Concepts of Instrumentation Control Valves

Concepts of Instrumentation
Module: Control Valves
Source: http://www.algonet.se/~ramen/ramen12.htm
Control Valves
Classification
Control Valves
Linear Rotary Axial
Globe Axial Ball Eccentric Butterfly
Source: Valtek. Mokveld

Control Valves
Nomenclature
Actuator
A pneumatic, hydraulic or electric device that supplies the force to
open or close the valve.
Dead Band
Range in which the input to the valve does not cause any effect in
the output signal
Disk
Element used to modulate the flow with either linear or rotary
motion. It is also called plug, closing element etc
Inherent Characteristic
Relationship between the flow coefficient and the disk travel as it is
moved from the closed position to rated travel with constant
pressure drop across the valve
Source: Control Valve Hand book, Emerson

Control Valves
Nomenclature
Positioner
A servo mechanism connected to a moving part of the control
valve and/or the actuator adjusting its output to obtain a desire
position in proportion to the input
Travel
Movement of the closure element from the closed position to an
intermediate or full open position
Trim
The internal components of a valve used to modulate the flow.
Usually they are: disk, stem, seat ring, packing, o-rings
Stem
The part that connects the actuator to the closing element in a
sliding valve type

Control Valves
Nomenclature
Volume Booster
A device used to boost or amplifies the volume of air fed to the
actuator
Yoke
Structure that connects the actuator to the valve

Control Valves
“Control valve is a device, other than a

common, hand actuated ON-OFF valve or
self actuated check valve, that directly
manipulates the flow of one or more fluid
process streams”
ANSI/ISA –S5.1-1984 (R1992)

Control Valves
Before considering to use a control valve,

the designer should analyze all the
reasons why a control valve is required.
Depending of the application, one can
obtained the same or even better results
by using a self actuated regulator, which
will reduce installation and operating
costs. Remember that more often than
not, “Less is More”
Control Valves
Control Valve Diagram
Hand Wheel
Diaphragm Casing
Spring
Diaphragm
Stem
Packing Yoke
Body
Bonnet
Plug - Disk
Source: Copes Vulcan

Seat Ring
Control Valves
Control Valve Diagram
Source: Samson AG
Control Valves
Inherent Characteristic
Plot of % Cv versus % of
100
flow, which allows to find
the percentage of flow in Quick Opening
80
function of the valve
% Maximum Flow (Cv)

opening for different valves
sizes.
60
If the characteristic curve
and the maximum Cv are Cv
known, then any 40 Linear
intermediate lift vs. flow can Lift
be found.
20
The three most common Equal %

valve characteristics are:
0
Quick opening, linear, equal 0 20 40 60 80 100

%
% Rated Travel (Lift)
Control Valves
Operating Characteristic
100
If the pressure drop across
the valve is constant, the Increases
inherent characteristic will
80
remain constant. However 1
% Maximum Flow
this is not the case, as the
valve closes the pressure
60
drop increases. As a result
the Cv decreases as the
valve closes, but pressure 2
drop increases, the result is 40
that flow does not falls as
fast as the Cv, therefore the 3
20
inherent characteristic
differs form the operating
characteristic.
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Source: A Real Time Approach to Process Control, Svreck, Mahoney & Young
% Rated Travel
Control Valves
Operating Characteristic
As the valve closes, the total losses through the valve
become a higher fraction of the total resistance of the
system. Pressure drop across the valve varies from a
minimum when fully open to a maximum when fully closed. A
measurement of this deviation is:
= Pv (Max Flow) / Pv (Min Flow)
The higher  the higher the deviation of the operating

characteristic from the inherent characteristic (a quick
opening can deviate to an equal % characteristic), this
deviation will cause poor flow control, creating process
instability. It is important to point out that wrongfully
selected or faulty instrumentation can not be corrected by
changing controller tuning parameters or advance control
techniques. Source: A Real Time Approach to Process Control, Svreck, Mahoney & Young
Control Valves
Selection based on control performance

Sometimes valves are installed after the system was
design, ex. A pump was selected to handle a pressure
drop without the valve, then this must be taking into
account when sizing control valves factor should be
30%, or the pressure losses through the valve should
be 33% of the total system (excluding the valve)
Total Pressure Drop
Pump
Control Valve
33% losses Tank
Control Valves
Rules of Thumb
If  > 0.5, meaning less variation in pressure drop during valve
operation then linear characterization is recommended. If  < 0.5
will indicate more variation in pressure drop, equal percentage is
recommended. Valve Travel (degrees) Too flat above 45 deg!
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1000
800 Installed flow
Flow characteristic
600 Many older plants
(gpm) push valve to here
400
Linear valve Experimental Data
200 Flow Model
0
Can use signal characterization for flat part of curve
3
Gain too high Gain Model
2
Gain Linear valve
(%Flow/%Input) EnTech Gain
Gain is slope 1 Specification
Gain too low
of installed flow
characteristic 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Valve Travel (degrees)
Source: Advanced control Unleashed, ISA Suggested throttle range is 25 to 45 degrees
Control Valves
Selection based on control performance
System curve for a Change in friction

pumping system, losses after including
without a valve a valve
With
valve
Q2 Q1
Source: Centrifugal pump handbook

