GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 57, NO.5 (MAY 1992); P. 727-735, 13 FIGS.. 3 TABLES.
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Ultrasonic velocity and anisotropy of hydrocarbon
source rocks
Lev Vernik* and Amos Nur*
ABSTRACT
An experimental study of the physical properties of
black, kerogen-rich shales, also including maturation
analysis, scanning electron microscope (SEM) obser-
vations, and physical modeling, revealed fairly pecu-
liar petrophysical parameters. Specifically, these
rocks have very low porosity and density, but most
importantly, both P and S ultrasonic velocities normal
to bedding are extremely low, whereas they are much
higher parallel to bedding, giving rise to a strong
anisotropy even at high confining pressures. We found
that these parameters primarily reflect kerogen con-
tent, microstructure, and maturation level of these
rocks. We found also that microcracks inferred from
ultrasonic velocity measurements occur only in ma-
ture shales. These microcracks are parallel to the
bedding plane and further enhance strong intrinsic
anisotropy, notably at low effective pressure. Our
results show, that on a small scale, kerogen-rich shales
are transversely isotropic rocks and can be effectively
modeled using the thin-layer composite concept mod-
ified to account for the specific distribution of organic
matter in the rock fabric.
INTRODUCTION
Regional distribution of organic matter and its maturation
level showing the degree of kerogen-to-hydrocarbon trans-
formation is essential for an understanding of the oil and gas
generation and migration processes. Moreover, the discov-
ery of hydrocarbon (HC) resources within source rocks,
e.g., in Western Siberia (Kontorovich, 1971) and Bakken
Formation, North Dakota and Montana (Meissner, 1978),
suggests that these parameters may also have a direct
significance in prospecting and detection of potentially pro-
ductive zones.
Manuscript received by the Editor May 23. 1991; revised manuscript received November 7. 1991.
'Department of Geophysics. Stanford University. Stanford. CA 94305.
1992 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
727
Recent progress in organic geochemistry has made it
possible to routinely identify HC source beds and their
maturity by the pyrolysis of core samples retrieved from
deep holes (Durand and Espitalie, 1976; Price, 1983). Spe-
cifically designed calibration and complex interpretation of
well log data have also been proposed and allow indirect
estimates of the total organic carbon (TOC) and kerogen
maturation level from gamma-ray, density, resistivity, neu-
tron, and sonic log readings (Meissner, 1978; Schmoker,
1981; Flower, 1983; Mendelson and Toksoz, 1985; Passey et
al., 1990).
However, a detailed experimental study of the effects of
kerogen content and maturity on physical properties of
source rocks. especially their seismic velocity and anisot-
ropy, has not been reported. Such a study will be useful for
(I) interpreting seismic reflection data; (2) interpretation of
modern, high-frequency seismic methods such as cross-hole
tomography and multioffset VSP; and (3) sonic log interpre-
tation. Even so. only a few comprehensive measurements of
the ultrasonic velocities and anisotropy at appropriate con-
ditions in rocks rich in kerogen have been reported (Green
River shale: Podio et al., 1968; Schock et al., 1974).
The issue of the remote detection of organic-rich shales
potentially may be reduced to recognizing strong seismic
anisotropy in situ. as this seems to be a unique feature of
these rocks (Vernik and Nur, 1990). In general, there are
three major factors responsible for seismic anisotropy: (I)
interlayering of lithologies. or laminae, of contrasting elastic
properties on a scale much finer than the propagating seismic
wavelength (Riznichenko, 1949; Postma, 1955; Backus,
1962); (2) preferred orientation of minerals (Jones and Nur,
1982; Vernik et al., 1984); and (3) stress-induced fractures
and microcracks that show preferred alignment (Nur and
Simmons. 1969; Hudson. 1981; Crampin, 1984). There are
already a number of reports of seismic anisotropy observed
in field experiments that are related to the above factors
(e.g., Winterstein and Paulson, 1990; Queen and Rizer,
1990).
 728 Vernik and Nur
Based on detailed experiments and physical modeling, we
demonstrate that kerogen-rich shales present a complex
system in which all three anisotropy-causing factors listed
above are involved. However, if these can be sorted out,
then the seismic and density properties of hydrocarbon
source rocks could become valuable diagnostics for the
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remote detection of kerogen-rich shales, their maturation
state, and, through fracture induced velocity and attenuation
anisotropy, for possible gas/oil migration paths.
METHODOLOGY
The ultrasonic wave velocity, density, and porosity were
measured on cylindrical samples of 19.0 and 25.4 mm in
diameter and 30 to 35 mm in length cut from 16 cores of the
black shales of the Mississippian-Devonian Bakken forma-
