JSSH Vol. 22 (1) Mar. 2014 (View Full Journal)

VOL. 22 (1) MAR.
2014
Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
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and it serves as a forum for practical approaches to improving quality in issues pertaining to tropical
agriculture and its related fields. Pertanika began publication in 1978 as the Journal of Tropical
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Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
Vol. 22 (1) Mar. 2014
Contents
Foreword i
Nayan Deep S. Kanwal
Review Paper
A Review of Definitions and Identifications of Specific Learning Disabilities 1
in Malaysia and Challenges in Provision of Services
Dzalani, H. and Shamsuddin, K.
Short Communication
The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts Opinions on Developing a 19
Malaysian Garden Identity
Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi
Regular Articles
The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils Learning of the English 35
Language
Wreikat, Y. A., Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C.
A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid 57

Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and
Paramasivam Muthusamy
Political Cartoons in the First Decade of the Millennium 73

Iro Sani, Mardziah Hayati Abdullah, Afida Muhammad Ali and
Faiz S. Abdullah
Diversifying the Input and the Outcome: A Case Study 85

Phuong thi Anh Le
The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil in the U.S. 95
Military Intervention in 2003
Saeid Naji and Jayum A. Jawan
Exploring Lecturers Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and 119

Demographic Variables in Technical and Vocational Colleges
Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Idris
and Ramli Basri
The Effect of Exposure to Cartoons on Language Proficiency 137

Taher Bahrani and Tam Shu Sim
Lifelong Learning Model: The Experiences of Malaysian School Teachers 147
Jin Kuan Kok
Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in Penang, Malaysia 165

Lee, L. Y. and Cheah, Y. K.
Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools in 181

Mid-Western Nigeria
Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede and
Austine Itohan Ojugo
Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic 195

Speakers
Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng
Restorative Justice In Relation to Collectivism/Individualism, Shyness, and 217

Conflict Resolution Method Preference
Mohamad Taufik Mohamad and Azlinda Azman
Language and Identity: The Impact of a Multilingual Environment on 233

the Personal Identity among German Mother Tongue Speakers Living in
Malaysia
Miroslava Majtanova and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar
The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System in Kelantan, 257

Malaysia
Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and
Hamidi Ismail
Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths 271

(AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia
Zarinah Arshat and Rozumah Baharudin
Psychometric Properties of the Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction 285

Survey among Malaysian Military Personnel
Ang Chin Siang, Mansor Abu Talib, Rumaya Juhari and
Zainal Madon
Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE and Teamwork 307

in a Malaysian Semiconductor Firm
Poh Kiat Ng, Kian Siong Jee, Jian Ai Yeow and Masyitah Mahadi
Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private Higher 321

Learning Education in Klang Valley
Afdzal Aizat Ramli, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin, Zaifudin Zainol and
Turiman Suandi
Science Teaching Styles and Student Intrinsic Motivation: Validating a 335
Structural Model
Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan and Mohamed Rajab
Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a 345

Malaysian University
Liew Chin Ying, Foo Kien Kheng, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong and
Elinda Lee Ai Lim
Stigma as Part of Identity Development of Gay Men in Penang 365

A Qualitative Study
Felix, M. S.
Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysians Worship of Datuk Gong 379

Chin Yee Mun and Lee Yok Fee
Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving among 393

Matriculation Students in Penang
Ong, H. C. and Lim, J. S.
Socioeconomic Status, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Sedentary 409

Activity in 7-to 11-year-old Iranian Children
Samad Esmaeilzadeh
Foreword
Welcome to the First Issue 2014 of the Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (JSSH)!
JSSH is an open-access journal for the Social Sciences and Humanities that is published
by Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. It is independently owned and managed by the
university and run on a non-profit basis for the benefit of the world-wide social science
community.
This issue contains 26 articles. The authors of these articles come from different
countries, namely, Malaysia, Iran, Vietnam, Nigeria and Slovakia.
The regular articles cover a wide range of topics, from a case study to examine the
determinants of consumers willingness-to-pay for monorail transportation in Penang,
Malaysia (Lee Lian Yee and Cheah Yong Kang), the U.S. geopolitical code and the role
of the Persian Gulf oil in the U.S. military intervention in 2003 (Saeid Naji and Jayum A.
Jawan), a study on individual degree of collectivism/individualism and shyness of the
Malaysian people and the kinds of conflict resolution practice that they prefer (Mohamad
Taufik bin Mohamad and Azlinda Azman), to a study on the challenges and potentials of
and experts opinions on developing a Malaysian garden identity (Osman Mohd Tahir
and Mina Kaboudarahangi).
The research studies, on topics related to linguistics, education, management studies,

anthropology and psychology, include a study of assessing students oral achievement
in an urban school in Malaysia (Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and
Paramasivam Muthusamy), the rural learning environment and pupils learning of the
English language (Yazan Abdel Aziz Semreen AL-Wreikat, Muhamad Kamarul Kabilan Bin
Abdullah and Anna Christina Abdullah), a study of political cartoons in the first decade
of the millennium (Iro Sani, Mardziah Hayati Abdullah, Afida Muhammad Ali and Faiz S.
Abdullah), a study of the effect of exposure to cartoons on language proficiency (Taher
Bahrani and Tam Shu Sim), the acquisition of the verb movement parameter in English
by adult Arabic speakers (Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng), the impact
of a multilingual environment on the personal identity among German mother-tongue
speakers living in Malaysia (Miroslava Majtanova and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar), a case
study on diversifying the input and the outcome in the classroom activities (Phuong
thi Anh Le), the experiencesof Malaysian school teachers in lifelong learning (Kok Jin
Kuan), job satisfaction among school counsellors in secondary schools in Mid-Western
Nigeria (Eduwen, F. I., Okoza, J., Aluede, O. and Ojugo, A. I), a review of definitions and
identifications of specific learning disabilities in Malaysia (Dzalani H. and Shamsuddin K.),
the teaching styles adopted by science teachers and their students intrinsic motivation in
order to be persistent in learning the subject (Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan and Mohamed
Rajab), a case study of the relationship between problem-solving and informal systems-
thinking skills in a Malaysia university (Liew, C.Y., Lee, E.A.L., Goh, K.T.H. and Foo, K. K.),
exploring lecturers perception on learning organization dimensions and demographic
variables in technical and vocational colleges (Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Bte
Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Bin Idris and Ramli Bin Basri), a study on the level of satisfaction
towards the flood management system in Kelantan, Malaysia (Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed
Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and Hamidi Ismail), a study on improving engineering
performance through leadership, CE and teamwork in a Malaysian semiconductor firm
(Ng Poh Kiat and Jee Kian Siong), a case study of turnover intention from the perspective
of job demand, job control and social support private higher learning education in the
Klang Valley (Afdzal Aizat Ramli, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin, Zaifudin Zainol and Turiman
Suandi), a study identifying factors influencing mathematical problem solving among
matriculation students in Penang (Ong Hong Choon and Lim Joo Sim), a qualitative study
on stigma as part of identity development of gay men in Penang (Mark Stephen Felix), a
study on Chinese Malaysians worship of Datuk Gong in Malaysia (Chin Yee Mun and Lee
Yok Fee), socioeconomic status (SES), physical activity (PA), physical fitness and sedentary
activity in Iranian children aged 7-11 years (Samad Esmaeilzadeh), psychometric
evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths (AIFS) on rural Malay families
in Malaysia (Zarinah Arshat and Rozumah Baharudin) and a study of psychometric
properties of the Malay version of the job satisfaction survey among Malaysian military
personnel (Ang Chin Siang, Mansor Abu Talib, Rumaya Juhari and Zainal Madon).
I anticipate that you will find the evidence presented in this issue to be intriguing, thought
provoking, and useful in reaching new milestones. Please recommend the journal to
your colleagues and students to make this endeavour meaningful.
I would also like to express my gratitude to all the contributors who have made this
issue possible, as well as the authors, reviewers and editors for their professional
contribution. Last but not least, the editorial assistance of the journal division staff is
also fully appreciated.
JSSH is currently accepting manuscripts for upcoming issues based on original qualitative
or quantitative research that opens new areas of inquiry and investigation.
Chief Executive Editor

Nayan Deep S. KANWAL, FRSA, ABIM, AMIS, Ph.D.
nayan@upm.my
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Review Article
A Review of Definitions and Identifications of Specific Learning

Disabilities in Malaysia and Challenges in Provision of Services
Dzalani, H.1* and Shamsuddin, K.2
1
Occupational Therapy Programme, School of Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health Sciences,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz, 50300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
2
Department of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Jalan Yaakob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This paper aims to highlight issues on differences in definitions and terminologies of specific
learning disabilities used in Malaysia compared to those used in some other countries
based on published and unpublished materials on learning disabilities/specific learning
disabilities. In Malaysia, a broad generic definition of learning disabilities is adopted
and this approach post challenges in providing support and services for those with this
disabilities. Lack of standardized and culturally sensitive measurements and the limited
number of professionals with specialized training to deal with identification of those with
specific learning disabilities are other challenges faced in this country. This paper advocates
a review of the current definitions of specific learning disabilities to one that can better
guide planning and provision of appropriate services to the target group in Malaysia.
Keywords: Definition, learning disabilities, specific learning disabilities
INTRODUCTION to describe students who puzzled parents

The term learning disabilities (LD) was first and teachers with their low academic
established in the United States in 1962 by achievement despite normal physical
Dr. Samuel Kirk . This terminology is used appearance like that of of typical students
(Vaughn et al., 2000). To date, the term
ARTICLE INFO Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) is
Article history:
Received: 1 March 2012 commonly used in the international context
Accepted: 28 August 2012
to refer to those previously known as
E-mail addresses:
liedza69@yahoo.com (Dzalani, H.),
having LD. In the United States, about 4%
khadijah@ppukm.ukm.my (Shamsuddin, K.)
* Corresponding author
of the students attending public schools are
estimated to have SLD.
ISSN: 0128-7702 Universiti Putra Malaysia Press
In Malaysia, the Social Welfare The most commonly cited definition

Departments (SWD) as cited in Aminah of SLD is the definition established by
Bee et al. (2009) reported that 38.7% of IDEA (Individual with Disability Education
registered persons with disabilities in Act) and the National Joint Committee on
the country are those having learning Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) (Kavale
disabilities. The significant number & Forness, 2000). The definition held by
reported by the SWD raised concern on the NJCLD, [the committee that was formed
criteria used for identification. In addition, by the representatives of eight U.S. national
ineffective interventions for persons with organizations that have major interest
LD/SLD may be due to the very broad in SLD], is found to be the most precise
and heterogeneous definition of learning definition for SLD and has obtained a high
disabilities used locally. The current criteria level of acceptance among many national
used in identification of persons with LD/ associations in the United States (Hamill,
SLD in Malaysia lead to misclassification 1990; Hammond, 1996).
and subsequent inadequacy of services. NJCLD refers SLD as a heterogeneous
This paper aims at highlighting issues of group of disorders manifested by significant
definitions and terminologies related to LD/ difficulties in the learning and use of
SLD used in Malaysia. It will also compare listening, speaking, reading, writing,
definitions used in other countries with that reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These
used locally and the challenges this posed disorders are intrinsic to the individual,
on services provision for those labelled presumed to be due to central nervous
as having SLD. This review was based system dysfunction, and may occur across
on analysis of published and unpublished the life span. Problems in self-regulatory
materials on learning disabilities in Malaysia behaviours, social perception, and social
and overseas. interaction may exist with SLD but do not,
by themselves, constitute a SLD. Although
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS OF SPECIFIC SLD may occur concomitantly with other
LEARNING DISABILITIES disabilities (e.g.: sensory impairment,
The definition of SLD used in the United intellectual disabilities, serious emotional
States (U.S.) has been widely adopted by disturbance), or with extrinsic influences
other countries such as Canada (Learning (e.g. cultural differences, insufficient or
Disabilities Association of Canada, inappropriate instruction), they are not the
2002), Australia (Klassen et al., 2005), result of those conditions or influences
Japan (Kataoka et al., 2001), Hong Kong (NJCLD, 1998, p.1).
(Lau, 1998; Hong Kong Society of Child In Japan, the Committee on Guidance/
Neurology and Developmental Paediatrics Education Planning for Children with
(HKCNDP), 2006) and South Korea (Jung, Learning Disabilities, 1999, defined
2007). SLD as the disability that consists of
2 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014)

A Review of Definitions and Identifications of Specific Learning Disabilities in Malaysia and Challenges in Provision of Services
varied conditions, fundamentally without With regards services, in many

intellectual disabilities, manifested by developed countries with more standardized
significant difficulties in the acquisition definition of SLD such as the United States,
and use of listening, speaking, reading, UK and Canada, services for persons with
writing, calculating or reasoning. Learning SLD has become a national concern. Since
disabilities are presumed to be caused by persons with SLD has intellectual capacity to
central nervous system dysfunction rather learn but experienced difficulties in specific
than visual impairment, hearing impairment, cognitive and processing functions, students
intellectual handicap, emotional disturbance, in these countries were placed in mainstream
or environmental influences being the direct classes but are provided with academic
cause (Kataoka et al ., 2001, p. 3). support and accommodations. In the United
In Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Society States for example, educational services for
of Child Neurology and Developmental SLD are mandated by the education acts
Paediatrics (HKCNDP) refers SLD (IDEA, 2004; Test et al., 2006). Support and
to a group of disorders manifested as accommodations include remedial teaching
significant difficulties in the acquisition and incorporation of instructional learning
and use of listening, speaking, reading, strategies skills, academic remediation
writing or mathematical abilities, despite strategies, testing accommodations, and
access to conventional teaching. These the use of assistive technology in assisting
disorders are intrinsic to the individual and students with SLD facing academic
neurobiological in origin, with onset in problems at all education levels, primary,
childhood and extending beyond it. SLD is secondary and post-secondary education/
not the direct result of sensory impairment, training institutions.
mental retardation, social and emotional Literature on characteristics of persons
disturbance or environmental influences with SLD showed that SLD is not an
(e.g., cultural differences or insufficient/ exclusively academic related problem (Lam,
inappropriate instruction), (HKCNDP, 2009; Lerner, 2003; Rojewski, 1992). In
2006). the United States, their education acts had
In the United Kingdom (UK), the term mandated schools to provide transition
learning disabilities or learning difficulties services for transition aged students no
are used to refer to those with lower later than age 16 years. The act requires
intellectual functioning (Heslop & Abbott, individual transition planning be developed
2008; Abbott & Heslop, 2009). The term to help prepare students to engage in the
SLD in UK is used to describe individuals post-school outcomes of their interest and
that demonstrate similar characteristics to these may be post-secondary education/
those described as having LD/SLD in the training and/or employment. Vocational
United States and many other countries like rehabilitation services are also provided for
Japan and Canada (Reid, 2003). school leavers with SLD (Koller, 1994).
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) 3

In Asia, the HKCNDP following the the medical field while the other refers to
use of standardized definition of SLD the one used by the educational and social
had urged the Hong Kong government services such as those provided by the
to provide necessary services for persons Ministry of Women, Family, and Community
with SLD. The services include early Development and the Ministry of Education.
identification, assessment, education Medical officers, paediatricians, paediatric
remediation and accommodations, neurologists and child psychiatrists establish
examination accommodations, school the diagnosis of LD/SLD based on the
support, and services for higher education guidelines of Learning Disorders outlined in
and adults with SLD, as well as provision the Diagnostic Statistical Manual IV (DSM
of community support and development of IV). Learning Disorders (Previously known
self-help groups, and professional training as Academic Skills Disorders) are divided
for those dealing with persons with SLD into four categories (American Psychiatry
(HKCNDP, 2006). Association, 2000; Fauman, 1994; First
& Tasman, 2004). The group consists of
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIFIC Reading Disorder/Dyslexia (F315.00),
LEARNING DISABILITIES IN Mathematics Disorder /Dyscalculia
MALAYSIA
(F315.1), Disorder of Written Expression
In Malaysia, the term LD is more commonly (F315.2) and Learning Disorders Not
used than the term SLD. The definition Otherwise Specified (Learning Disorder
of Learning Disabilities is established NOS; F315.9). According to DSM-IV-
mainly for registration purposes for support TR guidelines, the diagnosis of learning
and services. There is no specific formal disorders are established when the persons
definition for SLD (Gomez, 2004). The reading achievement, mathematical ability
description of learning disabilities used and/or writing skills, is substantially below
in Malaysia is likened to that of the UK the expected grade as measured by
definition. This is not surprising since individually administered standardized
historically Malaysia was under the British tests, given the persons chronological age,
rule before gaining independence in 1957. measured intelligence, and age appropriate
Many education officers and teachers had education (First & Tasman, 2004). DSM-
been sent and continued to be sent to UK to IV-TR also emphasized the importance of
be trained. However, this generic definition understanding the underlying processes
raised challenges in providing support and that include input (e.g. visual or auditory
services as well as researches relevant for perception), integration (e.g. sequencing,
each sub-groups within the current broadly abstracting, and organization), memory
defined learning disabilities. (e.g. short-term, rote, and long-term) and
Generally, there are two different output (e.g. language and motor) (First &
approaches for defining Learning Tasman, 2004).
Disabilities. First, is the definition used in

For social welfare purposes, medical SLD. The SWD has used the term learning
officers are compelled to use the term disabilities more broadly to provide support
learning disabilities as imposed by the as well as education, employment and social
Social Welfare Department for disabilities services for more affected individuals. In
registration (Social Welfare Department, the earlier years, the SWD had also used
2009). However, local articles on Learning the term intellectual disability (Khairul
Disabilities written by health care providers Anuar, 2004) to the group currently labelled
continues to use the term learning disorders as those with learning disabilities in
(Amar, 2008) or its specific subtypes such as Malaysia.
dyslexia (Normah, Shalisah & Norizam, The Ministry of Education Malaysia
1999) recognised SLD as a category of students
The Social Welfare Department with special needs. The Ministry of Education
(SWD), under the Ministry of Women, refers the term SLD to students who are
Family, and Community Development has unable to learn in the mainstream education
established seven categories of disability for classroom setting. The teachers observe
registration purposes. These categories are a difference between the achievements
hearing disability, visual disability, speech of these students and the rest of the class
disability, physical disability, learning in regards to their reading, writing and
disabilities, mental disability and multiple arithmetic skills. The ministry through
disabilities (Social Welfare Department, it Special Education Division, refers the
2010). Disability registration with SWD term learning disabilities to a group of
enables persons with disabilities in Malaysia students with special needs who has learning
to receive supports and services provided problems in schools (Special Education
by the government and government-linked Division, 2012). Their learning difficulties
agencies. Upon registration, they are given could be due to intellectual dysfunction,
a card with their personal information neurological syndromes and/or neurological
such as photo, name, address and type of processing problems. The term learning
disability, and are eligible for public support. disabilities as used by the Ministry of
However, the SWD has its own operational Education is the same as the one that is
definition of Learning Disabilities. It refers used by the Social Welfare Department.
to those with intellectual ability (mental However, the Ministry of Education, has in
age) that is not in accordance with their addition established its own definition for
chronological age and also demonstrated the SLD (dyslexia) condition, which refers
profound difficulties in performing their dyslexia to individuals who seemed to have
daily livings. Conditions included under intellectual functioning equivalent or above
this category are global developmental typical students at similar age but have
delay, Down syndrome, ADHD, autism, significant difficulty in spelling, reading and
intellectual disability, slow learner and writing. These students have low academic

achievement, generally 2 years behind The IQ test which measures the general
their peers without disabilities (Special intelligence performance g is necessary in
Education Department, 2003). identification of persons with SLD. It helps
Learning disabilities definition, as rule out intellectual disabilities, slow learner
defined and used by the SWD is also and ability-expectation mismatch (Wodrich
being adopted by other government and & Schmitt, 2006). However, some scholars
non-government organizations (NGOs) in the field of SLD in the United States
in Malaysia. Generally the usage of this disagreed on the use of IQ in defining person
term demonstrates eligibility for disability with learning disabilities. Seigel (1989)
support and services (Fonseca, 1996). argued that the IQ test score is inappropriate
However, there are NGOs, such as the as measurement of a persons intelligence in
Dyslexia Association of Malaysia which defining SLD as it fails to predict the specific
provides services for people with dyslexia, cognitive functions central to academic
which used an SLD definition drawn skills, reading, spelling, and language
from the international literature (Dyslexia task. Furthermore, studies had shown
Association of Malaysia, 2011). higher reading achievement in individuals
with low IQ (Seigel, 1989; Share et al.,
IDENTIFICATION OF SPECIFIC 1989). In addition, academic achievement
LEARNING DISABILITIES is also influenced by other factors such
A discrepancy between intellectual ability as motivation, self-discipline, attention,
and academic achievement is the long- motor and phonological processing skills
established method in identification of (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005; Rindermann
SLD in most developed countries. The & Neubauer, 2001). The ability-achievement
IQ-achievement discrepancy refers to the discrepancy approach is criticised for its
concept of unexpected achievements in disadvantages in identification of children
the SLD definition. The childs achievement with SLD. This includes its inability to
(mostly refer to academic achievement) is discriminate between children with SLD
low compared to his or her ability (mostly from those who are low achievers (Fletcher
refer to intellectual capacity). The ability- et al., 1994; Hale et al., 2011) and leads to a
achievement is measured using standardized wait-to-fail situation before children with
tools such as Kaufman Assessment Battery SLD get needed services (Vaughn & Fuchs,
for Children (K-ABC) and Wechsler 2003; Hale et al., 2011).
Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). Response to intervention (RTI) is a
However, this traditional approach of new alternative approach to definition and
identification is criticised for its limitations identification of SLD that is currently being
especially in the development of intervention researched and practiced in the United
for persons with SLD. States. The main criterion of this approach

is the replacement of the use of the IQ score (Hale et al., 2008). An example of this
test as measurement for the achievement research-based procedures approach is the
discrepancy approach (Fletcher et al., Concordance-Discordance Model by Hale
2004, Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006). RTI focuses & Fiorello (2004). The Federal Regulations
on discrepancies relative to age-based for identification methods for students
expectations and instructions instead of with SLD in the United States permitted
cognitive discrepancy (Fletcher &Vaughn, three methods of identification which
2009). Many scholars in this field supported are Ability-Achievement Discrepancy,
the RTI process-based identification of RTI and Alternative Research-Based
SLD (Fletcher et al., 2004, and 2011, Procedures (United States Department
Fuschs & Fusch, 1998; Ysseldyke, 2005). of Education, 2006). In addition,
Using this approach, students who do not many researchers suggested the use of
benefit from general education classroom comprehensive evaluation of cognitive
are given research-based interventions. and/or neuropsychological processes in
Those who do not respond to interventions, identification of SLD even if the RTI
labelled as non-responders are provided approach is used first (Fletcher et al., 2005;
with additional intensive interventions. Kavale & Spaulding, 2008; Hale et al.,
Students who consistently fail to show 2006, 2011; Wodrich et al., 2006).
response to these intensive interventions
are deemed to need special education IDENTIFICATION OF SPECIFIC
services (Sotelo-Dynega et al., 2011) and LEARNING DISABILITIES IN
MALAYSIA
are required to undergo more comprehensive
evaluation to determine their eligibility for In 2003, the Special Education Division,
special education and identification of SLD Ministry of Education developed a local
(Fletcher et al., 2011). instrument, the Instrumen Senarai Semak
The most recent approach in Disleksia (ISD), to screen students in the
identification of SLD uses research-based primary schools suspected to have dyslexia.
procedures. This approach uses alternative This screening instrument consists of three
research-based procedures instead elements: (i) students level of mastery
of conventional IQ achievement-based in reading and writing (spelling) and
assessment in the evaluation of the strengths numeracy skills (difficulties); (ii) teachers/
and weaknesses of persons with SLD in their parents perception of students abilities
abilities (Hale et al., 2011; Sotelo-Dynega (strengths); and (iii) predictors of dyslexia.
et al., 2011). The individual standardized The purpose of the screening instrument is
cognitive and achievement measures are to help teachers identify students who have
used to identify the cognitive strengths, or who are at risk of having dyslexia. Using
cognitive deficits, and achievement deficits this instrument, students who are identified
associated with the cognitive deficit as probably having dyslexia are further

referred to the medical or healthcare services these students varied, the majority of them
for confirmation of the diagnoses (Ministry do not have intellectual disability. Toh et al.
of Education, 2003). (2011) reported that 10.8% of the year one
The Ministry of Education Malaysia student in their study had SLD.
introduced the Literacy and Numeracy In Malaysia, the clinical psychologists
Screening (LINUS) programme for primary are responsible in providing data on children
school children in 2010. The LINUS behaviour psychological performances that
program aim for each child to master their are normally required to establish diagnosis.
basic literacy and numeracy skill after The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
following the three year primary education (WISC) is commonly used as a clinical tool
(Ministry of Education, 2010a). Children are to provide a childs IQ estimation score.
screened using LINUS Assessment for their The evaluation of childs behaviour (for
reading, writing and arithmetic skills when example, Vineland Adaptive Behaviour
they enter primary school at age 6 years. Scales, Child Behaviour Checklist),
Three LINUS assessments are carried out dyslexia characteristics using Dyslexia
for year one students in March, June and Screening Test, the childs academic/school
September. Those who fail this screening performances (based on teachers report and/
are either placed in LINUS programme or or tests in the clinic), and family report are
referred to the health facilities for diagnostic equally important and have been taken into
evaluation prior to placement in programs consideration when making a diagnosis. The
for students with special education needs. diagnosis is established based on the input
The LINUS intervention program focuses from a multi-disciplinary team which most
on improving the students basic reading, commonly consist of clinical psychologist,
writing and arithmetic skills. Remedial psychiatrist and/or paediatrician.
teachers and selected high performance
teachers are assigned to teach students in CHALLENGES IN PROVIDING
the remedial classes which consist of smaller SUPPORT AND SERVICES FOR
INDIVIDUALS WITH SPESIFIC
number of students (Ministry of Education,
LEARNING DISABILITIES IN
2010a). This recent move by the Ministry MALAYSIA
of Education is seen as a positive step
Standardized definition is essential for
towards early identification of students with
accurate identification of persons with
learning disabilities in Malaysia (The Star,
SLD for the purpose of services planning
2012). Toh et al. (2011) found that out of
and implementation (Fonseca, 1996; Jung,
93 primary one students who were referred
2007). Standardized definition facilitates
for learning disabilities at Lau King Howe
assessment, intervention and research on
Memorial Children Clinic, 72% of them
the problems and needs of this group. The
failed the LINUS assessment. Although the
absence of consensus on the standardized
clinical diagnosis and non-verbal ability of
definition makes estimation of its prevalence

difficult and this will compromise services The Ministry of Education special
provision (Jung, 2007). programme, the dyslexia programme,
In Malaysia, services including was initiated following the implementation
educational and social services for persons of the dyslexia screening instruments
with SLD are deemed for those grouped under in schools. However, this programme is
the umbrella term learning disabilities by limited to children in primary and secondary
the SWD. Historically, special education schools. Support and services at post-
services for people with disabilities in secondary school level are not documented.
Malaysia started with services for persons Currently the dyslexia programme is
with sensory disabilities (hearing and visual available in 51 primary schools and 16
impairment) and subsequently followed for secondary schools all over Malaysia
those with intellectual disabilities (Aminah (Ministry of Education, 2010b). This
Bee et al., 2009; Jamila, 2005). The Special number is relatively small compared to the
education classes for students with learning number of students with SLD in the country.
disabilities at government funded schools In schools with no dyslexia programme,
were started in 1988 for primary school students with SLD can choose to study in
children and in 1995 for secondary school either mainstream classes without support
students (Jamila, 2005). It is only recently, services from special education teachers
since 2004 that the education programme or opt to follow the Special Education
for students with dyslexia is made available Integrated Program (SEIP). According
in the governments funded schools. In other to their performance, students with SLD
word, the special education classes for who followed the SEIP are placed in either
students with learning disabilities were the inclusive class (together with typical
established mainly to serve children with students and following the mainstream
intellectual disabilities who were previously curriculum) or segregated class (with
known as mentally handicap and not those students with learning disabilities; and
with SLD. Many students with SLD are following alternative curriculum). Support
left to struggle in the mainstream classes and services for students with SLD in the
due to lack of support from the education inclusive or segregated classes vary based on
system and are at risk of becoming academic available resources in schools. In addition,
failures or labelled as low achieving students the alternative SEIP curriculum developed
(Sariah, 2008). It is of no surprise when for students with intellectual disabilities
many parents share their deep feelings of had been criticised as being inappropriate
dissatisfaction and concerns on the unmet for those with SLD (Sariah, 2008). Mohd
needs of their children within the local Sharani (2004) emphasised that students
educational system in their conversations with special needs including those with SLD
and discussions on these issues (Sariah, should use similar curriculum to that given
2008; The Star, 2010; Suet, 2007; personal to typical students in the mainstream classes.
interviews with parents). However, modification of the curriculum
should be made whenever necessary and Behaviour Scales, Dyslexia Screening Test
supported by the best teaching and learning and academic skills assessments for local
approaches (Mohd Sharani, 2004). Adnan use. Although some may use the translated
and Hafiz (2001) had suggested that the version of these instruments, these are mainly
current approaches in the implementation limited to the Malay Language. Moreover,
of inclusive education in Malaysia are due many of these translated assessment tools
to the inability to define and characterise are still beset by validation issues. Imprecise
persons with disabilities in this country. identification of persons with SLD leads to
While educational services for students misconception about their needs for support
with SLD has received considerable attention and services (Jung, 2007; Mohd Zulkifli,
from the Ministry of Education, advocates 2011).
of those with SLD including parents of Disparity in services provision for
children with SLD, as well as special persons with SLD is evident in countries
educators and professionals involved in this where definition and identification of
group perceived that progress is relatively persons with SLD are not clear. Like in
slow and inadequate (Star, 2003; Cho, 2005; Malaysia, in South Korea, SLD is recognized
Suet, 2007). They felt that the political will as a disorder and included as a category
and commitment on the development of under special education (Jung, 2007). The
services for person with SLD in Malaysia concept of SLD is not well distinguished
is still relatively low. Jung (2007) suggested from underachievement, slow learning,
governments low supports for research and mental retardation. Generally there is
based definition and identification of SLD minimal understanding or misconception of
is due to concern about cost since special SLD among teachers and parents. The lack
education services is expensive. of set criteria and assessment instruments
In Malaysia, the number of professionals for identifying students with SLD in South
such as child psychiatrists, paediatricians/ Korea has lead to inadequate educational
child neurologists and clinical psychologists, services at secondary and tertiary level
necessary for identification and evaluation (Jung, 2007).
of children with learning disabilities are The Malaysian broad and generic
limited. There is also no educational definition of learning disabilities that
psychologist placed in schools or the school include SLD as a sub-group also post
district offices. In addition to this, we also challenges on maintaining database and
lack standardized assessments tools that are research on SLD. Data from studies that
locally and culturally sensitive. The current include or combined many disability groups
practice in identifying persons with SLD may provide a broad viewpoint on problems
involves using the western assessments faced by persons with disabilities and carry
tools such as the Wechslers products of the risk of over generalizing the findings
intellectual assessments, Vineland Adaptive (Caton & Kagan, 2006; Levine & Nourse,

