METAL FORMING AND

SHAPING
ASSIGNMENT#1
SUBMITTED TO: SIR KASHIF

AIMAN NASIM

MY-22

T.E
Q#1 WHAT IS FLOW STRESS? HOW FLOW STRESSES CAN BE DETERMINED AND WHICH
TECHNIQUE DO YOU RECOMMEND? JUSTIFY YOUR RECOMMENDATION ON SOLID REASONS.

Flow Stress
Flow stress is defined as the instantaneous value of stress required to continue deforming the
material - to keep the metal flowing. It is the Yield Strength of the metal as a function of strain,
which can be expressed:

Yf = Ken

Yf = Flow stress, MPa e = True strain K = Strength Coefficient, MPa n = Strain hardening
exponent

Hence, Flow stress can also be defined as the stress required to sustain plastic deformation at a
particular strain.

The flow stress is a function of plastic strain.

DETERMINATION OF FLOW STRESS OF METAL

The yield stress of a metal under uni-axial load conditions, as a function of strain, strain rate and
temperature can also be considered as a flow stress or effective stress. The definition of the effective stress
as a representation of stress, under combined loading.

The flow stress sigma bar is important because in metal forming processes the forming loads and stresses
depend on

1) Part geometry

2) Friction

3) The flow stress of the deforming material.

The flow stress of metal is influenced by:

 Factor unrelated to the deformation process, such as a chemical composition, metallurgical

structure, phase, grain size, segregation and prior strain history
 Factor explicity related to the deformation process, such as temperature, degree of deformation
and rate of deformation. The degree of deformation and the rate of deformation under general
loading are measured by effective strain and the effective strain rate respectively, thus the
 flow stress can be expressed as a function of temperature T. strain , strain rate and micro
structure S :

In hot forming of metals at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature, the influence of strain on
the flow stress is insignificant.

Q#2 EXPLAINS THE EFFECT OF STRAIN AND TEMPERATURE ON FLOW STRESSES.

EFFECT OF STRAIN RATE & TEMPERATURE ON FLOW STRESS

Forming process parameters, such as strain, strain rate and temperature, also play an extremely important
role. Such forming parameters even receive much high attention from metal forming engineers. With the
increased temperature, the material becomes softer, so the flow stress decreases. One exception to this is
the temperature range within which a phase transformation occurs

In this temperature range the flow stress could increase significantly with the increase of temperature.

The influence of strain can be described in a very rough way as, flow stress increase with a increase of
strain. This statement is correct for cold forming .For hot forming, sometimes it is not correct, especially
when the strain is very high. In this case, the flow stress reach a certain peak value, then may decrease or
keep constant with the increase of the strain The influence of strain dependents on two major factors: work
hardening and softening (recovery and recrystallization). During cold rolling, recrystallization does not
occur. Work hardening is a dominant factor. However in the case of hot rolling, recrystallization also play a
very important role. The recrystallization also depends on the strain, strain rate and temperature. So it is a
very complicated process. The peak stress is determined by both the stain and the temperature.

In general, with the increase of strain rate, the flow stress increase

The contribution to the cold forming is much smaller that to the hot forming. Hensel also suggested with his
measurement, that when the strain rate is over 1000-2000/s (rolling speed 30-50m/s) range, flow strain
almost keeps constant with the increase of strain rate. Before this range there is a peak value of the flow
stress.

Different ways to measure flow stress normally receive different value. In Fig. 3c, the flow stress measured
with upsetting (curve 1) is much higher than those taken with a torsion test (curve 2). In the strain range of
0.3 0.5, the difference of flow stress between those from upsetting and from torsion can be about 15%.
Q#3 DESCRIBES VARIOUS DEFECTS ENCOUNTER IN EXTRUSION. HOW THEY CAN BE
OVERCOME?

Extrusion defects
 Surface cracking - When the surface of an extrusion splits. This is often caused by the
extrusion temperature, friction, or speed being too high. It can also happen at lower
temperatures if the extruded product temporarily sticks to the die.
 Pipe - A flow pattern that draws the surface oxides and impurities to the center of the
product. Such a pattern is often caused by high friction or cooling of the outer regions of
the billet.
  Internal cracking - When the center of the extrusion develops cracks or voids. These
cracks are attributed to a state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the centerline in the
deformation zone in the die. (A similar situation to the necked region in a tensile stress
specimen)
 Surface lines - When there are lines visible on the surface of the extruded profile. This
depends heavily on the quality of the die production and how well the die is maintained,
as some residues of the material extruded can stick to the die surface and produce the
embossed lines.

Q#4 EXPLAINS DIFFERENT PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF TUBES AND SEAMLESS
PIPES BY EXTRUSION.

Production of Hollow Shapes and Tubes:

Tubes and hollow sections can be produced by extrusion by attaching a mandrel, the clearance
between the mandrel and die wall determines the wall thickness of the tube.

A seamless pipe made by extrusion or piercing and having eccentric interior has the outside of
one of its ends turned to concentric dimensions with its interior and is pulled through a peeling
and scraping tool affixed to a positioning die, and over a mandrel which widens the pipe
particularly in the zone of peeling.

This specification covers aluminum and aluminum-alloy seamless pipe and seamless extruded
tube. The pipe and tube shall be produced from hollow extrusion ingot (cast in hollow form, or
drilled, or pierced from solid ingot) and shall be extruded by use of the die and mandrel method.
The material shall conform to the chemical composition requirements specified.

References:
http://www.freepatentsonline.com

http://www.diytrade.com

http://www.steellinks.com