tion retrieved from depths of about 2.3 to 3.5 km in the
Williston Basin, North Dakota. The plugs were cut normal,
at an angle of 45 degrees, and parallel to bedding and were
oriented with respect to the S-wave polarization direction in
a way similar to that described by Lo et al. (1986) to ensure
simultaneous measurements of the traveltime of P- SH-
SV-modes of propagation (Figure 1). We used th: pUls~
transmission technique of velocity measurements with 1.0
MHz central frequency for P- and 0.7 MHz for S-wave
transducers and achieved an overall accuracy of the velocity
measurements of about 1 percent. The density measure-
ments (accuracy of o.ot g/cm') on each of the three plugs
cored from each core sample were used as homogeneity
checks; only the samples with density variation less than 2
percent were chosen for the subsequent analysis of anisot-
ropy.
The porosity was measured at ambient conditions with a
helium porosimeter on plugs preliminary oven-dried at 1l0
e. Due to very low porosity and permeability and the fact
that most Bakken shales are not water-wet, we have chosen
to make all the velocity measurements on laboratory dry
samples over a wide range of confining pressure (2 to 70
MPa) covering a plausible range of effective pressure in situ.
Because the phase and group velocities are equal when
measured using a pulse transmission along the symmetry
axes in anisotropic media, our primary concern was to find
out what velocity is actually detected at 45-degree propaga-
tion. Based on the wave propagation modeling results in a
typical Bakken shale sample with strong anisotropy, it
FIG. 1. ~cheme of sample preparation and velocity measure-
ments 10 shales. Wave propagation and polarization with
respect to bedding-parallel lamination is shown. Numbers in
parentheses indicate the phase velocity angle II with respect
to the bedding-normal symmetry axis.
appears that SHand S V modes for the specific geometry of
the cylinders and shear-wave transducers we used can be
approximated as plane waves. Thus we obtain accurate
estimates of their phase velocities even for the propagation
at 45 degrees to the symmetry axis.
RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS
Petrographic observations and pyrolysis data
The Mississippian-Devonian Bakken formation in the
Williston Basin is about a 40-m-thick unit containing organic-
rich black shales fairly similar to those encountered in
Alberta, Michigan, Appalachian, and Anadarko basins
(Meissner, 1978). We sampled 16 cores of black shale
coming from a variety of locations and depths in the Basin.
The shales are characterized by clear or obscure bedding-
parallel lamination that can be identified either in thin
sections as alternating 0.2 to 3-mm-thick laminae of shale
and silty shale (Figure 2a) or in scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM) backscatter images as up to 20-l1m-thick dark
laminae apparently enriched in organic matter (Figure 2b).
Aside from these sporadic organic-rich laminae, kerogen is
finely dispersed in the illite matrix.
The total organic carbon (TOC) measurements and the
kerogen maturation evaluation were carried out on RockEval
pyrolysis apparatus (Price et al., 1984). The hydrogen index
(HI) was calculated from the pyrolysis data as HI = S2/TOe,
where S2 is the amount of pyrolisable organic matter in the
rock. According to Price et al. (1984), this parameter pro-
vides a quantitative measure of the level of maturity of
kerogen. The TOe values can be transformed to the kerogen
content by volume (K) using K = (Pb/Pk) TOe/a, where Pb
and Pk are bulk and kerogen density, respectively, and a =
0.75 is a constant relating TOe to kerogen weight percent.
Given Pk = 1.40 g/cm ' (see below), kerogen content in our
collection of shales is computed to be in the range from
about 12 to 45 percent with the bulk density variation from
1.99 to 2.55 g/cm' (Table 1).
Ultrasonic velocities and anisotropy
Data.-Unusually low elastic wave velocity in source-
rock formations, in general, and the Bakken shales, in
particular, have long been noticed and attributed to both
their high content of organic matter and overpressured state
(Murray, 1968; Meissner, 1978; Mendelson and Toksoz,
1985). The extensive laboratory measurements we report in
this paper (Table 2) confirm our preliminary finding (Vernik
and Nur, 1990) of strong intrinsic velocity anisotropy in
black kerogen-rich shales. This strong anisotropy is caused
by markedly lowered P- and S-wave velocities measured in
the direction normal to bedding compared to the organic-lean
rocks of comparable mineralogy and porosity (Figure 3).
In general, shales devoid of cracks oriented across bed-
ding are considered transversely isotropic with the symme-
try axis normal to the bedding plane (Tosaya, 1982; Lo et al.,
1986). Our measurements on black Bakken shales so far
confirm these observations: (1) two S-waves propagating
normal to bedding and polarized orthogonally to each other,
VSH(O) and Vsv(O), show the difference in velocity of 1 to
3 percent at 2 MPa, which is further reduced to within the
 Velocity and Anisotropy of Source Rocks 729

