Set 1

Geographical Aspects
The British Isles is a geographical name given to the group of about 6000
isles situated off the North West Coast of Europe; including: Great Britain,
The Island of Ireland, the Orkney and Shetland Islands in the North Sea,
the Island Of Man in the Irish Sea, the Hebrides in the Atlantic Ocean, the
Isle of Wight in the South and a group of so called Channel Islands in the
English Channel.

Political Division
The Archipelago is shared by two separate and independent states: The
United Kingdom (G. B. and Northern Ireland) and the Republic of Ireland.
The United Kingdom (UK) contains 4 nations, each of them, has its
own capital city: England London; Scotland Edinburgh; Wales
Cardiff; Northern Ireland Belfast. The capital city of the UK as a
whole, is London.
The Republic of Ireland doesnt belong to the UK, its capital city is
Dublin.

Extra info: England has a population of 54.7 million people. London is its largest city as well as
capital. The official language is English. Economically, is leader in the chemical and
pharmaceutical sectors, and in key technical industries like aerospace, arms (guns), and
software. Tourism, cars manufacturing, oil and petroleum, aircraft engines, and alcoholic
beverages.
Scotland has a population of 5.4 million people. Its capital city is Edingburgh and its largest
city is Glasgow. The official languages are English, Gaelic and Scots. Tourism is one of the most
lucrative sectors with activities and attractions such as golf, trekking and rich history. They are
pioneers in industry and enterprising. Key business sectors include life sciences, electronic
technologies, energy and financial services.
Wales has a population of 3.1 million people. Cardiff is its capital city, along with Swansea and
Seaport are some of the most important cities in the country. The official languages are English
and Welsh. Economically, livestock farming has traditionally been the focus of agriculture. The
Welsh landscape and beaches, as well as culture, attracts tourism which plays an important role
in rural areas. The Hay Festival of Literature is one of the most important activities in tourism.
Northern Ireland has a population of 1.8 million people. Belfast is the largest city, as well as its
capital. The official languages are English, Irish, and Ullster-Scots. Their economy is based on
shipbuilding, rope manufacture and textiles. Tourism is also a big part and investment in multi-
national high-tech industry.
Ireland (Republic) has a population of 4.7 million people. Dublin is its largest city, as well as
capital. The official languages are Irish and English. The Irish economy has transformed from
being predominantly agricultural to a modern knowledge economy focused on high technology
industries and services. In 2013, Ireland was named the "best country for business" by Forbes.

Position
The British Isles are situated in the North West of Europe on the
continental shelf. This position favored their development since early
times in different aspects; 1st, its surrounded by the sea which allowed
them to trade with all the world, and in return, trade produced great
capitals of money which were used to increase industry. Before any
 country, G. B. had factories, textile machines, railways, etc. Besides, the
irregular configuration of its coasts facilitated the building of goods ports
all around it. Consequently, the cost manufactured goods was minimum.

Climate

Is almost temperate (or mild) because of the Gulf Stream of Mexico,

which brings warm water and air across the Atlantic
. Winters are warm and wet. The wind brings rain from the Atlantic, so
Ireland and western parts of Britain are wetter and windier than the East.

Relief and Physical Division

It depends on the nature of the underlying rock formation. In general, it

can be divided into 3 basic physical regions.
The Highlands. The Scottish highlands are the most ancient,
resistant and hardest rocks. Their main type is granite. Theyre
divided by Glen More to the North and the Grampian High to the
south. Glen More is a narrow valley, and because of the height and
wet climate, agriculture is impossible in these mountainous
regions.
The Uplands. Also hard and resistant rocks. Their main type is
limestone. They are divided into 3 main groups: The Central
Mountains; The Welsh Mts.; and The Mts. Of Devon-Cornwall
peninsula.
The Lowlands. Theyre lower and newer hills. Composed by softer
rocks, their main type is chalk and limestone. They include: The
Costwalds Hills; The York Hls.; the Chittern lower Hls. And the
plains around them where agriculture is possible.

Natural Resources and Industries

Agriculture. Over 3 quarters of Britains land is used for farming.

However, only half of the food that Britain needs, is produced.
Relief is a determining factor in land use. Most farming is carried
out in the lowlands. The main crops include: barley (uk), wheat
(eng.), oats, sweet beet, potatoes, green vegetables and fruit.
Cattle and sheep rearing. The lowlands of western Britain
constitute the principal cattle lands. Cattle is produced for beef
and milk production. Sheeps are reared in the Uplands for wool
and mutton.
Fishing. Being the British Isles surrounded by the sea, there are
fishing ports everywhere. There are 2 types of fishing fleets: the
local fleets and the distant water fts, which are real floating
factories equipped to freeze the fish and to process it on board,
far away from the British Coast. Cod, is the most consumed fish.
Coal. Is the basic mineral in the industrial economy of the B. I. Its
used as the main power source in almost all British manufacturing
 industries and, is also important in foreign trade. There are 5
important groups of coaldfields: In Central Scotland, Northern
England, Wales, in the Midlands, and Kent.
Iron and steel. The major part of the Iron is produced in the steel
manufacture which gave origin to shipbuilding.
Industry. Britain is one of the most important industrial countries
in the world. Traditionally: Yorkshire was associated with the
woolen industry; Staffordshire, with pottery; Birmingham with
machinery; Lancashire with cotton spinning; and North Eastern
Eng., Northern Ireland and Scotland, with shipbuilding.

Extra info: In some areas, traditional industries have been replaced by more modern industries
such as chemicals, electronics and plastic, gas industry, etc. But some traditional ones declined,
and this brought a social problem to Britain in the 70s and 80s, such as unemployment and
poverty.

Population

The population in the UK is more than 65 million people and the

Republic of Ireland has about 4 million people. The English are
descendants from the Anglo-Saxons, while the people of Scotland,
Wales, and Northern Ireland are descendants from the Celts. Nowadays,
the population of Britain, specially England, is multiracial.

Languages

English is the official language. Gaelic is spoken in some parts of

Scotland and Ireland. Manx used to be spoken in the Isle of Man, but now
is only used in ceremonials. Irish gaelic is the 1st official language in
Ireland. Another surviving Celtic language in Britain, spoken by 20% of
the population of Wales, its Welsh. Nearly all Welsh and Gaelic speakers
are bilingual, and for most of them, English is their 2nd language.

Regions in Britain

Scotland is divided in 3 groups:

Scottish Highland and Islands. Highest region. The most famous lake is
the Loch Ness which attracts many tourists. Apart from tourism, sheep
and cattle rearing and fishing are other important activities. As of islands
we have: the outer, and inner Hebrides, the Orkney and the Shetland
Islands.
The Midland Valley. Coal mining, shipbuilding, agriculture and chemical
manufacture and other industries were created as a result of the
exploitation of coal resources. Edinburgh remains the political,
ecclesiastical, and educational capital, and is the second biggest
industrial town. Also, its main industry is printing, associated with the
paper making industry.
 The southern uplands. There are different hills groups separated by
valleys and rivers. Depending on the zone, the main activities are sheep
rearing, arable farming, cattle rearing, and woolen manufacture. The
valleys and rivers of the River Tweed constitutes the most densely
populated area of the southern uplands.

England is divided in 6 regions:

N. Western Eng. Composed by:
The Lake District. Cattle is pastures and the principal crops are
potatoes, peas and soft fruit. The main activities are connected
with the iron and steel industries, and as a consequence
shipbuilding. Also, tourism.
The Isle of Man. It resembles the previous one for the lovely
valleys, beautiful climate and easy access to the sea. Main
activities, iron and copper mining.
Lancashire. A very industrial area because of their coalfield. Cotton
industry is also important.

N. Eastern Eng. Composed by the Penine Chain and its lowlands, is one
of the principal sheep grounds in Britain.
Newcastle. Biggest centre of population due to the great metal
industries.
Sheffield. An iron and steel industrial town.
York. Machinery, leather, chocolate and tourism thanks to its
historical buildings and castles.

The Midlands. Located in the center of England, the region os apt for
both agriculture and cattle rearing. Depending on the area, there are
manufacturing industries, such as pottery and metal.
Birmingham is the industrial and commercial centre of the area.
Leicester produces woolen products and leather goods.

Eastern Eng.
The Basin of the Wash is a fertile region drained by 4 important
rivers: The Witham, The Welland, The Nene, and the Great Ouse.
Its surrounded by hills from which these rivers flow. The most
important town is Cambridge, famous for its university and
electrical industries, like radio and TV. Main acts., agriculture and
cattle rearing.
East Anglia, the most important agricultural region, also drained
by 4 rivers: The Bure, the Yare, the Stour, and the Colne. Acts,
cereal-growing, barley, wheat and oats for sheep and cattle.
Several important fishing centres. (also pigs).
The Thames Basin composed by:
 Oxford Basin (Upper T. B.). Acts, sheep, pig and cattle
rearing. Crops, wheat, barley, oats, potatoes. The most
important town is Oxford because of its university. During
the last 60 years, the town has developed different
industrial suburbs at Cowly.
London B. (Lower T. B.). Very populated area because of
dormitory towns since most of the population work in
London. Electrical equipment and cars are manufactured. Its
main industries are biscuit-making and canning.

London. Capital city of the UK with a population of 8 million

people, one of the largest cities in the world. Its formed by 3 old
cities which were separated with fields and farms between them,
and had now joined into one:
London. Marks the site for the 1st settlement. The Tower of
London was built to defend the early settlements from
possible attacks from the Sea.
Westminster. The Government centre. The House of
Parliament, Buckingham Palace, and 10 Downing Street are
some of the government building located in the area.
Thousands of people come here during the day but only a
few hundred actually live there, since most of the buildings
are banks and offices. To the North is West End where all
big shops, theatres, restaurants and expensive hotels are.
Southwark. One of the poorest parts of London. Filled with
houses and the Waterloo Station is located here.
Extra info: Originally, London was a port and there were large docks East of the city. But modern
ships were bigger and bigger everytime and they couldnt come up the River Thames, so in 1980
the docks were closed and the old buildings became flats and offices. Later, London became the
greatest industrial centre of the B. I. with a variety of industries such as, chemicals, soaps,
leather, furniture, clothes, printing, etc.