1998). It is of no surprise that special scientific database (Fonseca, 1996; Keogh,

education teachers in this country also have 1986; Lam, 2009). Nevertheless, Fonseca
low understanding of learning disabilities (1996) urged professions involved in this
and SLD (Mohd Zulkifli, 2012). Two field to take up a professionally honest
local studies on transition programme for and accurate definition of SLD for better
students who attended SEIP in government development of services for this group of
funded schools, reported findings on broadly people.
defined learning disabilities and did not
address the specific needs of sub-groups Identification of children with learning
labelled to have learning disabilities disabilities
(Abdul Rahman, 2004; Noraini, 2009). A multidisciplinary team and an inter-
Rojewski (1992) recommended that the sectoral assessment approach are necessary
needs of individuals with SLD must be for identification of children with SLD.
further studied to ensure that educational We need to have effective, efficient and
and transition programmes offered reflect quality screening and assessment services.
and fulfil those needs. Professionals involved should equip
themselves with the most recent knowledge
RECOMMENDATIONS and information on SLD so that timely and
Definition of specific learning disabilities accurate counselling and support can be
given to persons with SLD and their families
The definition of SLD must to consider
(Chan, 2008).
the international concept that include
Research based approach to definition
what is SLD (using the inclusive criteria);
and identification of SLD need to be adopted.
and what SLD is not (using the exclusion
The current approach of identifying SLD
criteria) (Hammil, 1990; Kavale & Forness,
such as use of RTI needs to be considered
2000; NJCLD, 1998). To achieve these,
for students who are having similar learning
more dynamic approaches to assessment
problems in our country. However, to apply
and evaluation are necessary. Psycho-
such approach, Malaysia should ensure
educational assessment which is very
the education services provide intense
limitedly used yet important for identification
and quality educational instruction and
of LD/SLD should be developed for local
interventions to students who have difficulty
use. Professionals involved in this field
in learning or are at risk of such difficulty.
should receive adequate training to achieve
Looking at our current educational system
diagnostic competency.
and practices, applying the conventional
The lack of agreement on the definition
approach of identification of SLD is more
of SLD among policy makers and services
reasonable since even in developed countries
providers from different agencies may be
such as the U.S., where identification and
due to social and political reasons, pressures
educational and training services for persons
and needs, and not from empirical and

with SLD are mandated by the countrys Research on SLD

national acts, their educational services Little is known about the characteristics
require further improvement in its resources and needs of people with SLD in this
and facilities to ensure the validity of the country. The number of people having this
RTI approach (Gerber, 2005; Harr-Robins type of disability is unknown (Gomez,
et al., 2009; Samuels, 2008). However, in 2004). Accurate and comprehensive data
line with such moves, more resources should on number of children with disabilities and
be allocated for research on new modalities their characteristics is crucial for planning
for children with SLD in our local contexts. and improving services (Mooney et al.,
Assessment for SLD should start early 2008). Government ministerial report also
before school entrance. Services should concurred that lack of a comprehensive
focus on identification at the pre-school database on disability in the Malaysian
level so that early intervention can be context pose the greatest challenge to
initiated focusing on those at risk. For effective intervention and successful
school children suspected of having SLD, monitoring of policies and programmes
diagnosis can be early if made in the regarding real achievements of targeted
schools by educational psychologists using goals (Malaysia, 2007). We also need to
standardized validated tools. The current consider the systematic and scientific way
practice of using clinical psychologists who of defining and identifying persons with
are limited in numbers, and at hospitals, will SLD in Malaysia that reflect the global
further delay diagnosis. Ong et al. (2009) understanding of the field. Research funds
estimated the prevalence of SLD (dyslexia) must be provided to study and test new or
among undergraduate students in Malaysia other concepts and models for providing
as 4.66%. Thus, assessment at tertiary level services to this group.
is also necessary to identify students in
colleges/universities who are not earlier CONCLUSION
diagnosed as having SLD. This move will
Malaysia has used the generic term LD
facilitate support services for such students
to describe all persons with learning
in our local colleges and universities.
disabilities and in so doing misclassify SLD
Ong et al. (2009) also recommended that
and made them invisible. This classification
the Ministry of Higher Education as well
led to inadequate and inappropriate services
as universities/colleges draw disability
for this group. Policy makers and services
statements or policies for training staff
providers need to recognize the problem
as well as providing support services and
to better advocate, support and provide
accommodations to assist students with SLD
appropriate services and interventions for
to better cope and manage their learning
persons with SLD in the country.
obstacles (Ong et al., 2009).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Cho, S. S. (2005, July 7). My Son and the National

Dyslexia Programme. The STAR Article.
We thank Eria Ping-Ying Li, PhD for her
insightful comments. Duckworth, L. A., & Seligman, P. E. M. (2005). Self-
discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic
performance of adolescents. Psychological
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Short Communication
The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts Opinions on Developing

a Malaysian Garden Identity
Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi*
Faculty of Design and Architecture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
As well as generally being considered as symbols of national and country identity, gardens
fulfill various functions within society such as being aesthetically beautiful, satisfying
human needs, and also functioning as places for various activities. In accordance with
this, the Malaysian government in her newly launched National Landscape Policy put
forth a vision to achieve The Most Beautiful Garden Nation by the year 2020, reflecting
a desire to develop a distinctive landscape identity for the country. Due to this, the
National Landscape Department of Malaysia suggested developing a garden identity as
an indispensable part of this vision because even though the country has great potential in
the development of parks and gardens, an exclusive garden identity is still lacking. This
paper aims to justify that the development of a garden identity could enhance national
and landscape identities for the country. It is also presumed that such development faces
several challenges. Moreover, the study intends to highlight Malaysias great potential for
developing its gardens. A review of existing literature along with Malaysias new landscape
policy was thus undertaken, and findings were then triangulated by conducting face-to-face
interviews with Malaysian local landscape architects. Consequently, the importance of
creating a unique garden identity corresponding with Malaysias new landscape policy was
confirmed. Furthermore, challenges (which mainly relate to political, social, cultural, and
economic viewpoints) and potentials for such development were recognised. The results
can ultimately be utilised to contribute
ARTICLE INFO to the formation of gardens with distinct
Article history:
Received: 1 March 2012
Malaysian identities.
Accepted: 19 September 2012
E-mail addresses: Keywords: Park, garden identity, garden development

osmanmt@upm.edu.my (Osman Mohd Tahir),
Mina.kaboudarahangi@gmail.com (Mina Kaboudarahangi)

INTRODUCTION the future (Helmreich, 2002). According

Malaysias unique natural and cultural to Hunt (2000), gardens have historically
heritage gives it great potential in developing provided an ideal form for creating place
distinctive gardens and landscapes. As identity. Not only are they built upon forms
such, landscape development in Malaysia and visual appropriations, but are also
has received strong support from the containers for the formation of identity
government, and a lot of effort has been (Goode & Lancaster, 1986; Hunt, 2000;
made to improve the development of Johnston, 2005). Helmreich (2002) further
landscapes in the country (Osman & Suhardi, claimed each culture endows its gardens
2007). It is observed that Malaysia, through with individual forms, which in return
its newly endorsed National Landscape contribute meaning and identity to society.
Policy, has recognised landscape as an Additionally, Clayton (2007) described the
aspect with economic benefits for both the practice of gardening as one aspect of social
people and the government. Moreover, the identity, which reflects local and personal
policy emphasises that through landscape identities. Furthermore, as a collection of
development, the general well-being of ideologies in smooth harmony with nature,
Malaysian citizens will be increased, and gardens afford various uses that then
sustainable spaces could be created for stimulate the formation of national identity
society (NLP, 2011).Therefore, developing (Helmreich, 2002; Gross & Lane 2007).
a garden identity is politically significant Based on the above-mentioned
for Malaysia. Consequently, recognising statements, gardens with their various
the challenges and potentials for such functions have always been significant
development is essential, as it can then aspects of national identity. Furthermore,
provide the primary guidelines for the garden identity depends strongly on the
creation of garden identities. identity of people and their culture, and it
also enhances environmental knowledge.
LITERATURE REVIEW As discussed, Malaysia, as a developing
country, has recognised a clear objective
Gardens and national identity
for the development of an identity for
Gardens play a significant part in landscapes its landscapes and parks (Bunnell, 2004;
and have always been reputed as a symbol of Osman & Suhardi 2007; Aziz, Salleh, &
national identity (Goode & Lancaster, 1986; Ribu, 2010). The principles of Malaysias
Ross, 1998; Helmreich, 2002; Waymark, National Landscape Policy indicate that
2003). For a long time, gardens have not cultural values and the natural heritage of
just been mere physical forms, but also the nation should be preserved through
encapsulations of community identity, landscape development programs. Attention
a vehicle to enhance past glories, and a should be placed on sustainability and
space that represents common wishes for functional aspects in landscape designs

The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts Opinions on Developing a Malaysian Garden Identity
(NLP, 2011). Hence, the development plays an important role in global economy
of a garden identity should be one of (Watson & Bentley, 2007). According to
the key areas in national and landscape MARDI (2005), visitors come to Malaysia
identity development, because gardens to visit her natural beauty and unique
provide sustainable settings with functional landscapes. Hence, the country will certainly
aspects, whilst conveying cultural values enhance credit by developing its landscapes
and reflecting national identity. and gardens. Sternberg (1977) claimed
that most tourists arrange to visit a place
Challenges in Developing a Garden because of the potential images that they
Identity for Malaysia can collect, and because they are interested
Malaysia is a multiracial, multicultural, in taking photos. Gardens can thus be seen
multilingual and multi-religious country. as a pictorial phenomenon and they can
In relation to this, socio-cultural aspects of function as an important tourist attraction for
Malaysian society have been identified as Malaysia that provides economic benefits.
the most important challenge in creating
an overall Malaysian identity (Watson & Political viewpoint
Bentley, 2007). Aziz, Salleh, and Ribu
During his term in office, Malaysias fourth
(2010), pointed to the political, social and
Prime Minister, Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad,
economic associations based on ethnic
set up a vision for Malaysias development
groups in creating Malaysian landscape
(Osman, 2005). The vision stated the country
identity. Accordingly, the development
should be developed in all aspects including
of Malaysias national identity through
landscapes and environments by the year
creating a unique garden identity faces
2020. To achieve this, the government has
several challenges. These challenges mainly
planned to employ policies and supervise
refer to the economic, political, cultural, and
activities for the development of landscapes
social aspects of garden development.
and gardens (MARDI, 2005). For example,
the formation of the National Landscape
Economic value Department in 1996, as the government
Connell (2005) showed in his study that a overseer of landscape development, has
large number of tourists visit the gardens of led Malaysia towards better-organised
Great Britain annually. He also discussed the landscape programs in comparison with
economic value of garden visits for both the other developing countries (Bunnell, 2004;
government and public. Rambonilaza and Osman, 2005). According to Abdullah and
Dachary (2007) discussed the visual quality Nakagoshi (2006), Landscape changes in
of landscapes and its direct relationship Malaysia are influenced by development
with economic value. And this can certainly politics. As such, landscape development
apply to the case study, Malaysia. Malaysia has received strong support from the
benefits from its geographic position and government, and a lot of effort has been

made to improve landscape developments Therefore, culture and the cultural

in the country (Osman & Suhardi, 2007). background of Malaysia is one of the aspects
Therefore, in relation to the political to be considered when developing a garden
significance of the subject, developing a identity for the nation.
garden identity is relevant for Malaysia.
Social differences
Cultural heritage Malaysia has a complex multiracial
Aside from a unique natural environment, population, including Malay, Chinese,
Malaysia also has a diverse cultural heritage Indian and ethnic minorities. These different
(Aziz, Salleh, & Ribu, 2010). There is great races have different religious backgrounds,
potential for the development of gardens predominantly Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism,
in the country based on her rich legacy and Christianity (Jamil, 2002; NLP, 2011,
in traditions, cultures and beliefs, through Cambon & Harper, 2004). It has been
which she can identify herself (MARDI, argued that it is crucial that the development
2005; Huzeima, Hussain, & Ahmad, 2010). of landscapes and gardens are relevant to
The development of landscapes in Malaysia peoples culture and daily lives (Watson
can be interpreted by considering the & Bentley, 2007). As Osman and Suhardi
countrys history (Bunnell, 2004; Kamariyah (2007) argued, the Malaysian public with
1989 in Aziz & Osman, 2007). In the early all their differences in race, culture and
stages, during the period of sultanates, there religion still maintain different and even
were royal gardens in urban centres, but they diverse routines. This statement has also
have already been destroyed (Jamil, 2002). confirmed in the course of a study by Aziz,
Additionally, MARDI (2005) pointed out Salleh, and Ribu, (2010). Not surprisingly,
forbidden gardens in the Malacca Palace. Watson and Bentley (2007) identified the
Nowadays, Malaysian landscapes difference between social and cultural
are shaped based on foreign ideas (Aziz groups as the most challenging issue for
& Osman, 2007) to provide aesthetic creating a single Malaysian identity. Hence,
beauty and needs of new sustainable and creating a single Malaysian garden identity
livable landscapes (Hussain & Byrd, is considered a challenge for the country.
2012). However, the National Landscape
Department of Malaysia (2008) has issued a Potentials in Development of a Garden
definition for Malaysian gardens. According Identity for Malaysia
to the definition, the Malaysian garden Abdullah and Nakagoshi (2006) pointed
or Taman Malaysia is a garden with a to the Malaysian economic development
Malaysian identity that projects images based on the agriculture sector. They
of tropical environment, utilises spaces pointed that development of this sector
that satisfy socio-cultural life, and which could have an impact on landscape planning,
is strengthened by artistic achievement. management and strategies for the country.

Therefore, there is an economic potential Selecting Respondents

for garden development in Malaysia. As based on the statement of the availability
Moreover, Huzeima, Hussain, and Ahmad of respondents as suggested by Rea and
(2010) indicated that unique traditions and Parker (1997), the interviewees encompassed
cultures should be considered to design an Malaysian landscape architects. Previous
image or identity of Malaysian landscape. researchers have also believed that non-
This statement has previously suggested by random sampling method provides an
Mustafa and Noor Aziz (2009) as a potential opportunity to obtain the opinion of the most
for garden development in Malaysia. potential respondents in this field, as well
Accordingly, peoples activities in relation as their judgment of the responses (Rea &
to the landscape is another potential for Parker 1997, p.160). Hence, the interviewees
landscape and garden development of encompassed university professors in the
Malaysia (Mustafa & Noor Aziz, 2009; field of landscape architecture with more
Huzeima, Hussain, & Ahmad, 2010; Hussain than 15 years experience. They were selected
and Byrd, 2012). Jamil (2002) discussed from Institute of Landscape Architects
about plants with specific symbolism and Malaysia (ILAM) executives and members
value in Malaysian culture. In a similar on the basis of their great potential and
vein, Huzeima, Hussain, and Ahmad (2010) enthusiasm in the garden development
concluded that plant is a landscape element of Malaysia. These respondents were
with both symbolic and practical functions considered the most available for this
in Malaysian culture, and could be one of present study, and they were also selected
the potentials in development of Malaysian based on their level of proficiency and
landscape identity. experience.
METHODOLOGY Sample Size

The literature review recognised the fact Mason (2010) stated that samples in
that creating a unique garden identity qualitative studies are smaller than samples
for Malaysia could enhance national and in quantitative ones due to the type of
landscape identities. The main challenges information and analysis. In this form
in this development were also suggested of research more data does not lead the
and the new National Landscape Policy for researcher to more information, since
the development of Malaysian landscapes quantitative research is concerned about
(NLP, 2011) was reviewed, recognising meaning in creating framework not
the main issues in such development. In testing hypothesis (Crouch & McKenzie,
order to triangulate findings, and recognise 2006). The saturation point theory was
specific potentials in the development also utilized in sampling the interviews
of Malaysian gardens, interviews with (Kumar, 2005). This approach is used in
landscape architects were conducted. qualitative researches as a flexible method

to collect and analyse data for development gardens. Show cards were offered to them
of theoretical frameworks. This process is during the interviews to make each interview
based on selection of cases which are most easier and faster (Appendix II).
likely to generate a collection of relevant
data (Seidman, 2005; Bloor & Wood, 2006). RESULTS FROM FACE-TO-FACE
According to Bloor and Wood (2006) ,at INTERVIEWS WITH LANDSCAPE
EXPERTS
this point the repited evidance are found to
support researchers conceptual framework. The data collected from the interviews
When the sample size in this kind of was coded and the content was analysed.
research is very large, answers are repetitive The respondents opinions of developing a
and redundant. Moreover, analysis of garden identity, its related challenges and
qualitative data is very difficult and selecting potentials are presented as follows:
a large sample would be time consuming
too (Mason, 2010). It has suggested that The importance of garden identity
researchers follow the concept of saturation, development for Malaysia
when collection of data will not lead to new The respondents were asked how important
information of subject (Seidman, 2005; garden identity development was to enhance
Crouch & McKenzie, 2006). Therefore, the national identity. All respondents agreed
saturation point theory was employed in on the subject and mentioned that the
this study. After 7 interviews, attention to issue of landscape identity development
the repetition of answers, recognition and was one of the most important goals put
confirmation of challenges and potentials forward by Malaysias National Landscape
in garden development, the interviews were Department. Two of the respondents added
stopped. that emphasis on creating a garden identity
would enhance civilization and strengthen
Interview Procedure the countrys national identity. In addition,
The interviews were semi-structured five respondents mentioned that developing
which allowed the researcher to ask a a garden identity integrates national identity,
predetermined set of questions using the because the culture of a nation is reflected
same order and words (Kumar, 2005). in its gardens.
According to Kumar (2005,pg 135), the
open-ended questionnaire provides Challenges in the development of
Malaysian gardens
respondents with the opportunity to express
themselves freely, resulting in a greater The Malaysian experts interviewed
variety of information. Therefore, open- confirmed all of the suggested challenges.
ended questions were asked regarding Six out of seven of the respondents agreed
the importance, challenges and specific that cultural and political challenges were
potentials for the development of Malaysian the most important in the development

of a garden identity. They also agreed in relation to religion, beliefs and peoples
on the importance of social challenges attitudes were suggested. The respondents
in terms of differences between the also discussed the importance of culture and
perceptions, preferences and cultural values symbolic ideology, adding that we have to
of the multifaceted Malaysian public. They define and compare the specific motifs of
mentioned that although gardens can be a Malaysias different states. It was stated that
good place for social gatherings, in terms although some differences exist among the
of political challenges, there could be a motifs of Malaysias different states, we can
bias, and so Malaysian gardens should be recognise their particular patterns which are
deemed acceptable by Malaysias three main different from the motifs of other countries
different ethnicities. that share common cultural aspects with
One of the respondents notably Malaysia. This, for example, can be seen
said there are different ethnicities in the differences in the architecture and
in Malaysia we even have different carving patterns of Malaysia and her
ethnicities in Malaysia in different Southeast Asian neighbour, Indonesia.
regions they differ in culture or The majority of the respondents believed
philosophy and concluded that the that historical disputes have caused a loss of
political aspect is the most important character and value in landscape designs,
challenge. In contrast, the majority of the and one of the experts pointed to the specific
respondents believed that the economy icons that can be recognised from Malaysian
is the least important challenge in the rural landscapes. All of the respondents
development of a Malaysian garden pointed to the unique traditions, activities,
identity. Two respondents agreed that histories, stories, costumes, and vegetation
peoples needs based on their different of Malaysia that should be identified and
social classes should be considered too. employed in the countrys garden design.
Finally, the interviews concluded that The interviews concluded that gardens
cultural differences between the ethnic should create harmony within the landscape,
groups should be considered in the whilst paying attention to history. The
development of gardens for Malaysia. findings of the interviews indicated that the
starting point is crucial and that the emphasis
Potentials of the garden development of should be on developing enforcements,
Malaysia guidelines and politics. Ultimately, all
The interviews confirmed that Malaysia has interviewees felt that technology and the use
a great interest and urge to develop her own of new materials could be one of the great
garden identity. The interviewees argued that potentials for the development of Malaysian
the garden could be a symbol of power and gardens.
civilization for a nation. In addition, cultural
potentials of developing Malaysias gardens,

DISCUSSION attention to the distinctive visual quality of

Importance gardens and their importance in reflecting
national and cultural identity creating a
The findings from the literature review
unique garden identity for Malaysia could
and Malaysias vision to be The Most
be one of the aspects that can be used to
Beautiful Garden Nation clarified the
enhance national and landscape identities.
importance of the development of a garden
identity to enhance national and landscape
Challenges
identities. This was confirmed during face-
to-face interviews with local landscape The literature review clarified existing
architects. In fact, the interviews concluded challenges in the development of a
that creating a distinct garden identity could Malaysian garden identity.The findings were
be regarded as one of the best approaches confirmed by local landscape architects
to enhance national and landscape identities during face-to-face interviews. Social and
whilst reflecting culture. These findings cultural differences along with potential
correspond with Malaysias landscape economic benefits of garden development
policy (Fig.1), as the new policy launched were confirmed, and the experts pointed
by the government (30 Sep 2011) indicates to the politics in such development. In this
that there is a need to identify a high value regard, the NLP has focused its policy of
visual landscape, and to integrate local landscape development on socio-cultural,
landscape character and natural environment environmental, and economic aspects,
in development process (NLP, 2011, pg and put emphasis on the development of
22). Therefore whilst paying particular a Malaysian landscape identity. It should
Fig.1: Garden identity as a vehicle to reflect culture, landscape, and national identities
(Model suggested by authors)

also be noted that the policy puts stress on development for Malaysia. Finally, with
driving the nation towards attaining higher regards to the experts recommendations
income in its economy through landscape and Malaysias landscape policy, there were
development to attract local and foreign two more issues that should be considered
investments (NLP, 2011,pg3). Accordingly, in the development of a Malaysian garden
the development of landscapes based identity. These issues are sustainability and
on cultural values, heritage, and for the maintenance, which were suggested by the
purpose of research and public recreation respondents through their interviews and
was mentioned in the 2011 NLP policy. which have also been considered in the new
Another considered issue in the policy NLP policy.
was the potential increase in tourists by
improving the quality of national landscapes CONCLUSION
and creating public parks to preserve and Malaysia has a vision to become the most
showcase cultural heritage and indigenous beautiful garden nation by the year 2020 and,
plants (NLP, 2011:30). With these findings, it as such, it puts emphasis on the development
is concluded that Malaysia faces economic, of a unique identity of its own landscapes.
social, cultural, and political challenges in Malaysias National Landscape Policy
the pursuit of developing its own garden (NLP) has focused on the development
identity. of sustainable landscapes with a unique
identity to provide economic benefits and
Potentials enhance the well-being of society. In this
Besides the above-mentioned challenges, regard, the development of a distinctive
the specific potentials for the development garden identity is recognised as one aspect
of a garden identity for Malaysia were of landscape identity development for
recognised through existing literature Malaysia. But, however challenging from a
and face-to-face interviews. The face-to- political viewpoint while considering social
face interviews confirmed that attention differences these developments seem, they
should be paid to specific customs, beliefs, gardens could potentially increase economic
rural landscapes, and also the historical value and could exhibit the countrys
and cultural background of the nation. cultural heritage as well. And, it is presumed
These findings were with NLPs mission, that Malaysian gardens will be sustainable,
which puts emphasis on preserving cultural maintained and well-designed, meeting the
backgrounds as well as rural landscapes. In needs and expectations of her multicultural
summary, existing literature and interviews, society. Thus, the development of a garden
the strength of Malaysias natural and identity has to be an echo of Malaysias
cultural heritage, in addition to politics and unique natural and cultural heritage, whilst
new technologies could be identified as utilising new materials, technology, and
powerful potentials in the garden identity ideas to attract local users and tourists.

Accordingly, this study provides a rural landscapes and cultural heritage could
diagram which illustrates the relationship create gardens that are sustainable and well
between Malaysias national landscape received. Above all, social differences from
policies and the development of a unique the multiracial society of Malaysia have to
garden identity (Fig.2). The economic be considered in setting the main guidelines
value of gardens in presenting natural and politics in such developments.
resources and attracting tourists is one of
the aspects that enhance income for both ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the government and the people. In addition, This paper is a part of a PhD study entitled
there is a great interest in the development Preferred iconography for development
of gardens in the country. New technology of new garden identity. We would like to
and materials could be exploited to create express our respect and thank to Professor
gardens as suitable and well-maintained Dr Mustafa Kamal Mohd Sharif and Dr
public places to improve the well-being of Suhardi Maulan who have had a great
Malaysian citizens. Furthermore, making influence on us to develop this approach.
use of local materials and plants inspired by
Fig.2: Policy, Challenges, and Potentials in Developing a Malaysian Garden Identity

(Suggested by authors)

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Rambonilaza, M., & Dachary, B. J. (2007). Land- Sternberg, E. (1977). The iconography of the tourism
use planning and public preferences: What experience. Annals ofTourism Research, 24(4),
can we learn from choice experiment method? 951-969.
Landscape and Urban Planning, 83, 318326.
Watson, G. B., and Bentley, I. (2007). Identity by
Richmond, S., Cambon, M., & Harper, D. (2004). Design. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd.
Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei. Melbourne:
Waymark, J. (2003). Modern garden design, innovaton
Lonely Planet.
since 1900. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
Ross, S. (1998). What Gardens Mean. University of
Chicago Press.
Seidman, I. (2005). Interviewing as Qualitative

Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education
and the Social Sciences. New york: Teachers
College Press.