accuracy (i.e., about I percent) of the experiment at about 10

to 30 MPa of confining pressure; (2) SV-waves propagated in
the bedding plane and SH-waves propagated normal to the
bedding traveled with about the same velocity within the where
accuracy of our measurements.
A = C ll sin 2e+C 44 cos 2 e ; B = C 44 sin 2e+C 33 cos 2e;
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Anisotropic parameters and their implications.-The trans-

versely isotropic media can be adequately described by five G = (C 13 + C 44) sin e . cos e. (1)
independent elastic constants: C 11, C 33, C 44' C 66' and Velocities V p and V sv correspond to quasi-compressional
C 13' After White (1965) and Lyakhovitsky (1988) the three (qP) and quasi-shear (qS) waves, respectively. From equa-
phase velocities of waves propagating at an angle e to the tions (1) it is obvious that for the directions normal (e = 0
symmetry axis are given by degrees) and parallel (e = 90 degrees) to bedding, solutions
2
2
C 66 sin 2 e + C 44 cos e allow immediate calculation of four elastic constants,
VSH(e) =-------- whereas at least one measurement at an oblique angle is
p required to estimate C 13' We have chosen to use V p(45
and degrees) as an input for the calculation of C 13 .
Three convenient anisotropy parameters introduced by
Thomsen (1986) are defined as

a) Cl1 - C 33 C66 - C 44
E= ,-y=
2C 33 2C 44

(C 13 + C 44) 2 - (C 33 - C 44) 2
/) = (2)
2C 33(C 33 - C 44 )
The exact expression for the SH-wave phase velocity sur-
face (indicatrix), given by equations (1), can thus be written
in a simple form

representing an elliptical function. From equation (1) it is

clear that a comparable simplification is not tractable in case
of qP- and qSV-waves; however, Lyakhovitsky and Nevsky
(1970) and Lyakhovitsky (1986, 1988), using the concept of
apparent anisotropy coefficients, derived approximate for-
b) mulas yielding insignificant errors of 1 to 2 percent compared
to the exact solution given by equation (1) in the range of
small angles of incidence e :::; 25 degrees.

5.5

5.0

4.5

j
t
4.0

~
> 3.5 __ ftr_
Black Shales (TOC = 5 - 20%)