S. Eastern Eng. Constituted by:

The Weald (lowland), considered an agriculture unit. Crops
cereal, oats, roots, potatoes.
Noeth and South Downs (hills), Sheep rearing and dairy farming
are the most important activities.
In Kent and Sussex they cultivate fresh vegetables for the local seaside
resorts tomatoes, cucumbers, grapes, mushrooms, etc. The traditional
industries are agricultural machinery and engineering. Also paper since
the 20th century. Due ti the present size of modern ships, some ports
declined and became important seaside resorts.

S. Western Eng. A peninsula that includes Somerset, Devon and Cornall.

The region resents 3 mountainous groups: Exmoor (N), Darthmoor (S),
and Badminmoor (W). Agriculture is the most important activity in the
plains - crops fodder, vegetables, strawberries, apples. In the mountains
sheep and cattle rearing. Traditional industries are mining and fishing,
along w/ shipbuilding. Tourism in Cornish because of waves.
Set 2
Early people in Britain and Pre-History
Britain has not always been an island, it became one after the last ice
age. The first evidence for human life is a few stone tools from around
250.000 BC. These objects show that there were 2 different kinds of
inhabitants. The earlier group made their tools from flakes of flint, similar
to those found across the north European plains (Russia). The other
group, made tools from a central core flint which spread from Africa to
Europe. Hand axes made in this way, have been found all around Britain.
Around 10.000 BC, Britain was inhabited by small groups of hunters,
gatherers and fishers. Few had settled homes and they seemed to have
followed deer herds which provided them food and clothes. Eventually,
Britain became an island and for the wanderer-hunters, this was a
disaster, as well as for different animals which died in the areas of Essesx
and Kent.
About 3000 BC, in the Neolithic Age (New Stone Age), people crossed
the narrow sea from Europe, in small boats covered in animal skins. They
were called Iberians (Pre-Celtic), these people kept animals and grew
corn crops and knew how to make pottery. They are thought to have
come from the Iberian (Spanish) peninsula, or even the North of Africa.
They had to clean the forest and for that, a lot of stone axes were
invented. They also introduced decorated pottery and different shaped
tools. An excavation settlement at Wiltshire showed that Iberians lived in
isolated communities based on a tribal organization, they built camps or
enclosures, originnaly built for defense or just, organization. Eventually,
the enclosures were used for religious ceremonies. They also had a
knowledge of metal working and agriculture techniques. Hunters clothed
themselves in the skin of foxes and bears.
After 2400 BC, new groups of people arrived to the south part of Britain.
They were taller than the Iberians. Their arrival is marked by the first
individual graves, furnished with pottery beakers which is why they got
the name Beakers. This was a difference with the Iberians who used to
 bury their dead in barrows. Also, they brought with them a language
derived from Indo-European system and introduced bronze tools.

Invasions
The Celts. (700 bc) They came from what is now the South of Russia, and
they spread all over Europe before they sailed and settle in Britain. They
settled very early on, about 1000 BC. They were called keltoi by the
Greek and Celtai by the Romans. Celt actually mean hidden people or
those who are strange and different. They were highly skilled men,
craftsmen who used iron, bronze and gold, and produced fine decorated
pottery. Their culture was involved in the running and trading of tin. They
made decorated shields, daggers, helmets and swords. They also
produced toilet articles and personal jewelry. They were tall, had fair skin,
red hair and blue eyes. Their language derived from a branch known as
Brythonic which gave rise to Welsh Cornish and Gaelic, which in turn
gave rise to Irish and Scots Gaelic. Some words that remain until this day
are: basket, dad-daddy, flannel, tan; They also brought their own
religious forms.

The Roman Period (43 BC 400 AC). The 1st Roman invasion in the B. I.
took place in 55 BC under the war leaded by Julius Ceasar, but the real
establishment of the Roman Empire was in 43 BC when emperor Claudius
fought against the Celtic army. They dominated Britain for forty years
and established their basis in what is now Kent. The Romans remained in
the boarders of the island -areas where military basis were strategically
positioned- while the harsh and agriculturally poor areas continued to be
occupied by the Celts, in what is now Wales and Scotland. Roman life
flourished in England. Agriculture and cattle succeeded greatly, the
native tribes were integrated into the urbanization and the governmental
system. Roman society was classified as:
Emperors/ legionaries

provincial administration

commercial classes

masses

slaves/ women
The Roman Empire let behind a legacy which included new ways of
architecture, water supply structures and a sanitary system. They created
important roads which connected all parts of England with London
specifically, for the movement of agricultural products from farm to
market. Some of these roads still exist, and the cities of London,
Manchester and York, were actually created by them; Christianity was
introduced and it replaced Celtic religion; There were many changes in
vocabulary, such as the insertion of Latin words (like street, chester, inch,
port, mount) but they didnt replace the Brittonic language completely.
Cultural advances:
In the countryside were the great villas with their properly
drained streets, public buildings, bath houses, shops and
amphitheatres.
The influence of Roman thoughts survived in Britain only
through the Church.
Social org. The towns were governed by an order of 100
councilors, who had to be local residents and own a certain
amount of property. They were responsible for collecting
taxes, administrating justice and undertaking public works.
The disintegration of the Roman Empire started with Magnus Maximus in
383 AC because of the Saxon eastern influence. The Romans began to
withdraw from Britain at the end of the 4th C. with the arrival of the Saxon
hordes.

The Anglo-Saxon P. (383 AC 1066). It refers to the period in which part

of Great Britain was invaded by 3 main Germanic tribes called the Angles,
the Saxons, and the Jutes, which lasted from the disintegration of the
Roman Empire to the Norman Conquest in 1066; The Angles settled in
the Midlands, The Jutes in Kent along the south coasts, and the Saxons
between them. These people were rather primitive, not as civilized as the
Romans. They were warlike and illiterate, pagans but were later
converted to Christianity in the 7th C; The Celts fought against the
Germanic invaders, but they were pushed to Wales and Cornwall. They
gave to Britain the name England which means Land of the Angles and
Wales which means Land of the Foreigners.
They established a number of Kingdoms: Mercia, Kent, Northumbria,
Wessex and East Anglia. The Saxons divided the lands into administrative
areas. According to the manorial system, every area had a manor, a big
house where taxes were paid, justice was administrated, and men
gathered to join the Anglo Saxon army; The class system was made up of
Kings, Lords, soldiers and workers of the land. Saxon kings helped the
Christian Church to grow and at the same time, church increased the
power of the kings through the creation of monasteries, such as
Westminster, where men learned to read and write, so as to be prepared
for the Crown. This process increased the class division; At the end of this
period, England was well known for its exports: wool, pottery, hunting
dogs, metal.
The Anglo Saxon Empire became weak due to the Vikings invasion. They
eventually just governed Wessex, but it failed because of the
inexperience of the Kings. In 1066, the Danes attacked again and
demanded more territory but they were defeated by Harold Godwinson
(powerful family). Then, he was shortly defeated by William the
Conqueror and the Normans. This, was the end of the Anglo Saxon
period.

Vikings (Danish) Invasion. Towards the end of the 8th C., the Vikings were
tempted by Britains wealth. The Vikings were pirates from Denmark and
Norway who had come to write a new age in Britain. The first waves of
Vikings attacks were the most devastating to Saxon civilization, since
they had no means of defense. In 793, the Vikings sacked the Lindisfarne
monastery. Land for farming was also desirable. In the subsequent 250
years they continued their raids. Some brought only destruction, but
others, eventually settled down and became civilized. In 865 they invaded
Britain to conquer and to settle. Norwegian Vikings settled in the North
Scotland, they accepted Christianity as religion and did not disturb the
population; Danish Vikings fought against Wessexs King Alfred The
Great in 870 and he defeated the Danish. After that, the Danish ruled in
the east and north of England. In the rest of the country, Alfred was still
recognized as King. By 950, in order to keep peace in Britain, King
Ethelred started a tax system to pay Danish Vikings to stay away and stop
invading the Kingdom. After Ethelred died, Canute (a Viking) controlled
much of the island. Then, Edward the Confessor (Ethelreds son) reigned.
He was interested in the church and Christianity so he created
Westminster abbey.
Vikings left behind Viking houses, burial states, treasure hoards, and
many stories about real people, called Sagas. *Viking in Old Norse
means pirate raid.*

The Norman Invasion (Conquest). In 1066 the Normans invaded Britain.

They had originally been Danes who had conquered the North of France
(Normandy). After a time, they were absorbed by the French language,
culture and civilization; The Normans invaded Britain because William,
the Duke of Normandy, claimed the throne of Wessex, after King Edward
the Confessor, died since the latter had been brought up in Normandy
and had promised William that he would be his heir. However, the
Withan (Crowns council), named Harold Godwinson (another relative of
Edward) the new king. Thus, the Norman army lead by William fought
against the Anglo Saxon army in the Battle of Hastings, where Harold
was killed. So, William was the first Norman king in Britain and he was
crowned on Christmas Day in Westminster Abbey.
The Normans imported into Britain:
Their language. French became the official language and the
language of the upper classes and nobility. The Anglo-Saxon
English was spoken among the lower classes.
The Feudal System. Based upon the holding of land. All the lands
were owned by the King, who had Lords who paid for the
 arrangements of them. In return, they owed service and loyalty to
the King. At the bottom of this social scale were the serfs, who
were people living and working on the land, unpaid. William the
Conqueror built hundreds of castles to give Normans a powerful
image. In many cases, Anglo Saxons were forced to work in the
construction of the castles.
Their laws and administration. Socially, Anglo Saxon people
from peasants to Lords, lost their social range, churchmen
for example, were replaced by Normans. They erradicated
slavery due to the disapproval of the church and the
expensive costs of supporting them, but created a much
wider group of unfree laborers called serfs, instead.
Womens rights increased, they could now consent to marry
or not, and widows were able to re-marry. Despite
developments in Englands governance and legal system,
fighting between the Anglo-Norman elite, resulted in
multiple civil wars and ultimately, the loss of Normandy.