Control Valves
Selection based on process dynamics

“A control strategy should be design in such a way that a
controller produces an effect equal to the disturbance but
180o out of phase, to bring about cancellation” Therefore for
good control, the loop gain should be equal to 1. if the gain is
less than 1 then the disturbance is not fully cancelled, and if
it is greater than 1 then the corrective action is excessive.
K controller x K transmitter x K process x K valve = 1
For a set of controller settings, the sensor/transmitter gains

can be considered as constants therefore we have:
K process x K valve = Constant
Control Valves

The inherent flow characteristic is
define by the type of disk and seat
used and not the valve type
Disk
Seat

Control Valves

Gain is calculated as:
Kvalve = Cv / Lift
4
Quick Quick opening is good for
Opening processes whose gain
Equal %
increases with the variable
used to control it.
Gain
Linear gain is not

dependent of lift, good for
plants whose gain is
Linear independent of the
1 operating point
Equal % is good for a

process whose gain
0% 100%
decreases as load increases
Lift, %
Control Valves

Liquid-Level Systems
Control Valve Pressure Drop Best Inherent

Characteristic
Constant P Linear
Decreasing P with increasing load, P at maximum Linear

load>20% of minimum load P
Decreasing P with increasing load, P at maximum Equal %

load<20% of minimum load P
Increasing P with increasing load, P at maximum Linear

load<200% of minimum load P
Increasing P with increasing load, P at maximum Quick Opening

load>200% of minimum load P
Source: Fisher Controls

Control Valves

Pressure Control Systems
Application Best Inherent
Characteristic
Liquid process Equal %
Gas process, small volume, less than10ft of pipe Equal %

between control valve and load valve
Gas process, large volume (process has receiver, Linear

distribution system or transmission line exceeding
100 ft of nominal pipe volume), decreasing P with
increasing load, P at maximum load > 20% of
minimum load P
Gas process, large volume, decreasing P with Linear
increasing load, P at maximum load <20% of
minimum load P
Control Valves

Flow Control Systems
Flow measurement Location of control Best Inherent Characteristic

signal to controller valve in relation to Wide range Small range of flow
of flow set but large P change
measuring element point at valve with
increasing load
Proportional to In series Linear Equal %

flow
In by pass Linear Equal %
Proportional to In series Linear Equal %

flow squared
In by pass Equal % Equal %

Control Valves

Every process has its own response to a change in set point or due
to a disturbance, the elements that conform the control loop also will
affect the overall response, the following block diagram illustrate
this:
Gd
+
SP U Y
Gc Gv Gp
+ +
-
Gt
Gc = Controller Transfer Function, Gv = Control Valve TF, Gp = Process TF, Gd =

Disturbance TF, Gt = Transmitter TF
Control Valves

The overall transfer function is: Gd
+
SP U Y
Gc Gv Gp
+ +
-
Gt
U Gc * Gv * Gp
  Gd
Y 1  Gc * Cv * Gp * Gt
Control Valves

As the previous diagram shows, every single element in the control
loop contributes to the total dynamics of the system, thus if any of
these elements is not properly selected or operating, it will have a
negative effect in the response to a set point change or disturbance.
Hysteresis and Static Friction:
Hysteresis is also known as backlash and it is the lack of response
of the control valve to a change of controller output, due to
looseness of valve linkage. One way to reduce or eliminate this
effect is by using a Positioner
Control Valve
%
Controller Output
Time
Control Valves

Static Friction:
It is also known as “Stiction” and it is caused by high frictional forces, mainly the
valve packing.
The combine effect of hysteresis and static friction must not exceed 1%
Control Valve
Controller Output
Time
Control Valves
Due to valve non linearity's and dead time, the control valve does not
follow the controllers output and a limit cycle occurs, once it is
present there is a degradation of the loop performance and variability
increases as shown in the figure.
Source: En Tech Control Valve Dynamic Specification
Control Valves
Valve rangeability
The required range of valve opening should be 20% to
80% of the total valve travel. This will provide a relative
constant gain and a more stable control. Below this
percentage hunting and wear of the seat will occur.
Disk Acceptable velocity

(Plug)
Opening > 20%
Seat
ring
Higher velocity
Flow Flow
Opening < 20%
Control Valves
Cavitation
Cavitation is caused by the
change of phase due to a
pressure drop below the vapor
Hush Trim
pressure of the liquid which will
form bubbles of gas. It occurs
in the high velocity zone of the
valve, that is between the disk
and the seat. Once the bubbles
passed to the lower velocity
zone (outlet of the valve, higher
pressure) they will implode
causing micro jets that will
chew away the internals of the
valve. The life of a cavitating Conventional
valve will depend on how Trim
severe cavitation is, valve
material, fluid chemistry etc
Control Valves
Cavitation
P P1 Vena Contracta
Cavitation can be eliminated by

using specially design trims, P2
installing a fixed orifice plate
downstream the valve or by Pv
installing two or more valves,
PVC
each one reducing pressure by
stages. Cavitation is source of
noise, instability, lost of shutoff
capability and so on
Higher
ex. Velocity Velocity
Liquid = Water
Total pressure drop = 90PSID
Inlet Disk-seat Outlet

Control Valves
Cavitation
P
P1 P2
PVC Higher velocity,

lower pressure (Pvc)
Source: Cla-Val
Control Valves
Cavitation Cavitation Chart for Water
Cavitation Point
Source: Watts Industries