3.0
........ .
2.5
FIG. 2. (a) Photomicrograph of laminated black shale of the o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Bakken formation with bedding-parallel cleavage microc- Confining Pressure, MPa
racks. The vertical dimension is about 3 mm. Note: alterna-
tion of silty and more organic-rich shaly laminae. (b) Back-
scatter SEM image of black shale displaying the distribution FIG. 3. Compressional velocity normal to bedding versus
of kerogen (black) as lenticular microlayers dispersed among confining pressure for kerogen-rich (16-core samples) and
clay (illite) matrix and as sporadic layers (up to 10-15 urn) some other shales of comparable porosity (<\> < 4 percent)
containing few clay particles. and mineralogy.
 730 Vernik and Nur
Based on these results, we find it reasonable to introduce approximating respectively the qP and qSV-wave velocity
an additional anisotropy parameter 8' governing the qSV- indicatrices in the range of angles from 0 degrees to about 25
velocity variation at small angles and given by degrees. For 8 = 90 degrees, equations (5) correspond to
normal moveout (NMO) velocities of p. and SV-waves:
(CII - C 44)(C 33 - C 44 ) - (C l3 + C 44 ) 2
8' = (4)
2C 44(C 33 - C 44 )
VNMO(P) = V p(O)y!i+28
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Then noting that 8 = (kJ; - 1)/2 and 8' = (klv - 1)/2,
where k p and k sv are the apparent coefficients of anisotropy
(Lyakhovitsky, 1988), the approximate expressions for qP-
and qSV-wave velocities at small angles of incidence can be
written in a convenient form similar to the expression for
SH-waves [equation (3)]:
V p(8) "'" V p(O)[1 + 28 sin 2 8 ] I/2,
(5)
V sv (8 ) "'" V sv(O)[1 + 28' sin 2 8]1/2.
Thus we can immediately see the meaning of the anisotropy
parameters 8 and 8' as the ratios of the axes of the ellipses
(6)
VNMO(SV) = Vsv(O)~'
We note that the first of these equations coincides with the
result of Thomsen (1986). Also, in agreement with the
terminology proposed by Winterstein (1990), 8 and 8' can be
referred to as the apparent anisotropy parameters that can be
used to calculate the short-spread NMO velocities of P- and
SV-waves, respectively, for proper stacking of CDP data in
transversely isotropic media. The four anisotropic parame-
ters computed only for homogeneous black shale samples
are given in Table 3.

Table 1. Kerogen content (K), maturity index (HI), bulk density, and porosity of black shales of the
Bakken Formation, Williston Basin.

Bulk density
Depth, ft TOC, % wt. K, % vol. HI, mg/g OC g/cm3 Porosity, %

7,570 16.2 37.5 569 2.09 0.04 1.97

8,630 20.1 44.5 584 1.99 0.16
8,634 15.9 36.5 493 2.06 0.02 0.65
9,831 10.3 25.0 420 2.21 0.03
10,164 12.9 27.3 319 2.22 0.01 0.68
10,487 15.4 31.9 346 2.18 0.01
10,495 9.8 21.4 325 2.30 0.01
10,575 10.1 20.4 294 2.49 0.04 0.75
10,732 7.6 17.5 180 2.43 0.08
10,733 12.0 26.4 145 2.33 0.01
10,734 11.4 25.3 162 2.34 0.01
10,931 12.2 23.9 175 2.35 0.01 0.97
10,932 9.9 20.1 101 2.43 0.03 0.87
11,230 4.9 11.8 75 2.55 0.04
11,246 9.5 21.3 122 2.38 0.03
11,280 5.3 12.5 116 2.48 0.01

Table 2. Ultrasonic velocities at confining pressure of 70 MPa in black shales of the Bakken Formation, Williston Basin.
Vp V SH V sv