Middle Ages (1066 1485)

The history of the Middle Ages covers the major historical events which
occurred during the period from 1066 in England, starting with the Battle
of Hastings and ending with the War of The Roses in 1485; the start of
the Tudor dynasty and the emergence of the Renaissance.
The M. A. was characterized by different important issues related with
political, social and economical organization. At the same time, 2
important wars were developed: The Hundred Years War and the War of
the Roses.
Political and Economical Organization. The Feudal system and structure
had been well established in Europe for some time and finally it was
established in England by William the Conqueror after the defeat of the
Anglo-Saxons in 1066. The system was based upon the exchange of land
for military service. King William used this concept to reward his Norman
 supporters for their help in the conquest of England. What is more, this
new organization was based on the belief that the land belonged to God,
but the Kings (who ruled by Divine Right) managed the land and used it
as they wished.
Magna Carta and the decline of Feudalism: It was the new agreement which King John was
forced to sign, considered as an important symbol of political freedom. Here, the King promised
all free men protection from his officers, and the right to a fair legal trial. The nobles who
wrote it had one main aim to make sure that John did not go beyond his rights as a feudal
lord. When the king went to war he had the right to 40 days fighting service from each of his
lords, after which period, the king was forced to pay his soldiers to fight for him. Every king after
John, signed the Magna Carta until the Middle Ages ended in disorder and a new kind of
monarchy was introduced in the 16th C. In this way, feudalism, the use of land in return for
service, was beginning to weaken.

Social Org. At the top was the King who claimed ownership of the land;
then, Nobles who were granted lands by the King and therefore owed
loyalty and protection to him; then, Vassals, who also agreed to fight for
the King in exchange for their land; and at the bottom, were the peasants
and serfs, who worked at lands and couldnt leave without permission. In
church, Pope Archbishops Bishops Clerics.

The Hundred Years War (1337 1453)_[116 years in total]. It was a series
of wars between England and France. The background of this war went as
far as to the reign of William the Conqueror in 1066, when he united
England with Normandy and ruled both as his own. The war was caused
by the holdings of land in both places as different rulers took place. This
was not a continued fight, they did not keep armies constantly in the
field, but it was rather a game between the 2 countries, with clear rules as
to when to fight and when to rest. By the end of the 14th C. the war had
already been going on for 50 years. Finally, France won the war since
England lost its alliances. They could recover most of the lands that were
under Englands control, and created a feeling of nationality which was
difficult to break.
The War of the Roses (1455 1487). They were a series of wars for
control of the throne of England fought between the House of Lancaster
(associated with a red rose, supporters of Henry VI), and the House of
York (whose symbol was a white rose, supporters of the Duke of York).
The conflict lasted through many sporadic episodes. The power struggle
ignited around social and financial troubles following the Hundred Years'
War, combined with the mental infirmity and weak rule of Henry VI which
revived interest in Richard of York's claim to the throne.

The Age of Chivalry. Edward III and his eldest son, The Black Prince, were
greatly admired in England for their courage on the battlefield. They
became symbols of the Code of Chivalry and Edward introduced the
idea of Chivalry into his court, which stated that the perfect knight fought
for his good name if insulted, served God and the King, and defended
any lady in distress. Chivalry was a useful way of persuading men to fight
by creating the idea that war was a noble and glorious thing. However,
the Black Prince was actually feared in France for his cruelty.

The Century of Plagues. This terrible period lasted around 50 years in

total. The most famous plague, the Black Death, lasted from 1348 to
1350. These plagues had killed sheep and other animals, along with
young and healthy people. It was called B. D. because one of the
symptoms produced a blackening of the skin around the swellings; they
were red at first but later turned a dark color. It was spread by fleas that
were carried by rats. Nearly 1/3 of the population died, about 200 million
people in Europe; So few people able to work on the land remained, that
they could ask for more money, which led to the end of serfdom; people
moved from the country to the towns which collaborated in the
termination of the Feudal system; Also, people became disillusioned by
the Church and its power declined and thus, the process of reformation
started.

The Poor in Revolt. Edward III was an expensive king when many people
were miserably poor and sick; After his death, Richard II (grandson) was
crowned with only 11 years old, inheriting all the problems of discontent.
Because of his age, other people governed for him and were these
people who introduced a tax payment which was reinforced 3 times, and
3 times its original value, for every person over the age of 15.
Consequently, landlords had been trying to force peasants back into
serfdom in order to be able to pay these taxes. As a result, the poor
organized a revolt. The revolt only lasted for 4 weeks, during which time
London was under the control of a number of peasants and poor
townspeople. When their leader Watt Tyler was killed, Richard II quieted
the crowd by promising to meet all of the peoples demands and ending
serfdom as well. However, as soon as they all went home, Richard refused
to keep his promise, had his officers hunt down other leading rebels and
had them hanged. The danger of the revolt was a warning to the King,
the nobles and all the wealth of the City of London.

Language and Culture. With the spread of literacy, cultural life in Britain
naturally developed. In the cities, plays were performed at important
religious festivals. After the Norman conquest the Old Anglo-Saxon
language continued to be spoken by ordinary people, but was no longer
written. By the end of the 14th C., English was once again a written
language because it was being used instead of French by the ruling,
literate class. 2 writers, above all others, helped in the re-birth of English
literature: First, William Langland, a priest whose poem Piers Plowman
gives a powerful description of the times he lived; secondly, Geoffrey
Chaucer, who expanded the word-stock of English, being one of the 1st
poets to use its tremendous variety, bringing in words from a variety of
languages which were converging with English durng the Middle Ages.
Chaucers 1st instances of words include words from Greek, Arabic,
German and French, such as acceptable, army, arrogant, etc. He helped
to standardize the London dialect from a combination of Kentish and
Midland dialects, creating the Standard English. His most famous work
was The Canterbury Tales.
By the end of the M. A., English as well as Latin was being used in legal
writing and also in elementary schools. This period ended with a major
technical development: William Caxtons 1st English printing press, set up
in 1476.
Set 3
The Tudors
The century of Tudors rule (1485 1603) is thought as the most glorious
period in English history. Henry VII built a wealthy nation state and a
powerful monarchy. His son, Henry VIII, made the Church of England
truly English by breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church. Finally,
his granddaughter Elizabeth, brought glory to the new state by defeating
the powerful navy of Spain but weakened the quality of government by
selling official posts, which she did to avoid asking Parliament for money.
To start with, Henry VII reigned from 1485 to 1506. He believed that war
was bad for business and that business, was good for the state. So, he
avoided quarrels with France and Scotland, and made England financially
independent and kept a good relationship with merchants and
parliament. He never spent money unless he had to; However, Henry VIII
was quite unlike his father. He was cruel, wasted the 2 million wealth
saved by his father, and was only interested in pleasing himself. He was
always looking for sources of money and, wanted to become an
important political influence and maintain a balance of power between
France and Spain, but failed in doing so. Henry disliked the power of the
Church of England because he couldnt completely control it, since it was
an international organization. Besides, the taxes paid to the Church,
reduced his own income. In 1534 he broke away the relations with Rome
and didnt approve the new ideas of the Protestants. He closed 560
monasteries and religious houses in order to make money, and became
popular with the rising classes of landowners and merchants by being
known as the King who separated the Church of England. He remained
loyal to Catholic religion and executed any Protestant who refused to
accept his teachings. Because of this, the Pope rewarded him with the
title of Defender of FaithHenry died in 1547 leaving behind his 6th wife
and 3 children: Edward VI, Mary and Elizabeth I.

Extra info: Henry VIIIs love life was a little bit hectic. He married the widow of his elder brother
Arthur, Catherine of Aragon who had only one surviving-child, Mary in 1516. Since he had fallen
in love with Anne Boleyn, he tried to persuade the Pope into divorcing him but the Pope was
controlled by Charles V, Emperor, King of Spain and, Catherines nephew. As a result, his divorce
was forbid. Nevertheless, he had another with Anne called Elizabeth; (Anne was later executed
for being unfaithful). Years later, he married Jane Seymour who finally gave him a son, Edward
VI who eventually became the King of England.

Religious Reformation. It began when a German called Martin Luther

criticized the power and practices of the Catholic Church. Many people
agreed with him and joined, calling themselves Protestants since they
were protesting against the Roman Church, its teachings and customs.
Their demand for reform led to this period called Reformation. It must
have been very hard for people in Tudor times since they were forced to
change their religion depending on the beliefs of the monarch. Many
laws about religion were passed in order to follow what the King or
Queen believed; When the first Tudor king came to the throne, England
was a Roman Catholic Church country and the head of the Church was
the Pope in Rome, Clement VII. When Henry VIII came to the throne he
defended the Church against Protestants, but when the Pope refused to
grant him divorce from Catherine of Aragon, he split off the English from
the Roman Church, and the King became the spiritual head of a new
Church of England, instead of the Pope. This, was the Act of Supremacy
Reformation which marked the start of religious conflict in Britain:
In 1532 all Bishops were forced to sign a document
stating that they would not make new laws without the
consent of the King and that they would not meet
without his approval.
In 1534 an Act was passed that stopped the English
Church from sending money to Rome, and declared the
King as head of both, the country and the Church. He
had the power to reform Church as he wished.
In 1536 all monasteries were closed in England, Scotland
and Wales. Their gold and riches were claimed by the
King. The lands were given to loyal nobles.

Edward VI, Henrys only son, was a child when he became King. So the
country was ruled by a council. All the members of this council were from
the nobility created by the Tudors, they were keen Protestant Reformers.
In 1552 a new prayer book was introduced in order to ensure that all
churches followed Protestant religion, the Book of Common Prayer.
Mary I became Queen when her brother died in 1553. She was unwise
and unbending in her policy and beliefs. For political and religious
reasons she married King Philip of Spain, this was the first mistake in her
reign. The alliance with Spain dragged England into a conflict with
France. She also wanted to convert England back to Catholicism, and
because of this, she began burning Protestants, which earned her the
name Bloody Mary. This burning sickened people but the knowledge
that she was dying, prevented a popular rebellion. She died in 1558.
Elizabeth I became Queen, then. She wanted to find a peaceful answer to
the problems of the English Reformation, and bring back together those
parts of society that were in religious disagreement. In some ways, some
Protestants finally agreed to remain closer to Catholic religion; People
had to go to Church on Sundays by law, and there was a book of
sermons to be used, which taught people that rebellion against the
Crown was a sin against God. Catholics wished to remove Elizabeth and
replace her with Mary of Scotland, and for that reason, Elizabeth kept
Mary as a prisoner.