APPENDIX I
EXPERTS INTERVIEW FORM:
Interview NO:
Date:________ Start time:________ End Time:________
Place: __________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Academic qualifications:
Master PhD Other: (Please state)________
Greetings,
The aim of the study is to clarify challenges and potentials for development of a
Malaysian garden identity. Malaysia is gearing toward a developed country by the
year 2020. The Country has a vision to become the Most Beautiful Garden Nation has
been selected as my case study. I have reviewed related literature to clarify importance
of garden development in addition to the challenges and potentials which Malaysia is
facing in this approach. In order to complete my findings, I would like to seek your
professional opinion regarding the subject matter. Your identity will remain anonymous,
and the information will only be used in my research to develop a guideline for creating
and proposing design of garden in Malaysia with Malaysian identity.
1. General about Garden

a. What is your definition of a garden? (Record sound)
b. What items do you think have been considered in creation of gardens in the past?
(Record sound)
2. Garden and Identity

a. How do you define a garden identity? (Record sound)
b. Can we create a garden identity? (If Yes, then go to c)
c. How can we create a new garden identity? (Record sound)
d. Do you agree that creating a garden identity can enhance the national identity of
a nation? (Please explain your answer) (Record sound)

3. Development of New Garden Identity

Based on the literature, I have defined some issues and problems in the development
of a garden identity (Give them Show Card #1);
a. Do you agree with these issues (Please explain your answer.) (Record sound)
b. Please suggest other issue related to this subject (Record sound)
4. Development of a Garden Identity for Malaysia

I have identified some challenges in the development of garden identity for Malaysia
(Give them Show Card #2);
a. What is your opinion regarding these stated challenges? (Record sound)
b. Please state other challenges regarding the topic that you know? (Record sound)
5. Comments and Recommendations

Please state your comments and recommendations. (Record their sound)
Thank You for Your Cooperation

APPENDIX II
Show Card 1: Key Issues in Garden Identity Development
Show Card 2: Challenges in Development of Malaysian Gardens


The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils Learning of the

English Language
Wreikat, Y. A.*, Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C.
School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This paper outlines encouraging and discouraging factors in developing an English language
learning environment for rural pupils with Asian backgrounds. This is achieved by first
establishing a theoretical background to govern the research exploration. This research
utilized social cognitive theory of learning as guidance in the current research explorations.
Specifically, the study sample is drawn from six rural schools in Sabah, Malaysia (Southeast
Asia). The study utilizes a mixed-method approach whereby findings are triangulated
through interviews, observations, and questionnaires. The study reveals that majority of
the schools visited lacked the necessary resources indicating a serious problem that hinders
learning of the English language in rural schools. Conclusions consider the impact of certain
environmental drawbacks on pupils English language proficiency and the verdict that the
existing environment has a negative impact on Asian rural pupils language development.
Further, it is emphasized that environmental issues in Asia require a deep grasp of the
subject as well as various multi-disciplinary approaches, whose perspectives provide the
basis for the functions of different environmental aspects.
Keywords: Rural pupils, English language, learning environment, achievement
INTRODUCTION
Though 70 percent of the worlds population
resides in rural regions, where hunger,
literacy, and low school achievement are
ARTICLE INFO widespread, rural pupils have received
Article history: minimal attention in comprehensive
Received: 17 January 2011
Accepted: 17 December 2013 educational reform plans (Kam et al.,
E-mail addresses: 2006; Rigg & Ritchie, 2002). Those plans
werikat@yahoo.com (Wreikat, Y. A.),
m.k.kabilan@gmail.com (Kabilan, M. K.), are targeted to upgrade the literacy level
achristi@usm.my (Abdullah, A. C.)
* Corresponding author in rural areas, which in turn increases the

productivity and earning potential of the Other than the lack of the latest
population, and therefore directly reduces educational resources, rural schools
poverty (UNISCO, 2002). face other challenges associated with its
In Asia, literacy levels specifically in the geographic location, such as limited school
English language are below average due to and community resources (Hannum, Irvin,
historical and continuing weaknesses in the Banks & Farmer, 2009). Although a handful
national education system (UNDP, 2010). of rural schools have successfully met
This has resulted in the fabrication of an various challenges, many remain unable to
enormous percentage of illiterate population cope with the demand of modern education
in Asian rural areas. Furthermore, national standards (Arnold, Newman, Gaddy &
regional reports have indicated that a Dean, 2005).
significant number of Asian rural pupils The situation in Malaysia is quite
complete their schooling yet remain unable similar to that of other Asian countries.
to read or write (Ozkal et al., 2009). There is a general agreement that Malaysian
Educationists familiar with the Asian rural schools suffer from a dearth of basic
rural context asserted the need to identify elements such as effective teaching learning
the reasons behind Asian rural pupils low environments and availability of suitable
literacy levels, especially in the English resources in ensuring the attainment of goals
language. Likewise, they affirmed the specified in the Vision 2020 plan; these goals
need to identify the obstacles that hinder include becoming a developed nation by the
pupils development process in rural areas year 2020 (Ministry of Education, 2009).
(UNESCO, 2010). Improving Asian rural These shortcomings hinder the educational
pupils ability to read and write as well mission and reduce rural pupils ability to
as identifying learning obstacles will acquire knowledge and skills that their urban
encourage pupils to participate more fully in counterparts obtain more readily.
society and access the benefits of prosperous Research on this matter has indicated
educational development (AusAID, 2005). a wide disparity between rural and urban
The current research posits that a pivotal pupils achievements especially in the
obstacle is the absence of an effective learning context English as a second and /
learning environment and resources in Asian or foreign language (Ghani & Gill, 2003).
rural schools and communities. Scholars In the state of Sabah, for example, existing
who have investigated issues related to literature indicates that Malaysian rural
education standards in rural settings have schools do not benefit from an appropriate
reported a general dissatisfaction over the learning environment, nor do they have the
effectiveness of rural education (Nelson, resources to support and assist teachers in
1983). In line with such findings, various teaching English as a Second Language
organizations have undertaken measures to (Ming et al., 2010). However, it must
improve the learning environment in rural be noted that studies that investigate the
schools.
The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils Learning of the English Language
impact of rural environment on Malaysian Primary School Evaluation Test UPSR in

pupils language learning process are rare. the state of Sabah, as shown in Fig.1.
Furthermore, there is a lack of studies This paper attempts to examine how
that investigate the role of families and the surrounding environment affects pupils
communities in supporting and advancing learning of the English language and their
English as a Foreign Language, pupil literacy ability in Sabah rural schools. It
proficiency and language learning in establishes the need for further research
Malaysian rural schools. targeted to detect environmental impact
To participate fully in the economic and on Malaysian rural pupils educational
political life of a country, adults are expected development levels. Thus, contribution
to have a good command of the English to increased understanding of the rural
language, which will enable them to obtain students situation will be significant for a
jobs after finishing school. Furthermore, considerably wider application.
good English language proficiency will
enhance the ability to achieve aspired goals RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
(Abdul Majid et al., 2005). However, pupils This study came from the need of having
performance in the English language in a better understanding of the problems in
Malaysian rural schools, especially in the English language learning among Malaysian
state of Sabah, is unsatisfactory. This is rural pupils. This study also aimed at
confirmed by the low achievement level of identifying some of the reasons behind
rural pupils in the English language in the Malaysian rural pupils low marks in
English Language Results in UPSR Examination (Malaysia-Sabah)

45,5
45
44,5
44
43,5
Percentage
43
42,5
42
41,5
2007 2008 2009
Year
Fig.1: English Language Results in Primary School Evaluation Test UPSR, Malaysia-Sabah
(Ministry of Education-Sabah 2010)

English language. To achieve the objectives, and outside media influences. If one were
the study attempts to answer the following motivated to learn a particular behavior, then
research questions: that particular behavior would be learned
1. Does the existing physical learning through clear observations. By imitating
environment suit the pupils English these observed actions, the individual
language acquisition needs? observer would solidify the learned action
and be rewarded with positive reinforcement
2. What is the teachers role in creating
(Miller & Dollard, 1941). In addition, social
an effective learning experience for the
cognitive theory was defined as a series of a
pupils?
triadic, dynamic, and reciprocal interaction
3. Are there sufficient learning resources of personal factors, behavior, and the
in the pupils schools, homes and environment (Bandura, 1986). In subsequent
community? research, Banadura (1989) argued:
REVIEW OF LITERATURE In social cognitive theory, people

are neither driven by inner forces
Research Underpinning Theory
nor automatically shaped and
This research utilizes social cognitive controlled by the environment.
theories of learning as guidance in the As we have already seen, they
current research explorations. This theory function as contributors to their
assisted the researchers in examining the own motivation, behavior, and
nature and status of literacy in the rural development within a network of
learning environment. Pupils in school reciprocally interacting influences.
are influenced by external factors on the Persons are characterized within
one hand and by their environment on the this theoretical perspective in terms
other hand (Sawyer, 2002). In addition of a number of basic capabilities, to
to environmental cultural influence, the which we turn next.
researchers endeavored to lay emphasis (Bandura, 1989, p.8)
on the cognitive elements of literacy,
skills, and development of such in a social
In providing a full understanding of
cognitive learning environment. The social
the functions of social cognitive theory, the
cognitive theory is a learning theory based
researchers were able to generate a general
on the idea that people learn by watching
question related to this theory; this is the
what others do and that human thought
extent to which this theory is beneficial in
processes are central to understanding
gathering the aspired research data.
personality (Darville, 1999). In other words,
This social cognitive theory provides
knowledge acquisition can be directly
the researchers with guidelines and a strong
related to observing others within the
foundation to address the literacy issues with
context of social interactions, experiences,

a slightly different view from other cognitive a conducive learning environment that
theories, which consist of significant traits heightens development levels. In other
that are helpful in detecting different factors words, creating a friendly and conducive
that may influence the learning environment learning environment can assist pupils
in rural environment. In addition, the social especially in rural areas to acquire
cognitive theory provides clear guiding knowledge in an effective manner. This type
principles on how to construct a flexible of environment is founded on the support
sense of self-efficiency, which operates in from society and culture on the one hand,
concert with other socio-cognitive factors and the formation of a conducive home and
in a multifaceted causal structure (Bandura, school learning environment on the other
1999). The social cognitive theory provides hand.
a large body of particularized knowledge Focus on the school environment has
on how to develop cognitive structures been detected in early Asian educational
and enlist the processes of the self system initiatives driven by the rationale that the
governing human adaptation and change school is a significant entity and so is the
(Bandura, 1997a). The determinants and social environment in the lives of pupils.
mechanisms through which they operate To address this concern, a child-friendly
are clear; hence, the theory provides explicit schools (CFS) program was launched in
guidelines on how to structure conditions 1997 in Thailand to emphasize the rights
that foster personal and social changes of the child to receive effective child-
(Bandura, 1999). friendly education that is environmentally
and physically safe (Shaeffer 1999).
Child-friendly Schools (CFS) in Asia The CFS framework consists of five
The Ministerial Conference on Environment broad dimensions.
and Development (MCED) in Asia has Inclusiveness; effectiveness
effectively launched a major regional (relevance and quality); health,
discussion for reviewing the state of safety and protection; gender-
environment and development in Asia. friendliness; and involvement
The review is based on evaluation of students, families and
criteria, obstacles and challenges, voices communities.
and perspectives towards achieving an (UNICEF, 2006: iii)
educational environment conducive to the
development process (Barley & Beesley,
In line with the CFS program, many
2007). In line with such discussions,
Asian countries in May 2004 agreed to
sensitive public awareness of various
develop child-friendly schools in their
environmental problems has been witnessed
respective educational contexts in an
throughout research and initiatives, pointing
attempt to achieve quality education this was
towards the regional concern for creating
designed for all pupils with the support of

teachers, families, and all the segments of areas, it is crucial to identify specifically
society, with goals of achieving the principal the problems faced by these rural pupils.
aim of education for all (UNICEF, 2005). Meanwhile, educationists asserted the need
Since then, the CFS approach has for educational comprehensive educational
continued to influence the educational policy reform that takes into account the
systems in various countries. As a result, different dimensions of effectual reform
the program has evolved into the Whole (Karsou, 2005). In addition, the importance
School Reform, which is geared towards of education was declared as the main
improving the outcomes of childrens element in fostering the goal of being a fully
learning by altering schools and education developed nation by 2020. Therefore, the
systems to develop child-centered education Ministry of Education is committed towards
in child-friendly schools (Beska et al., making this a reality (Ministry of Education,
2007). 2009). Based on the aspirations to become
In Malaysia, numerous educational an industrialized nation, Malaysia has made
initiatives have been witnessed, such as the conscious efforts to improve and develop
Malaysian Education Summit, that have education to achieve a literacy rate of 100%
sought to help educationists in rural areas to by the year 2020. Though the country has a
embrace modernization by effecting reforms long way to go, there are positive indications
in educational systems. This is because that the literacy rate is increasing (Morad,
education in Malaysian rural schools has 2002).
become a serious issue in the wake of
neglect (Malaysian Education Summit, Learning Environments Impact on Pupils
2008). Early Education
The country launched many literacy Recent research (Asici, 2009; Walker
programs targeted at eliminating illiteracy in & Clark, 2010) on pupils learning
the country especially in rural areas such as environment emphasized the impact of
the state of Sabah. The launched programs particular environments, culture, and the
prioritized the rural pupils needs. With this classroom on pupils early education and
awareness, educational research now pays behavior. Meanwhile, other researchers
significant attention to factors affecting discovered that as income level increases
rural students educational levels as well as and the surrounding environment becomes
the learning and teaching process involved comfortable, childrens natural learning
(Miner, 2006; Wenger & Dinsmore, 2005; experiences related to language learning
Wang, 2009). increase as well (Asici, 2009). Young
On the other hand, as the Malaysian children respond differently based on the
Ministry of Education continually attempts design of the environment in which they live,
to provide a pathway to meet the need an effectively designed classroom has the
for comprehensive policy reform in rural potential for positively influencing all areas

of childrens development: physical, social their own knowledge driven from their
/emotional, and cognitive. Language and interaction with different environmental
learning are nurtured in an environment that aspects; these enhance their proficiency
values and plans appropriate opportunities levels and language learning. On the other
(Burns, Griffin & Snow, 1999). hand, parents play an effective role in
Adequate quality facilities will allow pupils language development process and in
teachers, pupils, subject matter, space, and guiding children to learn essential elements
time to interact within the learning and of language learning prior to attending
teaching process, which in turn creates a school (Mason, 1980; Walker & Clark,
conducive and well structured learning 2010). According to Clay (1993), many
environment. A well-organized classroom researchers have discovered that preschool
physical environment will positively assist children explore the details of print in their
teachers and students to create a climate environment, on signs, cereal packages,
conducive to language learning (Savage, and television advertisements. Children
1999; Stewart & Evans, 1997). Appropriate develop concepts on books, newspapers, and
classroom physical arrangements form a other print available in their environment.
base for supplementing pupils with effective Consequently, more advanced concepts
education and facilitate positive language on print emerge from childrens earlier
learning and language teaching interactions. understandings.
In other words, the classroom physical Childrens early years are characterized
arrangement should be set according to the by rapid increase and improvement.
varied cultural and linguistic characteristics Children enter their pre-school years with a
of the pupils; it should satisfy the considerable amount of learning experiences
learners needs as well (Bettenhausen, from their friends and relatives. Since
1998; MacAulay, 1990). The physical education is specific to each language and
arrangement of the classroom environmental culture, a young child requires assistance
print is considered an important aspect in making sense of environmental print
that contributes to student proficiency. from a more able peer, parent, or teacher
Collectively, environmental print is defined (Vygotsky, 1978). Children are influenced
as the print found in the natural instant by multiple contexts in which there are
environment of children, including logos, reciprocal interactions between them and
labels, road signs, billboards, clothing labels, their environment. Likewise, children are
coupons, and newspaper advertisements. affected by face-to-face interactions, such
Children encounter environmental print as as those that occur at home or school.
a first stage before reading print in books However, children are influenced as well by
(Kirkland, Aldridge & Kuby, 1991). their parents or guardians workplace and
In addition, a center-based environmental the social, historical, political, and economic
print activity allows pupils to construct realities of the times.

The day-to-day context is especially diagnostic tests were administered to Year

important in using environmental print to 3 and Year 5 pupils. The Year 3 pupils
plan and implement an integrated curriculum attempted the diagnostic test that were
to meet childrens needs (Kirkland, 2006). developed based on the Year 3 English
Childrens inventions and approximations curriculum, while the Year 5 pupils sat for
about language in a society full of print the diagnostic test developed based on the
begin long before they attend school. Year 5 English curriculum.
Furthermore, children develop ideas about The items in the Year 3 test were divided
language in the same way they develop ideas into 6 sections:
in other learning areas. 1. Section A: subject verb agreement;
There are a number of activities that
2. Section B: Correcting sentences through
support childrens language learning
rearrangement of words
development. These are derived from
families, communities, and schools. The 3. Section C: colours and basic shapes;
familys involvement in the learning process 4. Section D: reading comprehension;
always indicates positive impact on student
5. Section E: sentence construction and;
achievement levels, including attendance,
activities, and school awareness (U.S. 6. Section F: guided composition writing.
Department of Education, 1994). Parents,
The items in year 5 test consisted of 5
teachers, and the community are the most
sections:
important sources for knowledge acquisition,
and research on the improvement of pupils 1. Section A: pronouns;
proficiency levels illustrated that children 2. Section B: Correcting sentences through
perform better in school when parents are rearrangement of words;
involved in the educational process (Eagle, 3. Section C: basic grammar- articles,
1989). comparatives, connectors;
4. Section D: reading comprehension and;
RESEARCH PROCEDURES
The targeted population of this research are 5. Section E: guided composition writing
the rural teachers and pupils in the Malaysian The questionnaire consists of 4 sections
rural schools, using both qualitative and designed and administered to the teachers
quantitative research methods. The research in the rural areas who are teaching English
instruments used on the target sample language in the selected schools. The
were namely; questionnaire, interviews, questionnaire for teachers (Appendix
observations and document analysis. In B), was developed by the researchers
addition, quantitative data was obtained from Browns theory (1995) as shown
from the pupils diagnostic tests. The in (Appendix A). The deployment of

quantitative techniques entailed the use of For example, an interviewers response

the teachers questionnaire in order to ensure that is recorded from Teacher No. 1 at the
objectivity and generalizability. first school located on the riverside will be
As for the collection of qualitative data, referenced as Teacher A-S1-R. Similarly,
classroom observations were done and an interviewers response from Teacher No.
structured interviews with teachers were 3, who is from the fourth school located on
carried out by the researher. the Island, will be referenced as Teacher
Group interviews were not used C-S4-I.
because of the concern that remarks made
by participants may affect the type of FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
the information in focus groups sessions The results and analysis of data was done
(Debus, 1988). On the other hand the and the research questions below were
classroom observation technique was answered:
activated through observing teachers
teaching, pupils interaction with teacher Does the existing physical learning
and among themselves and classroom environment suit the pupils needs?
or school environment. Using the data An environment that is conducive to
from the questionnaire, the interviews, learning is the main determinant of effective
observations and the analysis of documents, education. The results obtained from the
a triangulation was done. data collection techniques employed in the
The sample of the study was from six current study indicated that the environment
rural schools (Island, Riverside & Foothill) was not conducive in S1, S3, and S6 for
in the state of Sabah during the school English language learning. As shown in
year (2007-2008) and it consisted of seven Fig.2, the notice boards and classroom were
teachers and 105 pupils. The sample of the almost empty. Aside from the unhelpful
current study is representative of the rural learning environment, the schools lacked
pupils in Sabah. Table 1 shows the codes of appropriate facilities such as spacious and
the interviewed teachers and schools in the comfortable classrooms equipped with
study sample. suitable learning tools. The study also found
TABLE 1
Codes given to the Teachers and Schools
School Code Category Code Teachers Code

School No. 1 S1 Island I Teacher No.1 Teacher A
School No. 2 S2 Riverside R Teacher No.2 Teacher B
School No.3 S3 Foot Hill FH Teacher No. 3 Teacher C
School No.4 S4 Island I Teacher No.4 Teacher D
School No.5 S5 Riverside R Teacher No.5 Teacher E
School No.6 S6 Foot Hill FH Teacher No.6 Teacher F

that the classrooms were shared by two or classroom organization that considers all the
three cohorts of pupils. elements constituting balanced education.
In contrast, schools such as S4 and S5 Moreover, organizing an effective physical
(Fig.3 and Fig.4) did have some materials on environment of the classroom will prevent
the walls, such as poems and charts. However, pupils and teachers from experiencing
these materials were unsuitable for the pupils behavioral difficulties (Savage, 1999;
because they used a highly advanced level Shores, Gunter & Jack, 1993) and improve
of vocabulary. Creating and maintaining student proficiency levels (Walker, Colvin,
stimulating learning environments have & Ramsey, 1995).
been shown to be achieved through effective
Fig.2: Empty classroom, Empty walls do not promote a conducive learning environment
Fig.3: Poster- Too difficult for pupils

What is the teachers role in creating faced several stumbling blocks, such as lack
an effective learning experience for the of materials and resources. In S4 and S5,
pupils?
charts and pictures throughout the school
The findings of the study revealed that made the environment very cheerful (Fig.5
most of the teachers at the sample schools and Fig.6). However, in S6, although some
were not professionally qualified, did not of the teachers were professionally qualified,
prepare instructional materials, and lacked they seemed unconcerned about the pupils
ability to plan student management for progress. Thus, teachers professional
different educational needs and capabilities. qualification in different aspects of teaching
One of the main reasons behind this was can be considered insufficient in upgrading
inadequate teachers training. In fact, in pupils performance. For teachers to
interviews, many teachers declared that possess the drive and a set of values is
they lacked training and language skills, more important to improve their teaching
which are required for their teaching. A practices and subsequently raise their pupils
well-implemented teacher training program proficiency level. For example, teachers did
will not only help improve teachers abilities not implement any of the data derived from
(Werikat, 2009) but will also influence pupils assessments, hindering their ability
pupils performance (Wiley & Yoon, 1995). to devise suitable instructional strategies
The findings of the study indicate and create an environment conducive to
that in S1, the teachers were not very learning. Such assessments provide teachers
concerned about school activities, resulting with valuable information on developing
in poor classroom management. In contrast, appropriate opportunities for learning
teachers in S2 and S3 showed concern but improvement (Chrisman, 2005).
Fig.4: Vocabulary Poster- Too difficult for pupils

With regard to teachers role in creating Moreover, they considered passing the
an effective learning environment, the study exams more essential. The teachers did not
revealed the following: apply motivational strategies to improve
-- Teachers did not clarify the role of their pupils drive to learn the language. Pupils
pupils in the surrounding environment. motivation is recognized as one of the most
important factors in acquiring language
-- Teachers did not provide situational
skills. In addition, motivation serves as
dialogues related to their communities.
the initial engine to generate learning and
-- Teachers did not find inventive ways to later functions as an ongoing driving force
teach language in an effective learning that helps to sustain the long and usually
laborious journey of acquiring a foreign
Teachers deficiency in creating an
language (Cheng & Dornyei, 2007, p.153).
effective learning environment awareness
Only S4 organized activities related to
decreased pupils understanding of various
English language learning, such as English
environmental aspects, which in turn reflected
Week. According to Teacher B (S4-I),
negatively on pupils interest in learning the
some activities were conducted for the
language. The study found that apart from
pupils. He also recalled the previous years
S4, all the schools lacked language-related
establishment of a pupils learning club and
initiatives to build pupils confidence and
holding of outdoor activities. Some schools,
motivation to learn English. Teachers in
such as S4 and S5, attempted to create
these schools were highly examination-
an environment conducive to learning by
oriented because English was not considered
hanging colorful posters on the walls and
important in pupils immediate needs.
building reading huts for pupils.
Fig.5: Notices on the classroom walls

However, the pupils lacked the they provide the content of the lesson and
motivation to learn the language because supplement teachers instructions. Textbook
the teachers did not use examples from their structure, which is targeted to upgrade
surrounding environment. Those that were teachers professional adequacy and pupils
often used contained outdated information language learning levels, provides support
not related to the pupils environment or their for new teaching approaches related to
needs. Textbooks are considered the basis environmental aspects (Stanley, 2003) inside
of language input pupils receive because and outside the classroom.
Fig.6: Notices on the Library Wall- Effective pictures
Fig.7: A Reading Hut in S4

The study suggests that textbooks help many of them were irrelevant in terms of
in teaching numbers, colors, and greetings language and content. In S2, resources were
in S2 Year 1. According to a teacher, the not readily available to the pupils. Even
aspects of numbers and colors are repeated newspapers were not available for reading
in Math and Science. One weakness of S4 is or referencing, to both teachers and pupils.
that the level used is too high for the pupils, In S3, pupils had access to some of the
and the content is not appropriate to their resources. In S4, resources were inadequate;
background and experience. the books contents were so difficult for
the pupils that too many books remained
I used the textbook before but,
unused. Only a handful of pupils in all
unfortunately, the content is very
the schools visited the mini-library; they
long. The story inside is also very
seldom read English materials or borrowed
long. Eventually, I gave priority to
books, especially books written in English.
the UPSR material.
However, pupils in S6 used the library and
(Teacher C, S5-R)
borrowed books, especially English books.
No, I think the textbook in use now School libraries can generate a positive
is not suitable for pupils abilities effect on pupils proficiency and learning
and academic level; the syllabus is levels if they are used in a efficient manner,
above the pupils levels. especially at the primary levels (Williams
(Teacher D, S6-F) et al., 2002).
Year 5 pupils in S1 acknowledged
the fact that their teachers used different
The preceding quotations derived from
teaching aids, such as pictures and numbers,
the interviews with teachers revealed their
in teaching English. However, Year 3 and 4
dissatisfaction with the existing curriculum,
pupils said that their teacher only used the
which is not suitable for pupils due to the
textbook in class.
difficult topics which are beyond the pupils
In S4, when there is electricity supply,
academic abilities. It is important that
teachers use computers or television; in most
curriculum be designed with topics that are
instances, they use handouts in teaching.
in accordance with pupils needs, abilities
Teachers in S5 use the Internet and resource
and academic level.
books. In S6, when electricity supply is
available, teachers use computers, otherwise
Are there sufficient learning resources
in the pupils schools, homes, and rely on textbooks.
community? The survey results showed that teachers
Both quantitative and qualitative data in this used various technologies (LCD panel,
study showed that S1 had resources in the overhead projector, video, TV, and Internet)
form of a mini-library. However, the books as teaching aids (mean=3.48). Teachers
were not suitable for the learners because also concurred that their schools provided
adequate teaching aids for ELT (mean=3.21).
Fig.8: Outdated English books in the S4 library/Do not motivate pupils to learn
Fig.9: Resources available in S6
Fig.10: Resources available in S6

I have used television before to In the case of S1, newspapers were

support my teaching. Sometimes I unavailable on the island. According to
allow my pupils to watch cartoons the pupils, the shops did not sell any
in English language. newspapers. There were also no resources at
(Teacher B, S4-I) home for the pupils. According to a teacher
in S2 , nobody in the village has the ability
I, myself, bought books for my to converse in English. Even the community
students. Sometimes I let them use had no resources for the pupils use. A
my broadband Internet connection teacher affirmed this point in the interview:
for surfing.
I think they dont have newspapers.
(Teacher F, S4-I)
I asked them before if they had any
and replied that they didnt know.
It was observed that teachers still used
very traditional teaching methods. A main (Teacher C, S5-R)
cause for this situation is the lack of quality
technological resources that should be The unavailability of resources in the
provided by the Ministry of Education for community center was common in all
each educational level in these rural schools. the schools in the study.. This resulted in
Pupils in these schools looked to their the lowering of pupils English language
teachers as their main source of knowledge learning levels and the community
because of the absence of resources at home centers reduced ability to make a positive
or community center for the pupils use. educational difference. The study also
One of the teachers interviewed verified revealed that parents did not give the pupils
this point: any encouragement to learn English. The
parents in these areas are unaware of the
I gave them four story books,
importance of supporting their children in
namely, Cinderella, Sleeping
learning the English language.
Beauty, Snow White, and Jack and
There is concrete evidence that the
Jill. The pupils were very excited;
home environment affects pupils learning
sometimes they would ask me to act
outcomes in their early life (Nechyba et al.,
inside the classroom based on the
2005). Research worldwide indicates that
story book. But sometimes I do not
families are linked to schools in different
have enough time, so I ask them to
activities, such as parent participation or
read and try to understand the story
school-family associations (Jordan et al.,
book themselves.
2001). Lack of support negatively affects
(Teacher C, S5-R)
pupils English language learning. However,
only the parents in S3 gave encouragement

to their children to learn English. As one compelling need to understand the effect
teacher stated in the interview, of the environment and resources on rural
Malaysian pupils learning.
Pupils do not learn the English
In sum, the results of the study show that
language even at home. There
the learning environments in the selected
is also no encouragement and
schools are not conducive to English
support from the parents. If pupils
language learning. For example, notice
dont have any guidance in English
boards and classroom boards are almost bare.
language, it will be hard for them
The schools also lack adequate facilities
to learn.
such as appropriately sized classrooms
(Teacher B, S3-I)
equipped with suitable effective teaching
tools that provide comfortable learning
Parents increased level of positive conditions.
encouragement and involvement in their The teachers lack concern in
childrens education will reflect on their implementing positive changer are
childrens knowledge and activities in not adequately trained to manage their
school, which in turn will positively affect classrooms and lack the language skills
their proficiency levels. required to help the pupils. Pupils lack
motivation to learn the language because
CONCLUSION teachers do not use examples such as from
The triangulation of data postulates clearly the surrounding environment, to help them
the effect of the environment on rural understand better. However, those who
Malaysian pupils English language levels. do use relevant examples that match the
Evidently, the findings of the study show pupils background knowledge often rely
that they face many difficulties in early on outdated information.
education in terms of the language learning The interviews with the teachers suggest
environment inside and outside the school. their dissatisfaction with the existing
However, the two principal causes of curriculum, which is not suitable for
rural Malaysian pupils low proficiency the pupils. The curriculums topics are
levels (i.e., poor learning environment and challenging and beyond the pupils academic
lack of resources) are rarely discussed in abilities and English language proficiency.
professional journals or books on applied Rural teachers have been observed
linguistics. The relevant literature indicates to lack quality technological sources in
lack of studies specifically focusing on schools, forcing them to teach in accordance
the effect of environment and resources with traditional methods that are unable
on pupils English language development to keep up with the massive worldwide
and their role in improving rural pupils educational development. In turn, these
proficiency levels. Thus, there is a traditional methods compel pupils to look

to their teachers as the main resource of of resources in Malaysian rural areas

knowledge. In the interviews, the teachers and schools.
indicated their frustrations with the schools The Ministry of Education should assign
lack of proper educational resources. teachers who are trained to manage
The problem also largely stems from the pupils educational development.
absence of sufficient family support and
encouragement because rural parents do IMPLICATIONS AND DIRECTIONS
not realize the importance of their own role FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
in advancing childrens proficiency levels. The results of the study and the identification
Although policy makers are concerned of the factors that influence pupils
about the factors influencing the community proficiency levels led to suggestions on how
structure of rural areas, the need to direct best decision makers can create conducive
their efforts towards developing rural learning environments in Malaysian rural
education is critical. This is important schools. Determining the various factors
to narrow the gap of the communities affecting pupils conducive learning
knowledge Determining the various factors environments has serious implications
facilitating rural education development for the way learning inside classroom is
provides a good start. The theory (i.e., conducted and for the way recourses for
social cognitive theory) that underpins language learning is considered effective
the research, suggests that pupils function and useful in rural schools.
as contributors (Bandura, 1999) to their The utilization of social cognitive theory
own motivation within an environment of in this study integrated pupils language
commonly interrelated influences. It also acquisition with learning environment.
suggests that these pupils do not apply This will aid decision makers to refine
everything that they have learned because the processes that guide rural education
of various environmental factors influencing development in order to monitor and develop
the interpretation of the learning acquired language learning in rural classrooms.
(Bandura, 1996). In addition, identifying teachers role in
This study is significant because it has creating an effective learning experience for
investigated and discussed rural pupils rural pupils will aid teachers in rural schools
proficiency development and the factors to undertake the roles while managing their
that influence these proficiency levels. classrooms and to create better educational
Based on the results of the study and in climate that would realize the aspired
light of the rural pupils needs, the following standards in promoting language learning
recommendations are made: and teaching process in Malaysia.
The Ministry of Education should There are several important questions
investigate the reasons behind the lack that need to be investigated in future

research. With regards to feature set, this Asici, M. (2009). Determination of Foundational
study has confirmed the influence of the Literacy 1 Knowledge and Skills of Pupils
Attending Preschool Education. Reading
learning environments (the physical learning
Improvement, 46(3), 1-9.
environment, learning experience, and
resources ) on rural pupils learning of the AusAID. (2005). Australian aid: Approaches to
literacy. Australian Agency for International
English language. The motivation of both
Development. Canberra ACT 2601 Australia.
teachers and students has not been discussed
Retrieved from-www.ausaid.gov.au.
in this study as a major influencing factor.
Bandura, A. (1997a). Self-efficacy: The exercise of
We believe that this may be a useful research
control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
direction, with the view of investigating
motivation in comprehensive research Bandura, A. (1996). Failures in self-regulation:
Energy depletion or selective disengagement?
where motivational factors may not always
Psychological Inquiry, 7, 20-24.
be available. We also believe that further
research should explore the background Bandura, A. (1989). Perceived self-efficacy in the
exercise of personal agency. The Psychologist:
of both teachers and students and its effect
Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 2,
on the teaching and learning processes in
411-424.
rural areas. The researchers in this study
Bandura A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and
have suggested the possible causes of rural
Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood
students lack of knowledge and showed a
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
portion of the current educational situation
Barley, Z. A., & Beesley, A. D. (2007). Rural school
in the Malaysian rural context. Determining
success: What can we learn? Journal of Research
other causes is a research aim that deserves
in Rural Education, 22(1), 1-11.
to be investigated in the future.
Beska, V. O., Z. Kadriu, S. Adamcevska, M.
Nikolovska, B. Ancevska, M. Raleva, N. Kenig,
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A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid

Kanthimathi Letchumanan1, Karthiyaini Devarajoo2 and
Paramasivam Muthusamy3*
1
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Seri Kembangan, 43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Kuala Lumpur Infrastructure University College (KLIUC), Unipark Suria, Jalan Ikram-Uniten,
43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
3
Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Assessment is a crucial part of education as it provides information to be used as feedback
to support the teaching and learning process. Oral assessment is conducted at both primary
and secondary schools in Malaysia. Previous researches highlight that students are unable
to score well in their oral assessment. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the
effectiveness of sharing assessment criteria, the Guiding Grid (GG), with students to
improve oral performance among them. This study was conducted with Form Four students
from an urban school. The students oral assessments were conducted three times and their
scores were recorded. The first assessment was done without sharing the GG with the
students. Before the second assessment the researchers shared the GG verbally. Finally,
12 students who scored below the satisfactory level were given the printed GG and were
assessed for the third time. The findings show a marked improvement in students oral
performance after the sharing of GG, orally as well as in print form. There is a significant
improvement on the 12 selected students oral performance when the printed GG was
shared with them. This study also explores students opinions on sharing the GG with them.
Keywords: Oral assessment, guiding grid, motivation, flexibility, designing guiding grid
INTRODUCTION
Assessment in learning can take place
ARTICLE INFO
Article history: in many forms. Some of the modes used
Accepted: 17 December 2013
by teachers in assessing their students
E-mail addresses:
achievement are conducted through
kanthi65@hotmail.com (Kanthimathi Letchumanan),
karthiashok@gmail.com (Karthiyaini Devarajoo),
examinations, tests, quizzes, assignments,
paramasivam@upm.edu.my (Paramasivam Muthusamy) special projects or doing portfolios. These

Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and Paramasivam Muthusamy
modes of assessment are conducted either This study involves assessing students
individually, in pairs or in small groups. oral achievement in an urban school in
For example, in the teaching of the English Malaysia. It is the Education Ministrys
Language, all the four language skills i.e. requirement that English Language teachers
listening, speaking, reading and writing assess their students oral achievement twice
are assessed according to the requirement a year in Form Four and once in Form Five.
of the individual institutions. Generally, In Form Four, the first assessment is carried
in formative or summative assessments, out individually in the first semester and the
students are assessed throughout the second assessment is conducted in pairs in
semesterthroughcontinuous assessment or the second semester. In Form Five, this oral
at the end of the semester respectively, so assessment is conducted in small groups
that they can be given grades. of 4 to 6 students. The researcher used the
Assessment is all those activities Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) Oral English
undertaken by teachers, and by their students Assessment Criteria which is called the
in assessing themselves which provides Guiding Grid (GG) in this study. The SPM
information to be used as feedback to in Malaysia is a public examination for Form
modify the teaching and learning activities Five students which is equivalent to the O
in which they are engaged (Black, P. Level Examination. The GG (Appendix A)
and William, D., 1998). It should provide has five constructs or tasks and the score
information on the current state of students for each construct ranges from 1 to 6. The
achievements in order to provide students 5 constructs are: To converse effectively
with information that will help them to on a topic with appropriate response, To
improve their learning in future. Assessment speak fluently using correct and acceptable
requires imparting results that conveys pronunciation, To speak coherently, To
sufficient, understandable details to guide speak the language using a wide range of
the students actions.It can also be defined appropriate vocabulary within contexts,
as the process of seeking and interpreting and To speak using correct grammar
evidence for use by learners and their (MOE, 2010). 1 mark is awarded for very
teachers to decide where the learners are weak performance, 2 marks areawarded for
in their learning, where they need to go weak performance, 3 marks when students
and how best to go there (Assessment performance is satisfactory, 4 or 5 marks are
Reform Group, 2002). In this way, both awarded if students performance is good
the students and the teacher will be able to and 6marksareawarded to students who are
distinguish not only the students current excellent in their oral performance. Each
level of achievement, but also how much the construct or task in the GG is given with
studentsability have improved, which is a clear explanation on how many marks are
great booster for confidence and motivation. awarded to students who accomplish the

task. For the purpose of this study, the marks told that the first assessment will be done
4 and 5 are labelled as Good and Very individually and the second assessment in
good respectively. pairs. Students are not provided with the GG
The practice of using scoring rubrics has to show them what they should do to qualify
been researched extensively and researchers for the highest score. As such students do
have documented support for its use at not have an opportunity to read the rubrics
schools, colleges as well as at universities for each construct so that they can attempt
(State of Colorado, 1999; Schrock, 2000; their oral assessment to thebest of their
Moskal, 2000; Knecht, Moskal & Pavelich, ability. Students performance is inhibited
2000). Scoring rubrics are descriptive due to lack of understanding and this
scoring schemes that are developed by reversely affects theiractions. Some teachers
teachers to guide the analysis of students provide the information or rubrics in the
work (Brookhart, 1999). However, recent GG verbally. This practice does not seem
studies have shown that scoring rubrics as to bring about positive learning experiences
a Guiding Grid (GG) can support students because students do not get the opportunity
performance and also guide the teaching and to reflect on their own performance and
learning processes (Karthiyaini.D, 2009). are unable to critique their own learning as
This study focuses on the difference in supported by Shulmans Table of Learning.
students performance when sharing the GG The students inability to reflect and critic
verbally as compared to the printed forms. their own learning process impairs their
ability to make sound judgements and design
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM positive actions for future learning. The lack
Generally, the teachers do not share their of the above learning skills in the students
teaching goals with their students which prevent them from being committed to the
would ideally be their learning goals. learning that happens which should ideally
These teaching and learning goals are the create an identity and instil values in them.
basis of the designing of the GGShulmans
Table of Learning supports the fact that OBJECTIVES
engagement and motivation enhances The study aims to explore the use of the
increase in knowledge and understanding of GG provided by the Ministry of Education
what is learnt. Thus, the sharing of the GG (MOE) as a link between teaching, learning
with the students is the point of engagement and assessment as championed by Shulmans
and motivation that occurs in the teaching Table of Learning. The objectives of this
and learning process. However, teachers in study are:
the identified school do not use the GG for 1. To identify the effectiveness of using
the oral assessments. Students are informed GG as an instrument to guide students
that they have to prepare a topic of their to enhance their oral performance and
choice for the oral assessment.They are also the learning process.

2. To explore students views on the has five classes and the researcher was given
implementation of GG for their oral the high proficiency level Science streamed
assessment, which is an attempt to class. The researcher used all the students
support reflection, critical thinking, in her class to conduct this research. This
making judgements, designing future method of subject selection is known as
actions and being committed to their convenience sampling (Creswell, 2005).
identity as learners.
3. To assess students oral achievement CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
after the implementation of GG. The conceptual framework for this study
is adapted from Shulmans Table of
RESEARCH QUESTIONS Learning (Carnegie Foundation, 2005). The
In view of the objectives mentioned above, introduction of the Guiding Grid supports
this study seeks to answer the following the engagement and motivation of students
research questions. with the task given. This engagement has a
positive effect as it leads to understanding
1. What is the difference in the students
and supports the depth of knowledge gained.
English Language oral performance
The sharing of the teaching and learning
before and after the GG is given
goals motivates students and improves
verbally?
performance and action by the students.
2. What is the difference in the students Students views on the effectiveness
English Language oral performance of using the Guiding Grid encourage
when the GG is given verbally and in judgement making skills, whichencourage
the printed form? students to be able to use knowledge gained
3. What are the students views in in various other situations. Eventually,
implementing the GG for their English this ability to judge and apply knowledge
Language oral assessment? builds confidence in students. They are
able to be more committed to their own
4. What are the teachers views on the use
learning process and this commitment in
of the GG for the English Language oral
return creates a strong individual identity.
assessment?
This is a cyclic process where students
complete one cycle of learning and move
POPULATION AND SAMPLING
on to another cycle of learning. The above
The population of this study is from a framework manifests itself positively in the
semi-urban school and is focused on Form methodology used in this study.
Four secondary school students. There are
fifteen Form Four classes in this school and FLEXIBILITY OF THE GG
the classes are divided into three different
Traditionally the scoring rubrics are used
proficiency levels. Each proficiency level
for assessing various students activities.

This includes language skills and group they need to do to move on to the next level.
as well as individual activities (Chicago As for the teachers, the grid guides
Public Schools, 1999; Danielson, 1997a; them to plan their teaching to meet the
1997b; Schrock, 2000; Moskal, 2000; students needs. The students weaknesses
Karthiyaini.D, 2009). Students writing and in a subject or certain areas in a subject
oral work can also be assessed using the are easily identified based on the students
scoring rubrics. performance and the rubrics given in the GG.
The scoring rubrics can also be used Thus, the teachers get to address weaknesses
for various subjects such as Language, of the students in the next lessons.
Mathematics and Science (e.g.,
ChicagoPublic Schools, 1999; State of DESIGNING THE GG
Colorado, 1999; Danielson, 1997a; 1997b; The GG should ideally be designed before
Danielson & Marquez, 1998; Schrock, (Assessment Rubrics, 2001) the teaching of
2000). Each task given to students can be the subject begins.This allows the teacher to
supported with a specially designed scoring plan the teaching to meet the skills that will
rubric. be assessed in a particular subject and to
The use of the scoring rubrics as GG is match the teaching to achieve the subjects
dual-pronged. It guides the students to move learning outcomes by the end of the term
on to the next level of improved performance or semester(Klenowski, 2003). Brookhart
because the detailed description in the asserts that the first step in designing a
rubrics guides the students to know where scoring rubric is to clearly identify the
they are in the learning process and what qualities that need to be displayed in a
Engagement and Motivation (Guiding Grid)
Knowledge and Understanding

Commitment and Identity (Understanding the learning goals)
(Enhances confidence)
Performance and Action

Judgment and Design (Oral performance)
(Response on effectiveness)
Reflection and Critique

(Views on effectiveness of the Guiding Grid)
Fig.1: Conceptual Framework

(Adapted from Shulmans Table of Learning - Carnegie Foundation, 2005)

students work to demonstrate proficient This is because assessment should evaluate

performance (Brookhart, 1999). what has been taught in the classroom and
Hence, the programme learning not on levels that have not beentaught by
outcomes and the subject learning outcomes the teacher. However, a GG designed by
are carefully matched based on the syllabus one teacher can be adapted and improved
provided for the subjects. The rubrics in to cater for evaluating work in other sub-
the GG closely support the subject learning areas in the subject. Even the same teacher
outcomes at the end of the term or year. Each who designed the GG might want to make
task designed for a particular subject should slight changes or improvements to the grid
closely shadow the learning outcomes for according to requirements of the same task
the subject. when used for another round of assessment.
The designing of the GG also enables These improvements will support and
different teachers teaching the same subject enhance the teaching and learning process.
to assess students in an objective manner.
This is to maintain inter-rater and intra- THE GG AS A MOTIVATION FOR
rater reliability. The descriptive rubrics in STUDENTS
the GG follow a systematic improvement Recent studies have shown that the use of
in performance from a weak student to the the GG has improved students performance.
best student. The highest marks are allotted Educative Assessment (Wiggins, 1998)
to work which display the best qualities and is a term used to describe techniques and
the lowest marks for work that has the least issues that should be considered when
qualities. The levels in-between depends on designing and using assessments. The
the teacher who is designing the GG. For assessment designed should be educative.
example, the best student can be graded Students at a teacher training institute were
as Excellent and the weakest as Weak given a GG with their English Language
and the in-between level can be Good and semester assignment. This study compared
Satisfactory. The mark for each level is a the grades achieved by students before
range and students can be given a grade for and after the GG. The grades achieved by
the range rather than a rigid digit (mark) the students improved after being given
for their performance. It is the description the GG (Karthiyaini.D, 2009).Wiggins
provided in the GG that is crucial to support (1998) supports the idea that the nature of
learning than the grade orthe mark given. the assessment procedure influences the
The qualities to be displayed in the work learning process and students involvement
at every level must be distinct and easily in the process. He also supports the practice
differentiated from the level before and after of assessment for learning as compared to
it. If meaningful distinctions between the assessment of learning. He contends that
levels cannot be made, then additional levels assessment should provide feedback to
should not be created (Brookhart, 1999). encourage revision to improve learning.

Black & Wiliam (1998) show that students recorded. The researcher selects twelve
self-assessment skills, learned and applied respondents whose scores are below 4
as part of formative assessment, enhances marks. The researcher gives the selected
student achievement. twelve respondents the GG in the printed
The use of the GG as an assessment form and explains how they can move to
instrument guides and motivates the students the next level. The twelve respondents are
to improve their performance as well as the tested again after two weeks and their scores
teachers performance. The GG functions are recorded.
as an analysis to survey students needs Apart from the 44 respondents, seven
and using these findings the teacher is able English Language teachers in this selected
to plan future lessons to address their needs school are given a questionnaire to find
(Shepard, 2000). The fact that teachers get outtheir perceptions of the GG. Their
to address the students needs, functions as a answers are tabulated and counted in
motivation to encourage students learning. percentages. The qualitative approach
involves the detail analysis of structured
METHODOLOGY AND DATA interviews carried out with the twelve
COLLECTION respondents who are given the printed GG.
This study is a combination of both
qualitative and quantitative research Students Performance
which has qualitative data (interview) The students performance shows an
and quantitative data (oral scores and improvement after the introduction of the
questionnaire). The quantitative approach GG. Table 1 charts the students performance
involves data collected from the scores for the first two oral assessments where
of thestudents oral assessmentsand the Assessment 1 is conducted without sharing
questionnaire answered by the teachers. the GG while Assessment 2 is conducted
The oral assessment for the respondents after sharing the GG verbally. After sharing
of this study is conducted prior to sharing the GG, the students are given two weeks
the GG with them. Respondents are tested to prepare for their oral assessment. The
individually with the topic of their choice. constructs given in Table 1 are based on
The researcher listens carefully and assesses the documents provided by the Ministry of
them. Education.
The second assessment is conducted The respondents performance is
after the researcher shares the rubrics in graded in 6 levels which is 6 Excellent,
the GG with them verbally. The researcher 5 and 4 Good, 3 Satisfactory, 2 Weak
explains each rubric and the scores which and 1 Very Weak. There is a marked
start from 1 being the lowest and 6 the difference in the respondents performance
highest score. Respondents are assessed from Assessment 1 to Assessment 2. In
again after two weeks and their scores are Assessment 2, 20 respondents (45.4%)

obtained 5 marks as compared to 4 marks construct after they are given the GG
(9.1%) in Assessment 1 for Construct 1. verbally. These findings answer Research
There was also an improvement in the Question 1. The students performance in the
respondents performance for Construct various levels for the first two assessments
2 where in Assessment 1 only 2 (4.5%) is shown in the Fig.2 to Fig.4.
respondents obtained 6 marks as compared Statistically, the paired sample t-test
to 8 (18.1%) in Assessment 2. Likewise, was conducted to compare the students
the difference in respondents who obtained performance in Assessment 1 without the
5 marks for Construct 2 improved from 3 use of the GG and Assessment 2 with the use
(6.8%) in Assessment 1 to 17 (38.6%) in of the GG. There was a significant difference
Assessment 2. For Construct 3, a total of 40 in the scores for the Assessment 1 (M=3.69,
(90.9%) respondents obtained marks in the SD=0.705) and Assessment 2 (M=4.59,
range of 4-6 in Assessment 2 as compared to SD=0.775) conditions; t(-12.879), p=0.000.
26 (59%) respondents in Assessment 1. The This is shown in Table 2.
improvement for marks in the range of 4-5 is After the second assessment, there
from 11 (25%) respondents for Assessment werestill respondents who did not meet
1 to 32 (72.7%) respondents in Assessment the desired grade of Good which carried
2 for Construct 4. As for Construct 5, the total marks of 20 for the 5 constructs. Out
performance improved from 5 respondents of the 44 respondents, 12 did not meet the
(11.3%) in the range of 5-6 marks to 23 above desired grade. These 12 respondents
respondents (52.2%). wereprovided with the printed form of
The above analysis shows an the GG and rubrics wasexplained to them
improvement in respondents performance again. These respondents werealso given
for they obtain higher marks for each two weeks to prepare for their next oral
TABLE 1
Students performance in the first two oral assessments (N=44)
Assessment/ Assessment 1 Assessment 2

Constructs Marks Marks
6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1
1. Converse on a topic effectively 2 4 24 14 0 0 9 20 10 4 1 0
with appropriate responses
2. Speak fluently using correct and 2 3 15 24 0 0 8 17 18 1 0 0
acceptable pronunciation
3. Speak coherently 1 5 21 15 2 0 5 20 15 4 0 0
4. Speak the language using a wide 0 5 6 23 0 0 3 21 11 9 0 0
range of appropriate vocabulary
within context
5. Speak using correct grammar 0 5 20 18 1 0 1 22 9 12 0 0

assessment. The comparison of the weak A repeated- measure ANOVA, with

students performance before sharing the Greenhouse-Giesser correction, was
GG (Assessment 1), after introducing the conducted to assess whether there were
GG verbally (Assessment 2) and after giving differences between the average ratings of
the printed GG (Assessment 3) are charted the three assessments. Results indicated
in the Table 3. that the participants did rate the three
Students Performance in Assessment 1
30
25
Construct 1
20
Construct 2
Marks
15 Construct 3
Construct 4
10
Construct 5
5
0
Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory Weak Very Weak
Fig.2: Students performance in Assessment 1
Students Peformance in Assessment 2
25
20
Construct 1
15 Construct 2
Marks
Construct 3
10 Construct 4
Construct 5
5
0
Fig.3: Students performance in Assessment 2
Comparison of students performance in Assessment 1 and 2
30
25 Construct 1
20 Construct 2
Marks
15 Construct 3
10 Construct 4
5 Construct 5
0
Satisfactory
Satisfactory
Good
Good
Very Good
Very Good
Excellent
Excellent
Weak
Weak
Very Weak
Very Weak
Assessment 1 Assessment 2
Fig.4: Comparison of improvement in performance before and after introducing the GG verbally

assessments differently, F (1.204, 13.245) The selected students performances in

=78.566, p < 0.001, eta =.877. The mean the three assessments are shown in Fig.5
and standard deviations for the assessments to Fig.8.
are represented in Table 4. Examination of The respondents performance
these means suggest that respondentshave for Construct 1 shows a progressive
improved in their oral assessment after the improvement from Assessments 1 to 3
use of GG. The mean of Assessment 2 is where the majority of the respondents
higher than that of Assessment 1 and the obtained 3 marks (75%) in Assessment 1,
mean of Assessment 3 is higher than that of 4 marks (91.6%) in Assessment 2 and 5
Assessment 2. marks (91.6%) in Assessment 3. The sharing
TABLE 2
Mean and Standard Deviation of Assessment 1 and Assessment 2
Mean N Std. Deviation

Pair 1 Assessment 1- Before GG 3.6955 44 .70545
Assessment 2 After GG 4.5955 44 .77578
Significance level p < 0.001
TABLE 3
The selected students performance in all the three oral assessments (N=12)
Assessment/ Assessment 1 Assessment 2 Assessment 3

Constructs 6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1
1. Converse on a topic 0 0 3 9 0 0 0 0 11 1 0 0 0 11 1 0 0 0
effectively with
appropriate responses
2. Speak fluently using 0 0 1 11 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 10 2 0 0 0
correct and acceptable
pronunciation
3. Speak coherently 0 0 1 10 1 0 0 0 9 3 0 0 0 10 2 0 0 0
4. Speak the language 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 3 9 0 0 4 8 0 0 0 0
using a wide range of
appropriate vocabulary
within context
5. Speak using correct 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 2 10 0 0 0
grammar
A repeated- measure ANOVA, with Greenhouse-Giesser correction, was conducted to assess
TABLE 4
Mean and Standard Deviation Comparison of the 3 Assessments
Mean N Std. Deviation
Assessment 1- Before GG 3.0667 12 .19695
Assessment 2 With verbal GG 3.5833 12 .13371
Assessment 3 With print GG 4.5833 12 .43029

of the printed GG improved respondents In Assessment 1, respondents obtained 3

performance. marks which is Satisfactory for Construct
As for Construct 2, the majority of 5 (100%). In Assessment 2, there was no
the respondents gradually improved from improvement. However, the respondents
obtaining 3 marks (91.6%) in Assessment performance improved in Assessment 3
1, 4 marks (100%) in Assessment 2 to where all 12 (100%) were able to obtain
5 marks (83.3%) in Assessment 3. The Good with 4 and 5 marks.
same pattern of improvement is observed This indicates that weaker students
for Construct 3 and 4 where respondents benefit from the sharing of the printed form
gradually improved from obtaining 3 marks of the GG. It could be because they are able
(83.3%) in Assessment 1, 4 marks (75%) to read and understand the rubrics at their
in Assessment 2 to 5 marks (83.3%) and own pace and prepare themselves for better
3 marks (100%) in Assessment 1, 4 marks grades. These findings answer Research
(75%) in Assessment 2 to 5 marks (66.6%) Question 2.
in Assessment 3 respectively.
Selected students performance in Assessment 1
14
12
Construct 1
10
Construct 2
8
Marks
Construct 3
6
Construct 4
4
Construct 5
2
0
Performance
Fig.5: Selected Students Performances in Assessment 1
Selected students Performance in Assessment 2
14
12
Construct 1
10
Construct 2
8
Marks
Construct 3
6
Construct 4
4
Construct 5
2
0
Performance
Fig.6: Selected Students Performances in Assessment 2

Students views on the implementation of The respondents also confirmed that the
the GG GG given verbally improved their grades
Twelve students who werethe weakest in the oral assessment. However, they cited
respondents were interviewed for their various reasons how the printed GG helped
views on the implementation of the GG. All them improve their oral performance further.
twelve respondents agreed that the rubrics in Seven respondents ( 58.3%) stated that they
the GG helped them in their oral assessment. knew more about marks, how to score better
Six students (50%) identified that the GG marks in order to improve their performance.
had improved their performance in various Five of the respondents (41.6%) viewed
manners such as improved in their oral test, the printed GG as a source of reference
conversation, minor mistakes and grades. for it showed them the mistakes and
Four respondents (33.3%) asserted that the weaknesses. There werean equal number
GG helped them improve their performance of responses (33.3%) that identified the
through scoring better marks or higher printed GG as a memory jolt for it helped
marks. them remember and also understand
Selected Students Performance in Assessment 3
12
10
Construct 1
8
Construct 2
Marks
6 Construct 3
Construct 4
4
Construct 5
2
0
Fig.7: Selected Students Performance in Assessment 3
Comparison of selected students performance in Assessment

1, 2 and 3
14
12
10
Marks
8
6 Construct 1
4 Construct 2
2
0 Construct 3
Satisfactory
Satisfactory
Satisfactory
Good
Good
Good
Construct 4
Very Good
Very Good
Very Good
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Weak
Weak
Weak
Very Weak
Very Weak
Very Weak
Construct 5
Assessment 1 Assessment 2 Assessment 3
Fig.8: Selected Students Performance in Assessment 3

the oral assessment as well as how the in the GG by the Ministry of Education.
teachers awarded marks. However, all the seven respondents
The twelve respondents agreed that confessed that they do not use the GG
every student should be given the GG provided by the Ministry of Education.
before the oral assessment. The reasons Various reasons were cited for not using
they cited included the following: ten of the the GG. Five out of the seven respondents
respondents (83.3%) claimed that students claimed that they were not aware and
can get better marks by rectifying their didnt know that the GG existed while
mistakes; six respondents (50%) supported three of them claimed that the GG was not
that sharing of the GG prepared them better provided to them. This reflects a situation
for the oral assessment and gave them more where an effective system can be introduced
practice. There were also two respondents but implementation can be faulty due to
who stated that other students deserve to lack of support at grass root levels. At the
know the GG. Based on the above analysis, institutional level, there must be an alert
it can be concluded that students benefit panel to enforce the practice to support
from the sharing of the GG especially in effective teaching and learning.
the printed form because it functions as a There were three respondents who
memory jolt as well as a reference point for reasoned that the assessment evaluation
them to improve their performance in the form with the condensed version of the
oral assessment. These findings answered GG rubrics was sufficient as explanation
Research Question 3. to the students and to evaluate them. There
was one respondent who asserted that the
Teachers views on the implementation of rubrics is too wordy and students might
the GG be put off by the details in the grid and
A questionnaire was administered to gather this might affect the spontaneity of their
views from teachers on the implementation performance. These views seem to reflect
of the GG in the classroom for the English a lack of understanding of the effectiveness
language oral assessment. Seven teachers of using the GG to support teaching and
were involved in this study. All seven learning. Teachers at various levels should
respondents carried out oral assessments be introduced to the advantages of using
twice a year. They claimed that students the GG as a motivating tool to improve
were given a general explanation about the students performance as well as a guide
requirements for the oral assessment and for teachers to plan for effective teaching.
they also guided the students with the topics. Assessment links teaching and learning
Three out of the seven teachers showed through matching assessment goals with
the oral assessment form to the students and learning outcomes.
explained to them about the scores. This The introduction of the GG as an
oral assessment form carries the simplified assessment tool to support teaching and
version of the assessment rubrics provided learning should ideally be done as an
induction to all new staff at schools and performance or lack of performance

other institutions. It can also be introduced indicates what the focus of teaching should
during sharing sessions and continuous be in each case. This helps teachers plan
professional development of teachers their teaching to support effective learning.
(CPD). The implementation of the GG This study further confirms the versatility
should be monitored regularly to sustain of the GG as a tool for effective teaching
the usage. Besides the above, students and learning.
views should also be gathered to gauge the
effectiveness of assessment instruments ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
used in educational institutions. This study was funded by the Infrastructure
University Kuala Lumpur (formerly known
CONCLUSION as KLIUC).
The use of the Guiding Grid encourages
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Political Cartoons in the First Decade of the Millennium

Iro Sani*, Mardziah Hayati Abdullah, Afida Mohamad Ali and
Faiz S. Abdullah
Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The beginning of the new millennium (the year 2000 to 2010) has witnessed a dramatic
increase in the political cartoons research. By their nature, political cartoons constitute a
specific genre of political reporting in that they are pictorial representations which depict
political and social issues and events, as well as the parties involved, in an immediate and
condensed form. The genre is characterised by humorous depiction of events, exploiting
the ability of irony and satire to unravel, ridicule and attack in a playful, witty and artful
fashion (Test, 1991). They project a particular point of view (El Refaie, 2009) and enlighten
readers on public issues while exposing wrong practices (Akande, 2002). Due to the
increasing research on political cartoons, this study reviews previous studies conducted
in the area from the beginning of the millennium (2000) to the year 2010 that marks the
first decade of the 21st century millennium. It is hoped that the review will highlight how
the genre contributes to social and political commentary and to provide an inspiration for
further research in political cartoons.
Keywords: Political cartoons, First Decade, Century Millennium, Media, Messages
INTRODUCTION
This decade (provide years) has witnessed
a considerable development of research in
the area of political cartoons where many
ARTICLE INFO researchers have examined these cartoons
Article history: from various perspectives. Now that the first
Received: 29 September 2011
Accepted: 20 April 2013 decade of the century has come to an end,
E-mail addresses: there is a need to review related literature
isjibiya@yahoo.com (Iro Sani),
mazha@upm.my (Mardziah Hayati Abdullah), in the area, considering its significant
afida@upm.edu.my (Afida Mohamad Ali),
faiz@upm.edu.my (Faiz S. Abdullah) communicative purposes in societies. The