Depth, ft 0 45 90 0 45 90 0 45 90

7,570 3.13 3.94 1.88 2.30 1.87 1.87

8,630* 3.32 3.82 3.93 2.03 2.35 2.31 2.2 2.26 2.05
8,634 3.02 3.44 4.14 1.76 2.09 2.50 1.76 1.99 1.79
9,831 3.41 3.73 4.16 2.07 2.51 2.31 2.07 2.18 2.02
10,164 3.38 3.66 4.19 2.12 2.35 2.57 2.12 2.22 2.12
10,487 3.18 4.20 1.94 2.51 1.93 1.92
10,495 3.62 4.36 2.22 2.63 2.22 2.24
10,575 3.36 4.48 2.06 2.55 2.05 2.05
10,732* 4.03 4.33 4.61 2.51 2.61 2.71 2.50 2.62 2.16
10,733 3.46 3.86 4.49 2.00 2.33 2.62 1.99 2.13 2.02
10,734 3.51 3.93 4.42 2.03 2.47 2.75 2.02 2.33 2.01
10,931 3.29 3.96 4.67 1.86 2.30 2.74 1.86 2.12 1.84
10,932 3.67 4.68 2.12 2.75 2.12 2.33
11,230 4.21 4.46 4.97 2.52 2.66 2.91 2.53 2.59 2.56
11,246 3.72 3.94 4.36 2.25 2.41 2.59 2.25 2.37 2.16
11,280 3.85 4.26 4.76 2.40 2.59 2.79 2.42 2.52 2.39
*Inhomogeneous samples labeled.
 Velocity and Anisotropy of Source Rocks 731
In Figure 4 we plotted the phase velocity indicatrices Temperature dependence of velocity in kerogen-rich
calculated using the exact formulas (1) as well as the shales.-Velocity anisotropy in the black Bakken shales is
apparent qP and qSV indicatrices from equation (5) for one also dependent on temperature. For example, the compres-
of the samples of black shale in our collection. The following sional to shear velocity ratio V p/V SH for a mature shale
three important features should be noted with respect to this dramatically increases with temperature when measured in
figure: (1) originally derived for layered transversely isotro- the direction normal to bedding, whereas it only increases
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pic medium, equations (1) work fairly well, predicting not slightly in the bedding-parallel direction (Figure 8). These
only qP velocity at 45 degrees but also SH- and qSV-wave results as well as SEM observations shed additional light on
velocity variation, even though the sample is characterized the physical state and distribution of kerogen in the rock
by a very strong anisotropy with 10 = 0.44 and 't = 0.51; (2) matrix; specifically, the organic material in the Bakken
equations (5) yield accurate to within 1-2 percent for qP and shales can be viewed as an amorphous substance distributed
3-4 percent for qSV velocity estimates at small angles up to as microlaminae and lenticular lenses along the bedding
25 degrees; and (3) the assumption of elliptical anisotropy (10 plane and prone to some liquefaction with increasing tem-
= I is not valid for qP- and qSV-waves in rocks with strong perature.
intrinsic anisotropy. Note also in Figure 4 that VNMO(P) is
close to V p(O), whereas v NMO(SV) is much higher than PHYSICAL MODELING OF VELOCITY ANISOTROPY IN
V sV<90 degrees). This makes SV-waves diagnostic of strong SOURCE ROCKS
anisotropy in seismic exploration.
One way to model the effects of kerogen on seismic
That rocks in our collection significantly deviate from
anisotropy is to use a two-layer composite (Backus, 1962) of
elliptical anisotropy is clear from the plot of 10 versus I) for
black shales and some nonsource rocks at high confining
pressure (Figure 5). The majority of the data points indicate
that while the real anisotropy of these rocks with respect to
compressionalwaves may be very strong (high E), the apparent
4
anisotropy I) can be rather low and even close to zero.
qP
3.5 vNMO(SV)
Effect of confining pressure on velocity and anisotropy of qP _-----. -
~------~
. _.-.----- --.-: ,------- ~NMO(P)
black shales.-Two groups of samples were distinguished as
to the sensitivity of the bedding-normal velocity and anisot- q~y . >
. S8 2.5
ropy to the confining pressure: In the first group there is little
sensitivity of these parameters to Pc (Figure 6a), while the 0 ~v 2
second is characterized by a large increase in V p (Figure 6b)
1.S
and respective decrease in 10 (Figure 7) with Pc to about 30
30 45 60 75 90
MPa of confining pressure. Similar behavior is typical of the Incidence Angle, 9
S-wave velocity and anisotropy.
Our results to date suggest that these differences in the FiG. 4. qP, SH, and qSV phase velocity indicatrices (solid
bedding-normal velocity and anisotropy versus confining lines) of a typical sample of black Bakken shales with 10 =
pressure are due to (1) differences in the microcrack density 0.44, "y = 0.51, I) = 0.03, and d' = 1.21 and its apparent
in the shales; and (2) may be related to the main stage of anisotropy display (dashed lines). Solid squares, solid cir-
cles, and open circles represent actual measurement results
hydrocarbon generation and migration. Indeed, we found for qP-, SH-, and qSV-wave velocities, respectively, at a
that the hydrogen index HI, showing the maturity level of confining pressure of 70 MPa.
kerogen-rich shales (Price et aI., 1984), was higher than 300
rng/g O.C. in shales with the first type of pressure depen-
dence and less than 200 mg/g O.c. in shales with the second 0.5
type. The HI < 200 values normally indicate that the shale is
not only mature but has undergone the main stage of <0
0.4
hydrocarbon generation and migration. !l -/5