Tudor Parliament. Henry VIII ha used Parliament to raise money for his
military adventures and then for his struggle with Rome. He did not
realize that by inviting Parliament to make new laws for the Reformation,
he was giving it a great level of authority. The Tudor monarchs did not
like governing through Parliament; During King Edward VIs reign,
Parliament ordered a new prayer book to be use in all churches,
forbidding the Catholic mass. Power moved from the House of Lords to
the House of Commons. The members of Parliament represented richer
and more influential classes than the Lords. This Parliament was
supposed to do 3 things: agree to the taxes needed, make the laws which
the Crown suggested, and advice the Crown, but only when asked to do
so. In order to this, they were given important rights: freedom of speech,
from fear of arrest, and freedom to meet and speak to the Monarch. And
so, the Crown appointed a Speaker whose job was to make sure that
Parliament discussed what the Monarch wanted them to discuss about.
Finally, the Tudors realized that by asking Parliament for money, they
were giving it power in the running of the Kingdom. By 1600 Elizabeth
had found ways to raise money, but these were extremely unwise. She
sold monopolies which gave a particular person or company, total
control over a trade, but it had a bad effect on free trade. She also sold
political positions in government. And so, Parliament naturally began to
think their limitations. When the gentry and merchant classes were far
more aware of their own strength, it was obvious that Parliament would
challenge the Crown. This eventually resulted in war.

Language and Culture. At the beginning of the Tudor period, English was
spoken in different ways. There were still remains of the Angles, Saxon,
Jutes and Vikings, in different forms. Since the time of Chaucer, London
English (which was a mixture of Southern Midland and Southeastern)
became the Standard English. The way people spoke began to show the
difference between educated people (who spoke correct English) and
uneducated people who continued to spoke local dialect; The
Renaissance effect in England came much later since it influenced
religion, encouraging the Protestant Reformation; England also
developed an interest in music and art (miniature portraits); Literature
was Englands greatest form of art. Playwrights like Shakespeare filled
theatres with exciting plays, which were understood by everyone
regardless of their dialect, and were relatively cheap; Soldier Poets were
also popular through this period because they were both, brave and cruel
in war, but at the same time they were highly educated, such are Sir
Walter and Sir Spencer.
 The Stuarts
The name Stewart derives from the political position of office similar to
a governor, known as steward. It was adopted as the family surname by
Walter Stewart, who was the 3rd member of the family to hold the
position of High Stewart of Scotland. The French spelling Stuart was
adapted by Mary, Queen of Scots, when she was living in France, because
it was a difficult pronunciation for them. It was also used by her 2nd
husband Lord Darnley. Henry Stuart was the father of James I / VI.
The House of Stewart or later Stuart is a European Royal House,
founded by Robert II of Scotland. The Stuarts first became monarchs of
the Kingdom of Scotland during the late 14th C., and subsequently, held
the position of the Kings of England, Ireland and Great Britain. The
Stuarts were the first kings of the United Kingdom. King James I of
England, who began the period, was also King James VI of Scotland, thus
combining the 2 thrones for the 1st time.

James I became King of Scotland in 1567, after his mother was

forced to abdicate and his father, murdered. James inherited the
throne of England and Ireland after his mothers cousin Elizabeth
died in 1603. He believed in the Divine Right of kings (the right of
kings to do as they please and only answer to God). He also
forbade any interpretation of Church doctrine that was different to
his own and made Sunday Church-going compulsory; Catholics
were not allowed to celebrate Mass and refused the Puritans
demands for a church reform. James authorized the production of
his own version of the Bible the popular English translation from
Greek and Hebrew; He angered Puritans by showing his support
to the Anglican Church; His reign was marked by unpopular policy
decisions and uneasy relations with the Parliament by constantly
quarreling over money so he tried to rule without P as much as
possible, in which he was successful between 1611 and 1621, and
this was only possible because Britain remained in peace until his
death in 1625, leaving the country badly in debt.

Charles I was the 2nd son of James, and became King when his
brother, Henry, died. Like his father, he believed in the Divine
Right and had even more quarrels with the Commons. Since P
refused to do as he wished, Charles chose to rule without it and
dissolved it. However, Charless need for money forced him to
recall P, but every time he did so, he quarreled over and over
again. When he managed to raise money without their help, P
made him sign a Petition, which stated that he would not make
any money without the help of Parliament, but he soon realized
that this made no sense for a Kings Divine Right, and dissolved P
once more in 1629; Charles surprised everyone by being able to
rule successfully without Parliament. He got rid of much
dishonesty that had begun in the Tudor period and continued
during his father's reign. He was able to balance his budgets and
make administration efficient. By 1637 he was at the height of his
power. His authority seemed to be more completely accepted
than the authority of an English king had been for centuries. It also
seemed that Parliament might never meet again. Thats when he
started making mistakes: he married a French Catholic which
made him very unpopular with Protestants and Protestants
members of P; he had to face a Scottish rebel army and realized
he couldnt do so without the help of P so he recall it once again
after 11 years; Finally in 1642, a Civil War was unleashed between
those who supported Charles against Parliament, and those who
wanted to defeat him, which they ultimately did in 1645.

Oliver Cromwell had created a new "model" army, the first regular
force from which the British army of today developed. Instead of
country people or gentry, Cromwell invited into his army educated
men who wanted to fight for their beliefs. Cromwell and his
advisers had captured the king but they did not know what to do
with him. By this time most people in both Houses of Parliament
and probably in the country wanted the king back since they
feared the Parliamentarians and they feared the dangerous
behaviour of the army. On 31 January 1649 King Charles was
executed . Perhaps the execution was Charles's own greatest
victory, because most people now realised that they did not want
Parliamentary rule, and were sorry that Charles was not still king.
From 1649- 1660 Britain was a republic, but it was not successful.
Cromwell and his friends created a government far more severe.
They had got rid of the monarch y, and they now got rid of th e
House of Lords and the Anglican Church. The Scots were shocked
by Charles's execution. They invited his son, whom they
recognised as King Charles II, to join them and fight against the
English Parliamentary army. But they were defeated, and young
Charles himself was lucky enough to escape to France. From 1653
Britain was governed by Cromwell alone and became "Lord
Protector", with far greater powers than King Charles had had. His
efforts to govern the country through the army were extremely
unpopular, and the idea of using the army to maintain law and
order in the kingdom has remained unpopular ever since. When
Cromwell died in 1658, his republican administration collapsed.
Cromwell had hoped that his son, would take over when he died .
But Richard Cromwell was not a good leader and the army
commanders soon started to quarrel among themselves. One of
these decided to act and in 1660 he marched to London, arranged
for free elections and invited Charles II to return to his kingdom.
The republic was over. When Charles returned to England as the
publicly accepted king, the laws and Acts of Cromwell's
government were automatically cancelled.
 Catholicism, The Crown and the new Constitutional Monarchy.
Charles II hoped to make peace between the different religious
groups. He himself was attracted to the Catholic Church, so P was
strongly Anglican and were afraid that he would become a
Catholic. For this reason, P passed an Act which prevented any
Catholic from holding public office. This event resulted in the first
political parties in Britain: the Tories and the Whigs. The Ws were
afraid of an absolute monarchy and they wanted to have no
regular army. The Ts upheld the authority of the Crown and
Church, and were natural inheritors of the royalist position. In
1685, when James II became king after his brother, Charless
death, he tried to remove the laws which stopped the Catholic
from taking position in government and tried to bring Catholics
and Puritans now called nonconformists because they didnt
agree with the Anglican Church. This experiment didnt succeed;
Years later, Mary, Jamess daughter married a protestant named
William of Orange. The political parties and Anglicans did nothing
about this since they were looking forward to the succession of
Mary and invited William to invade England to get the Crown.

Extra info: Charles II was recognized as king of Scotland and Ireland after his fathers execution.
He led an invasion to England from Scotland to defeat Cromwell and restore the monarchy, but
he was defeated and fled to France where he spent 8 years. Later, he was invited by Parliament
to return to England as King, and this event was known as The Restoration. During his reign, 2
groups were formed: The Tories (supporting royal prerogative) and the Whigs (supporting P).
When he died, since he had no legitimate children, his brother James II succeeded the throne.
However, Charless illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, launched a rebellion. After this
event, there were a series of trials of those who supported the Duke, which led to an increasing
number of calls for James to be replaced by his son in-law, William of Orange. Williams
succession to the throne is known as the Glorious Revolution, and James fled to France where
he lived until his death.
William III and Mary II thus, ascended the throne as a Joint Sovereign of England, following the
Glorious Revolution. They were accepted by Scotland but Ireland remained loyal to James II.
After Mary died, William ruled alone until his death.
Queen Anne was Marys sister and succeeded the throne after William. She was a committed
protestant and supporter of the Glorious Revolution that replaced her father. She was the last
Stuart monarch as none of her eight children survived beyond infancy. On her death, the throne
went to George of Hanover.
Set 4
18th Century
It was a century of great changes and conflicts. Primarily, there was a
change of dynasty: After Anne, George of Hanover, a German King,
became King George III. He wasnt really interested in the kingdom and
because of this, he allowed the Whigs to form his government and
named Robert Walpole as minister. Walpole became a great political
leader by basing his power in the House of Commons, and persuading
peace abroad, and encouraging trade. Besides, he formed the Cabinet,
which gave birth to a new rule all members of Cabinet were responsible
for policy decisions- and he also made sure that the power of the King
would always be limited by the Constitution; which included that the
King couldnt remove nor change laws at his will, and had to be
dependent on the Parliament for his financial income and for his army.
This was also a period of constant conflicts between the Whigs and the
Tories. On one hand, the Whigs supported the Hanoverian Kings (George
I, II, III). On the other hand, the Tories were conservative and wanted to
restore the Stuart Dynasty through another branch of it.
This century was also a period of economical growth and colonial
expansion. This happened due to the increase of trade and the
incorporation of new colonies all over the world; Although England lost
the American colonies because of the American Declaration of
Independence, its policy of colonial expansion continued, since their
trade with these colonies was its main source of income.