Iro Sani, Mardziah Hayati Abdullah, Afida Mohamad Ali and Faiz S. Abdullah
year 2000 marked the beginning of the METHODOLOGY

millennium. During this period, major events In order to provide a succinct account of
of global attention have occurred across related previous research in this review, the
the world. These events have tremendous method employed therefore, is to explore
impact on social and political dimension different variables that previous research
on the lives of peoples and societies today. have considered in describing the nature
For instance, the September 11 attack on the and function of political cartoons. In this
USA have triggered war against terrorism context, the present study reviews relevant
as the worlds contemporary primordial research conducted in the area of political
policy. Obviously, the situation at hand cartoons across the world from the year
needs important mode of communication 2000, which marked the beginning of
that can succinctly deliver messages which the new millennium up to the year 2010
summarizes contemporary societal issues respectively, making a period of one decade.
that can easily be absorbed and processed Thus, the review was aimed at synthesizing
by audiences in order to create meaning for major themes, framework of analyses
them and keep informed about such issues and overall findings of previous research
in different contextual backgrounds. within the stipulated period. This will
Political cartoons therefore, are a provide an easy avenue for assessing the
form of media message that harnesses communicative roles of political cartoons
linguistic and nonlinguistic devices used as a medium of social practice and also to
not only as vital instruments of information serve as an inspiration for further research
dissemination reflecting social practices in the area of political cartoons.
and happenings, but also as a principal
means of public access by which the public ANALYSIS OF POLITICAL
participates in the societal wider spectrum CARTOONS
of debate about a particular event or social In recent years, there have been considerable
phenomenon (Giarelli and Tulman, 2003). studies in literature which focused on the
Political cartoons have been used to uncover nature and functions of political cartoons.
the reality of events in society. Moreover, Several studies of political cartoons
cartoon messages have been manipulated to looked at their capability to effectively
set political and social agenda in different communicate social and political messages
societies across the world. To this effect, to mass audiences. These studies have
the review has explored various analytical been synthesized and grouped into related
frameworks which have been employed for variables based on their overall findings:
examining how cartoons are ingeniously
a.) Many studies focused on communicative
used to convey meanings. These frameworks
functions of political cartoons. This
of analyses include Critical Discourse
variable posits that the cartoons are used
Analysis, CDA hermeneutic and Semiotic
as a vehicle for political communication.
Analysis.
In his study for instance, Streicher exaggeration to communicate social issues

(1965 cited by Benoit, W.L, et al., in society. His findings indicated that visual
2001) his findings indicated that visual rhetoric serve as a persuasive device that
messages are much more succinct and cartoonists use to convey messages.
provide clear summary of an event or In another study, Duus (2001) explored
issue at hand as such, are given much Japanese cartoons depictions where he
preference over conventional media examined the historical development of
news. He claimed that cartoons help political cartoons in Japan. His findings
audiences to read news and to scan indicated that political cartoons were used
through the meaning of an issue or in Japanese media in a form of political
an event particularly those audiences critique. He added that political cartoons
who give much preference to visual were used as a vehicle for expressing
news and those who have little time. political opinion. This development came
He contended that political cartoons as a result of the emergence of an elite
capability to comment on social and opposition to the government.
political issues make them a distinct Generally, as a distinct media genre,
medium that contributes significantly political cartoons appeal to the minds of
by facilitating effective communication. audience and at the same time challenge
their communicative and interpretive
In his study, Walker (2003) examined
competence. In this regard, El Refaie
political cartoons in respect of political
(2009) carried out a study on how readers
communication. He argued that the
interpret political cartoons. The result of
cartoons are used as a powerful weapon
the pilot study indicated that in the case of
for communicating political issues for the
political cartoons, interpretation lie- solely
fact that cartoon messages can easily be
on many different kinds of literacy including
absorbed by audiences and transmitted in
a familiarity with cartoon conventions and a
mass circulation. His findings indicated that
broad knowledge of current affairs and the
political cartoons are of social importance
ability to draw conclusions or analogies.
because they are used in setting social
Therefore, the author challenges those who
agenda and provide satirical commentary
are of the opinion that cartoons are simple
aimed at transforming social and political
and easy to read. His findings suggest that
norms of society.
even the highly educated audiences who
In his research note on political cartoons,
are to some extent more informed about
Minix (2004) explored the nature and
political issues need to put into play a whole
conventions of political cartoon art. He also
range of literacies such as good analogies
expounded cartoonists talents and creativity
of idioms and metaphors as well as other
in portraying issues of public interest in their
linguistic skills in order to grasp fully the
depictions which exploit a wide range of
meanings conveyed in the cartoons. Given
visual rhetorics such as humor, blending and

their nature, cartoons depictions are usually social psychology, anthropology and the
satirical; their militant effects are just like cartoon code. However, the researcher did
that of armory used for launching attacks not provide adequate explanation of the
on the political leaders and the democratic code as an important semiotic concept;
process through pictorial depictions (Morris, and this hinders proper understanding of
1992). the cartoons messages. The term code as
b.) Construction of ideologies, social and Fiske (1982) defines it, simply refers to a
political identities: Various studies have system of meaning common to members of a
looked into this variable. Based on this culture (p. 20). The code comprises both the
variable, cartoons can also be explored sign and the convention for interpreting that
to constitute identity of a particular sign. Nevertheless, the study demonstrates
group of people. For instance, Medubi the influence of the cartoon as a medium
(2003) examined language and ideology of political expression in the Arab world.
in Nigerian political cartoons, where In fact, the study claims that cartoons
he applied metaphor theory known offer a unique form of social and political
as the conceptual integration theory commentary specifically to the cartoonist
in the analysis of the cartoons in the and his society in general. Thus, the claim
Nigerian social and political context. is constructive for the fact that the cartoon
His findings indicated that the interplay samples in the study vividly portray self-
between images and words cues in the identity by easily depicting identifiable
cartoons that portray group ideologies. features of Palestinian refugees such as
These group ideologies are given much clothing styles, related artifacts, shape and
priority over national interest and size of body (physique) as well as mode
projected Nigeria as a nation without of behavior and body images which are so
a clearly defined ideology as a result revelatory in representing Palestinian people
of colonially inherited problem which and their culture.
is the conglomeration of many ethnic c.) The Influence of Political cartoons on
groups of culturally diverse origin. public opinions: Political cartoons can
be a powerful weapon in influencing
In another study, Najjar (2007)
public opinion pertaining to issues
conducted an exploratory study of the most
of public interest such as audiences
popular Palestinian cartoonist, Naji al-
views on candidates especially during
Ali. The author contends that cartoons are
campaign and voting period. This
essential sites for the construction of peoples
variable indicates the persuasive power
identity, which he refers to the identity of
of the cartoons, because the point they
the self and others (p. 256). He used a
are making can be quickly transmitted
combined approach extracted from various
and absorbed by the audience. On this
analytical perspectives such as cognition,
account, Conners (2005) explored

political cartoons and the popular Townsend et al. (2008) explored the nature
culture in the 2004 American of political cartoons at a time of major
presidential campaigns. He claims that political and social reform specifically on
political cartoons are used as tools for how political, satirical cartoons illustrated
manipulating voters opinion on the Australias WorkChoices debate using
candidates captured in a single cartoon cartoon images published in mainstream
message during the campaign period. Australian newspaper. The researchers
This demonstrates that political cartoons have employed qualitative methods where
are unique forms of media messages cartoon samples were categorized into
that have strong impact on the audience tone and content categories. Cartoons
in terms of public opinion making. content depicted many issues on the newly
Furthermore, the in-depth analysis introduced industrial relation laws in
of cartoons in the study has really Australia at that time(specify time period).
demonstrated that political cartoon can The findings indicated that political cartoons
be harnessed and monopolized through formed significant part of political discourse
its specific messages to form formidable and a medium through which important
and elaborate campaign machinery in a debate on industrial reform was presented
period of elections. to Australian workers and the general public
(source).
Considering their influence on public
In his recent study, El Refaie (2010)
opinion, Hogan (2001) examined political
explores young peoples responses to
cynicism in political cartoons. He observed
political cartoons published in newspapers.
that there is a lack of balance in visual
He claims that newspaper cartoons are part
comment on politics in political cartoons.
of multimodal texts because they combine
Cartoons that merely describe politicians
verbal and visual semiotic mode in creating
and political institutions do not appear in
and conveying meaning. The researcher
his analysis of the cartoons perhaps due
piloted the use of newspaper cartoons as a
to the fact that they are not humorous
means for soliciting young peoples views
and satirical. Although satire is essential,
concerning the meanings of the cartoons.
the level at which politicians and politics
The findings indicated that the young
are negatively depicted will have serious
peoples opinion can be influenced through
repercussions to democratic societies like
the cartoons messages and interpreting
political cynicism which will result in high
multimodal text is often more complex than
level of abstention from voting and distrust
comprehending verbal texts.
on democratic system and lead audiences to
Frameworks for analyzing Political
resort to violence, hatred or even civil war.
cartoons: In terms of framework of analysis,
Political cartoons function as a medium
different analytical frameworks have been
representing the response of a particular
used to examine political cartoons, such as
group over sensitive issues. For instance,

hermeneutic analysis that has been used by and design of newspapers as well as the
political cartoon researchers to interpret influence of the political culture and the
political cartoons. For instance, Diamond cartoons ability of conveying the unsayable
(2002) studied cartoons depictions of through its depictions of visual images, the
post-September 11 attack. He used a text- author claimed that political cartoons will
oriented hermeneutic interpretation to continue to flourish in Britain and in her
examine themes of the cartoons. He found future.
that cartoons are used to reveal a number Correspondingly, in recent times,
of frequent themes such as description of researchers have contemporarily started to
events related to 11 September and issues employ various approaches in analyzing
in the aftermath of the attack. how political cartoons operate. In society
In another study, (Benoit et al. (2001) these include semiotics, content and
explored and analyzed 2000 political document analysis, rhetorical and narrative
cartoons concerning Clinton-Lewinsky- analyses. The review has explored studies
Starr affair which concentrated on the that were conducted using these analyses
investigations, impeachment and trial of Similarly, semiotics seeks to address media
President Clinton. The analytical framework texts using repetitive signs for meaning
used for the analysis was a fantasy theme production. Thus, semiotic analysis focuses
analysis of political cartoons using symbolic on the system of rules governing the implied
convergence theory. Thus, it is a tool for discourse involved in media texts and
assessing rhetorical discourse with emphasis stresses on the role of hermeneutic content
on the visual message that provides basis for in shaping meaning (Wollacott, 1982,
the analysis of imaginative language and pp.93-94).
imagery usually embedded in the cartoons. I n h e r s t u d y, E l R e f a i e ( 2 0 0 3 )
The analysis demonstrated that political incorporated semiotics to investigate the
cartoons are complex visual or symbolic concept of visual metaphor in newspaper
discourses which employ rhetorical devices cartoons using in Australian newspaper
that require rhetorical analysis in order to cartoons. He argued that visual metaphors
make sense of the messages and their impact cannot be expressed precisely in formal
on the public. terms only. Rather, they must be seen as
Taking into account the influence of visual representations of metaphorical
the political cartoons, Seymoure-ure (2001) t h o u g h t s o r c o n c e p t s . Ta k i n g i n t o
predicted the future of British political consideration the method of analysis, the
cartoons. He analyzed the depictions of party author has clearly demonstrated that visual
leaders in the 1997 general election in the metaphors are described in terms of the
UK and categorized the dominant images. visual mode particularly in newspaper
Tracing the development of cartoons cartoon. He also suggests that visual
traditions in respect of changes in the size metaphors are best described in terms of

their underlying metaphorical concepts and metaphor. Unlike what others consider,
(El Refaie, 2003, p.75). Thus, cartoons as cartoons are not so easy to grasp.. Therefore,
pictorial representations portray the real-life people need to pay close attention to both
events through comparison into condensed verbal and visual details contained in each
graphical form that can only be understood cartoon. However, the general theory of
and interpreted by the public when they verbal humor employed by the researcher
map on the visual depictions contained in is too broad to give an elaborate account of
the cartoons with the real-life events and humor based on the visual depictions in the
this is the cognitive process through which cartoons. Usually, the pleasure in political
metaphors convey meanings. cartoon as described by Press (1981) is
Cognitive approach is another specifically derived from the joy of sticking
framework used by Bergen (2003) where pins into fools and villains or watching
he focused on cognition and culture in the others doing it the humor is so surprising
analysis of September 11 political cartoons. and ridiculous as such, incongruent theory
He identified cognitive mechanisms as: might be more appropriate for the analysis
conceptual blending, conceptual metaphor of the cartoon in the study.
and cultural models. His findings In addition, critical discourse analysis
indicated that cognitive mechanisms play (CDA) has also been used for the study
vital roles in reflecting social events by of political cartoons. For example, Mazid
revealing significant similarities in the (2008) examined Bush and bin Laden
cartoons through which audiences can cartoons using CDA and semiotic-discursive
easily understand at the moment of such aspects as analytical method. The author
events. Moreover, they appear to interact demonstrates that cartoons can be used to
in political cartoons much easier than they present ideological differences between
do in language due to visual reifications of opposing parties or societies. He achieved
these mechanisms. Therefore, cognitive this through depicting two repugnant
mechanisms make cartoon messages more enemies in person of Bushs administration
accessible to audiences through reification representing the west, who was portrayed
of relatively abstract concepts in visible and as a devil and at the same time his Western
easily recognizable concrete domains. ideologies as equally devilish; bin Laden
In another study, Tsakona (2009) used on the other side represented the Middle-
multimodal theory of humor as an analytical East, who was portrayed as a terrorist and
framework to study language and image his ideological beliefs were presented as
interaction in cartoons. The author indicated that of the terrorists. Therefore, using CDA
that cartoon humor is a complex process that provides in a communicative interaction,
involves different mechanisms of language a framework of analyzing cartoons to
interplay between verbal and nonverbal express information, ideology and properties
devices such as exaggeration, contradiction capable of effectively conveying implicit

and explicit meaning to the target audience. abuse (Foucault, 1994c, p.785; Monga,
Political cartoons possess linguistic features 1996, p.56). Even though the researcher
which are used for constructing ideologies explored how some African leaders were
and social identities reflecting real-life dehumanized in some African newspapers,
events in the political arena of a society his concept of governmentality did not
(Chouliaraki and Fairclough, 1999). adequately address the written captions of
From the African perspective, Eko the cartoons that formed one of the central
(2007) investigated how African newspapers questions which led to his research.
dehumanized and deterritorialized four In another study, Udoakah (2006) used
African political leaders in the post-cold Uses and Gratifications Theory as theoretical
war era. The author analyzed post-cold framework to examine the political cartoon
war cartoon depictions of power abuse readership in the Nigerian context. He
by four typical African leaders. The study verified the claim made by editors and
is a typical African narrative style which cartoonist in Nigeria that cartoons are
is a kind of mythology characterized by alternative forms of communication meant
the use of some animals that are given for the lowly educated and illiterate.
human attributes to represent humans. It Interestingly, the findings indicated that
is a satirical narration whereby human the readership was made up of elites or
beings are animalized, in other words, educated and politically conscious class
humans are brought out as animals in order contrary to the commonly held view that
to reveal their brutal nature with the aim cartoons are largely meant for the illiterates
of satirizing them. Similarly, they are in and low educated class. He demonstrated
some instances deterritorialized, in the that apart from literacy, many things are
sense that they are taken out of their natural required from the audience members to
domains or environments symbolically understand political cartoons. He was of the
for the purpose of denouncing their extra- contention that for better comprehension and
authoritarian leadership (Eko, 2007). To this interpretation of cartoons, one needs to have
effect, the author used animalization and a sense of humor, knowledge on current
deterritorialization as counter-discourses political issues and historical background of
to project the concept of authoritarianism the society. However the researcher did not
as animalistic and self-destructive. He provide clear theoretical explanation of his
incorporated the analytical framework of framework of uses and gratification theory,
Foucaults concept of governmentality which is a theory attempts to explain the
which is a construct that refers to the uses and functions of media and how readers
relationship between the government and the actively look for specific media to satisfy
governed characterized by abuse of power specific needs. This is the major weakness
on the part of the government and attempts of the study given the fact that his claims
by the governed to reduce or overcome that were based on the theoretical assumptions.

DISCUSSION and representation specifically in the form

To this effect, in the studies reviewed, of texts and media (Chandler 2002). A text
different analyses for studying political in this context refers to the assemblage of
cartoons have been explored. These include signs such as words, images and sounds
content analysis which is used for evaluating created and interpreted with reference to
numerically dominant tendencies in political the conventions associated with a genre and
cartoons. Fantasy Theme Analysis is another in a specific medium of communication.
analytical framework used for assessing For semioticians, a text can exist in any
rhetorical discourse. Moreover, humor medium and can be verbal, nonverbal, or
which is an essential human attribute has both. Political cartoons are media texts that
been used as framework of analysis in contain both verbal and non-verbal devices.
form of multimodal theory. In addition, In summary, the review highlights
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and several studies which have been conducted
semiotic-discursive approach has been used in political cartoons focusing on different
as frameworks of analysis. For instance, variables. Some studies focused on the nature
Mazid (2008) used this analysis analytical and functions of political cartoons, while
framework to examine Bush and bin others looked into the visual projections
Laden cartoons. Eko, (2007) incorporated and how issues are encapsulated in cartoons.
Foucaults concept of governmentality Similarly, communicative functions of
to analyze political cartoons depictions political cartoons have been explored
of African leaders. Given a few studies such as their ability to satirize and ridicule
in literature on political cartoons, Taking political figures and their bad policies.
into consideration the Nigerian context, Finally, the review is aimed at establishing
there is a need for more research paucity a niche as well as inspiration for further
of research in the area of political cartoons. research in political cartoon literature.
However, Udoakah (2006) employed Uses
and Gratification theories as a theoretical CONCLUSION
framework to investigate the political This review provides an overview of various
cartoons readership in Nigeria. studies conducted on political cartoons. In
In terms of analytical framework used fact, from the examined previous research,
in the analysis of political cartoons, semiotic it becomes evident that political cartoons
analysis is so pertinent in providing an in- rely heavily on the interplay between images
depth interpretation of cartoons. Semiotics and words specific language use especially
was used to analyze the cartoon text which satire as a tool to communicate social and
is regarded as a sign. Semioticians study political messages. Thus, through creative
signs as part of semiotic sign systems such combination of images and words, satire,
as medium or genre. The main concern of political cartoons have the potentials of
semiotics in this context is meaning-making entertaining and informing the public on

current issues. The cartoons can also be Considering the polysemous nature of
used to criticize vice and folly as a way political cartoons, one analytical framework
of transforming society and its polity. As is not adequately enough to provide
such, they are used as agents of social and exhaustive analysis and interpretation
political reforms in society. In addition, of messages depicted in the cartoons.
political cartoons serve as the mirror of Therefore, considering the identified gap
society reflecting its social happenings in political cartoon literature; this review
and practices. Considering their increase has the potential to provide an inspiration
use in media, political cartoons constitute for further research which might bring
a vital social discourse that mediates theoretical and analytical understanding of
media and society thereby contributing to political cartoon genre which has become a
political communication, social debate and vital medium of communication in diverse
commentary. Despite the fact that political social and political contexts.
cartoons rely on satire as a linguistic weapon
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employed for creating and conveying satire D. (2001). A fantasy theme analysis of political
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Diversifying the Input and the Outcome: A Case Study

Phuong thi Anh Le
1 Nguyen Chanh, Nha Trang,Vietnam
ABSTRACT
Creating an enjoyable classroom session is considered an essential goal of teaching
(Dornyei, 2001) as this can help to enhance learning outcome (Hamilton 2010; Klein, Noe
& Wang 2006; Oxford & Shearing 1994). This article reflects a case study in which attempts
were made to turn the classroom into not only a delightful place for language learning, but
also a stage for personal enjoyment and performance for college students. The diversity
in the input and outcome was achieved via the use of various materials as warmers and
different types of assessment activities. Observation showed that our students truly enjoyed
these activities and they manifested improved creativity, confidence and language skills
development. Implications and suggestions for other class contexts were also discussed.
Keywords: Motivation, teaching materials, learning autonomy, assessment
INTRODUCTION and to turn their classrooms into a place not

It has been widely believed that creating a only for textbooks and exams but also for
relaxing atmosphere for the learners is an fun activities, this article reports on a case
important task for the teachers (Dornyei study where the introduction of authentic
2001; Lewis & Hills 1985; Mitcham 2009; materials as warmers and various activities
Tudor 2009; Umstatter 2002) because such for assessment can serve these purposes in
an environment can enhance the learning our context.
outcome (Hamilton 2010; Klein, Noe &
Wang 2006; Oxford & Shearing 1994). CONTEXT
With an aim to create a diversity of The case study was conducted with 80
input and outcome for the students learning final-year English-major students from
two classes in a three-year college in
ARTICLE INFO Vietnam. While 30 students were trained
Article history:
Received: 11 November 2011 to become school teachers of English,
Accepted: 27 July 2012
the other 50 students were trained to
E-mail address:
leaphuong2003@yahoo.com (Phuong thi Anh Le) work for the tourist industry in the local

Phuong thi Anh Le
province. The case study lasted for an (Elgar 2001; Tissington & LaCour 2010),
academic year and it involved four courses and improve their emotional development
of British Life, American Life, Cross- as well as thinking skills (Ghosn 2002).
cultural Communication and American In our context, warmers were understood
Literature, with each course consisting of as short activities which lasted from 5 to
15 lessons of 150 minutes each. Most of 15 minutes at the beginning of each class
the students came from the rural areas and to create a delightful atmosphere for the
they experienced considerable pressure students. For this purpose, motivation was
from their job prospects, families or studies, the main criteria in selecting materials while
which made learning a burden to many of accompanying activities were designed
them. In this context, it was considered to explore the content of the materials to
useful for the teacher to create a relaxing develop students general knowledge and
classroom environment to encourage the language improvement. Thus, these warmers
students in their learning. were not necessarily linked to the content of
the lesson that followed and in this way, the
MATERIALS AND METHODS knowledge that students learned from these
While language games are often used warmers was more varied and not confined
to motivate learners, especially younger to the lesson prescribed by the syllabus.
ones (Casanave 2002; Wright, Betteridge
& Buckby 2006), many of these games Songs and pictures
were not suitable to the interests and In our context, popular English songs
maturity of our college students. Therefore, were used to provide students with some
authentic materials, namely songs, films, enjoyment and they served as a starting point
pictures, stories and poems were adopted to generate some discussion. For example,
for this purpose instead. These materials after listening to a song, students were asked
can provide not only lots of fun for the class to talk about the songwriter, the singer, or
(Baurain 2000; Moon 2010; Tissington & their taste in music and their favorite singers.
LaCour 2010; Tran 2003; Tudor 2009) but This kind of information was prepared by
also useful input to students in language the teacher in the form of questions for a
learning. For example, songs can improve quiz that students were expected to answer.
students pronunciation (Luu & Pham 2010; Competitions among groups made this kind
Salcedo 2010), films can help them to learn of activities even more interesting to the
about cultural content (Qiang, Teng & class. Songs which were unfamiliar to the
Wolff 2007) and pictures can facilitate their students were employed as listening texts
imagination (Wong 2004). Likewise, stories with language tasks like gap fill, matching
and poems can provide them with social or questions and answers. The songs we
and cultural values (Ho 2002; Hall 2003; used included popular songs available on
Miccoli 2003), promote their language YouTube and video clips from Britain Got

Talent and American Got Talent which were comprehension. Activities such as dubbing,
well liked by our students. acting, role-playing (Qiang, Teng &Wolff
A wide range of pictures/photos about 2007) were not used due to time allocation
different topics including nature, animals, but students were asked to provide the words
people, places of interest, countries and for silent videos like Mr. Bean series and
cultures were used for quizzes, discussion Charlie Chaplin film clips.
or further information. For example, after
watching a set of pictures about a cave Poetry and short stories
newly discovered in the country, students For our warmers, none of the literature
worked in teams to answer questions on with linguistic or content challenges to our
this cave. Pictures about famous places in students was chosen. Instead, poems which
the world or various kinds of animals were were readily understood and appreciated
also shown and students were asked to tell by our students, such as those from Life
what they they know about these places or in Words and Words in Life (edited by
animals and the teacher later gave them Maley, Mukundan & Rai 2009) or Asian
basic information about what they saw in Poems for Young Readers (edited by
the form of a quiz. Students were sometimes Maley & Mukundan 2009) and selected
asked to watch photos about different people haikus were introduced. For example,
and create a profile of a character based after reading the poem Can You Let Me
on a photo and answer questions about Pass the Exam, Please? (Appendix A),
this characters life, as suggested by Wong students were asked to work in pairs to talk
(2004). about the backgrounds of those learners
and to identify the most or least acceptable
Films and video clips excuse(s) in the poem. They were also
Short films or video clips on YouTube required to role play selected scenarios from
which varied from Oscar award-winning the poem or to create new excuses, making
animated short films like Oktapodi (2007), use of gestures, facial expressions and voice
Lavatory love story (2009) to inspiring effects to increase efficiency of the excuses
advertisements were often chosen for given. In these warmers, language activities
students to watch and these films/clips developed from the poems varied from
served as cues for conversations between simple comprehension or interpretation
pairs about what they liked or disliked about questions to creative writing. One useful
the clips. Selected parts of longer films about activity was to ask students to recite the
different countries were also shown, for poems in two different ways to show
example the Iranian Children in Heaven different moods or different personality.
or Indians Darling. The language in Short stories were another source
these films was relevant to the students of materials that were used to enrich
levels so that it did not hinder the students the students feelings, living experiences

Phuong thi Anh Le
and literary appreciation. In the form of (Bishop & Kimball 2009) as well as timing
PowerPoint slides, illustrated with music were specified to the students in advance.
and pictures, the stories chosen often
highlighted human values, such as love, Story telling
friendship, sacrifice, gratitude, patience and As our students were trained to become
optimism which students could relate to teachers or tour guides, storytelling was
their own experiences. Students were often considered a highly useful skill for them.
asked to talk about their favourite character Therefore, it was chosen to form part of
in the story, to share their impressions or the assessment of the American literature
raise any questions that they might have course. In pairs, students talked about a film
about the story. or a story of their choice which varied from
such famous films as Gone with the Wind,
ASSESSMENT Kings Speech or Frankenstein to great
In addition to the written exams which stories like After Twenty Years (O Henry),
made up half of the total course score as A White Heron (Orne Jewett), Mrs. Bixby
required by the college, another half of and the Colonels Coat (Roald Dahl) and
the score came from other tasks, such Snow Goose (Paul Gallico). To help students
as presentations, quizzes, storytelling, with their storytelling skills, sample videos
portfolios and minidramas which had been on effective story telling on YouTube were
used effectively in a similar context (Le also shown and analysed. Apart from clear
2001). language, other requirements regarding the
use of voice, illustrated pictures and music
Presentations were emphasized and assessed in their
For courses such as American Life and performance.
British Life, students worked in groups of
three or four to give a presentation on a topic Minidramas
of their choice about the USA or the UK. As a group activity, mini-dramas were
The topics students chosen included Oscar used in the literature and cross-cultural
awards, Disneyland in the USA, the Boeing communication course where students were
company, places of interest in London, asked to produce part of a story they had
popular British music bands and famous read or a scenario they had experienced.
castles in the UK, etc. The teacher was also While the students were expected to write
available for guidance during the preparation their own scripts and directtheir own
stage so that students could give informative mini-dramas, the teacher offered to help
and interesting PowerPoint presentations. with script editing or giving guidance on
Criteria about content structure, language staging. Stories students chose to perform
use, voice, body language and visual aids for the literature course included The Magic

Barrel (Bernard Mullamud), Soapy and The summaries of the stories that they read as
Cop (OHenry), Story of an Hour (Kate a form of extensive reading for the course.
Chopin) while mini-dramas for the cross-
cultural communication course were built NON-ASSESSMENT TASKS
on critical incidents that students had read Poetry writing
or experienced.
As a way to develop students abilities to
the maximum, students were encouraged to
Quizzes
write poems. Since these students had never
Quizzes were another form of assessment written poems in English language before,
which the students were allowed to choose they were advised to imitate the forms of the
in place of a presentation on a topic for poems introduced in the warmers to relate
the course on American or British Life. to their own experiences. For example,
These quizzes were required to encompass students were asked to use the form of the
information that the students had learnt poem Can You Let Us Pass the Exams,
during the course and students were asked Please? to write about students excuses.
to add excitement to their quizzes with Another example in the Appendix was the
pictures, sound effects, as well as small poem Blue (Saito 2008) which inspired the
awards for correct answers. students to write about their own perceptions
of different colors. Nearly all students wrote
Portfolios their own versions and the teacher organized
As a good way to enhance learners a session for the students to share their
autonomy, portfolios (i.e. Le 2004; Zhenhui poems with their class.
2005) were used as an assessment activity
where our students were asked to produce English performances
a collection of useful materials for their Like poetry writing, music performances
future jobs either as teachers or tour guides. were a voluntary activity. These classes
Students worked in pairs to collect materials were encouraged to give English musical
on some topics of their choice about the UK/ performances and were encouraged to
US and inter-cultural interaction. With the organize celebrations like New Year,
guidance and feedback from the teacher, Christmas, or Halloween with activities
students learnt to select and arrange the such as singing, dancing and dramatization.
materials to professional products which
they could use as reference materials for DISCUSSION
their future job prospects. . However, in
The warmers and the assessment in our
the literature course, students portfolios
context seemed to have resulted in a
comprised individual work which consisted
desirable outcome for the class. The first
of poems that they liked or had written and
change was a very relaxing atmosphere