Table 3. Anisotropic parameters of black shales at confining
J 0.3

0.2
pressure of 70 MPa.
.f-<
Depth, ft E 'Y 0 0' 0.1

8,634
9,831
0.44
0.24
0.51
0.24
0.03
0.12
1.21
0.34 0
.


10,164 0.27 0.24 0.02 0.63 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
10,733 0.34 0.36 0.07 0.80 Anisotropy Parameter E
10,734 0.29 0.42 0.18 0.32
10,931 0.51 0.58 0.30 0.61
11,230 0.20 0.17 0.02 0.49 FiG. 5. Anisotropy parameter 10 versus apparent anisotropy
11,246 0.19 0.16 0.03 0.42 parameter I) for black shales and two nonsource shales.
11,280 0.26 0.18 0.15 0.28 Note: all data point are characterized by E > 8 relation, i.e.,
the ellipticity condition is not satisfied.
 732
illite and kerogen yielding the five effective elastic constants
C~j that describe an elastic transversely-isotropic medium in
terms of the elastic and density parameters ofthe constituent
layers. Moreover, the local elastic properties of pure shale
(illite) layers in this model can also be considered anisotropic
due to the preferred orientation of clay particles themselves:
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Vernik and Nur
kerogen volume K. Judging from the SEM observations .this
may be associated with the fact that illite fabric can be
described as lenticular (Figure lOa) rather than composed of
continuous sheets. One way to model this effect is to
substitute the local constant C II of illite in the weighted
average of Backus's formulas (6) for an effective constant

incorporating the respective local constants of both illite and

cfl = (C ll - Cf3Cj3) + (Cnl)-I. (C n IC 13 ) 2; kerogen:

C!3 = (Cnl)-I; C44 = (Cib- I ; C~6 = (C66); C II ef = C iii (1 - K) + C Ilk K, (7)

Cf3 = (C 331)-I. (C 33IC 13 ) .
The brackets here indicate the weighted average. The best fit
to the experimental data was obtained when kerogen itself
was assumed isotropic with density 1.4 g/cm 3 and compres-
sional and shear velocities 2.7 and 1.5 km/s, respectively,
while the kerogen-free shale layers were assumed to have 10
percent velocity anisotropy and a density of 2.7 g/cm 3
(Figure 9).
It is noteworthy, however, that the velocity data along the
bedding plane deviates from the model with increasing
b)
a) 4.5
ID<2Ul
where the subscripts i and k denote illite and kerogen,
respectively. Substituting this expression into the equation
for cj I in equation (6), we computed the effective constant
Cj I and then Vp(90 degrees) for the case when K ~ 0.15
and plotted the results in Figure lOb. We can see that a much
better match to the data is attained when using this modified
model.
As seen in Figure 11, the anisotropy parameter E is
especially inconsistent with the model prediction in imma-
ture black shales, implying considerable textural changes
that presumably have occurred in the process of hydrocar-
bon generation. This unexplained feature may be critical for
a better understanding of this process and warrants more
rigorous modeling efforts.