John Wilkes and liberty. At the time, politics was only a matter for
a small number of people who had close connections with the
political aristocracy. However, there was one member of P who
saw things differently. John Wilkes was a Whig but he didnt like
the government of George III. He believed that politics should be
open to free discussion by everyone. When King George made
peace with France in 1763 without telling his ally, Wilkes printed a
strong attack on the government in his own newspaper. The King
and his ministers were extremely angry, unwilling to accept free
speech of this kind. Wilkes was arrested and imprisoned in the
Tower of London, but fought back when he was tried in court. He
won his case and got released. This victory established that the
freedom of the individual was more important than the interest of
the state, and that no one could be arrested without a proper
reason. Government was under the law too; The ruling class was
not used to considering the opinions of ordinary people. Between
1750 and 1770, the number of newspaper had increased, which
were read by people who could never hope to vote but were
interested in the matters of the time. In return, this increased the
amount of political discussion; working people read the papers
and discussed politics. There were conversation clubs that met in
different towns to debate; John Wilkess struggle showed that
public opinion was now a new and powerful influence on politics.
He had shown that P didnt represent the ordinary people, and
that their individual freedom was more assured. As a result of his
victory, people began to organize political activity outside
Parliament in order to win their basic rights.

Radicalism. In 1764 there was a serious quarrel because of taxation

between the British Government and the colonies of America. The
colonies thought it was not lawful that the British Gov. taxed them
without their agreement. The political opinion was divided: some
said that tax was fair because the money would be used to pay for
the defense of the colonies against French attack, but several
important politicians (including Wilkes) agreed with the colonies
that there should be No taxation without representation. In 1773
a group of colonies threw a shipload of tea into the sea, this event
was known as the Boston Tea party, and so the Brit. Gov. answered
to this by closing the port. This was a rebellion and the
government decided to defeat by force. In this way, the American
War of Independence in 1776 had begun. The Brit. Gov. lost
everything except Canada, and this war gave the Americans new
ideas of democracy and independence, and thus they were called
Radicals. Two of them where Burke and Pain, who was the first to
suggest that America should become independent from Britain.

The Industrial Revolution. It took place at the end of the 18th C. in

Britain, agrarian and rural societies became industrial and urban.
Prior to the IR. Most people resided in small, rural communities,
and manufacturing was often done in peoples homes. Life for the
average person was difficult, incomes were low and diseases were
common. Later, simple machine had been invented for basic jobs.
They could make large quantities of simple goods quickly and
cheap (division of labor). By the 1740s the main problem holding
back industrial growth was fuel; there was less wood to produce
the heat necessary to make iron in large quantities and high
quality. However, a number of factors contributed to Britains role
as the birthplace of the IR.: Firstly, Britain was a politically stable
society; secondly, it had great deposits of coal and iron, essential
for industrialization the use of coal changed the iron and it
transformed it into a good quality product, which made Britain the
leading iron producer in Europe. John Wilkinson built the first iron
bridge, and one invention led to another and it increased
production. The most immediate changes were the innovation of
machinery which destroyed the old industries and created
factories; goods that have always been made at home began to be
manufactured in factories, like the machine for weaving that
revolutionized cloth making. Productivity and technical efficiency
grew dramatically.
Socially, workers had been replaced by machines. Few people
became richer and many others lost their lands becoming the
 working proletariat. Government was afraid of dangerous
revolutionary ideas but they were calmed down by the
Methodism, a religious movement which offered hope to the new
proletariat; A large portion of the population moved from the
countryside to the towns and cities where manufacturing centers
were. Industrialization improved standard living for some, but also
resulted in grim employment and living conditions for the working
classes; people had to work long hours under bad conditions,
since factory owners pay the minimum, exploiting children and
women; the amount of goods and services increased, merchants
needed more cost-effective methods of production which led to
the rise of mechanization and factory system. Cities like
Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool, grew. Industries like iron,
steel, textile and steam engines played important roles as well.

19th C. and Victorian Era.

Britain in this century was the most powerful. It was an era of invention
and discovery with significant developments in the fields of mathematics,
physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, etc. Anew middle class grew, there
were the Commercial Classes, the Navy and the Army, besides, in order
to be considered middle class it was needed to have at least one servant.
However, cities and towns were unhealthy and overcrowded and Cholera
appeared in London, a disease that was spread by dirty water and killed
31k people. And so, towns councils provided parks, libraries and public
baths where people could wash, to new areas (before, proper drains and
water supplies were limited to those who could afford it); At that time,
Radicals started The Reform, a law to improve social conditions. Tories
said that P should represent Property, Radicals said that it should
represent the people, and Whigs fell somewhere in between. Finally,
Tories fell from power and Lord Grey formed a Whig government. Then,
Lords accepted the Reform Bill, which was a political recognition that
stated that Britain became an Urban society, and the reason why they
accepted that was because they were frightened by the idea of a revolt;
the 19th C. was also a period of self-confidence. Queen Victoria who ruled
for 63 years, created the Great Exhibition of Industries of all nations, to
show the world the greatness of Britain Industry, their exportation to any
parts of Europe made them powerful; its railway was also an example of
this industrial power. At first, railways were built to transport goods in
order to bring down the costs of transport, but it wasnt made for people.
Then, the middle class took advantage of it, and chose to live in the
suburbs from which they travelled everyday to the city, by train.

Scientific and Industrial Progress. Advances in medicine with the

understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention, took
place in this period. Psychology, Sociology and History were
important. The development of science itself posed problems for
humanistic views of the world which was perhaps the most
important issue in the development of modern thought:
Darwinism was a scientific revolution equivalent to Copernicus - it
changed the frame of reference. Now, there was no need for a
God to explain life; Albert Einstein and the Theory of Relativity,
principally concerned with the large-scale effects of gravitation
and therefore, essential ingredient in theories of the universe as a
whole; Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis, introducing the idea of
an unconscious and sexual energy at the heart of personality. --
The introduction of railroads provided the first major development
in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people
lived, obtaining goods and urbanization movements in countries
across the globe. Transcontinental Lines were built, and as a result
people travelled safer and time was reduced; there were also
achievements in steel, electricity, internal combustion engine,
telegraph and telephone, among others.

Social and economical problems & political changes. The rapid

growth of the middle class was part of the enormous rise in
population, this and the movement of people to towns from the
countryside, forced a change in the political balance, and by the
end of the century, most men had the right to vote. However, the
working class had not yet found a proper voice. Britain had hidden
the social effects of the industrial revolution: when peace came in
1815 (after the Napoleonic Wars), suddenly, there was no longer
such a need for factory-made goods and many lost their jobs. Men
from Britains army and navy were now looking for work. The
general misery began to cause trouble, people tried to add to
their food supply by catching wild birds and animals, but new
laws were made to stop people from hunting or they would be
hanged. This showed how much the rich feared the poor, and
although they were slowly softened, the fear remained. In addition
to this, some cities doubled in size, and several towns that were
close together grew into huge cities with no countryside left in
between; The poor in the countryside were not organized and had
no leaders. Only a few radicals spoke for the poor but failed in
fully supporting them. The Whigs understood better than the
Tories the need to reform the law in order to improve social
conditions. Since 1824, workers had been allowed to join together
in unions which were small and weak. Although one of their aims
was to make sure employers paid reasonable wages, they also
tried to prevent other people from working in their particular
trade. In 1832 the Lords finally accepted the Reform Bill, after the
fall of the Tories, because they were frightened by the riots
happening in the streets outside. They feared that the collapse of
political and civil order might lead to a revolution. 5 years later,
workers and radicals put forward a Peoples Charter, demanding
rights like the vote for adults, to a man without property of his
own to be a member of P and to get paid, to an election every
year and to vote in secret; all of these demands were refused by
the House of Common, and it divided the Chartists between
those ready to use violence and those who believed in change by
lawful means only. A year later, 14 men were killed by soldiers in a
riot in Wales, and others were sent to Britains colonies as
prisoners; the governments severe actions showed how much it
feared that the poor might take power and establish a republic.
Besides hunger, crime was the mark of poverty; Robert Peel, the
prime minister at the time, thought that a certainty of punishment
was far more effective than cruelty of punishment, and for that he
established a regular police force for London in 1829 and in the
next 30 years almost every town and country started his own
police force, which soon proved themselves successful.

Imperial expansion. By 1870, England was the most industrialized

and powerful country in the world since it possessed the worlds
largest Empire, protected by a very formidable navy. This empire
was expanding throughout the world with great success, By the
end of Victorias reign, Great Britain was in possession of the
Indian sub-continent, Australia, Canada, substantial portions of
Africa, lands in South America, and numerous islands all over the
world.

Queen Victorias Reign. Alexandrina Victoria was born at the

Kensington Palace, London, on the 24thof May, 1819. She was the
only child of the Duke of Kent and Victoria Mary-Louisa. Her
grandfather was George III. Her father died shortly after her birth
and she became heir to the throne because none of her 3 uncles
who were ahead of her succession, had surviving legitimate
children. And so, she became queen at the age of 18. In the early
part of her reign, she was influenced by 2 men: her first Prime
Minister, Lord Melbourne, and her husband, Prince Albert, whom
she married in 1840 and had 9 children with. She became the first
monarch to use anesthetic while giving birth to her 8th child,
Leopold. Most of her children married to other royal families of
Europe; Victoria was deeply attached to her husband, and when he
died in 1861, he sank into depression which caused her to live in
seclusion and to be reluctant towards a public life. As a result,
newspapers began to criticize her and some even questioned the
value of monarchy. So, the queens advisers persuaded her to take
a more public interest in the business of the Kingdom, which she
did, becoming extraordinarily popular; In 20 years, G. B. conquered
a lot of territories, becoming the 1st colonial power in the world.
Her reign could be divided in 3 parts: in the Early Vic. Period, the
Reform Bill took place, men owning property worth L10 could
vote, and awareness about childrens work was kept in mind.
Later, because of the inventions, this was a period of prosperity
but also, about a confrontation of ideas, mainly in religious beliefs.
People were departing from the philosophical foundations of the
Christian worldview and were being increasingly controlled by
philosophical naturalism e.i. atheism. And by the end of the
Victorian era, the UK had more competitors in trade, such as
Germany and the US; and the Unions were born.-; Despite her
advanced age, Victoria continued her duties, including an official
visit to Dublin, reviewing her troops and visiting hospitals. She
died in January, 1901 at the age of 81, after a reign of 63 years.
Her death was a terrible loss for the country since she had given
her name to this era.
Set 5
Position
The USA is situated in North America and is boarded by the Atlantic
Ocean in the East, the Pacific Ocean to the West; Canada in the North
and Mexico in the South.