Control Valves
Cavitation
Erosion in valve plugs due to incipient cavitation
Source: http://www.asme.org/pubs/authors/pdf/31290_paper.pdf
Control Valves
Cavitation
P1
P2 Anti Cavitation
Trim, (Hush
Pv
Copes Vulcan)
Fluid passes
through several
stages, reducing
its energy
Control Valves
Predicting Cavitation
PCAV = Kd * (P1 – PV)
PCAV = Pressure drop where cavitation will occur

Kd = Coefficient of damaging cavitation (depends on trim
design)
P1 = Inlet Pressure (PSIA)
PV = Vapor pressure (PSIA)
1. P > PCAV, damaging cavitation will occur

2. P < PCAV, no cavitation
Source: Masoneilan
Control Valves
Flashing
Flashing occurs when the outlet pressure is lower than the
vapor pressure. PVP > P2. Flashing occurs specially when
high pressure drops and temperatures are present. Flashing
is source of noise, vibration and wear. The variables that
define flashing are function of the fluid being handle such as:
Temperature, pressure drop, vapor pressure
P1
Vapor Pressure
Pressure
P2
Vena contracta
Inlet Disk-seat Outlet

Control Valves
Flashing
Special trims such as Raven (Copes Vulcan) will reduce
noise level caused by flashing, high velocities, through
several pressure drop stages

Control Valves
Flashing

Control Valves
Recovery Factor, FL
The depth of the vena contracta is a function of the valve’s
geometry. Recovery factor is the a measure of the
effectiveness of the re-conversion of velocity pressure into
static pressure., As determined by laboratory tests, the lower
this factor the most likely cavitation will occur
Globe Eccentric Butterfly Ball
FL = 0.87 –
0.92 FL = 0.75 – 0.85
FL = 0.5 – 0.8
FL = 0.35 – 0.5
Control Valves
Materials
Material selection must take into account chemical
compatibility (some chemicals are more aggressive as
temperature increases) with the fluid, pressure and
temperature conditions (at constant temperature and
increasing pressure the material’s resistance diminishes
and vice versa). ANSI has published tables for different
materials’ resistance, ex. ANSI B16-5
Source: Copes Vulcan, Woscester Controls, Anderson Greenwood

Control Valves
Materials
316 Stainless Steel, ASTM A351, CF8M Carbon Steel, ASTM A216, Grade WCB
Temperature 150 300 400 Temperature 150 300 400
o
F ANSI ANSI ANSI o
F ANSI ANSI ANSI
-20 to 100 275 720 825 -20 to 100 285 740 990
200 240 620 825 200 260 675 900
300 215 560 745 300 230 655 875
400 195 515 685 400 200 635 845
500 170 480 635 500 170 600 800
Pressure in PSI Source: De Zurik

Control Valves
Materials
Control Valves
Velocity
A good valve selection must include a review of the
velocity in the system, either in pipes as well as within the
valve. High velocities will cause one or more of the
following:
1. High noise levels

2. Excessive vibration and trim wear
3. Valve body erosion
Ex. Velocity for steam

Vsteam = 3.06 x W x V- / d2 = ft. per min.
W = Steam flow, lb/hr
d = inlet diameter in inches
V- = Specific volume in cu. ft. per lb
Control Valves
Velocity
Example*
Valve Body Liquid Steam Gas
Velocity/Flow rate Velocity/Flow rate Velocity/Flow rate
Size Material Ft./sec / GPM Ft./min / PPH Ft./min / CFH
½“ Cast Iron 18/17 21600/580 21600/2250
½“ Steel 25/20 30000/805 30000/3125
½“ Higher 35/27 50000/1344 50000/5220

Alloys
Maximum allowable velocities*
Source: De Zurik
Control Valves
Shutoff Capability
With the valve fully closed, maximum shutoff pressure is the
difference between the maximum inlet pressure and the
minimum pressure downstream the valve.
The shutoff leak will depend of:
1. Pressure drop
2. Temperature
3. Condition of sealing surfaces
4. The force load on the seat (this is very important to
size the correct actuator)
The different classes are specified in ANSI/FCI 70-2-1976(R1982)

Control Valves
Shutoff Capability
ANSI MAXIMUM LEAKAGE TEST MEDIUM

B16.104-1976
Class I 0.5% valve capacity Air

at full travel
Class II 0.1% valve capacity Air

at full travel
Class III 5x10-4 Water

mL/min/PSID/in port
dia
Control Valves
Shutoff Capability
ANSI MAXIMUM LEAKAGE TEST MEDIUM

B16.104-1976
INCHES BUBBLES/MIN
1 1
1½ 2
Class VI 2 3 Air
2½ 4
3 6
4 11
6 27
8 45
Control Valves
Valve Coefficient
Valve coefficient (Cv) is the number of US
Gallons of water (SG = 1) that pass through
the fully open valve when the pressure
drop (P = P1 – P2) is 1 PSID, in one minute.
In Europe the term, Kv (m3/hr, at 1 BarD) is

used, the relationship is:
Cv = 1.16 x Kv
ISA-S75.01 describes how to calculate the

valve coefficient.
Source: A Real Time Approach to Process Control, Copes Vulcan

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient
Turbulent and non vaporizing flow
Source: Masoneilan, Control Valve Handbook

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient
Piping Geometry Factor (Fp), takes into account the
change in valve capacity when it is between pipe
reducers

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient
Turbulent and non vaporizing flow

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient
Turbulent and choked flow of vaporizing
liquid
If the above expression is true then a new set of

equations is required.