Phuong thi Anh Le
observed in the classroom, with the warmers poems, irrespective of the quality, were well
helping to break away the monotony of received by their peers, which increased the
the lessons. The impact of this change was students self esteem, especially with less
witnessed in students positive attitude proficient students who never thought that
towards learning by going to class earlier they could write poems in English.
than expected, eagerly waiting to watch a In summary, the introduction of the
film/video clip, to read a story, or to listen to warmers and various assessment activities
a song. These students even asked for these seemed to play a big role in transforming the
activities during the break time. In addition, classroom from a serious place for lessons
videos like Mr. Bean and Charlie Chaplins and exams into an inspiring environment
series created wholehearted laughter while where students enjoyed their learning. In
award-winning films were often useful in addition, the input was not only restricted
developing the students critical thinking to the lessons and the outcome was not
skills. The variety of materials helped only seen in formal tests and examinations.
the teacher to introduce various kinds Though the whole working process was an
of knowledge and skills to the students excitement for the teacher who witnessed
which ranged from social knowledge about positive change in the classroom, it was still
films, music to cultural knowledge about a challenge for the teacher to be in constant
countries, to language and academic skills, search for interesting materials for the
such as presentation, research, and computer warmers. In addition, the diverse assessment
skills. tasks required the teacher of additional time
The pleasant and supportive atmosphere to assist the students in their tasks.
is believed to increase students voluntary
participation in class activities (Goll, CONCLUSION AND
2002). In our case, students increased RECOMMENDATIONS
involvement was manifested not only during In conclusion, teaching ESL is not simply
the warmers, but also during the lessons that teaching a school subject (Stockton, 2001),
followed, and in their assessment. but it also aims to equip learners with
For example, the students presentations practical knowledge and skills beyond
and quizzes included a wide range of their classroom to prepare them for lifelong
illustrations with pictures, stories, video learning.
clips, and music, which suggested some Despite our observation and findings
influence that they gained from the materials obtained in this case study, the adoption
shown for the warmers in the class. In of these activities in other contexts may
addition, their storytelling and acting need further experiment in other contexts.
performances showed remarkable creativity In this process, adaptation of activities can
in writing scripts, selecting and developing be necessary to suit the students abilities,
scenes, and preparing props. Likewise, their needs and interests, as well as requirements

about time, assessment and facilities of Casanave, C. P. (2002). Writing Games. New Jersey:
each institution. To ensure higher rate of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
success, it is highly recommended for Dornyei, Z. (2001). Motivational Strategies in the

the teacher to collect a bank of inspiring Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge
materials for the warmers. Newspapers University Press.
and television programs can be a rich Elgar, A. G. (2001). Student playwriting for language
source of materials that can add updated development. ELT Journal, 56(1), 22-28.
information to the students knowledge Ghosn, I. K. (2002). Four good reasons to use
and create awareness and involvement literature in primary school ELT. ELT Journal,
in current issues in the society and the 56(/2), 172-179.
world. Another recommendation is to ask Goll, R. (2002). Curing silent student syndrome.
the learners to conduct warmers for their Teachers Edition, 9, 4-7.
class as this can reduce the workload for Hall, G. (2003). Poetry and second language learning
the teacher and increase the students classrooms. Applied Linguistics, 24(3), 395-399.
responsibility and autonomy. In addition,
Hamilton, R. (2010). YouTube for two: Online video
assessed tasks should also be designed to resources in a student-centred task-based EFL/
meet the needs and abilities of the students ESL environment. Contemporary Issues in
to avoid unnecessary pressure on them. Education Research, 3(8), 27-31.
Since assessment is generally considered Ho, T. M. H. (2002). Developing pragmatic
important to the students, students should be competence in Vietnamese learners of English.
involved in the discussion about the form of Teachers Edition, 10, 4-11.
assessment adopted, and that their opinions Klein, H. J., Noe, R. A., & Wang, C. (2006).
need adequate consideration. Motivation to learn and course outcomes:
As William Butler Yeats (1865-1939) The impact of delivery mode, learning goal
once said, Education is not filling a bucket, orientation, and perceived barriers and enablers.
but lighting a fire. Thus, these activities Personnel Psychology, 59, 665-702.
deserve a trial in other contexts to create a Le, T. A. P. (2001). Task-based syllabus design and
new and effective atmosphere in class and public speaking. Teachers Edition,7, 12-17.
make a useful difference to our teaching Le, T. A. P. (2004). Challenges and responses in
and learning of English language in an ESL teaching a British culture course. Teachers
context Edition, 15, 16-21.
Lewis, M., & Hills, J. (1985). Practical Techniques

REFERENCES for Language Teaching. Heinle and Heinle
Baurain, B. (2000). Learning and enjoying literature Publishers.
in English. Teachers Edition, 3, 15-20. Luu, T. T., & Pham, T. V. A. (2010). Teaching English
Bishop, K., & Kimball, M.A. (2006). Engaging rhythm by using songs. Studies in Literature and
students in story telling. Teacher Librarian, Language, 1(2), 13-29.
33(4), 28-31.

Phuong thi Anh Le
Maley, A., & Mukundan, J. (Eds). (2009). Asian Stockton, J. (2001). English is a language, not a
Poems for Young Readers. Malaysia. Pearson. subject. Teachers Edition, 6, 4-7.
Maley, A., Mukundan, J., & Rai, V. S.(Eds). (2009). Tissington, L., & LaCour, M. (2010). Strategies and
Life in Words and Words in Life. Bagbazar, content areas for teaching English language
Kathmandu. Bhundipuran Prakashan. learners. Proquest Education Journals, 47(3),
166-172.
Miccoli, L. (2003). Using drama for oral skills
development. ELT Journal, 57I(2), 122-129. Tran, T. N. (2003). Incorporating literature into
English classes in Vietnam. Teachers Edition,
Mitcham, K. (2009). Teaching for the fun of it. English
11, 20-25.
Journal, 98(6),13-14.
Tudor, I. (2009). Promoting language learning in
Moon, J. (2010). Using Story in Higher Education and
European higher education: An overview of
Professional Development. Routledge.
strategies. European Journal of Language Policy,
Oxford, R., & Shearing, J. (1994). Language 1( 2), 188-206.
learning motivation: Expanding the theoretical
Umstatter, J. (2002). English Brainstormers. San
framework. The Modern Language Journal,
Francisco, California: Jossey Bass.
78, 12-26.
Wong, R. M. H. (2004). Facilitating imagination
Qiang, N., Teng H., & Wolff, M. (2007). China EFL:
in teaching creative writing. In T. B. Tin (Ed),
Teaching with movies. English Today, 90, 23(2),
Creative Writing in EFL/ESL Classrooms (pp.30-
40-46.
41). Serdang. Universiti Pura Malaysia Press.
Saito, A. P. (2008). Between me and the world:
Wright, A., Betteridge, D., & Buckby, M. (2006).
Teaching poetry to English language learners.
Games for Language Learning. Cambridge
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University Press.
Salcedo, C. S. (2010). The effects of songs in foreign
Zhenhui, R. (2005). Developing learner autonomy
language classroom on text recall, delayed text
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recall and involuntary mental rehearsal. Journal
of College Teaching and Learning, 7(6), 19-30.

APPENDIX
Sample poems Can you let me pass the exam please?

Can you let us pass the exam please?
Can you let me pass the exam please? Because we already failed your exam twice
Tan Bee Tin And we know you can pass us
On Confessionate grounds as we confess.
Dear Teacher Can we all pass the exam please?
Im stressed
Because English is not my mother tongue Source
And I live in a foreign country Maley, A., Mukundan, J., & Rai, V. (Eds). 2009.
Life in Words and Words in Life (pp. 16-17).
And my cat died the day before my exam.
Bagbazar, Kathmandu. Bhundipuran Prakashan.
Can you let me pass the exam please?
I failed your exam
Blue
Because my pen broke down.
Just when I knew what to write Blue the sky
And the invigilator said, Time. where the doves fly.
Can you let me pass the exam please? Blue the sea
I missed your exam where the fish swim.
Because my relatives arrived in town Blue your eyes
And I had to show them around where I lose myself.
And I forgot that we had the exam. Blue the moon
Can you let me pass the exam please? that comes every night.
I was sick Blue the flower
Because my mother was sick that I give you.
And my stomach also got sick when I think about you.
Because of food we ate last night. Blue the flag
Can you let me pass the exam please? from my country.
I was depressed Blue the crayon
Because my son failed his exam I wrote your name with
And my wife ran away with another guy on my heart.
And my boss gave me too much work.
Can you let me pass the exam please? Source
I did badly (Saito, A. P., 2008. Between me and the world:
Teaching poetry to English language learners.
Because the library barred me from
Teaching Artist Journal, 6(3), 197-208.
Borrowing books due to unpaid fines.
And the light went out just as I decided to
study.


The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil
in the U.S. Military Intervention in 2003
Saeid Naji* and Jayum A. Jawan
Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This paper seeks to explore the motives of the U.S. military presence in the Persian Gulf
region vis-a-vis the energy resources of the region. Studying geopolitical codes helps reveal
the intentions behind a states foreign policy through defining national interests, threats,
actions and justification. Examining the U.S. code suggests the importance of oil as a vital
strategic interest for the country. It defines the preservation of the U.S. hegemonic position
as an ultimate goal for its presence in the Persian Gulf. In this respect, the threat of Saddam
Husseins Iraqi government to three vast fields of energy reservoirs in the Persian Gulf
made it necessary to affect regime change so as to protect the free flow of oil to the West
and this was done through the control and preservation of the U.S. hegemonic position.
Keywords: U.S. geopolitical code, Persian Gulfs energy resources, the Bush Administration, pre-emptive
war, U.S. hegemonic position
INTRODUCTION Britain shifted the fuel source of its Royal

The Persian Gulf region has always been Navy ships from coal to oil (Yergin, 2006).
considered a strategic area among powerful This region has also been significant to
countries since the earlier centuries because the United States of America since before
of its geostrategic location and especially the Second World War, and especially so
its energy resources. It became particularly after Britains withdrawal from the region
important during the First World War when in 1971 when the U.S. military presence in
the region was reinforced. This was evident
in the U.S. leaders statements, in particular
ARTICLE INFO after the Oil Crisis in 1973, which explicitly
Article history:
Received: 11 November 2011 signify the importance of this region to
Accepted: 6 October 2012
Americas vital interests. In the countrys
E-mail addresses:
Naji_Saeid@yahoo.com (Saeid Naji),
military response against any aggression in
jayum@upm.edu.my (Jayum A. Jawan) this area, the following except asserts one

of the most notable statements made by Persian Gulf. More interestingly, concurrent
President Carter in 1980; with the end of the Cold War era and the
collapse of the Soviet Union, the United
Let our position be absolutely
States increasingly attempted to redefine
clear: An attempt by any outside
its geopolitical code and keep its high
force to gain control of the Persian
position in the new geopolitical order. The
Gulf region will be regarded as an
military attack against Iraq was carried
assault on the vital interests of the
out by an international coalition led by
United States of America, and such
the United States in 1991. Bush Senior
an assault will be repelled by any
(1991) had explicitly referred to protecting
means necessary, including military
oil fields in the Persian Gulf as one of the
force.
war objectives. The U.S. decision makers
continued to pay to this area until the
Basically, due to its position as outbreak of the September 11 attacks against
Americas vital interest, this area became the U.S. symbols, which consequently
the prominent geopolitical assumption caused a change in Americas geopolitical
during the Cold War era and had been linked code and ultimately encouraged the U.S.
to the U.S. geopolitical code, which was government to fire up a pre-emptive war
generally referred to as the Containment against Iraq in 2003.
Policy. It therefore played an important role
as a major factor in the U.S., who pursued LITERATURE REVIEW
different policies against the Soviet Union
The review of related literature shows that
expansionism. It was directly related to
growing industrialization and consequently
the existence of vast amounts of oil and
increasing demands cause the necessity
gas in this area, and of the dependence of
to control raw materials across the world.
the U.S. and its allies on these resources.
These needs and dependence of great
According to Levy (1980), the Persian Gulf
powers such as the United States on oil and
supplied over 30 per cent of Americas oil
the large reservoir of oil in the Persian Gulf
imports, 60 per cent of Western Europes
area were the main reasons for tensions,
needs and more than 70 per cent of Japans
conflicts and competitions. From this view,
demands. In this respect, the main defined
after the Cold War, securing access to oil as a
threat was Soviet expansionism towards the
vital resource had become a major theme in
Wests geostrategic realm and its interests.
the U.S. security planning and this justified
To prevent a growing Soviet influence in
the use of force (Clark, 2004; Klare, 2001;
this area and to protect Americas vital
Le Billon, 2004; Peters, 2004; Singh, 2007).
interests, especially in the free flow of oil
After the Cold War, with increasing
to the West, different policies, such as the
demands for oil and replacing economic
Twin Pillars, were projected towards the
rivalries instead of ideological competitions,

The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil in the U.S. Military Intervention in 2003
great powers such as Russia, the European as (Renner, 2003; Singh, 2007) refer to
powers, China, Japan and even India came the military operation as the reduction of
to the region to compete with the United OPEC and Saudi Arabia dominance over
States to access oil reservoirs. In this the international oil market.
respect, the stability of supplies became Another view refers to the oil reserves
the main concern among the world powers as an important element in the U.S. grand
(Amirahmadi, 1996; Klare, 2001; Sen & strategy, which believes that Iraqs oil
Babali, 2007). For this reason, the control of reservoir was even bigger than Saudis.
oil was considered as the centre of gravity Thus, , Iraq became a significant objective
of U.S. economic hegemony (Bromley, for Cheney and Bush (Iseri, 2009). This view
2006), where the U.S. presence in the emphasizes Iraqs oil as the main reason for
Persian Gulf was interpreted as gaining the U.S.s attack on Iraq and it compares
effective rule over the global economy for Iraq with North Korea, in the sense that
the next 50 years, which would be achieved both had been suspected of proliferating
by controlling the global oil spigot weapons of mass destruction, but only
(Harvey, 2003, p. 24). Iraq was selected for pre-emptive action
With reference to the Iraq Wars, (Le Billon, 2004). In this respect, Mercille
however, some believe that the second Iraq (2010) stresses that the main reason for
War in 2003 was a continuation of the first intervention is control over world supply
Iraq War in 1991 (Krauthammer, 2005). and not American consumption and the
Another view, on the other hand, sees the United States will seek to control the region
Iraq War as a normal extension of the Carter containing two-thirds of energy resources in
Doctrine, which posited the vital importance order to exert leverage over industrial rivals
of the Persian Gulf to America (Klare, 2006). and regulate the smooth functioning of the
There is also a notion that Saddam Hussain world economy (Mercille, 2010, p.6).
was a serious threat to the U.S. friendly Hence, this paper analyses the U.S.
states as well as to the continued flow of geopolitical code and attempts to explore
large amounts of the worlds oil (Klare, the motives of the U.S. military presence
2004b). In addition, this notion also asserts in this region in relation to the Persian Gulf
that no real improvement in either the oil. In addition, this study also attempts to
security environment or regional production answer this question, How did the United
levels would be possible so long as Saddam States geopolitical code justify the role of
remained in power (Klare, 2004a, p. 94). the Persian Gulf oil in the U.S. military
Conversely, Clark (2004) views the United intervention in 2003 after the September 11
States military operation against Iraq in attacks? Therefore, to obtain the answer,
relation to petrodollar recycling, whereas the U.S. geopolitical code will be examined
Russell (2005) relates it to the stability of and analyzed. In fact, what could distinguish
oil price. Meanwhile, other scholars such this study from other similar works, is the

use of the United States geopolitical code to there is no higher ruling in the international
explain the relationship between the Persian system. There is no government over
Gulf energy reserves and the U.S. military government (Mearsheimer, 2001, p.
presence in this area. 30). Second, the assumption stresses that
great powers have always possessed some
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK offensive military capacities which enables
This study perceives that the great world them to hurt or destroy each other. From this
powers are always looking for opportunities point of view, countries are dangerous to
to obtain more power for more security each other, and thus, those states which have
purposes . Needless to say, from an offensive stronger military power are more dangerous
realist theoretical perspective, this study than others. Third, the assumption states
also assumes that due to natural tendency, that no country can ever be sure about the
great powers always attempt to maximize other countries intentions. Indeed, no state
their supremacy and gain a hegemonic can be sure that another state will not use
position in international order, which has its offensive military capability to attack
been determined as the ultimate objective the first state.(source ?) Nevertheless, it
of a conquest. In this respect and under does not mean that every state has hostile
the banner of offensive realism, John intentions, but it is impossible to be sure
Mearsheimer has been a well-known of that judgment because intentions are
participant who offers his theory in his work impossible to divine with 100 percent
titled, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics certainty. In fact, there are many causes for
(Elman, 2004; Iseri, 2009; Snyder, 2002). aggression, and every state can be motivated
The theory clearly provides persuasive by one of them to attack the other state. What
answers to the aggressive strategies of is important here is that, intentions can
great powers so that such strategies are change quickly, and from this viewpoint,
considered as a rational answer to life in the one friendly state today can be turn to be
international system (Toft, 2005, p. 381). hostile tomorrow. Therefore, states can
This theoretical approach, basically, never be sure that other states do not have
relies on five main assumptions. First, it offensive intentions to go along with their
is assumed that the international system is offensive capabilities(Mearsheimer, 2001,
anarchic and there is no dominant central p. 31).
power to carry out rules effectively and The fourth assumption emphasizes
discipline perpetrators. It does not mean that that survival is sought by all states. It is,
the system is chaotic, but the international specifically, the primary goal of great
system includes independent states, and powers. Indeed, maintaining territorial
thus, none of them has any central authority integrity together and preserving autonomy
above them. In this respect, sovereignty, of domestic political order are significant
in other worlds, inheres in states because goals sought by any states. As indicated by

Mearsheimer Survival dominates other to ensure their security is to achieve

motives because, once a state is conquered, hegemony now, and thus, any possibility
it is unlikely to be in a position to pursue to form a challenge by any other great
other aims. (Mearsheimer, 2001) For this powers should be eliminated (Mearsheimer,
reason, security is the most important goal 2001, p. 35). A hegemon is a state that is
which is pursued by any states. Finally, the so powerful that it dominates all the other
fifth assumption posits that great powers states in the system. No other state has the
in this theory are regarded as rational military wherewithal to put up a serious
entities that are conscious of their external fight against it. In essence, a hegemon is the
environment. Mearsheimer (2001) reinstates only great power in the system. From this
this point by the following statement where perspective, there are conceptually global
he mentions, They think strategically about hegemons, which dominate the world, and
how to survive in it. Such states are able regional hegemons, which dominate distinct
to evaluate other states behaviors through geographical areas (Mearsheimer, 2001,
considering their preferences and influence p. 40).
of their own behavior over the behavior This position offered by the offensive
of other states. They also consider the realism theory could be linked to the view
influence of other states behavior on their that, with the end of the Cold War, the
own strategy for survival (Mearsheimer, United States, as the sole superpower as
2001, p. 31). well as the most powerful state, has always
More importantly, and more related to attempted to preserve and promote its
this paper, Mearsheimers offensive realism hegemonic position in the new geopolitical
theory claims that states in the international world order. This attempt, particularly after
system are seeking their survival guarantee the September 11 attacks, led to militaristic
in confront of other states as potential behavior compatible with offensive realist
threats. In this view, states are not able to reasoning that appeared in the Afghanistan
rely on other states for their own security, and Iraq wars. Obviously, these geopolitical
and as noted by Mearsheimer (2001), in practices and aggressive behavior were the
international politics, God helps those results of redefining the U.S. geopolitical
who help themselves (p. 33). In this code known as the so-called War on
respect, states make a special attempt to Terrorism (Flint, 2006).
increase their share of power in the world. This work relies on examining the
This tendency to maximize their power United States geopolitical code because the
continues through looking for opportunities foreign policy of every state is the output
to attain more power, and they only quit of those geopolitical assumptions that are
the pursuit for power once a hegemony behind its geopolitical code (Flint & Taylor,
position is achieved. Therefore, according 2007). Such a code, indeed, will have to
to this theory, the best way for great powers incorporate a definition of a states interests,

an identification of external threats to those analyze related data, this work applies a form
interests, a planned response to such threats of qualitative content analysis, which can be
and a justification for that response (Taylor used to analyze documents of a qualitative
& Flint, 2000, p. 62). Therefore, analyzing study (Merriam,1989). It is important to
the United States geopolitical code for a note that, although documents are generally
specific period of time helps understand used as supplemental information, there is
Americas interests in the Persian Gulf a view that states, qualitative researchers
region, the threats to these interests, and are turning to documents as their primary
the military intervention as a response to sources of data (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998, p.
those threats. With reference to the offensive 57). The usage of documentary material has
realist approach, it obviously indicates that been regarded in part similar to interviews
all attempts and practices of the United or observations. From this view, there
States as a great power, such as the Iraq are various voices that have surrounded a
War, are interpretable in order to respond researcher in the library, and these voices
to a threat and prevent the emergence of a are represented as books, articles and so on
regional hegemonic power as well as the (Merriam, 1989).
continuation of its presence in that region Public or archival documents have been
to preserve and promote its hegemonic used for analyzing the data in this work,
position in the post-Cold War era. which are adopted from official sources of
the United States such as the White House
MATERIALS AND METHODS web site. The documents deal with written
On the whole, it has been emphasized that evidence termed as published evidence
qualitative research is researcher centric. (Gillham, 2000). Here, the recorded official
In this approach, the researcher determines speeches of the U.S. president, George W.
the importance, value and originality of the Bush, and some of his cabinet members in
materials. The researcher also decides on his first term, such as the Vice President
the documents and selects a sample of text (name), Secretary of State (name) , and
for the analysis (Burnham, Lutz, Grand, Secretary of Defense (name) , were used as
& Layton-Henry, 2008). In this work, the the main data for the analysis. The speeches
content analysis is used due to the nature also comprise some official reports which
of research and its related information. are related to the period between 2001 and
Content analysis has also been introduced 2004. These documents include the National
as an appropriate method to study Political Energy Policy (NEP) report that indicates
Science and its branches of this discipline the United States strategy about energy,
(Babbie, 2007). This method takes place and National Security Strategy (NSS) that
every time somebody reads or listens, presents the annual exercise which updates
summarizes and then interprets a content the U.S. geopolitical code (Flint,(2006).
of body (Burnham et al., 2008, p. 259). To These types of documents are categorized as

primary sources in this study (Ary, Jacobs, the United States. This geopolitical act is
Razavieh, & Sorensen, 2006). Besides, also applied to express representations in
secondary data are also included in the order to justify Americas actions (Flint et
research data. Therefore, the presidential al., 2009, p. 605).
speeches and other official documents To obtain the main objective of this
prepared by or under the supervision of study, secondary sources are also used for
the President are regarded as primary the source of information (McNabb, 2005).
resources. These documents form the the These sources, such as relevant books and
main foundation of data in this paper. articles, comprise previous works which
With regard to the collection of speeches have been studied by other researchers
as the main documents for this study, it and serve as supplementary documents
should be noted that the geopolitical codes (Merriam, 1989). Finally, through coding
of a state are strongly linked to presidential all the data and defining specific themes, the
speeches. These speeches reflect those process of analyzing the data in this work is
beliefs and geopolitical assumptions that done based on the content analysis method.
construct the foundation of geopolitical
codes. These assumptions, in fact, define RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
national interests, threats and responses, In responding to the main question of
as well as adequate justifications of the this study, the analysis on the content of
state. The foreign policy also relies on selected data, such as speeches, official
these geopolitical assumptions, and thus, documents, and previous studies, has led
they are seen as a close relation between to a focus on some specific themes that
the President and the events. In the United help the researcher identify the important
States, however, this relation is more notable geopolitical assumptions which could form
because the President is the Commander the U.S. geopolitical code in relation to
in Chief. Internationally, the President is the Persian Gulf oil and the Iraq War. The
a subject who has a particular world view arguments and discussions stress the oil
and agenda. The President interprets events experience of the Bush administration, the
and characterizes them for specific political oil shortage and the severe threat to the
goals (Flint, Adduci, Chen, & Chi, 2009). United States industry, the dependency on
This paper also focuses on the State of the foreign oil, the Persian Gulf oil as the U.S.
Union address, which is an annual act of vital interests, influence of neoconservatives
political theatre that demands the President thoughts, the September 11 attacks, Iraq as a
claim that the U.S. is strong or healthy. serious threat, pre-emptive war as a response
It is a geopolitical act that places the to the threat, and oil control of the Persian
President at the center of the foreign policy Gulf as a necessity for the continuation of
agenda. Apparently, this type of speech Americas hegemonic position.
represents a global benevolent picture from

The Bush Administration and Oil Industry campaigned for in his 2000 presidential
Assumptions and Experiences election campaign. He declared in his first
Midland in the West Texas is a flat, dry presidential debate on October 3, 2000, that
and dusty place, which has been seen as
I was a small oil person for a
the capital of the Permian Basin. It was
while in west Texas... You bet I
the place where George W. Bush and his
want to open up a small part of
parents returned to in 1950. Despite the
Alaska. When that field is online, it
seemingly dreary landscape, a sea of oil
will produce one million barrels a
swims beneath it. Notably, in 1950s, it
day. With reference to the import
comprised nearly 20 percent of Americas
of one million barrels from Iraq,
oil production. Following his fathers
he commented, I would rather
path to business and for other political
that a million come from our own
reasons, Bush Jr. returned to Midland in
hemisphere, have it come from our
1975. It coincided with the quadrupling
own country as opposed to Saddam
of oil prices due to the Yom Kippur War1
Hussein.
and the establishment of OPEC in 1973
(Bush, G.W., 2000)
and 1974 (Zelizer, 2010). In Midland, he
experienced an entry-level position in the
oil industry and the funds raised via his Later, when George W. Bush became
family connections helped form his oil the United States President and in response
exploration company (Greenstein, 2003). to the influence from domestic oil producers,
He noted, In 1979, I started a small energy he nominated some famous politicians for
exploration company in Midland. I raised important positions in his administration.
money, mostly from the East Coast, to Dick Cheney was appointed as the Vice
finance drilling in low-risk, low-return oil President in 1993 when President Clinton
and gas wells (Bush, G.W., 2010, p. 30). took the Office. Cheney was CEO of
He also continued his oil company business Halliburton Company, which is one of the
instead of political activities; however, biggest oil-services companies in the world
he was not as successful as his father, to date. Prior to that, when Cheney was
Bush Sr. Furthermore, it coincided with a the Defense Secretary in the Bush Senior
recession in the oil industry around 1982. administration, Halliburton won a five-year
Subsequently, his oil company, Arbusto, contract to provide logistics for the United
was merged with Spectrum 7, which was States Army, and it won defense contracts
a big oil exploration company in 1984 worth over $2.2 billion when Bush Jr. was
(Marquez, 2007). Although he ultimately inaugurated. Moreover, Cheney resigned
left the oil business in 1990, supporting the from Halliburton Company in 2000 while
oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife he still received about $1 million annually
Refuge became an important issue that he from the company (Burman, 2007). Another

Bush Cabinet member, Donald Rumsfeld, increases in gasoline prices, shortage of

who was the Defense Secretary, held natural gas in some regions, and rolling
different positions especially in the Reagan blackouts in California. This difficult
administration; the most important of them situation continued until George W. Bush
was related to his mission as Reagans entered the White House in early 2001. In
Special Envoy to Iraq. There is a view that response to this crisis, the National Energy
his aim was to increase Iraqs oil exports Policy Development Group (NEPDG)
through Jordan by using an oil pipeline, was created by the President, led by Vice
which could supply cheaper oil for the U.S. President Dick Cheney. This group was
and Israel (Wogan, 2004). Furthermore, from appointed to analyze the difficult situation
this position, he managed to gain valuable concerning Americas energy and plan
experiences, particularly concerning Iraq suitable solutions for that problem (Klare,
and the Middle East oil. In this context, 2004c).
others to be considered were Donald Evens
as the Commerce Secretary, who was the The United States Oil Industry
owner of Colorado Oil Company, Gen. National Energy Policy and Increasing
Thomas White, the Secretary of the Army Dependency on Foreign Oil
who was from Enron Energy, and Robert
According to the National Energy Policy
Jordan, the Saudi Arabia ambassador, who
(NEP) report, this body was established
was a member of Baker Botts and active in
by the President in his second week in the
oil and defense affairs (Pfeiffer, 2004).
office, an act which in the first instance
reveals the significance of oil and natural
The United States Oil Industry and the gas to the Bush administrations view. This
Severe Oil and Gas Shortage report concludes that the United States
Indeed, although there is this view that the faced the most serious crisis of energy
intention of toppling Saddam Hussein in shortages in 2001 a situation which had
Iraq had been formed at the beginning of the its beginnings during the oil embargoes in
Bush administration in early 2001 (Clark, the 1970s. The nations energy crisis was a
2005), at that time, however, preventing result of a basic imbalance between supply
terrorism or controlling the spread of and demand. This posits that even increasing
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) after levels of energy production at the same rate
the September 11, 2001 attacks was not which occurred during the previous decade
yet a top priority of Bush foreign policy. could not meet the increasing levels of
There was a severe oil and gas shortage, consumption during this energy crisis. This
especially in some parts of the United imbalance could have undermined the U.S.
States, which began months before Bush economy, the Americans standard of living,
Jr. became the President (Klare, 2004b). as well as the U.S. national security.
At that time, the nation was suffering from