Climate
Its as diverse as its geography. Its mostly temperate but tropical in
Hawaii and Florida, arctic in Alaska, semi-arid in the Great Plains and arid
in the Great Basin (south-west), and low winter temperatures in the
north-west; various parts of the USA are prone to hurricanes which occur
very often along the Atlantic, tornados, earthquakes and forest fires. The
area around the Pacific is prone to suffer tsunamis and earthquake
activity.

Relief
Since it is a big country, the relief features are not uniform. First, there
are 2 mountainous systems:

The East Coast Appalachian System. Surrounded by the

Appalachian Highland, this system is relatively low and narrow and its
forest-covered. It is boarded in the east and south by the Atlantic Plain.

The Cordilleran System (west). High, broad and complicated. It has

2 branches: The Rocky Mountain S. and the Pacific M. S., and in between
these 2, there are the Intermountain Plateaus.
The Rocky MS stretches from N to S. They became the highest and
largest mountain chain in the USA, covering the states of
Montana, Colorado, New Mexico and Wyoming.
The Pacific MS is constituted by the Cascade Ms which stretches
from N to S, covering the states of Washington and Oregon; and
Sierra Nevada Ms which also stretches from N to S, covering half
the length of the state of California.
The Intermountain P. is a system of plateaus, basins which ranges
and gorges between the Rocky Ms and the Pacific Ms. It is the
setting for the Grand Canyon, the Great Basin and the Death
Valley. In this region, vegetation is scarce, some areas are treeless
and others are real deserts.

Plains are divided into:

Costal Ps which includes_
The Atlantic C.P., which extends from N to S and continues
to the west.
The Gulf CP, an extension of the Atlantic. Very fertile
because the Mississippi river flows southwards.
The Southern California CP, narrow with famous sandy
beaches.
 Interior Ps which includes fertile places like_
Northern Great Plains which covers eastern Montana,
Wyoming, North and South Dakota.
Intermediate G.P., southern Dakota and northern Nebraska.
Central GP, eastern Colorado and western Kansas.
Southern GP, includes Oklahoma, Texas and eastern New
Mexico

Natural Resources
The USA has the worlds second largest mineral resources, especially
fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas. It also has uranium,
copper, iron, silver mercury, etc. Theres a vast area which is apt for
agriculture and cattle farming, also forest. The main crops are soy, wheat,
corn, oats, potatoes, cotton, tobacco, and also a highly productive
agricultural system.

Industry
Covers a great range of branches: iron, steel, paper, chemicals, motor
vehicles, aerospace, electronics, computer hardware and software,
telecommunications, clothes and food processing. Tourism from abroad
is attracted to the USA by its theme parks and National Parks, good
beaches for summer holidays and also skiing in Colorado (Aspen), Utah
(Deer Valley) for winter.

Political Division
There are 50 states and 1 district. In alphabetical order they are: Alabama,
Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware,
Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota,
Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, New
York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon,
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee,
Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin,
Wyoming; and the District of Columbia where the Capital city is, called
Washington DC, called like that to differentiate it from the state of
Washington.

Population and Languages

As of last year, the population is 323.1 million people. Almost 80% are
white, a 13% is black, and then Asian, Multi-Racial, and Native. English is
the official language, and at least 45 million people speak Spanish as
their 1st or 2nd language.

Regions
The states can be divided into 9 regions:

New England. Situated below Canada and along with the Atlantic
Ocean, it includes Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont,
 Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. This region was
settled by the Puritans, who were a group of religious deserters
from England, persecuted by the Tudors and Stuarts, so they
decided to establish in America. They arrived in New England in a
ship called The Mayflower and Americans called them Pilgrims
because they travelled a long way from home to their promised
land. Puritans built simple houses, caught fish and killed animals
for food; Native Americans taught them how to grow corn and
pumpkin, however, they had a very difficult first year in America
and many people died in the cold winter. But during their second
year, more food grew and due to this, they had a feast thanking
God for a good harvest, and invited the Natives to celebrate, thus
the 1st Thanksgiving was born, which is celebrated every year on
the fourth week of November. It became an important national
holiday. Little by little Puritans in New England started to grow
and many town were born; the climate is rather cold since its
located so far N, winters are long and snowy, and springs are very
wet and changeable. Summers are short and warm, and autumn is
famous for its spectacular beauty with trees changing colors from
green to yellow, and from gold to red; economically, fishing and
trading are important activities (hence the seafood restaurants),
agriculture (fruits, vegetables, tobacco), and now, as a highly
industrialized area, it produces shoes, paper and jet engines.
Boston is the central area for high technology industries like
electronics, and telecommunication equipment. This region is also
known for its excellent theatres, museums, libraries, as well as its
educational system, with universities such as Harvard and Yale.
(There are also a lot of places to study art or music, with summer
music festivals and concerts.) People from this region are also
known as Yankees.

Mid-Atlantic R. Situated mainly in the Appalachian Ms, it was

settled by different people: English Protestants, English Catholics,
and Dutch people. Its one of the most densely populated region,
including New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland
and West Virginia. There are 2 important cities in this area:
Washington DC. The countrys capital. George Washington
himself choose it as capital. Many people who work for the Federal
Government, besides, government buildings are located here such as the
White House, the Capitol, and the Supreme Court.
New York. It consists of 5 boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn,
Bronx, Queens and Staten Island. The center of NY is the island of
Manhattan, divided into the East and West side by the 5th Avenue (all
avenues are numbered in Manhattan), besides, its filled with skyscrapers
containing offices and business companies. Wall Street and the area
nearby are the financial center in the US.

The South. Includes the states of Virginia, New Carolina, South

Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky,
Arkansas, Mississippi and Louisiana. It possesses warm climate and
rich soil which is why that from the beginning, the Souths
economy depended on agriculture (they produced and exported
cotton, rice and sugar). Slavery was the basis for conflicts between
the South and the North, which led to a Civil War in 1960 Martin
Luther Kings Civil Rights Movement. There are 3 important places:
New Orleans. It took elements from different cultures
(French, English, African, and Amerindian). It was the
birthplace of Jazz and Blues, which originated the many
clubs and festivals, bringing tourists along.
Florida. Americas vacation land thanks to its tropical
beaches around Miami; Walt Disney World near Orlando,
attracts tourists year round with its variety of technological
advanced themed parks.
Atlanta (Georgia). One of the most important business
cities in the world. It has the 2nd largest airport and, of the
500 largest companies of the country, 450 have offices in
Atlanta.

The Midwest. Its the largest region, including Ohio, Michigan,

Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Iowa, North and South Dakota. Chicago is the largest city of the
region. Economically, its very important because it contains
important industrial cities and much of Americas farmland.
Geographically it can be divided in 3 subgroups:
The Northern Great Lakes area many lakes, hills and
forests. (Lake Huron in Detroit; Lake Michigan in Chicago).
The Southern GL area - The Prairie, south to the lake areas.
Abundant production of vegetables.
The Great Plains to the west. Also a very important
farmland.

The Southwest. Includes Arizona, Nevada, Oklahoma, New Mexico

and Texas. Most of the south-west previously belonged to Mexico.
The population is 50% descendants, 40% Hispanics and 10%
Native Americans. There is humid land in eastern Texas, drier
prairies in Oklahoma, and mountains and deserts in Arizona and
NM. Although the weather is very hot, they still have 2 main
tourist attractions:
 The Great Canyon formed by the Colorado River, cutting
into a plateau in Arizona. At the top and at the bottom of
the Canyon, vegetation and weather are very different.
Las Vegas situated in Nevada, its the greatest gambling
center in America. Its called the city of lights due to the
numerous Neon lights in Hotels and Casinos. (In 1931, in
need of money, the state allowed gambling and easy
divorcement.)

Rocky Mountains R. It stretches from British Columbia (Canada) to

New Mexico (US), covering Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado
and Utah. The mountains run from Alaska to Mexico, the highest
peak is Mount Elbert. Mining, forestry, agriculture and tourism (skii
centers) are its main activities. Its the least populated region in
the country.

North Pacific Coast and Alaska. Isolation is its main feature. Less
than 3% of the population lives there. Economically, its a
disadvantage since it discourages manufacturers from locating
here. Very rainy, cool summers and warm winters. The Cascade
Mountains provide beautiful scenery and there are extinct
volcanoes. Its main activity is lumber, which provides structural
support for houses and flooring, doors and plywood. Seattle and
Portland are the most important cities (cement, clay, fishing, flour,
metal products, textile, food products, extraction of minerals).
Crops (cherries, strawberries, grapes, wheat, apples sugar beets,
potatoes, alfalfa, dry beans). Alaska is the most isolated area, its
capital city is Juneau, and the transportation connections to the
rest of the state are by air or water.