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient
Non Turbulent Flow results when fluid viscosity is high

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient
Valve Style (Fd) modifier is a dimensionless value,1.0
can be used with one single port valves, 0.7 can be used
with two flow passages such as double port and
butterfly valves.
(Eccentric)

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient
Gas and vapor flow equations

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient
Applying the previous method will require some

iterations as follows:
1. Assume a Cv from a Cv table

2. Calculate K, Fp using the assumed Cv
3. Check for cavitation or flashing
4. Solve for Cv from one of the given equations
5. Compared the calculated Cv with the assumed Cv, if
the calculated Cv exceeds the assumed Cv, use this
value to recalculate K and Fp and finally calculate
required Cv. If assumed Cv is higher than calculated Cv
assume a bigger valve size and follow the same
procedure.
Control Valves
Valve Coefficient
It is important to point out that Cv varies from one

manufacturer to another, due to the type of trim used
for a given application.

Control Valves
Valve Coefficient, Globe Valves (Single Seat Trim)

Size, in Max Cv
¾&1 15
1½ 30
2 50
2½ 70
3 110
4 190
5 290
6 380
8 740
10 1060
12 1460
14 1800
16 1980
Control Valves
Valve Coefficient, Eccentric Valves
Size, in Max Cv
1 14
1½ 25
2 71
3 170
4 325
6 755
Source: Cashco
Control Valves
Valve Coefficient, Ball Valves
Size, in Min Cv Max Cv

¾ 32 7
½ 54 10
1 105 30
1½ 275 89
2 460 130
2½ 780
3 1330 400
4 2420 720
6 5400 1020
8 10000 1800
10 18500 2970
Source: Worcester Controls

Control Valves
Choked Flow
Increasing the pressure drop will increase the flow rate
through the valve, however a point will be reached where the
P will not increase the flow rate, this point is described as
Choke Flow, flow is not proportional to the square root of P.
This is normally associated to gas-vapor flow; in liquids will
mean that the liquid is acting more like a gas vapor than a
liquid.
Q, GPM
Predicted
Flow Using
Actual P
Actual
Flow
Actual
P
PAllowable
Cv
P
Control Valves
Choked Flow
Increasing P will cause the compressible fluid to reach
sonic velocity. Sonic flow is a source of noise. During valve
sizing it is important to check if choked flow has been
reached by the following expression:
Y > 0.667 Non Choked Flow
A more simple expression is:

P1
PRATIO  ABS
P2
PRATIO < 2.0 Non Choked Flow
PRATIO > 2.0 Choked Flow
Control Valves
Reynolds Number, Re
It is a dimensionless numerical value used to define whether a

fluid flowing in a pipe is laminar or turbulent. It can also be
consider as the ratio of dynamic forces of mass flow to the
shear stress due to viscosity. A laminar flow will have
undisturbed lines of flow as shown in the picture shown above.
It is consider that laminar flow is define for Re< 2000 and
turbulent flow is define for Re>4000; between the two lies the
critical or transitional zone, in other words is an unpredictable
zone Source: Flow of Fluids Technical Paper 410, Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook
Control Valves
Reynolds Number, Re
In S .I . or
Dv dv Dv dv
Re  or Re  or
'  ' 
D  Internal diameter, mt D  Internal diameter, ft
v  Mean velocity, mt / sec v  Mean velocity, ft / sec
  density, kg / m 3   density , lb / ft 3
d  mm d  in
  Dynamic vis cos ity, centipoise   Dynamic vis cos ity, centipoise
 '  pascal sec onds  '  lb / ft * sec
Source: Flow of Fluids Technical Paper 410

Control Valves
Noise
“Noise is becoming the third biggest menace to the
human environment after water and air pollution” Noise
is a by-product of energy production, and due to the
increasing demand for energy there will be an increase
in noise. Thus, The Occupational Safety and Health Act
(OSHA) has enforced limits to noise exposure as
follows:

Control Valves
Noise
Comparison of Energy, Sound Pressure Level, and Common Sounds

Control Valves
Noise
Mechanical Vibration
It is caused by passing turbulent flow impinging on mobile parts
against neighboring surfaces. Vibration of any valve element can
reach its natural frequency, which will impose excessive stress to
the element making it fail. The appearance of new trim designed
has almost made valve’s mechanical vibration extremely rare.
However, if this occurs a change in trim, reduction of guiding
clearances, increase of plug mass, increase of stem length and
sometimes reversing the flow within the valve can eliminate any
mechanical vibration.
Top and
bottom
guided
Control Valves
Noise
Aerodynamic Noise
It is a direct result of the transformation of the flow energy into
acoustic energy when the flow is passing through the valve.
Hydrodynamic Noise
Liquid noise, cavitation noise and flashing noise is generated by
the flow passing through the valve. The most serious of the
three is cavitation noise which will indicate that damage is
occurring in the valve or piping.
Industry uses IEC 534-8-3: Industrial-process control valves-part

8: Noise considerations-section 3: Control valve aerodynamic
noise prediction method. There is no need for specific valve
design information to use the IEC method.
Control Valves
Noise
Noise level (sound pressure level) is expressed in logarithmic units or
decibels, using the A sound weighting (dBA). The sound pressure at the
threshold of hearing is 29.0 x 10-10 PSI and correspond to 0 dBA. A
weighting network biases the measured sound to conform to a desired
frequency response. The most widely used network for environmental
noise studies, the A-weighting network, is designed to bias the frequency
spectrum to correspond with the frequency response of the human ear.
Source: Masoneilan Noise Handbook