~
4.0
300 4.0 EFFECT OF KEROGEN ON THE BULK DENSITY OF SHALES
HI>3
j
o.3.0
3.5

- ~
3.5

3.0
The effect of kerogen on the bulk density of black shales is
especially critical for the log-derived porosity determination
(Luffel et al., 1990). Our Bakken shales data show a fairly
> ~
2.5 2.5 good correlation of the measured core bulk density with the
0 10 20 30 40 30 60 70 80
Toe content (Figure 12) computed from kerogen and min-
Confming Pressure, MPa 2.0 erai matrix densities
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Confininz Pressure. MPa
(8)
FIG. 6. Bedding-normal compressional velocity versus con-
fining pressure for 15 black Bakken shales. Note: different
pressure sensitivity displayed by shales with hydrogen (or where C k is a constant relating TOC to kerogen percent
maturation) index HI = S2ITOC > 300 (a) and HI < 200 (b). weight equal to 0.75, <l> is porosity, and Pb, Pm' PI' and Pk
are bulk, mineral matrix, pore fluid, and kerogen densities,
respectively. With an average Pm = 2.72 g/cm ', the best fit
1.2 .....- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
-HI>3oo
- - HI < 200 1.74
1.0
... 1.72
~ 0.80
1.70
J 0.60 1.68

f
~
0.40
~
5i 1.66
1.64
(90)

0.20
1.62
: TOC<I%
1.60
0.0 -t----.---r--,----,-----,r--r--.-------i
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 1.58
Confining Pressure. MPa 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Temperature, c
FIG. 7. Anisotropy parameter E versus confining pressure for
15 black Bakken shales and some non source (TOe < 1
percent) shales. Note: Two types of E = f(P J behavior for FIG. 8. Velocity ratio versus temperature for a mature black
source rocks related to their maturity level defined by the HI Bakken shale sample from a depth of 10 164 ft (3098 m); (0)
values. indicates propagation normal and (90) parallel to bedding.
 Velocity and Anisotropy of Source Rocks 733
to the data suggests kerogen density from 1.2 to 1.6 g/cm ' , bulk density exhibit noticeable breaks in trends at this depth,
with the lower values in immature black shales. These values i.e., in accord with the behavior of the maturation index
are of course critical for modeling the kerogen-to-oil/gas (Figures 13b and c). Consequently, it appears possible that
transformation mechanism. the threshold of hydrocarbon generation can also be success-
fully mapped using density or borehole gravity logs, and
BULK DENSITY AND SEISMIC VELOCITY AS INDICATORS most importantly by sonic log and seismic measurements.
OF MATURITY LEVEL OF SOURCE ROCKS
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The importance of the hydrogen index HI as the most
reliable indicator of the maturity of the black shales (Price et
aI., 1984) has been corroborated by our data from the
Bakken Formation where the threshold of hydrocarbon
generation is located at about 10 000 ft (or 3 km). Below this
depth a marked decrease in HI values occurs (Figure 13a).
This change is accompanied in situ by a pronounced increase
in electrical resistivity of shales due to the replacement of
the connate water by newly generated oil and gas in the rock
matrix (Meissner, 1978). Our laboratory study indicates that
both ultrasonic velocity as measured normal to bedding and
a)
5.5
D o Vp!.90)
D y
5
Vp!.O)
CONCLUSIONS
Our ultrasonic measurements of velocity anisotropy have
revealed that kerogen has a dramatic effect on seismic wave
velocity and especially anisotropy even in microcrack-free
shales. The most important aspect of this study is that the
dynamic elastic properties (seismic and acoustic) and den-
sity of hydrocarbon source rocks can potentially be used as
an indicator for the remote detection of kerogen-rich shales,
their maturation state, and gas/oil migration paths, and their
relation to the structurally-induced natural fractures.
Black organic-rich shales are generally characterized by
strong velocity anisotropy, low velocity in the direction
a)

4.5

j 4
>&..
3.5 I----------------x
3

2.5 _ mite
0.0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.0 _ Kerogen
Kerogen, K % vol.
b)
4