California. 10% of Americans live here. There are plains (San

Joaquin Valley), mountains (Sierra Nevada), broad areas of desert
(Death Valley) and sandy beaches (Santa Monica) for which
California is most famous for. Its most important cities:
San Francisco cosmopolitan city with steep slopes which
offer splendid views of the Pacific Ocean. The citys symbol is the Golden
Gate Bridge, a beautiful orange suspension bridge that joins San
Francisco with Martin Country.
Los Angeles it stretches from Santa Barbra to San Diego. It
has many beaches and is the center of the movie industry, and home to
many movie stars. The Beverly Hills neighborhood is famous for its
mansions and high priced shops. The area is filled with deserts,
mountains and ocean, pretty much the settings for just about any movie.
 Hawaii. It consists of a string of Volcanic Islands and reefs that
form an arch in the Mid Pacific Ocean. In 1959 Hawaii was incorporated
to the US and became the 50th state. The main islands are Hawaii, Maui
and Oahu. Its capital city is Honolulu. Weather is breezy, sunny with
some clouds, warm but not hot. Beautiful sceneries including cliffs,
canyons and waterfalls, and of course beaches. Tourism has become the
main economical activity; people come from all over the world to surf.
Set 6
Extra info: Native Inhabitants The Amerindians had already been living in America for maybe
50.000 years when Columbus reached land. Theres an assumption that the ancestors of
Amerindians came to America from Asia, since, at the time, a bridge of ice joined both
continents, bringing people together by following herds of buffalos. For many centuries they
lived as wandering hunters and gatherers of food. The most important Amerindians were The
Pueblo people, settled in what is now Arizona and NM. They were well organized farming
people who lived in groups of villages, and whose houses were made of adobe (mud mix). Some
of these buildings contained 800 rooms put together on top of another. They made clothes and
blankets from cotton, and built networks of canals to bring water to their fields; The Apache
were their neighbors, but they never became settled farmers. They wandered the deserts and
mountains hunting deer and gathering plants and nuts; The Iroquois were a group of tribes who
lived in the woods of North America. They were skilled farmers, hunters and fishermen who
lived in permanent villages, in long-wooden huts with barrel-shaped roofs, and built wooden
stockades to protect them from enemies.

Colonization
A group of English sailors arrived in Virginia on April 26, 1607. They were
employees of the Virginia Company that had been sent there with the
purpose to set up colonies along the Atlantic Coast to find gold, pearls,
silver and other valuable products. They named the town they had
settled in Jamestown in honor to the King James I. The first years were
the hardest ones because they began to die over Amerindian attacks,
diseases and starvation. What saved Virginia was a plant that grew in
amounts: tobacco, and as a result, Sir Walter Raleigh brought the first
dried leaves of tobacco to England. In 1619 there was an important
change Virginias affair had been controlled by the Virginia Company
which now allowed the House of Burgesses to be set up with them. They
met to advice the governor on the laws that the colony needed; A small
Dutch warship arrived at Jamestown with many black slaves, which were
sold to the settlers as servants. White servants agreed to work for a
number of years in exchange for food and clothes, and then they became
free to work for themselves, but black servants did not.
Pilgrims arrived in America in 1620 in the Mayflower, persecuted in
England for their religious beliefs. They established in Massachusetts but
half of them didnt survive the first times. The ones who did, built better
houses, learnt to fish and hunt, and plant corn. They called themselves
Puritans because they wanted the Church to become more simple and
pure. By the year 1733 the English owned 13 separate colonies that
stretched from New Hampshire in the North to Georgia in the South.
Each group had its own way of life and characteristics; in the New
England group were small farmers or craftsmen, governing themselves in
small villages, others, depended on the sea for a living, building ships in
which they sailed to catch cod or trade w/ England. The biggest colonies
were NY and Pennsylvania, whose people were craftsmen and merchants
in the cities.

Independence
Samuel Adams was a politician and writer who organized opposition in
Massachusetts to the British tax laws (no taxation without
representation). In 1770, a Boston mob began to shout insults at a group
 of British soldiers for which the latter, killed 5 people and wounded
several others. Adams used this Boston Massacre to stir up Americans
opinions against the British in all American colonies. 4 years later a group
of colonial leaders came together in Philadelphia to form the First
Continental Congress to oppose what they saw as British oppression.
Though they claimed to be loyal to the King, they called upon all
Americans to support the people of Massachusetts by refusing to buy
British goods.
On April, 1775, 700 British soldiers marched silently out of Boston. Their
orders were to seize weapons that rebellious colonists had stores in
Concord. In the village of Lexington, soldiers found lots of American
military men (farmers and tradesmen) barring their way. These were
ordered to return home but when they refused, shots were fired and at
least 8 men fell dead. This encounter became The American War of
Independence.
In May, 1775, a 2nd Continental Congress met in Philadelphia and they
began to act as an American National Government. They set up an army
of men under the command of George Washington, a Virginia landowner
with experience in fighting at the French and Indian War. The Congress
also went to the extent to seek help in France, Britains old enemy. On
July, 1776, the Congress finally cut all political ties with Britain and
declared that the United States are free and independent states. And
on July 4th, The Declaration of Independence issued; the most
important document in American history, written by Thomas Jefferson
(lawyer and landowner from Virginia) and after that, they officially named
it The United States of America. The 1st to sign it was John Hancock of
Massachusetts.
Colonial leaders studied the ideas of political traditions in the writings of
an English political thinker, John Locke. Jefferson combined these ideas
with his own experience in America to produce a definition which stated
that governments should consist of representatives elected by people; a
Democratic government. Americas war against the British in that same
year, failed and some were captured in NY, but, the next year, Americans
trapped a British army in Saratoga and after swearing never again to
fight against them, prisoners were put on board ships and set back to
England. Benjamin Franklin used the Saratoga victory to persuade the
French government to join their struggle against Britain, and they agreed.
Finally, they won against British troops and they all started to discuss
peace terms. In the Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, Britain officially
recognized the colonies as an independent nation.

Forming the New Nation

During the War of Independence, the states had agreed to work together
in a National Congress to which each state sent a representative. This
agreement to cooperate with one another was called Articles of
Confederation, but the problem they faced was how to join together,
these sometimes quarrelsome little countries into one united nation. The
central government of the US was weak, when Congress needed money
 to pay debts owed to France, some states refused to pay. In 1787,
Congress asked each state to send delegates to a meeting to work in a
new system of government for the US, which was set up in a document
called The Constitution of the US. 2 years later, it was put into effect
under the approval of the majority of the citizens with George
Washington chosen to lead their discussions. The Constitution gave the
US a federal system of government, the power to rule was shared, power
to collect taxes, to organize armed forces, to make treaties with foreign
countries and control trade of all kinds; people had the election of a
national leader called the President to take charge of the federal
government, and to run the countrys everyday affairs, and to see that
people obeyed the laws. In 1788, George Washington was elected as the
1st President of the US. In 1791, ten amendments called the Bill of
Rights, were added to the Constitution, which promised all Americans
freedom of religion, press, speech, the right to owe a property, to a fair
trial by jury, among others. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights
marked 2 different opinions in political life:
The Federalist. They supported a strong president and a federal
government believing that the country needed a central strong authority.
It appealed to the richer people who wanted to protect their property.
The Democratic. They wanted to protect individual rights and
freedom. It was pointed toward the less wealthy people, like farmers or
craftsmen.

The War of 1812 War between France and Britain was interfering with American trade.
The Brits took seamen from American ships and forced the, to serve in the Brit Navy, so
the American became angry and declared war to Britain. Since the B navy was stronger,
they soon gained control of the costs of the US blocking their ports, and so the
Americans attempted to invade B but it went wrong because the Brits captured and
burned Washington. In 1814, they finally signed a treaty of peace, but 2 weeks later,
when these news hadnt arrived to American coasts yet, B forces attacked the city of
New Orleans. However, they were defeated. With the ports being burnt down, it cut the
entry of imported goods, forcing them to begin producing their own goods which gave
a start to American manufacturing industry.

Westward Expansion
In the 1800s, Louisiana belonged to France and 3 years later, Napoleon
was about to go to War with Britain, and needed money. He sold
Louisiana for 15 million dollars (today) to the US. In the 1840s, Americans
began to look westward for more land, which they found beyond L, in
Oregon; later California and then Texas, where they grew wheat, corn and
cotton. In order to prevent B from gaining territories, A started farming.
Although they both made a treaty to divide Oregon in 2 equal parts,
eventually, the territory as obtained by A. Southern planters took slaves,
arguing that they were needed. Texas attracted attention of its fertile
land. Mexico won its independence from Spain and Texas, and became a
province. During the 1820s, Mexican government was weak and unstable,
and in 1825, Mexico passed a colonization law which encouraged
foreigners to settle in Texas and guaranteed their security. Hundreds of A
poured into Texas seeking rich land, although they had no intention of
 living up to the Mexican restrictions and rebelled, defeating the M army
and making Texas an independent Republic; they organized the Lone
Star Republic with a constitution that made slavery legal. People thought
that the annexation of Texas with the US would be good for the growing
nation, and eventually both countries reached an agreement. After this,
M started war with the US but were defeated by the A army. Little by little
they occupied key areas of Mexico, until they reached Mexico City. The
Mex-Am War ended by a peace treaty in which Mexico was forced to
hand over the territory that corresponds to California, Arizona, Nevada,
Utah, New Mexico and Colorado.

North and South Causes of the Civil War

In 1810 in the USA, more than a million black people were condemned to
slavery, which was supported by landowners of the South but not
accepted in the North. Southern landowners defended slavery because
their prosperity depended on upon slaves to cultivate their fields of
tobacco, rice and cotton. Northerners however, opposed slavery for
moral and religious reasons; then, both sides agreed to allow slaves only
in the Missouri and Arkansas territory. In 1850, the Congress allowed
California to become a free state, while people from NM and Utah could
decide whether to admit it or not. Along with this arrangement, Congress
passed a new Fugitive Slave Act, which made it easier for southern to
recapture slaves who had run away. The North became angry and
provided food and hiding places for fugitives. In Kansas, fights and
killings among slavery supporters and abolitionists, took control of the
city.