Control Valves
Noise
Noise control
TRIM SILENCERS STATIC
RESTRICTOR,
ISOLATION
Restrictor
Source: Valtek, Masoneilan

Control Valves
Noise Estimation
The reference valve installation for the base sound pressure level is
shown below, this method is then corrected to the specific
installation. As an example, the following equations are for a
quarter valve design.
Bare Pipe
1m
1m
Observer
1m
Observer
Source: Worcester Controls Sound waves

Control Valves
Noise Estimation
Gas Noise Estimation Equation:
SPLb = SPLP + SPLC+SPLX + SPLP2 – SPLt + SPLg
Terms are as follows:
Sound pressure level due to pressure drop:
SPLP = 20 log P + 23 (Metric)
Correction for valve flow coefficient:
SPLC = 20 log (FpCvXTP) + 32 (Metric or US)
For line size valves: Fp= 1 and XTP = XT

If the valve has reducers Fp and XTP have to be calculated as shown
in theWorcester
Source: valveControls
coefficient section.
Control Valves
Noise Estimation
Gas Noise Estimation Equation: (cont.)
Correction for pressure drop ratio:
SPLX = 20x0.45 (Metric or US)
Where x = P/P1
Correction for downstream pressure: P2 

 18.3  1.01 
 P1 
SPL p2  10 * log
 P2  1.01 
 
 
Correction for pipe wall attenuation:
SPLt = 10 log [t2 (2000 + D2)] – 24.6

(Metric)
Control Valves
Noise Estimation
Correction for gas type:

 Mw 
SPLg  7.8 * log 
 28.96 
Nomenclature
Cv = valve flow coefficient

D2 = outside diameter of downstream piping, mm
Fp = piping geometry factor for pipe reducers, dimensionless
Mw = molecular weight of gas, dimensionless
P1 = pressure just upstream of valve, bar abs
P2 = pressure just upstream of valve, bar abs
P = pressure drop across valve, bar
SPLb = base sound pressure level at reference conditions, dBA
Control Valves
Noise Estimation
Nomenclature
SPLP = sound pressure level due to pressure drop, dBA

SPLC = correction term due to valve flow coefficient, dBA
SPLg = correction term due to gas type, dBA
SPLt = correction term due to downstream pipe wall attenuation,
dBA
SPLP2 = correction term due to downstream pressure, dBA
SPLX = correction term due to pressure drop ratio, dBA
t = pipe wall thickness, mm
x = pressure drop ratio (DP/P1), dimensionless
xT = terminal pressure drop ratio, dimensionless
xTP = terminal pressure drop ratio for valve/pipe reducer assemblies,
dimensionless
Control Valves
Noise Estimation
Liquid Noise Estimation Equation:
SPLb = SPLP + SPLC + SPLV +SPLt
Correction for pressure drop: See Annex 1
Correction for flow coefficient:
SPLC = 20 log (FpCv), for FpCv  100

(Metric or US)
15 log (FpCv) + 10, for FpCv  100
For line size valves, use Fp = 1, if piping reducers are installed use
the previous section Fp equation.
The previous equations, give a general idea of the noise level that
can be expected in a quarter turn valve.
Control Valves
Packing
Packing is required to contain the fluid
within the valve, preventing from
leaking trough the clearances between
the bonnet and the stem. It is very
important to select packing compatible
with the operation conditions, pressure,
temperature, chemical compatibility are
some of the considerations to look at. Washers
There are several material and design
combinations to suit a specific
applications. The standard type packing
is contain by two or more packing
washers. This design has the
disadvantages that with the continuous
valve modulation, the packing will not
maintain its sealing capability due to Packing
wear.
Source: Leslie
Control Valves
Packing
A more efficient design is the dynamic
packing. It has a spring that has been
compressed, the energy stored in the
spring will help keeping the packing
doing its job.
Fugitive emissions are non point source

volatile organic emissions, in USA over
400 million pounds per year are due to Packing
equipment leaks, it has been found that
pumps and valves are the main source
of fugitive emissions.
Packing friction is cause of hysteresis

and dead band during valve operation.
Spring
Source: Leslie
Control Valves
Failure Modes
Pneumatic actuators have failure position modes that are selected
depending on the operation requirements. For instance a valve
controlling the supply of coolant for a reactor should have a fail to
open mode, to ensure that coolant will always be supplied to the
reactor jacket. This feature is obtained by the use of springs.
Fail to Open
Fail to Close
Source: ANSI/ISA –S5.1-1984
Control Valves
Failure Modes

Control Valves
Manual Actuators
Manual operators are available in different configurations to operate
the valve manually by causing some linear or rotational movement
of a hand wheel, lever, wrench, gear, etc.
Manual actuators are used mainly for:
1.When main actuator fails
2.For seating a valve, this is done to isolate the stuffing box and
repack the valve when the system has been depressurized.
3.For opening a seized valve
Source: Masoneilan, Copes Vulcan, Cashco

