are 20 psig for a 3 to 15 psig
range and 35 psig for a 6 to 30 psig
range.
Zero Error*: Error of a device operat-
ing under specified conditions of use
when the input is at the lower range
value. It is usually expressed as per-
cent of ideal span.