On the other hand, estimates indicated position in the Bush administration, and it
that by 2020, the U.S. oil and natural gas explicitly refers to the U.S. dependence on
consumption would increase by 33 and oil as a serious long-term challenge, as well
50 percent, respectively, and the existing as stresses a close linkage between U.S.
growth rate for oil production would economic security and its trading partners,
improve the gap between demand and on the one hand, and the global oil market
supply. Statistically, following the report, the development, on the other (p. 1-11).
United States daily oil consumption would
grow by over 6 million barrels between 2000 The Persian Gulf Oil as the United
and 2020. Moreover, according to previous States Vital Interests A Geopolitical
Assumption
growth patterns of production, it would face
a decline of about 1.5 million barrels per NEP refers to the role of the Middle East in
day. It stressed that by 2020, only 30 percent terms of where supply is geographically
of Americas oil needs would be supplied concentrated in determining the oil price.
from the U.S. oil production, and thus, the In this respect, it declares that among
U.S. would have to import nearly two out those regions which supply the world oil,
of every three barrels of oil (NEP, 2001)2. Central and South America account for 9
This document explicitly looks at percent, Africa and North America, 7 and
other regions outside the U.S. territories 5 percent, respectively, and Eastern Europe
which could supply Americas energy and the former Soviet Union, 5 percent.
needs, although it considers five specific As stated in the report, the rest of Asia and
national goals as follows: America must Western Europe, account for 4 and 2 percent,
modernize conservation, modernize our respectively.
energy infrastructure, increase energy Among all regions, the Middle East
supplies, accelerate the protection and dominates almost two-thirds of world
improvement of the environment, and proven reserves and this explains how this
increase our nations energy security (NEP, region has a huge dominant impact over the
2001, p. ix). price of oil, which is a vital matter for the
As Klare (2004c) correctly noted, U.S. and West (p. 1-12). Just consider what
instead of stressing conservation and the had been said in 1999 by Dick Cheney, when
rapid expansion of renewable energy he was Chairman of Halliburton Company.
sources as the main challenges, the report He declared that, although there are many
reflects increasing U.S. dependence on regions around the world that provide great
oil, and because U.S. oil production oil opportunities, only the Middle East
was declining, any rise in the U.S. oil region is still where the prize ultimately
consumption would increase its dependence lies and this is due to its huge reservoirs
on imported petroleum. The report (NEP, and its lowest cost (Cheney, 1999).
2001) represents the importance of energy

In this respect, according to the United most significant element determining this
States Department of Energy, the Persian area as a vital interest, which prescribes
Gulf region supplied about 12.6 per cent the United States military presence in the
of U.S. demands and about 23.8 percent of Persian Gulf.
its oil imports in 2000. Moreover, about 21 Apparently, this was explicitly
and 75 percent of West Europe and Japan, emphasized by President Carter, known
respectively, were also supplied via the as the Carter Doctrine. According to Klare
Persian Gulf (EIA, 2002b). It is interesting (2006), the doctrine has been continued
to note that at that time, like the previous through to the Bush administration so that
administrations3, the Persian Gulf region any threat to these interests will always be
was identified as the U.S. vital interests. answered by military action. However, to
Hence, from this point of view, access to that define geopolitical codes, it is necessary to
region was one of the key considerations specify and define the potential threats to
in the U.S. foreign policy at the time Americas interests, the adequate response
(OTuathail, 2003). to threats and the justification to choose that
The Bush administration in this report response (Flint & Taylor, 2007). The Bush
(NEP, 2001) stressed that by 2020, between administration also required an adequate
54 and 67 percent of the worlds oil demands opportunity to act, which was, of course,
would be supplied by the oil producers in the provided by the September 11 attacks in
Persian Gulf. Therefore, dependency of the 2001.
global economy on the supply of oil from
the Organization of Petroleum Exporting The Neoconservatives and Redefining the
Countries (OPEC) members would also United States Geopolitical Code
be increased. Consequently, this region As OLoughlin noted, it was a reality
will remain vital to U.S. interests. It also that although the United States desired
stressed that the Gulf will be a primary to reorder the geopolitical condition of
focus of U.S. international energy policy the post-Cold War world, it had not yet
(pp. 8-4 & 8-5). consistently accepted a certain geopolitical
Therefore, since the Second World code (OLoughlin, 2000). It was an attempt
War, as a principal element in defining the to redefine its geopolitical code with
geopolitical code, the Persian Gulf region regard to keeping its position as the sole
has repeatedly been positioned as the United remaining superpower from the Cold War
States vital interests, and this has been a era, and reordering the new geopolitical
persistent geopolitical assumption among world order. It started with the geopolitical
the U.S. political leaders. Along with some transition period immediately after the fall
other different factors, the issue of energy of the Berlin Wall in 1989, and the policy
security with focus on the energy resources was pursued even more actively with the
of the Persian Gulf has obviously been the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The

most remarkable attempt to redefine a new Later, especially after the September 11
geopolitical code was between 1991 and attacks, both these geopolitical discourses
2000 with Bush Seniors pronouncement influenced the U.S. action. The Middle
of the New World Order. The 1991 Gulf East remarkably became the geographical
War was based on this idea to construct a context to practice these discourses. Al
new geopolitical world order, but was not Qaeda, a terrorist group which had its roots
pursued by the Clinton Administration (Flint in Saudi Arabia, designed an unprecedented
et al., 2009). attack on the Wests world symbols while
In 1993, not long after Bill Clinton claiming its purpose was to protect the
became the President, the neoconservatives Muslim worlds interests against the West
began a number of censures against his (Bin Laden, 2002).
administration. Within this period, two It is also important to note the particular
geopolitical discourses emerged as variants importance of PNAC to the Middle East
of neo-conservatism and became influential region, where the Statement of Principles
visions of twenty-first century geopolitics. emphasized the vital role of the U.S. in
One of them was Samuel P. Huntingtons maintaining peace and security in the
Clash of Civilization, which portrayed the Middle East. Furthermore, history has also
West against the Rest so that others would shown that along with the survival of
try to challenge the Wests primacy. A new Israel, energy resources of the Persian
cross-civilizational concept was introduced, Gulf had always been Americas most
namely, the Confucian-Islamic connection vital interest in the Middle East. More
that would be a network of weapon states interesting is that, PNAC was organized
and provide a dangerous otherness to the by neoconservatives, some of whom were
West. That new enemy would threaten nominated by Bush Jr. in his administration,
the Western interests, values and power. namely, Dick Cheney (Vice President),
Huntington, as a neoconservative, extended Donald Rumsfeld (Defense Secretary), Paul
a vision of a culture war between the Wolfowitz (Rumsfeld deputy), as well as Jeb
West and the Otherness, which was a Bush and Lewis Libby (Cheneys Chiefs
standard neoconservative preconception. of Staff). Conservative views were clearly
In addition, the second neoconservative demonstrated, especially after September
geopolitical discourse related to the 11, in the framework of the National
Statement of Principles announced by a Security Strategy document (NSS-2002),
group called Project for a New American as well as in decisions made concerning the
Century (PNAC). Reasserting the American invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq.
supremacy in world affairs was the main It is noticeable also that overthrowing
goal of PNAC, on which basis the United Saddam Hussein was one of the greatest
States would become sufficiently strong causes of neoconservatives in the late 1990s
and would need greater levels of defense (OTuathail, 2006). It was on January 26,
spending (OTuathail, 2006, pp. 120-123). 1998, when some neoconservatives, such
as Elliot Abrams, Francis Fukuyama, The United States Geopolitical Code and
Robert Kagan, Paul Wolfowitz and Donald the 11/9 Attacks A Unique Opportunity
Rumsfeld, wrote a letter to President Clinton, The September 11 terrorist attacks, 2001,
urging the United States administration indeed provided an opportunity for the
to act decisively (Abrams et al., 1998). Bush administration to reconstruct the
As noted by OTuathail (2006), after the United States geopolitical code, and based
September 11 attacks, the worldview of on these unprecedented events, the War on
neoconservatives was not only changed but Terrorism introduced what scholars knew
also strengthened, in which they applied as a geopolitical code. It had its roots in the
more aggressive policies to pursue their NSS-2000, which was the foundation of
agenda. It started with the preparations the Bush Doctrine. In addition, NSS was
for the public relations campaign to justify actually an annual exercise that updated
the invasion of Iraq. In this respect, the U.S. geopolitical code (Flint, 2006).
the campaign was launched with the Obviously, the immediate U.S. response
publication of new National Security to the September 11 attacks was War in
strategy in September 2002 (OTuathail, Afghanistan. It took place on October 7,
2006, p. 127). 2001, against the terrorist training camps
Before that, on September 20, 2001, of al Qaeda and the military camps of the
a letter was written to George W. Bush Taliban regime in Afghanistan (G. W. Bush,
through PNAC and signed by some neocons, 2001), and effectively introduced the Bush
supporting the necessary military action Doctrine and War on Terrorism.
in Afghanistan to remove Saddam from According to NSS, what became
power. The signatories to this letter, namely, known as the Bush Doctrine, the identified
William Kristol, Jeffrey Bergner, Francis geopolitical threat contained an apparent
Fukuyama and Geoffrey Bell, emphasized vagueness, but was able to become fixed
that, even if evidence does not link Iraq on particular countries quite easily (Flint,
directly to the attack, any strategy aiming at 2006, p. 72). This document emphasized
the eradication of terrorism and its sponsors that, the United States of America is
must include a determined effort to remove fighting a war against global reach. Based
Saddam Hussein from power (PNAC, on this document, the enemy was not a
2001). It clearly demonstrated removing person or a political regime; it was also
Saddam from power as a previously not a religion or ideology, but the enemy
determined project as well as influencing was terrorism (NSS, 2002, p. 5). Placing
the neoconservative assumptions about the terrorism in a global context enabled
Bush administration, especially about Iraq. activity at different times and in specific
geographical regions. It was indeed seen as a
combination of different paradigms, namely,
noblesse oblige and eagle triumphant

paradigms, which were the results of children and it was a regime that had
Global War on terror rhetoric. This helped something to hide from the civilized world
to form a militaristic foreign policy for (G. W. Bush, 2002). What is important is
democratization and development, on that, all the three countries, namely, North
the one hand, and a world of regions Korea, Iran and Iraq, were accused of
paradigm, on the other, for the U.S. response proliferating WMD and were considered
and responsibility against terrorists in the opposites of freedom and civilization.
specific geographical regions. From this However, among the three mentioned
view, the U.S. code was grounded with an countries, why only Iraq was selected for
emphasis on specific countries, although the invasion, while even, according to Bahgat
agenda was global (Flint et al., 2009). This (2003), fifteen out of the nineteen 9/11
kind of orientation in Bushs geopolitical hijackers carried Saudi passports(p. 448).
assumptions had portrayed an axis of
evil with an emphasis on specific regions, Iraq A Threat to Interests
which included Iran, North Korea, and Iraq.
The importance of energy resources in the
President Bush declared in his state of the
Persian Gulf region has been discussed
union address in 2002 that, states like these
above, not least as it ensures the free flow
and their terrorist allies constitute an axis of
of oil towards the industrial world as vital
evil. For him, these regimes pose a grave
interests for the United States of America.
and growing danger ( Bush, G. W., 2002).
In this respect, however, what was the role
Regarding these geopolitical
of Iraq among these interests?
assumptions, terrorism, state supporters of
Firstly, at that time, Iraq, with about
terrorism, and weapons of mass destruction
112 billion barrels of oil, possessed the
were identified as threats, which were
second largest proven crude oil reserves in
elements of Americas geopolitical code.
the world. It contained about 11 percent of
Moreover, the pre-emptive strike was
the global total, while, according to a report
identified as a response to an identified
of the Congressional Research Service
threat in some specific countries, which
(CRS) 2003, only 17 out of 80 oil fields
was clearly aimed against Iraq. Based on
had been developed, which concentrated
this view, justifications were provided
around Kirkuk in the north and Rumaila
for these decisions and actions, some
in the south of Iraq. This country also had
of which were considered opposites of
significant proven natural gas reserves, in
freedom, global order of prosperity and
which almost all were undeveloped (CRS,
civilization (Flint, 2006). According to the
2003). At that time, Iraq contained about
Bush administration, Iraq was a regime that
110 trillion cubic feet (TCF) of natural
had already used poison gas to murder
gas or about 20 percent of the world total
thousands of its own citizens - leaving the
(EIA, 2002a). Furthermore, according to
bodies of mothers huddled over their dead
the annual report of the Organization of the

Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in

2001, among the Middle Eastern producers, In this respect, Kuwait possessed about
Iraq possessed the second largest proven 10 percent of the worlds proven oil reserves
oil reserves after Saudi Arabia. It covered and about 0.8 percent of the worlds proven
more than 16 percent of the total Middle natural gas (OPEC, 2001). On the other
East proven oil reserves. Based on this hand, Saddam Hussein, however, had
report, the proven natural gas in Iraq also proven that he was a potential threat for
contained more than 4 percent of the Middle two of Iraqs neighboring countries, namely,
East total natural gas reserves in 2001 Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. They were two
(OPEC, 2001). In the same year, oil exports regional friends of the U.S. and it was vital
from Iraq were about 2 million barrels per to the U.S. interests in the region to secure
day, representing 12 percent of total oil their stability. The invasion of Kuwait in
exportation from the Persian Gulf, making 1990 and the greed of Saddam4 for oil fields
Iraq the third oil exporter after Saudi Arabia of the Persian Gulf countries, especially
and Iran, and also equal with Kuwait (EIA, Kuwait, as an old desire had made him a
2002b). More importantly, there is the view certain threat to the Persian Gulf region and
that Iraq was capable to explore and exploit the flow of oil to the West. In President Bush
many additional oil fields due to its vast oil Jr.s statement during his speech in a Union
reservoirs; therefore, it had the capability to address in January 2003, he clearly declared:
become an oil producer on a par with Saudi
Our Nation and the world must
Arabia in the future. For this reason, it was
learn the lessons of the Korean
called the second Saudi Arabia (Morse,
Peninsula and not allow an even
2004).
greater threat to rise up in Iraq.
Secondly, it became more important
A brutal dictator, with a history
when Iraq was considered along with
of reckless aggression, with ties
the two other important Middle Eastern
to terrorism, with great potential
oil producers, namely, Saudi Arabia and
wealth, will not be permitted to
Kuwait. In 2001, Saudi Arabia, as the
dominate a vital region and threaten
worlds largest oil exporter, held the leading
the United States
position in the worlds proven oil reserves
(G. W. Bush, 2003b).
with more than 25 per cent of the total and
about 3.5 percent of global proven natural
gas reserves (OPEC, 2001). It also produced Despite the lack of direct reference
about 44 percent of total Persian Gulf oil to oil in most of his important speeches
output (EIA, 2002b), and was the most concerning Iraq and terrorism, Bush
important oil supplier to the United States introduced directly and explicitly Saddams
after Canada in 2000, accounting for some government as a threat in the Union address,
14 percent of U.S. total oil imports (NEP, and deliberately alleged that Saddam was a
2001). threat greater than North Korea. For him,

Saddam was a dictator, and thus, posed situation among the worlds oil supplies
a potential threat to other countries, in (Morse, 2004). The threat could be supposed
particular, the Iraqs neighboring states. In when Saddam was potentially capable of
this respect, precluding hostile domination threatening the U.S. allies, especially Saudi
of critical areas such as the Middle Arabia and Kuwait.
East and Southwest Asia had also been It was apparent that by dominating
considered as one of the objectives of the Iraq, Saddam would threaten three key
United States Armed Forces, as mentioned oil producers and reserves in the world,
in the Quadrennial Defense Review Report countries which were exporting about 68
of the United States Department of Defense percent of the Persian Gulf oil exports.
(QDRR, 2001) . These were three oil countries with common
Bush Jr. also explicitly referred to Iraqi borders, and because Iraq had always faced
oil as a great potential wealth. This was geopolitical limitation to access the high
similar to the previous U.S. presidents, seas through the Persian Gulf, there was
especially after the Second World War, in always the possibility of Iraqi invasion of
which he emphasized the Persian Gulf as Kuwait and Saudi Arabia (and even Iran,
a vital region for the United States. Based given what happened from 1980 to 1988).
on his view, Saddams domination over this Therefore, Iraq could be a serious potential
region would translate as a peril to the U.S. threat to the United States and on the basis
vital interests, and thus, threaten the U.S. of the Bush Doctrine and neoconservative
national security. Dick Cheney also stated thought, Iraq as a rogue state required an
clearly in his statement as Vice President adequate response, which was defined as the
in the Bush administration on August 25, pre-emptive attack.
2002, The whole range of weapons of
mass destruction then would rest in the The Pre-emptive Action A Response
hands of a dictator... Armed with an arsenal to Threat
of these weapons of terror and seat at a
Bush already announced in his state of the
top ten percent of the worlds oil reserves,
Union address in 2002 that, all nations
Saddam Hussein could then be expected to
should know: America will do what is
seek domination of the entire Middle East,
necessary to ensure our Nations security...I
take control of great portion of the worlds
will not wait on events while dangers
energy supplies directly threaten Americas
gather. I will not stand by as peril draws
friends throughout the region and subject
closer and closer (G. W. Bush, 2002).
the United States or any other nation to
This geopolitical assumption was also
nuclear blackmail (Cheney, 2002). Indeed,
reflected in the National Security Strategy
Saddam could not be a threat to the U.S.
(NSS) through the framework of pre-
interests or to the status quo in the region if
emptive action. This document stressed
Iraq did not have the central geographical
the U.S. right of self-defense by acting

pre-emptively (NSS, 2002, p. 6). It simply democracy and protection of freedom as the
emphasized striking before Americas U.S. values. From this viewpoint, it was a
enemies strike first (Flint, 2006). At that resource war a war for natural resources
time, although the Containment policy that which has always been a critical motive (Le
was the U.S. geopolitical code during the Billon, 2004), whether because of acquiring
Cold War era had been changed to War on important raw materials for domestic
Terrorism, in both times, using military force needs, or for controlling vital resources in
to protect U.S. vital interests was considered a competitive world environment. In fact,
as adequate response. In this regard, just accessing global resources, in particular
as the Carter Doctrine determined military oil, has always been seen as a battleground.
action in response to the Soviet expansion Apparently, the twenty-first century will
towards the Persian Gulf, the Bush Doctrine be the same as the twentieth century and
selected Iraq as a rogue state and pre- one that appears to be the century of oil too
emptive action was prescribed as a response (OLoughlin & Wusten, 1993).
to prevent domination of a dictator over the Tracing the reasons for al Qaedas
oil fields in the Persian Gulf. September 11 attacks, it is also important
As a result and apart from different to note that Osama bin Laden in his Letter
representations of the U.S. geopolitical to America noted, You steal our wealth
code, such as spreading freedom and and oil at paltry prices... This theft is
democracy as values to justify war against indeed the biggest theft ever witnessed by
Iraq, war as a response to protect a vital mankind in the history of the world (Bin
interest in the Persian Gulf region could be Laden, 2002). On the other side and one
considered a fact. As Flint (2006) noted, year later, protecting this wealth was also
if the calculations for war can be traced stressed by President Bush to justify the war
to material interest, such as access to oil, against Saddam Hussein in Iraq in 2003 (G.
governments must emphasize values or W. Bush, 2003b). Therefore, there was a
ideas in justifying their foreign policy, strong linkage between the U.S. geopolitical
especially when it involves invading a code and the Persian Gulf oil as Americas
country rather than defending ones own vital interests, such that along with other
(p. 101). This geopolitical fact of protecting security reasons, this could influence the
the Persian Gulf energy resources as the U.S. U.S. leaders geopolitical assumptions in
vital interest along with other geopolitical determining the U.S. geopolitical code,
reasons such as the Greater Middle East and ultimately the orientation of U.S.
Project (Guney & Gokcan, 2010; Naji, foreign policy toward the invasion of Iraq.
2004) was what could be existed behind Needless to say, this was the reason Iraq was
the U.S. foreign policy or using military selected for invasion, as clearly evident in
action against Iraq. This policy was justified the statement by the Deputy of U.S. Defense
through justifications such as promotion of Department, Wolfowitz on May 31, 2003,

Look, the primary difference to put it a said, the uncivilized world had been defined
little too simply - between North Korea and as a significant mission and responsibility
Iraq is that we had virtually no economic for the United States. Bush further said that,
options with Iraq because the country floats America is a nation with a mission, and
on a sea of oil6 (Wolfowitz, 2003). that mission comes from our [American]
most basic beliefs (G. W Bush, 2004). In
Oil Control for Hegemonic Goals this respect, the National Security Strategy
of the U.S. stressed freedom as the non-
With reference to the offensive realism
negotiable demand of human dignity,
theoretical approach, the invasion of
that the U.S. assumed the responsibility of
America in Iraq in 2003 and consequently
leading the expansion of it and its benefits
its military presence in the Persian Gulf
across the world as a great mission (NSS,
could be interpreted as Americas attempts
2002).
to prevent emerging regional hegemons
From this perspective, invading Iraq
and promote its own hegemonic position
was also to promote democracy as the
in the world. From the perspective of
American value in Iraq and the Middle
geopolitics of oil in the world, this can be
East. For Bush, a free Iraq in the Middle
seen as a strategic decision to control the
East would mean a watershed event in the
largest basin of oil in the world. Thus, this
global democratic revolution, and indeed,
is also a means of controlling other great
Iraq could be regarded as a model for the
powers, in particular those states which are
broader Middle East ( Bush, G. W., 2003a;
potential regional hegemonic states such
2003; 2004a). Simultaneously, terrorism
as China. This perspective is reminiscent
was defined as a threat to the American
of the global oil spigot for gaining an
values and the civilized world, which was
efficient rule over the global economy
under the leadership of the United States. In
(Harvey, 2003) and exerting leverage over
this respect, all countries which supported
industrial rivals (Mercille, 2010). Indeed,
terrorism would be considered as a threat
it stresses that the control of oil has always
as well. These threats were specified as the
been defined as the centre of gravity of
axis of evil (G. W. Bush, 2002), the rogue
U.S. economic hegemony (Bromley, 2006).
states(NSS, 2002), the outlaw regimes
Americas desire to continue in its
(G. W. Bush, 2003b), and the dangerous
highest position, which had remained from
regimes ( Bush, G. W., 2004b). Iraq was
the Cold War era, was clearly seen in Bushs
also defined as a state that was trying to
speeches and the NSS-2002. However, it had
proliferate weapons of mass destruction
been stated as a necessary step to protect
(WMD) and was allegedly a supporter of
the American values as well as promoting
terrorist groups.
these values across the world. Expansion of
These justifications facilitated the U.S.
freedom, democracy and peace throughout
action against Iraq as well as its military
the countries especially amongst, as Bush

presence in the Persian Gulf region. In this two imperative geopolitical assumptions
respect, two significant objectives could be that influenced the Bush administration.
reached through the Iraq War, which were Second, amongst the three states
in conformity with the U.S. geopolitical claimed as the axis of evil by Bush, Iraq
code: first, a regime change that was done was selected as the target for the U.S. pre-
to remove a regional threat to the U.S. rich emptive war. It was done because Iraq
oil friendly countries such as Kuwait and possessed a huge extendable amount of oil
Saudi Arabia, and second, by using these reserves and its oil was necessary for the
justifications, the United States would be industrial world. In addition, history had
able to continue its military presence in this also shown that the Iraqi government could
area and consequently control the largest be a potential threat to neighboring states, in
oil reservoir in the world. By controlling particular Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, which
this region, the U.S. would control the were regional allies of the United States.
oil flows to the industrial countries, and More importantly, the Iraqi oil, along with
thus, control the global economy. Finally, that from the two mentioned countries,
it could be resulted in controlling other constituted about 68% of the Persian Gulf
potential regional hegemonic states as total exports. Hence, from this view, Iraq
well as preventing the emergence of new could threaten significant amounts of
regional hegemons while promoting its own the Persian Gulf oil exports. In the Bush
hegemonic position globally. Doctrine, Iraq was introduced as a threat,
and thus, the pre-emptive action was defined
CONCLUSION as a response with the expansion of freedom
After the terrorist attacks on September 11, and democracy being the justifications for
2001, the U.S. leaders found an opportunity the action. From this perspective, therefore,
to redefine the U.S. geopolitical code it formed a strong link between protecting
as a Global War on Terror. This global the Persian Gulf oil as a crucial element
geopolitical code relied on those geopolitical for the U.S. national security and defining
assumptions that would pursue the U.S. the Iraqi government as a certain threat
global hegemony in particular after the Cold to oil fields of the region and a supporter
War geopolitical order. With regard to this of terrorism as well. Finally, the Bush
geopolitical code and through observing Doctrine and Bushs speeches emphasized
the U.S. foreign policy toward the Persian the importance of expanding the American
Gulf, in particular the Iraq War 2003, this values and defending them across the world
research suggests two important issues. as a global mission for the United States. It
First, the importance of the Persian Gulf was a justification for going to war abroad
oil as a vital interest for the U.S. and the such as in Iraq.
removal of Saddam from his power were

Furthermore, it was considered as a Union, and led to a near-confrontation between

global responsibility to prevent terrorist them. That war was also called the Ramadan
War, or the Fourth Arab-Israel War. For more
attacks on the civilized world and to promote information see (Dunstan, 2007).
democracy in the Middle East. However, it
clearly revealed the U.S. attempt to keep
2
In this respect, the U.S. Department of Energy
in International Energy Outlook 2002 with
and promote its own hegemonic position, reference to the United States as the largest
as well as deter other great powers from consumer of oil in the world, for more than one-
becoming regional hegemonic states, and quarter of total world demand had predicted
this conforms to the tenets of the offensive that the primary consumption of oil in America
would increase by 1.5 percent annually from
realism theory. Tracing the Bush Doctrine 1999 to 2020. Moreover, that oil share in the
and his presidential speeches, there was U.S. energy mix would increase slightly from
clearly a strong linkage between preserving 39.4 percent in 1999 to 39.7 percent in 2020,
the U.S. hegemonic position and promoting totaling 26.7 million barrels per day (EIA,
2002a).
the American values around the world. In
this respect, to preserve its hegemony, the 3
All administrations from President Truman
U.S. had to continue its global presence and to President Clinton, as well as documents
such as A National Security Strategy for A
protect its values. Obviously, adopting the New Century - 1998 and A National Security
U.S. culture and ideology by other states Strategy for A New Century - 1999 and A
would reinforce U.S. hegemonic position National Security Strategy for A Global Age
and consequently prevent the emergence of - 2000, which had been projected before the
beginning of Bushs presidency emphasized the
other potential regional hegemonic powers. importance of the Persian Gulf region for the
In addition, the U.S. military intervention United States to ensure the security of oil flow
in Iraq and the removal of Saddam Hussein toward the U.S. and its allies, namely, West
from power would stop Iraqi hegemonic Europe and Japan. For more information, see
(NSS, 1998, 1999, 2000).
ambitions. As Bush (2003b) and Cheney
(2002) noted, this would prevent the Iraqi 4
From Saddams view, Kuwait was part of
regime from dominating the entire Middle the Ottoman province, which was under the
authority of Basra, and thus, Kuwait belonged
East. to Iraq. However, Saddams main concern
was oil, and from his view, Kuwait owed Iraq
ENDNOTES because Iraq had fought against Iran for all the
1
The Yom Kippur War which took place Arabs. He also claimed that Kuwaits oil must
between October 6 and October 25, 1973, was be used for all the Arabs. For more information,
fought between Israel and a coalition of some see (Long, 2004) and (Flint, 2006).
Arab countries, led by Egypt and Syria. It began 5
Saddam had been introduced as a threat to the
when forces of the coalition crossed ceasefire security, peace and oil fields of the region as
lines and entered the Sinai Desert and Golan mentioned through Bush Senior in his state of
Heights, which had been occupied by Israel the Union address on January 29, 1991 (G. H.
since the Six-Day War in 1967. This conflict W. Bush, 1991) and Clintons speech in 1988
also created serious tensions between the two (G. W. Bush, 2010, p. 227).
superpowers, the United States and the Soviet

6
This statement from Wolfowitz has been Bush, G. H. W. (1991). State of The Union Address
noted in different sources with minor changes. (January 29). Retrieved on October 4, 2010.
These sources cite that, the most important from http://stateoftheunionaddress.org/category/
difference between North Korea and Iraq is that george-hw-bush/page/2.
economically, we just had no choice in Iraq.
The country swims on a sea of oil. See, for Bush, G. W. (2000). The First Gore-Bush Presidential
instance,(Le Billon, 2004) and (Wright, 2003). Debate, October 3, 2000. Retrieved on January
29, 2011, from http://www.debates.org/index.
php?page=october-3-2000-transcript
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Exploring Lecturers Perception on Learning Organization