Control Valves
Pneumatic Actuators for Linear Valves
An actuator is the element driving the stem-plug movement, it
opposes the force applied by the flow, controlling the valve opening.
A balance of forces is used to size the area of the actuator for linear
sliding valves. Air Supply
Actuator
Spring
Packing
Plug
Flow
Plug Area
Diaphragm Area
Control Valves
Forcesup  Forces down  Equilibrium  0
Forcesup  Area Plug * Pr essure Fluid  FrictionPacking  Spring
Forces down  Area Diaphragm * Pr essure Air  Supply
Spring  k * X
k  elongation  cons tan t
X  compression  length
Fluid pressure, air supply pressure are given by plant conditions,
plug area is selected as part of the trim selected to fit the
application, therefore the diaphragm area is the parameter to play
with.
Control Valves
Pneumatic actuators are the cheapest and most common design.
However, the speed of response is not as fast as required for some
applications; the use of accessories such as solenoid valves, quick
exhaust valves might be required to achieve high cycle speeds. Its
operation is based in air or another gas entering the chamber where
it pushes an elastomeric diaphragm. The diaphragm is in contact to
a set of a plate-stem-plug arrangement; the movement of this set
controls flow passing through the valve.
Source: Masoneilan, Copes Vulcan

Control Valves
Pneumatic Actuators for Ball Valves
Sizing actuators for ball valves starts by calculating the torque
required for the application. Due to the design of ball valves, the
friction comes from two areas, one for each of the seats.
Seat 1
FLOW
Seat 2

Control Valves
Fluid, seat material, pressure and temperature are parameters to
take into account when calculating the torque in a ball valve. The
highest torque occurs when the valve is fully closed as shown
below, then it reduces when the valve opens.

Control Valves
Torque for different seat materials has been plotted as a function
of pressure drop. Once the size of the valve that has the Cv
required for the application and the material for the seat that is
compatible with the fluid are selected, the following plots can be
used (for reduced port valves)

Control Valves
Control Valves
Control Valves
The calculated torque is then multiplied by the following two
factors, one for the application and for the media de valve will
operate with:

Control Valves

Control Valves
Once the calculated torque is found we can go to any manufacturer
catalog and chose the actuator that has the calculated/higher torque
for a given operating air pressure use for the actuator. The same
procedure is used to size an electric actuator for a ball valve.

Control Valves
Electric Actuators
Electrical actuator designs use an electric motor and a gear
reduction to move the stem of the valve. This type of actuator
has been used in some degree for modulating action.
Source: Worcester Control, Edward

Control Valves
Electric Actuators
To size electric actuators one must take into account the

speed at which the actuator will move the valve and the
frequency the motor has to operate. A motor that is
required to move very fast will need to operate less
frequently, on the other hand a motor that is required to
move the valve slowly will be able to have a more
frequent operating duty. Actuators that are not size
properly will fail during operation. The power generated
by an electric motor is given by:
Power = Torque x RPM

Control Valves
Electric Actuators
The previous equation shows that higher torques are achieved
with lower speeds, thus the highest operating torque will
occur when the motor is starting or when stalled.
Start
Torque
End
Closed
Open
Control Valves
Electro Hydraulic Actuators
They are electric actuators in which oil

is pumped at high pressures to move
the valve. These actuator are excellent
for modulating operation due to their
high stiffness and positioning accuracy.
However they are very complex, difficult
to maintain and very expensive when
compared to the previous actuators.
The following table shows some of the

advantages and disadvantages for
different actuators.
Source: Edward
Control Valves
Comparison of Valve Actuators
Advantages Disadvantages
Spring and Diaphragm

Lower cost Limited output capability
Ability to throttle without positioner Large size and weight
Simplicity
Inherent fail-safe action
Low supply pressure requirement
Adjustability to varying conditions
Ease of maintenance
Electric motor
Compactness High cost
Very high stiffness Lack of fail safe action
High output capability Limited duty cycle
Slow stroking speed
Control Valves
Comparison of Valve Actuators
Advantages Disadvantages
Pneumatic Piston
High torque capability Fail safe requires accessories
Compact Positioner required for
Light weight throttling
Adaptable to high ambient Higher cost
temperatures High supply pressure
Fast stroking speed requirement
Relatively high actuator stiffness
Electro hydraulic
High output capability High cost
High actuator stiffness Complexity and maintenance
Excellent throttling ability difficulty
Fast stroking speed Fail safe action only with
accessories
Control Valves
Split Ranging
This is a technique use to actuate two valves with one input

signal. It is use in applications where one single valve cannot
handle the total load of the process, they are installed in
parallel.
Valve 1 Valve 2
Valve 1
3 9 15 PSI
4 12 20 ma DC
Valve 2
Control Valves
Positioners
They are use to ensure that the valve is following the
controller’s output. Positioners are used to reduced dead
band, hysteresis due to tight packing, mechanical
looseness and other disturbances.
Source: Masoneilan
Control Valves
Positioners
New designs have came up in the market where the
mechanical link between the positioner and the valve’s stem
has been replaced by a non contact device. A magnetic ring is
placed on the stem, which is monitored by the positioner.
Source: Siemens, Cashco, Copes Vulcan

Control Valves
Positioners
The operation of the positioner is as follows:
1. A pressure transmitter read the fluid pressure and sends a
signal to the controller which compares it to the set point
2. If there is an error (Set Point – Measurement), the
controller sends a digital signal to the positioner to move
the valve
PC
Pressure
regulator
Air Mechanical
Supply or magnetic
link to stem
80 PSI PT
Positioner
PCV
Control Valves
Positioners
3. The positioner supplies air to the actuator to move the

valve’s stem
4. The mechanical link feeds back the positioner to
ensure that the stem has moved proportional to what is
required by the controller. Otherwise supply air to the
actuator will be fed until the valve reaches the position
that the controller has set.
As shown in the figure, this is a cascade control system

therefore the positioner-valve loop must be faster than
the master loop, usually 10 times faster. It is important to
point out that the signal 3-15 PSI to a control valve it is
not the actual pressure use to move the actuator.
Control Valves
Positioners
Electroneumatic Non Contacting Position Sensors