3.5 0
D

1 2.5
>i
2

1.5

1 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.0

K,%vol.
0.0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.0
Kerogen, K % vol. FIG. 10. (a) Schematic fabric topology of kerogen-rich (K >
0.15) shales showing discontinuity of some of the clay (illite)
FIG. 9. (a) Compressional velocity versus kerogen content layers separated by kerogen in XY plane. Z-direction corre-
data and optimum two-layer composite model (solid lines) sponds to the symmetry axis. (b) Modified model of velocity
for black Bakken shales and some other nonsource low dependence on kerogen content taking into account the
porosity shales. (b) Shear velocity versus kerogen content discontinuity in illite layers in the shale fabric. Note: much
measured and modeled based on two-layer composite con- better fit to the data for the bedding-parallel propagation
cept. direction compared to the simple Backus model in Figure 9a.
 734
normal to bedding (lamination) compared to their nonsource
mineralogic equivalents, and low density and porosity. The
anisotropy values reach 40 to 50 percent and may be
enhanced in situ by distributions of mostly bedding-parallel
microcracks especially at high pore pressures typical of the
Bakken formation at depths of about 3 km. The anisotropy in
Downloaded 12/11/17 to 125.161.33.107. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
Vernik and Nur
Even though the real anisotropy of kerogen-rich black
shales is very strong, their P-wave apparent anisotropy that
defines the short-spread normal moveout velocity, which is
of most interest to exploration seismology, may still be low
and even close to zero. This fact invalidates the assumption
of elliptical anisotropy as a good approximation of trans-

situ can be further enhanced by the effect of temperature due verse isotropy in the case of strong anisotropy.
to the more liquified state of kerogen when heated. Another
mechanism that may be significant (but not considered in this a)
paper) is the effect of larger scale layering that cannot be 7.5

7
/,
sampled ultrasonically, but will be important at lower fre- 8
quencies normally employed in surface seismic, logging, and ~2.5
8.5
crosshole tomography experiments.
4:: 9
...
"0
9.5
j

! 0
f-3.01

.,,'. ....
10
0.7 .. . -- ,

COl
0.6
o Imma1ure
MaIure
10.S
11 ...,
.>"-.

I
0.5 11.5 3.5
0.4

.0 0 100 200 300 400
Hydrogen Indc:x
SOO 600

0.3 b)

I 0.2
0.1
0


.0
0 7.5
8
8.S \'
0\ \
2.S

0.0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.0

4::
9
\ \ .9
K, % vol. ! 9.S \
!
......
0\ o 3.0
10 \
.
FIG. 11. Anisotropy parameter e versus kerogen content for
black Bakken shales and some nonsource rocks displayed on
10.S '
' .
the background of the modified Backus model for two-layer 11- -, --s>
'.

illite/kerogen composite.
11.5
3.S
200 210 2.20 2.30 240 250 260
BulkDensity,Mg/m3
25 - , - - - - - - " - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
1.6
c)
, 7.5
20 ,0
P
c=70MPa
, 8
8.S \\ 2.S

..... 10 0
" 4:: 9
"", ...
"0
.s
9.5 - \ j
.s
g
"
-. t
0\ 0 1-3.0

.-.-.. -.... .-.- -

10 - \

5 ....... ' .........

'" '.
'.
Q
10.5 -

"
'.'. "
11-
. - . --.
2.12 __ 2:80 .
'.
n.s '"
3.5
2.20 2.30 2.40 2.50 2.60 2.70 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 4.20
Bulk Density,Mg/m3 Vp(O), km/s
FIG. 12. Bulk density versus total organic carbon (TOe) for
black Bakken shales-measurements and modeling results. FIG. 13. (a) Hydrogen index as a maturity indicator of
Open circles are immature and solid ones-mature shales. hydrocarbon source rocks versus depth for Mississippian-
Numbers indicate modeled densities of mineral matrix (low- Devonian Bakken shale, Williston Basin. (b) Bulk density
er right) and kerogen (upper left). The dotted line is a model versus depth for the same data set as in (a). (c) Ultrasonic
for pyrite-rich black shales with mineral matrix density of velocity normal to bedding versus depth for the same data
2.80 g/crn' and kerogen density of 1.60 g/cm', set as in (a).
 Velocity and Anisotropy of Source Rocks
Both velocity and density reflect not only the total amount
of organic matter in the black shales, but also the degree of
maturation related to generation and migration of hydrocar-
bons and may be considered important additional parame-
ters for deciphering the dynamics and spatial distribution of
these processes using remote geophysical methods.
Downloaded 12/11/17 to 125.161.33.107. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by the Texaco E & P Division
and Stanford Rock and Borehole Geophysics Project.
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