Civil War
The new President Lincoln appealed to the southern states to staying the
unions saying that he wouldnt interfere with slavery, but that he
wouldnt allow them to separate from the Union either; The
Confederation opened fire in South Carolina: Lincoln and Jefferson
(President of the Confederation) joined their armies to fight. The North
was much stronger than the South, but the only way they could win was
by invading the S, occupying its lands. Since most of the fighting took
place in the S, and that the S people were actually defending their
homes, made them fight with more spirit to preserve slavery, and for its
independence.
The war took place in 2 main areas: Virginia, where the union armies
suffered several defeats in the 1st year of war and Mississippi, where the
union forces had more success, gaining control of the Valley and splitting
the Confederacy in 2. In the battle of Gettysburg, hundreds of men were
killed; the confederate commander broke off the battle and led his men
back to the S. In September 1862, President Lincoln issued the
Emancipation Proclamation with the aim of arising enthusiasm for his
cause and be able to win the war. The Proclamation declared all slaves
free if they lived in areas that were part of the confederacy. 2 years later,
the Confederacy was running out of food, equipment and money, and
 after several defeats, the union pacifically surrendered. The Civil War put
an end to slavery and it was finally established that the US were 1 nation
with inseparable states. The war left great destruction, bitter memories,
and cities and farms in ruins.

Farming the Great Plains

This is when the Homestead Act took place. This law offered free farms in
the west to families of settlers. Any head of family who was at least 21
years of age and an American citizen, could claim one; East of the
Mississippi, small family farms were the usual way of cultivating the land.
Building a house was the 1st task these people faced because they hadnt
any building material, so they built houses from the mattered roots of
waving grass; Water was another problem, the plains had few
watercourses and rainfall, that the farmers crops dried and died; in the
summer, a mall spark could start a fire very fast; and the plagues of
insects were even worse, between 1874 and 1877 grasshoppers flown
across the plains eating everything they found. Some people were
discouraged by these problems and gave up their lands and moved back
east, but most of them decided to stay and overcome these difficulties;
Railroad allowed farmers to sell their products in faraway places, but they
still had problems. They had land, but not sure living; the land produced
so much wheat that the prices were too low to give a farmer a decent
living, and so, they formed political action groups to try to improve their
position by forcing railroad companies to reduce the high prices that
they charged to transport farmers crops. Finally, in 1890s, western states
passed ganger laws which allowed government to control railroad
charges and to look for farmers interests.

American Industry
Coal and iron were the most important materials in the 19th C. The
increase of their productions was the cause of a rapid growth of
American manufacturing industries. It also helped to the construction of
railroads, as iron and coal were crucial to make steel for the rails and
locomotives, very important for industrial and agricultural growth, since
they transported crops and finished products all over the country, apart
from farmers to their lands. Railroads besides, transported troops during
the civil war and provided them food, cloth and munitions.

Inventions and Inventors

The Telegraph, invented by Samuel Morse when expanded,
allowed to send simultaneous messages, bringing lower costs and
greater efficiency.
The Telephone was the most revolutionary change in
communication. Invented by a deaf man, Alexander Graham Bell,
he formed the Bell Telephone Company which expanded rapidly.
The 1st commercial long-distance line was between Boston and
Providence.
High quality steel allowed the building of sky-scrapers, production
of automobiles, and high-speed machinery. Andrew Carnegie
realized the future possibilities of steel and built the worlds
largest steel mill in early 1870s.
Oil was sometimes bottled and sold as medicine before Benjamin
Silliman reported that petroleum could be a good illuminant
source, and added naphtha, paraffin and lubricating oil could be
also produced from it. During the Civil War, oil was converted into
kerosene for lightning and heating. However, the mass production
of automobiles made gasoline a more important petroleum
product.
Gail Borden founded the Borden Milk Company and worked out in
the process for producing condensed milk. After the Civil War, he
began a large-scale production.
In the late 1800s, Thomas Edison who had previously discover
electricity, invented the light bulb and perfected it. He developed
the practical use of electricity for lightning homes and streets,
which prepared the way for skyscrapers and trolley cars which
transformed urban transportation.
Henry Ford, famous for making automobiles, was the inventor of
standardization which meant producing identical parts in
manufacturing and by doing this he saved money and time by
producing in mass.
Set 7
British & American Government
Brits. Its system of government is a parliamentary democracy and
operates at both levels, national and local. Its a constitutional
monarchy of which Queen Elizabeth is head of state, reigning but
not ruling; her power is almost symbolic. She opens and closes P
and can grant the titles of Lady and Lord.
Parliament consists of:
The House of Commons elected members, with more
power than the H o L. They are known as MPs, are paid
salaries, and represent 529 constituencies in England, 72 in
Scotland, 40 in Wales and 19 in Northern Ireland. Their
speaker is elected by the entire house.
The House of Lords presided by the Lord Chancellor, a
senior law officer. Its main function is to review legislation
from the H o C, for example, amending bills before turning
them.
The Prime Minister is the political leader in the UK, he can control
legislative and executive powers. Tories and Whigs have evolved
into:
The Conservative Party supports the monarchy, the
Church of England, and the right of land owned by
aristocrats. It emphasizes patriotism and family virtues and
receives most of their support from the wealthier classes.
The Labor Party was formed by the Trade Union
Movement, who wanted workers in P and to get class
representatives elected. They believed that people should
have equal opportunities and be awarded according to
merit, rather than to birth or class belonging.
The Liberal Party established in the 18th C., they believed
that P rather than monarch should have the most power.
Their main objective today is to make the government more
democratic.
New Labor former Labor Party, seemed old fashioned and
created a new image.

Muricans. Its a Constitutional Federal Republic of 50 states,

divided into 3 branches to ensure a central government in which
no individual or group gains too much control:
Legislative the making of laws, it includes Congress,
composed by:
Senate. There are 2 elected senators per state,
resulting in 100 senators. A senate term is 6 years
and they must approve many important Presidential
appointments, including Cabinet officers, federal
judges, US Military and Naval officers.
House of Representatives. There are 435 elected
representatives, serving a 2 year term. All legislative
 bills for raising earnings must originate in this
House. The approval of both chambers is required
to pass any legislation since Congress has the power
to make all laws. Members of the House and
Senate are elected in every state except Louisiana,
California and Washington.

Executive its power is rested in the President of the US,

although power is often delegated to the Cabinet
members. The President is the head of state and
government, as well as the military commander-in-chief
and preserve, protect and defend the Constitution, whos
limited to a maximum of a 4 year term. The Vice-President
is the 2nd highest executive official in rank and succeeds to
the President in case of death, incapacitation, resignation
or removal. The VP is also president of the Senate and is
allowed to vote, but only when necessary to break a tie
vote.
Cabinet, executive departments and agencies. The
head of the 15 departments, chosen by the
President and approved with the advice of the US
senate, form a council of advisers generally known
as the President Cabinet. There are independent
agencies such as the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA), the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI), etc.

Judicial The nation is jurisdictionally subdivided into

judicial districts and created federal courts for each district.
The basic structure of this area is the Supreme Court with
13 courts of appeals below, and the, the district courts.
Congress retains the power to re-organize or even abolish
federal courts lower than the SC. Judges are appointed by
the President. Separate from this federal court system, are
the court systems of each state, each dealing with federal
law, a states own law, and having its own court rules and
procedures.

Modern Political Parties

Democrats. Oldest political party. Attracts the less
wealthy because it supports the rights of the
individual states. It has positioned itself as the party
of labor on economic issues. Franklin Roosevelts
philosophy has shaped much of this ideology.
Republicans founded in 1854 by anti-slavery
activists, rose to prominence in 1860 with the
election of Abraham Lincoln. Today, it supports an
 American conservative platform with further
foundations in economic liberalism, fiscal and social
conservatism.

Education in the UK & USA

UK. Full time education is compulsory for all children b/w the ages
of 5 to 16. State provides schooling and 6th form education is free.
About 90% of B pupils receive their education at state schools
supported by local funds.
Primary Ed. Children on B start their education at the age of
5. When they are 7, they move to Junior School, and the
usual age to transfer from Junior to Secondary is b/w 11 or
12 in Scotland.
Secondary Ed. Over 85% of Secondary pupils go to
Comprehensive schools which take children of all abilities
and provide a wide range of secondary education in a
district, from age 11 to 16. In 1988 a National Curriculum
was introduced and state schools were required to adhere
to it. It tells which subjects they have to study and what
they must learn. There are other types of secondary
schools; Grammar schools which offer mainly academic
education for the ages 11 to 18; Secondary Modern schools,
attended by a small minority and provide a more general
and technical education for children from 11 to 16;
Specialists schools only operate in England, giving pupils a
strong emphasis on Technology, Language and Arts. They
charge no fees; other expensive and private schools are
Eton, Harrow and Winchester. Between the ages of 14-16
pupils study for their GSCE (General Certificate of
Secondary Education.
Higher Ed. Students enter universities from the age of 18
onwards. Apart from private unis, students can request a
student loan. The 1st degree is the Bachelors Degree which
takes 3 years; Post-Graduate Ds are taken by students who
have completed the 1st degree, and it includes a Masters
Degree (1 year) and a PhD (3 years). Some important
universities in England are: Cambridge, Oxford, Imperial
College in London and the University of Manchester.

USA. To begin with, because of the countrys historical and cultural

values, neither national educational system nor curriculum exists.
Each school district is governed by a school board, who sets
general policies for the school, a small committee is elected by the
local community. Students do not pay tuition in grades 1-12.
School districts are divided into:
Elementary School contains students in Kindergarten (5
y.o.) and 1st to 5th or 6th grades, until 11 or 12 y.o. Students
are taught basic subjects such as arithmetic, mathematics,
 English, etc. As the curriculum is determined by individual
school districts, the teacher plays a significant role.
Junior High and Middle School Middle S contains 6/7/8th
grades, while Junior HS contains 7/8/9th grades. Students
are given more independence on choosing their own
classes.
Secondary School contains from 10th to 12th grades where
students choose their core classes. High school grades
become part of a students official transcript (a record of
the classes that a student has taken and the marks
received) and this will be seen for future employers or
colleges, which encourages them to take responsibility for
their education.
University admission policies vary from one college to
another. The university admission office considers whether
a student has taken courses in high school that have
prepared him for more difficult college courses. Universities
set a minimum Scholastic Aptitude Test Score which a
student must achieve in order to gain admission.
Depending on the university, students are sometimes
required to write an essay or have a personal interview.
There are 4 types of degree within this rubric: Associates
(completion of a program in a specific career field);
Bachelor (after the completion of an undergraduate
program), Masters (1st graduate degree) and PhD (2nd and
final degree). A thesis is required for most Masters and
Doctorates programs.