Positioner Linear Part Turn
Source: Worcester Control, Edward

Control Valves
Hazardous Locations
During installation of any kind of instrumentation, one

must take into account if there any risk of fire or
explosion and select appropriate enclosures for
instrumentation. Control valves usually have
instrumentation attached to them (positioners,
solenoid valves, actuators etc) that must comply with
the appropriate regulations. The following slides
include classes and divisions as per NFPA 5000, which
deal with the accepted enclosures for specific areas of
risk.
Control Valves
Hazardous Locations
Classes, Divisions and Groups (NFPA 500-), for Areas or
Atmospheres…
Class I (-4) - …where flammable gases or vapors are or may
be present in sufficient quantities to produce explosive or
ignitable mixtures.
Division I (-4A) - …in which gases or vapors are or may be
in the atmosphere in normal operations.
Group A (-2) - …containing acetylene.
Group B (-2) - …containing hydrogen, ethylene oxide &
propylene oxide or gases or vapors of equivalent hazard.
Group C (-2) - …containing ethyl-ether vapor, ethylene or
cyclopropane.
Group D (-2) - … containing gasoline, hexane, naphtha,
benzene, butane, propane, alcohol, acetone, laquer solvent
or natural gas.
Control Valves
Hazardous Locations
Division II (-4B) - …in which gases or vapors are not
normally present. They may be present due to leakage,
accidents or maintenance. It is possible for one atmosphere
to contain the same items as listed for Groups of Division I
of this class.
Class II (-5) - …where combustible dust may be present in
sufficient quantities to produce an explosive atmosphere.
Division I (-5A) - Dust in suspension…where dust is or may
be present in the atmosphere due to normal operating
conditions.
Group E (-2) - …containing metal dust, including aluminum,
magnesium's and their commercial alloys, and other metals
of similar hazardous characteristics.
Group F (-2) - …containing carbon black, coal or coke dust.
Group G (-2) - …containing flour, starch or grain dust.
Control Valves
Hazardous Locations
Division II (-5D) - Dust not normally in suspension…
possibly containing the same items as listed for
Groups of Division I of this class.
Class III (-6) - …where ignitable fibers are present,
but not necessarily present in air in quantities
sufficient to produce ignitable mixtures.
Division I (-6A) - …in which easily ignitable fibers or
materials producing combustible flying are handled,
manufactured or used.
Division II (-6B) - …in which easily ignitable fibers
are stored or handled.

Control Valves
Diagnostic
Valve diagnostic systems can predict when a

valve requires maintenance. Depending on how
critical a control valve is, by obtaining the
“signature of the valve”, when it is recently
installed, which it will be used in the future to
compare its actual operation with the one
initially obtained. This will reduce maintenance
when it is not required.
Control Valves
Diagnostic
Dead band is 5% - 50%
without a positioner !
Dead band
Pneumatic positioner
requires a negative Stroke
signal to close valve (%)
Digital positioner
will force valve
shut at 0% signal
Stick-Slip
0 Signal
(%)
dead band
The effect of slip is worse than stick, stick is worse than dead band,
and dead band is worse than stroking time (except for surge control)
Source: Advanced control Unleashed, ISA

Control Valves
Diagnostic
59
58.5
3.25 Percent
58 Controller Output
Ball Travel Backlash + Stiction
57.5
57
56.5 Dead band is
Stroke peak to peak
% 56 slip amplitude
55.5
55 stick
54.5
54
53.5
53
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Time ( Seconds )
Source: Advanced control Unleashed, ISA

Control Valves
Diagnostic
Online system diagnostic can be used to:
1. Calibrate components and sub systems
2. Verify conformance with design basis
3. Determine accurately hysterisis and stroke time
4. Control the valve locally for testing
5. Store and receive historical performance information
6. Document post maintenance testing and reduced man hours
Source: Masoneilan
Control Valves
Control Valve Designs
Axial Control Valves
Source: Mokveld
Control Valves
Axial Control Valves with Sliding Disk
Source: Jordan Valve

Control Valves
Axial Control Valves :
•Low turbulence, erosion

and noise
•Less weight, easy for
maintenance than globe
valves
•Use in oil rigs
•Sliding design cannot be
used with fluids
containing solids
Source: Mokveld
Control Valves
Globe Valves:
•The most used type of

control valve
•Excellent for throttling
•High turbulence
•Low pressure recovery
•Not good for fluids
containing high % of solids
•Wide options for
characterized seats
Source: Masoneilan
Control Valves
Ball Valves:
•Easy maintenance
•Low turbulence
•High pressure recovery
•Characterized seats are
available
•High capacity

Control Valves
Pinch Valves:
•On line maintenance

•Low turbulence
•Characterization is
limited
•Excellent for handling
slurries and dirty fluids
Source: Red Valves

Control Valves
Eccentric Valves:
•Easy seat maintenance

•Low turbulence
•High pressure recovery
•Equal % and linear
characterization
•Excellent for handling
slurries, cavitation and noise
•High capacity
Source: Cashco
Control Valves
Control Valves
Control Valves
Special Control Valves
Steam Conditioning Valves:
They are installed in by pass turbine

protection. Used to eliminate
excessive boiler pressure
fluctuations in case or turbine trip.
Cooling of steam by injection of
water protecting the condenser from
high pressure and temperatures.
Avoidance of safety valves lifting
with the associated seat
maintenance and loss of
condensate steam
Control Valves

Control Valves

Control Valves
Steam Conditioning Valves:
This design of control valve is

actually two different types of
equipment, a control valve which
reduces the upstream pressure and
a desuperheater which cools down Steam high
pressure and
the steam by injecting sprayed cool
temperature
water . To size a steam conditioning
valve one must calculate the Cv Water
using the equations from the
previous sections; to define the
amount of cooling water required to
cool down the steam, a heat Steam low
balance is required. pressure and
temperature
Control Valves
Steam Conditioning Valves Heat Balance

Cooling Water
Ww Mass flow rate
(unknown)
Pw, Tw (known)
Hw Enthalpy (known)
Super Heated Steam

W1 Mass flow rate (known)
P1,T1 (known) Desuper Heated Steam
W2 Mass flow rate (unknown)
H1 Enthalpy (known)
P2,T2 (known)
H2 Enthalpy (known)
Control Valves
Steam Conditioning Valves Heat Balance
 H1  H 2 
Ww  W1 *  
H
 2  H w 
Considerations must be taken due to installation

orientation, steam velocity and location of
temperature sensor for a good and smooth
operation.
Control Valves
Steam Conditioning Valves Sensor Installation
Allow enough distance for good mixing

Control Valves
Severe Service Applications
This a special type of application which is characterized by the
combination of some of the following conditions:
1.High noise levels

2.High Flow rates
3.High Pressure Drop
4.Cavitation, Flashing
5.High temperature
6.Others
This type of service is very demanding and requires the

expertise of the process engineer, control engineer and the
product vendor in order to ensure correct sizing and selection,
needless to say that any mistake will be very costly
Control Valves
Sizing of Control Valves Using Software
Several manufactures have designed software to aid in

the selection of process control valves. Even though the
use of these tools is very simple, a thorough
understanding of the theoretical bases is very important
if one is to be able to take advantage of the powerful
capabilities of control valve software sizing.
A set of different sizing programs can be downloaded
from different manufacturers web sites for sizing of
control valves, desuperheaters and noise prediction.
Control Valves
General steps for the use of this software are:
1. Contact information
2. Tag and job number
3. Conditions of operation (pressure, temperature
flow rate, type of fluid) in the chosen units
4. Inlet, outlet pipe size and thickness
5. Define if use of reducers is required
6. Type of valve, isolation, trim and characterization
required
7. Required noise level
Control Valves
The following software can be downloaded from the
following companies’ website:
1.De-Zurik’s Alpha I
2. Leslie’s Product Sizing Program
3. Jordan Valve’s JVCV Plus
4. Masoneilan’s Quick Size
5. Fisher Rosemount’s IEC Aerodynamic Noise
Calculator
6. Red Valve’s sizing of Pinch Valves

Concepts of Instrumentation Control Valves

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Concepts of Instrumentation Control Valves

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Concepts of Instrumentation

Module: Control Valves

Source: Valtek. Mokveld

Source: Control Valve Hand book, Emerson

Source: Control Valve Hand book, Emerson

Source: Control Valve Hand book, Emerson

“Control valve is a device, other than a

ANSI/ISA –S5.1-1984 (R1992)

Before considering to use a control valve,

Source: Copes Vulcan

% Maximum Flow (Cv)

The three most common Equal %

Quick opening, linear, equal 0 20 40 60 80 100

= Pv (Max Flow) / Pv (Min Flow)

The higher  the higher the deviation of the operating

Selection based on control performance

Selection based on control performance

System curve for a Change in friction

Source: Centrifugal pump handbook

Selection based on process dynamics

K controller x K transmitter x K process x K valve = 1

For a set of controller settings, the sensor/transmitter gains

K process x K valve = Constant

Selection based on process dynamics

Source: Copes Vulcan

Selection based on process dynamics

Linear gain is not

Equal % is good for a

Selection based on process dynamics

Control Valve Pressure Drop Best Inherent

Decreasing P with increasing load, P at maximum Linear

Decreasing P with increasing load, P at maximum Equal %

Increasing P with increasing load, P at maximum Linear

Increasing P with increasing load, P at maximum Quick Opening

Source: Fisher Controls

Selection based on process dynamics

Gas process, small volume, less than10ft of pipe Equal %

Gas process, large volume (process has receiver, Linear

Selection based on process dynamics

Flow measurement Location of control Best Inherent Characteristic

Proportional to In series Linear Equal %

Proportional to In series Linear Equal %

Source: Fisher Controls

Selection based on process dynamics

Gc = Controller Transfer Function, Gv = Control Valve TF, Gp = Process TF, Gd =

Selection based on process dynamics

Selection based on process dynamics

Selection based on process dynamics

Selection based on process dynamics

Disk Acceptable velocity

Cavitation can be eliminated by

Inlet Disk-seat Outlet

PVC Higher velocity,

Source: Watts Industries

PCAV = Pressure drop where cavitation will occur

1. P > PCAV, damaging cavitation will occur

Inlet Disk-seat Outlet

Source: Copes Vulcan

Source: Copes Vulcan

Source: Copes Vulcan, Woscester Controls, Anderson Greenwood

200 240 620 825 200 260 675 900

300 215 560 745 300 230 655 875