Dimensions and Demographic Variables in Technical and
Vocational Colleges
Khosrow Nazari1*, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie2, Khairuddin Idris3 and
Ramli Basri1
1
Foundation of Education, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
2
Science and Technical Education, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
3
Department of Professional Developments and Continuing Education, Faculty of Educational Studies,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to explore the perception of 295 lecturers on learning
organization dimensions and demographic variables in technical and vocational colleges
in four provinces of Fars, Khuzestan, Boushehr, and Kohgilouyeh and Boyerahmad in
Iran. Data was collected using a questionnaire and analyzed utilizing SPSS which included
the use of descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings showed that respondents
perceptions were rated from moderate to high in learning organization dimensions with
significant differences based on the type of employment, academic rank and education
level. No significant differences were observed in gender and marital status towards
learning organization dimensions. The relevant literature shows few studies regarding
learning organization dimensions and demographic variables locally and internationally.
Therefore, the findings can be evaluated as useful information and guidance for educational
administrators and leaders in utilizing learning organization dimensions in the management
of educational institutions.
Keywords: Demographic Variables, Learning organization Dimensions, Technical and Vocational Colleges
ARTICLE INFO
Article history: INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM
Received: 23 November 2011 STATEMENT
E-mail addresses:
Several researchers have shown that
nazarikhosrow@yahoo.com (Khosrow Nazari), organizations which give emphasis on
zalp@upm.edu.my (Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie),
kidin@upm.edu.my (Khairuddin Idris), learning and employees empowerment have
ramlibasri@upm.edu.my (Ramli Basri)

Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Idris and Ramli Basri
come become more successful, adaptive regarding the processes, products, and
to changes and survive longer than their technological application (Alas & Sharifi,
counterparts (Asadi, Ghorbani, & Naderan, 2002; Garvin, 2003). Second, they provide
2009; Dirani, 2009). Garvin (2003) stated opportunities for leadership and promote
that the lack of learning culture makes a transformational and shared style of
organizations and individuals simply repeat leadership within the managerial level
old practices. The development of learning of the organization (Chajnacki, 2007;
culture not only helps organization members Ellstrom, 2001; Yulk, 1998). Third, learning
to create new knowledge, but also helps organizations help to generate, analyze,
them remain dynamic too. store and distribute increasing amount
Learning in organization is really about of knowledge with the organization and
empowering the workforce and integrating provide appropriate access to employees
work with learning in a continuous manner who deal with more urgent and multifaceted
(Bryson, Pajo, Ward, & Mallon, 2006; problems (Alas & Sharifi, 2002; Chajnacki,
Ortenblad, 2004). Accordingly, many 2007; Garvin, 1993; Marquardt, 2002).
organizations are trying to recognize and Fourth, learning organizations provide
adapt new ways of learning to keep with opportunities and resources to balance the
the enormous changing pace of work. In personal and professional growth needs of
addition, it has been found that providing employees and encourage them to use new
learning opportunities for employees to skills in innovative ways (DiBella, Nevis,
carry out their tasks more effectively with & Gould, 1996; Senge, 1990).
more autonomy and innovative practices However, a quick review of learning
are strategies for attaching people to the organization literature shows few empirical
organizations psychologically (Agarwala, researches on learning organization
2003; Krishna, 2008). Watkins (2005) also dimensions. In addition, little is known
has stated that educational institutions about whether the concept of the learning
more than any time need to make rapid organization, which originated in a Western
and difficult decisions. One way to help context (Marquardt, 2002; Marsick &
higher education institutions preserve their Watkins, 2003) and in business companies
professional cultures, while still retaining (Senge, 1990) is applicable in educational
both faculty governance and rapid response, settings. Moreover, the application of
is to create a learning culture, a culture that learning organization dimensions in
is structured to make changes more readily educational settings together with the
(p. 415). impact of demographic variables on learning
The subsequent benefits have often organization dimensions have not been the
been cited as reasons for creating learning focus of attention in the past (Tseng, 2010;
organizations. First, learning organization Wang, 2005). Furthermore, as Iran is a
help to increase the levels of innovation developing country with different social
Exploring Lecturers Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and Demographic Variables
and organizational culture, the research With regard to Iran, the social, political
pertaining learning organization is scarce. and economic environment has changed
This raised the question whether the learning fundamentally in comparison to the past
organization model which origin in the three decades. This difference has become
West has the capacity to be conducted in more important over the past ten years
Iranian educational contexts to fill the gap with main reforms occurring in educational
of theoretical and empirical knowledge sectors (Mehralizadeh, 2005; Veisi, 2010).
pertaining learning organization dimensions Technical and Vocational Colleges (TVCs)
and provide empirical evidences to help which were established in 1930 served as
educational leaders to manage their colleges a means for educating skilled manpower
more efficiently and effectively. in post high school training i.e. higher
education in the technological line in
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL Iran. These professional colleges were the
COLLEGES recommendation of a German consultant as
Providing skilled and semi-skilled human complementary to the Faculty of Engineering
resources for both governmental and private of the University of Tehran which was
sectors as one of the basic priorities and an academically oriented institution. The
policies of developed and developing activities of these colleges were gradually
countries has increased the importance terminated in 1965 due to the lack of social
of technical and vocational trainings in status of the Technical and Vocational
globalization era (Sadeghi, Sabheyeh, & Education (TVE) as compared with white
Keshavarzi, 2008; Tilik, 2002; Zainabadi, collar institutions such as the Faculty of
Salehi, & Parand, 2007). Asian countries Engineering (Ebtekar, 1996).
have placed varying emphasis on technical Developing quantitatively and
and vocational education, depending qualitatively after Islamic Revolution
upon several historical, social, economic in 1979, TVCs have played significant
and political considerations. UNESCO roles in training, nurturing, and educating
adapted in 1974 an important detailed competent and qualified manpower in
recommendation pertaining to technical Iran. They are also a pioneer in providing
and vocational education, and argued technical and vocational human resources
for provision of technical and vocational in all fields for both boys and girls. They
education as a) an integral part of general train human resources to fill the vacancy of
education; b) a means of preparing for an lack of technicians in both governmental
occupational field; c) and as an instrument and private sectors. In line with Irans march
to reduce the mismatches between education towards a comprehensive development plan,
and employment and between school and TVCs have focused their efforts to develop
society at large (King, 2007). technical and professional trainings in all
fields to educate skilled and competent staffs, both educational and non-educational
human resources (Behbahani, 2010; to enhance their knowledge, skills and
Khalaghi, 2003). The number of TVCs is attitudes.
148 which are the biggest technical and
vocational institutions for boys and girls. LEARNING ORGANIZATION
They admit students from technical and DIMENSIONS
vocational schools which consist of three The literature of learning organization theory
fields of industry, agriculture and services. shows that for more than three decades it has
All TVCs have been distributed based been the focus of attention as a subject of
on geographical considerations in seven study, research, training and development
regions throughout Iran. These institutions (Asadi et al., 2009; Pimapunsri, 2008).
need educational personnel who know how It has been conceptualized and explored
to match theory and practice in action. They from different angles and through different
should be able to apply the newest teaching models by many researchers. Numerous
strategies in class situation, too (Behbahani, attempts have been made in the past to define
2010; Ebtekar, 1996; Sadri & Zahedi, 2010). the concept of learning organization. Some
Despite their great importance in providing researchers indicate that the concept itself is
competent and skillful human resources, still unclear and confusing (Fulmer, Gibbs,
they have not been the focus of attention & Keys, 1998), whereas some are happy
in relation to research and study of new with that (K. Watkins & Golembiewski,
theories of organizational development in 1995). Others recognize the difficulty
the past (Asadi et al., 2009). of describing what a complete learning
In addition, the literature of learning organization looks like (Watkins & Marsick,
organization shows that the concept of 1993). Scholars argue that each organization
the learning organization has received produces its own learning organization and
much attention in organizational studies; these particular learning organizations are
however, educational institutions have vigorously and frequently changing (Dirani,
not fully attributed learning organization 2009). In addition, many organizations
practices (Alam, 2009; Attafar & Bahrami, in various countries of the world have
2009; Yang, Watkins, & Marsick, 2004). preferred to adapt learning organization,
White and Weathersby (2005) reported because of its profound effects and impacts
some obstacles including challenges of on professional and skill development of
strategy, structure and culture, as well as their employees (Alam, 2009). Top-level
academic culture clashes that may prevent managers in organizations have realized that
educational institutions to become learning to increase efficiency, improve customer
organizations. In this regard, the concern is service, provide defect-free products, and
whether these institutions have the capacity achieve organizational objectives, the
to create a learning culture to help their learning organization is the best choice
(Ayupp & Perumal, 2008; Jamali & Sidani, To be innovative and act effectively
2009). Asadi et al., (2009) also stated that in managing the organizations, managers
the learning organization is valuable as it need to create learning opportunities for
creates innovative pattern of thinking. all organization members. Learning in
Senge (1990) defined learning organization is really about empowering
organization as the organization where the workforce and integrating work with
people continually expand their capacity to learning in a continuous manner (Bryson et
create the results they truly desire, where al., 2006; Ortenblad, 2004). In a learning
new and expansive patterns of thinking organization, every individuals contribution
are nurtured, where collective aspiration is is important to the life and well-being
set free, and where people are continually of the organization (Argyris & Schon,
learning to learn together (p.3). Ortenblad 2002; Hiatt-Michael, 2001). Despite
(2002) defined learning organization as an the importance of learning organization
organization that is constantly increasing its which has been approved by theoretical
capacity to form its future. Sugarman (2001) and empirical researches internationally,
stated that a learning organization would be little research can be found in the Iranian
good at making new solutions and sharing context, particularly in educational settings.
knowledge with other members who may The following sections provide some
need it. Watkins and Marsick (1993) defined information of the methodology, findings
learning organization as an organization and recommendations of this study.
that learns continuously and transforms
itself and one that is distinguished by total RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
employee involvement in a process of jointly The overall purpose of this study is
conducted and collectively responsible to determine the level of respondents
change directed towards shared values or perception on learning organization
principles (p.118). Central to Watkins and dimensions and differences in continuous
Marsicks (1993) theoretical framework of learning, dialogue and inquiry, collaboration,
learning organization, are seven dimensions embedded system, empowerment, system
including: continuous learning, dialogue connection and strategic leadership based
and inquiry, collaboration, embedded on employment type, academic rank and
system, system connection, empowerment education level to help administrators of
and strategic leadership. Watkins and TVCs to manage their staff more effectively
Marsick further developed dimensions of in Iran.
learning organization questionnaire (DLOQ)
measuring the learning dimensions on seven RESEARCH QUESTIONS
dimensions. These seven dimensions are
For this purpose, the research questions
defined based on Watkins and Marsicks
posed in this study is worded as the
(1993) conceptualization in Table 1.
following, .
1. What is the level of lecturers perception METHODOLOGY

of learning organization dimensions in This study employed a quantitative
TVCs? research design to explore the levels of
2. Is there any significant difference in learning organization dimensions and their
perception of learning organization significant relationship with educational
dimensions by lecturers based on level, type of employment and academic
employment type? rank among 1606 lecturers of TVCs in four
provinces of Fars, Khuzestan, Boushehr,
3. Is there any significant difference in
and Kohgilouyeh and Boyerahmad in Iran.
perception of learning organization
G-power statistical software was utilized to
dimensions by lecturers based on
determine the sample size. Two sampling
academic rank?
methods including proportional stratified
4. Is there any significant difference in random sampling and simple random
perception of learning organization sampling were employed to collect data
dimensions by lecturers based on from 295 respondents (from all the four
education level? provinces)*. It was revealed that the majority
TABLE 1
Learning Organization Dimensions Applied in TVCs
Dimensions Definitions
Continuous Learning The extent to which learning is designed into work so that people learn,
acquire knowledge, values and skills for personal and career development
on the job. The degree an organization tries to create continuous learning
opportunities for all of its members.
Dialogue and Inquiry The extent to which the climate and culture of the organization allows
organization members to talk, discuss, explain their experiences and
skills and the capacity to listen and inquire into the views of others.
Collaboration The degree to which an organization tries to design work for
organizational members, have shared vision and personal mastery to
exchange their views and ideas to think and learn collectively and
strengthen working collectively.
Embedded System The extent an organization prepares organizational members to try to use
both high and low technology systems to capture and share learning.
Empowerment The process of enabling people to act, and participate in policy making
in creating a shared and collective vision. This process continues to get
feedback from organization members to recognize the gap between the
current status and the new vision and to implement a shared vision.
System Connection The degree to which an organization has open systems to connect the
organization to its external and internal environment to help people to see
the impact of their work on the entire organization and think globally.
Strategic Leadership Refers to organizational leaders competence to think strategically and
energize organization to create change, and develop collective vision to
help organization members to move in the new direction.
of participants were lecturers (52.5%) who class interval width. It is the difference
had masters degree (89.4%), while 58.3% between the lower endpoint of an interval
were part-time masters students. and the lower endpoint of the next interval
DLOQ developed by Watkins and according to the next formula. Class interval
Marsick (1997) consists of 43 items in width = highest scale value lowest scale
a 5-point Likert Scale range from 1 as value / number of categories. Class interval
almost never to 5 as almost always was width = (5-1)/3 = 1.33. Thus, 1-2.33 = Low,
employed to measure lecturers perception on 2.34 3.66 = Moderate; and 3.67 5 = High
seven learning organization dimensions. The (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). In addition,
original questionnaire in English language descriptive analysis such as mean, standard
was translated into Persian language using deviation and frequency were employed.
the forward-back translation approach Table 2 depicts the results of descriptive
(Chen, Holton & Bates, 2005). To validate analysis as required by Research Question
the DLOQ in both English and Persian, 1 as follows:
academics (how many) and lecturers (how
many) with the experience in research What is the level of lecturers perception
in the field of extension and continuing of learning organization dimensions in
TVCs?
education, educational administration and
organizational behavior were employed Table 2 displays TVCs lecturers perception
in Malaysia and Iran. They confirmed the on the level of learning organization
appropriateness of validity of DLOQ for dimensions among their colleges. The
conducting in TVCs. A reliability test (pilot results indicate that lecturers perception on
test) was performed on the DLOQ. The continuous learning, dialogue and inquiry
reliability coefficient, Cronbachs alpha for and strategic leadership are at high level,
seven learning organization dimensions was whereas their perception on collaboration,
from .80 to .87, indicating that the reliability embedded system, empowerment, and
of this instrument was relatively high, and system connection are at moderate level.
thus suitable for this study to be carried Findings indicated that lecturers perception
out. (confirm with studies to show that this in dialogue and inquiry was high with
Cronbach alpha value is reliable). a mean rating of M=3.78 and SD = .41,
whereas 166 (56.3%) of lecturers rated high
FINDINGS on this dimension, 129 (43.7%) moderate
and none rated low. Similarly, the results
To determine respondents perception
showed that lecturers perception in strategic
on learning organization dimensions, the
leadership was high with M = 3.72 and SD =
possible mean scores based on five point
.49, whereas 148 (50.2%) of lecturers rated
Likert Scales were categorized into three
high and 147 (49.8%) rated moderate on
levels of low (1-2.33), moderate (2.34-
this dimension.
3.66) and high (3.67-5). It is based on
Likewise, findings revealed that learning organization dimensions among

lecturers perception in continuous learning their colleges at high and moderate levels.
was high with a mean rating of M = 3.69 The level rating from moderate to high in the
and SD = .46, whereas 169 (57.3%) of study indicate that these seven dimensions
lecturers rated high, and 126 (42.7%) are carried out and practiced in TVCs and
rated moderate on this dimension. The lecturers are not alien with the concept of
findings also indicated that four out of learning organization dimensions.
seven dimensions of learning organization
including: empowerment (M = 3.53, SD = Independent sample t-test was utilized
.53), collaboration (M = 3.47, SD = .57), to answer Research Questions 2 to 4 as
embedded system (M = 3.43, SD = .55) follows:
and system connection (M = 3.40, SD =
Is there any significant difference in
.53) were at moderate level. None of the perception of learning organization
dimensions were rated low. Overall, 189 dimensions by lecturers based on
(64.1%) of lecturers rated moderate, 106 employment type?
(35.9%) rated high and none rated low with The results of t-test in Table 3 reveal that
M = 3.58, SD = .28 on overall learning there are significant differences between
organization dimension. These results full time and part time lecturers perception
indicate that TVCs lecturers perceive in learning organization dimensions. Data
TABLE 2
Descriptive Statistics of Learning Organization Dimensions
Frequency
Descriptive Statistics Mean SD Low Moderate High
(43-100) (101-158) (159-215)
Continuous Learning 3.69 .46 -- 126 a 169
(42.7) b (57.3)
Dialogue and Inquiry 3.78 .41 -- 129 166
(43.7) (56.3)
Collaboration 3.47 .57 9 189 97
(3.1) (64.1) (32.8)
Embedded System 3.43 .55 18 200 77
(6.1) (67.8) (26.1)
Empowerment 3.53 .53 -- 190 105
(64.4) (35.6)
System Connection 3.40 .53 10 205 80
(3.4) (69.5) (27.1)
Strategic Leadership 3.72 .49 -- 147 148
(49.8) (50.2)
Overall Learning 3.58 .28 -- 189 106
Organization (64.1) (35.9)
Note: Low (1-2.33), Moderate (2.34-3.66), High (3.67-5), a = Frequency/Count, b = Percent
indicated that full time lecturers had higher significant differences between lecturers
mean scores in learning organization and teachers in all learning organization
dimensions than part time lecturers in TVCs dimensions signify that academic rank was
in Iran. Thus, it can be concluded that full an appropriate indicator to make difference
time lecturers perception was different from between lecturers and teachers in TVCs.
part time lecturers perception on learning
organization dimensions in TVCs. Table 5 depicts the analysis of learning
organization dimensions towards
Table 4 displays analysis of learning education level as required by Research
organization dimensions based on Question 4 as follows:
academic rank as required by Research Is there any significant difference in
Question 3 as follows: perception of learning organization
dimensions by lecturers based on
Is there any significant difference in
Education Level?
perception of learning organization
dimensions by lecturers based on T-test analysis in Table 5 reveals that
academic rank? there were significant differences between
Table 4 shows significant differences in perceptions of doctorate and master degree
lecturers and teachers perception towards holders and below in relation to learning
learning organization dimensions. Lecturers organization dimensions in TVCs. Doctorate
had higher perception level than teachers in lecturers showed higher mean scores than
all learning organization dimensions. The master and below degree holders in TVCs,
TABLE 3
Means Comparison of Learning Organization Dimensions by Employment Type
Learning Organization Dimensions Employment Type N Mean SD t-value p

Continuous Learning Full Time 123 3.83 .46 4.605 .001
Part Time 172 3.60 .42
Dialogue and Inquiry Full Time 123 3.97 .37 7.259 .001
Part Time 172 3.64 .38
Collaboration Full Time 123 3.60 .57 3.321 .001
Part Time 172 3.38 .56
Embedded System Full Time 123 3.54 .59 2.633 .009
Part Time 172 3.36 .51
Empowerment Full Time 123 3.63 .53 2.699 .007
Part Time 172 3.46 .51
System Connection Full Time 123 3.55 .52 4.275 .001
Part Time 172 3.29 .51
Strategic Leadership Full Time 123 3.89 .49 5.175 .001
Part Time 172 3.60 .46
P<.05 df=293 SD = Standard Deviation
TABLE 4
Means Comparison of Learning Organization Dimensions by Academic Rank
Learning Organization Dimensions Academic Rank N Mean SD t-value p

Continuous Learning Lecturer 155 3.89 .42 9.074 .001
Teacher 140 3.46 .38
Dialogue and Inquiry Lecturer 155 3.95 .38 8.260 .001
Teacher 140 3.59 .35
Collaboration Lecturer 155 3.63 .59 5.025 .001
Teacher 140 3.30 .51
Embedded System Lecturer 155 3.53 .60 3.280 .001
Teacher 140 3.32 .48
Empowerment Lecturer 155 3.63 .54 3.523 .001
Teacher 140 3.41 .50
System Connection Lecturer 155 3.52 .55 4.120 .001
Teacher 140 3.27 .48
Strategic Leadership Lecturer 155 3.89 .48 6.571 .001
Teacher 140 3.54 .43
TABLE 5
Means Comparison of Learning Organization Dimensions by Education Level
Learning Organization Dimensions Education Level N Mean SD t-value P

Continuous Learning Doctorate 34 4.01 .42 4.435 .001
Master and below 261 3.65 .44
Dialogue and Inquiry Doctorate 34 4.00 .36 3.515 .001
Collaboration Doctorate 34 3.77 .52 3.296 .001
Embedded System Doctorate 34 3.67 .62 2.683 .021
Empowerment Doctorate 34 3.92 .49 4.708 .001
System Connection Doctorate 34 3.67 .49 3.211 .001
Strategic Leadership Doctorate 34 4.02 .46 3.888 .001
indicating that doctorate lecturers, though implies that establishing a climate in which
their number is less than master degree lecturers felt safe to offer an opinion and
holders and below, spend more times to have an expectation that their opinions
to participate in practicing of learning would be valued, was a significant key factor
organization dimensions than master degree and the role of administrators seemed to be
holders and below. significant in this process. This result was in
line with Asadi et al., (2009) findings in Iran
DISCUSSION among physical educational professionals,
The findings revealed that lecturers had a Zahabioun and Yousefys (2006) results
moderate to high level of understanding of and Kumars (2005) findings in Malaysia,
what the learning organization dimensions whereas contradicting with Diranis (2007)
concepts might mean. The DLOQ results and Wangs (2005) findings.
obtained from self rating indicated that Strategic leadership dimension was the
lecturers perception in continuous second highest, indicating that educational
learning, dialogue and inquiry and strategic leaders of TVCs had charismatic power,
leadership dimensions were at high level, mentor and coach, give people control
whereas their perception in collaboration, over the resources they need to accomplish
embedded system, system connection and their work and are authoritative in creating
empowerment were at moderate level, learning opportunities by preparing a
suggesting that these dimensions could be fine knowledge management system. The
further improved. In addition, the findings high level also indicates that educational
showed that lecturers perception in overall leaders and administrators have a clear
learning organization dimensions was at understanding of their responsibility to act
moderate level. as facilitators and supporters of learning
Dialogue and inquiry dimension was in TVCs. This result was supported by
rated at high level indicating that lecturers Zahabioun and Yousefys (2006) findings
give open and honest feedback to each other, in Iran, and Pimapunsris (2008) findings
listen to others before speaking, treat each in Thailand.
other with respect, spend time building Similarly with dialogue and inquiry and
trust with each other and are encouraged strategic leadership, continuous learning
to ask why regardless of the rank in TVCs. opportunities was rated at high level,
The high level rating in dialogue and indicating that lecturers in TVCs have
inquiry pointed to the significant role the opportunity of discussing mistakes,
played by educational administrators and share knowledge and skills with their
leaders in promoting a learning culture at colleagues, help each other learn, consider
the individual level by providing an open problems as opportunities for learning,
atmosphere of talking, communicating and supported and rewarded financially for
questioning among lecturers in TVCs. It also learning. In addition, it can be concluded
that communication among staffs, feedback, through shared practices in organizations will
and active listening are encouraged, and create a strong bonding among organization
prioritized in comparison to hierarchy and members. Accordingly, the moderate level of
status. The high level rating in continuous embedded system in TVCs can be the result
learning indicated that there was general of not having enough tools and technology
consensus that learning culture was in knowledge management, limitation in
supported by educational administrators as paying attention to establishing knowledge
long as the learning was seen to bring benefit networks and communities of practice, few
to the colleges. Zahabioun and Yousefys opportunities of sharing information and not
(2006) findings, and Pimapunsaris (2008) having enough facilities for lecturers to use
results were similar to the continuous their skills and knowledge. Diranis (2007)
learning results in this study. findings in banking sector in Lebanon and
System connection dimension was Wangs (2005) results in China are also
revealed to be at moderate level according consistent with the results of the current
to the lecturers perception in TVCs. study.
System connection reflects global thinking, It was revealed that empowerment
connecting the organization to its internal dimension was at moderate level.
and external environment, reciprocal Kanter (1993) based on organizational
communication at all levels among lecturers, empowerment theory, stated that employees
balancing between work and family affairs, empowerment towards a collective vision
and working to meet mutual needs. Watkins will provide opportunities for learning
and Marsick (1996) stated that training which in turn influence employees
global leaders, providing virtual networks, work, attitudes and behaviors. Chen and
performing employee opinion surveys, and Chen (2008) also stated that employees
providing computer data bases are various empowerment can occur as a result of
strategies that can be used to connect the participating employees in decision making
institutions to the environment. Asadi et process. In addition, ONail (2003) and
al., (2009) also stated that being low at Watkins and Marsick (1993) have remarked
system connection maybe the result of that lack of necessary coordination among
not connecting with internal and external different parts of the organization and
professional communities to meet mutual existence of an overcautious atmosphere
needs. that leads to conservative behaviors can
Lecturers perception on embedded affect empowering people towards a
system was at a moderate level. According collective vision negatively. Regarding the
to Watkins and Marsick (1993), creating empowerment dimension, Dirani (2009),
new systems will have a basic contribution Wang (2005), Asadi et al., (2009) and Veisi
towards providing continuous learning (2010) has reported results similar to the
opportunities in organizations. Krishna and current study.
Casey (2008) also stated that social contacts
The results regarding collaboration remains unknown (Tseng, 2010; Wang,

revealed that lecturers have rated this 2005). The results indicated that there
dimension at a moderate place. Watkins were significant differences in lecturers
and Marsick (1996) stated that collaborative perception towards learning organization
atmosphere of learning in organizations dimensions based on type of employment,
foster and develop job related skills. The education level and academic rank. This
collaborative efforts cause each member indicates that lecturers had different
of the organization shares knowledge and understanding pertaining learning
experience with each other. The findings organization dimensions in TVCs.
pertaining collaboration are in line with In terms of type of employment, there
White and Weathersbys (2005), Bui and were significant differences between full
Baruch (2010) statements that academics are time and part time lecturers perception in
highly individualistic in their work and seek all learning organization dimensions. In all
to reach personal development. The findings comparisons, full time lecturers scored the
of this study were also in line with governing highest. Mean score of full time lecturers
culture in higher education organizations in all dimensions were higher than mean
and the society in Iran. Based on a cross- score of part time lecturers in all dimension
cultural study, Alavi and McCormick (2004) of learning organization. It signifies that
stated that Iranian organizations face some full time lecturers pay more attention to
problems in team learning, system thinking the activities performed regarding learning
and developing shared visions. They stated organization dimensions in TVCs in Iran.
that some aspects of management theories Another possibility is related to the fact
and models which their roots are in highly that part time lecturers are not permanent
developed countries may not be completely employees that may affect their perception
in line with cultural characteristics of regarding learning organization dimensions
other countries such as Iran (Alavi and in TVCs. This phenomenon indicates that
McCormick, 2004). What emerged from part time lecturers have the strongest sense
this study was a picture of TVCs that of the need to improve learning organization
were utilizing learning to develop their dimensions.
competitive edge, remain dynamic, create For academic rank, there were significant
knowledge and skills, and integrate work differences between lecturers perception of
with learning to attach lecturers to colleges being in the position of lecturer and teacher
psychologically. in learning organization dimensions in TVCs
Since there have been few researches in Iran. Those who were lecturers showed
studying how demographics can impact higher perception level in comparison to
learning organization dimensions, whether those who were in position of teacher in
demographic compositions characterize seven learning organization dimensions.
learning organization dimensions or not The results indicated that the higher the level
of academic rank, the more mean scores lives. The study provided empirical and
regarding the perception level of learning theoretical information for educational
organization dimensions. administrators and leaders to prepare
For education level, the significant educational programs, standards and other
differences between perception of lecturers professional development activities. It
with degree of doctorate and master and also helps them develop and sustain a
below connote that doctorate lecturers culture conducive to learning and adapt
may have higher education contributes it as a means of survival and success.
to ones understanding of the value of The findings of this study are valuable
learning organization dimensions than sources for educational administrators,
master and below degree holders in TVCs. leaders and human resource developer
Lecturers in higher level of education obtain professionals to understand the present
higher perception on learning organization status, differences and relationships in
dimensions than lecturers in lower level of learning organization dimensions in TVCs.
education. It was revealed that education By providing learning opportunities in the
level was a significant indicator in learning light of learning organization dimensions,
organization dimensions between doctorate educational administrators send a message
and master and below degree holders in to lecturers that TVCs care about them and
TVCs. The result of this study regarding support them.
education level is in line with Tsengs (2010) The results revealed that respondents
findings in Taiwan, whereas Lims (2003) in the position of full time, doctorate and
findings in private organizations in Korea lecturer had higher perception of learning
were inconsistent with the results of this organization dimensions than part time
study. These results revealed that perception lecturers, master and below degree holders
level of learning organization dimensions and teachers in TVCs. This indicates that
was varied according to education level, educational administrators should try to
type of employment and academic rank. preserve and further develop the present
status of full time, doctorate and lecturers
CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS in TVCs by providing them opportunities
The study indicated that lecturers were to attend such events as courses, seminars,
clearly aware of the learning organization conferences and workshops. In addition,
dimensions and generally saw the learning to enhance and develop perception of
organization evident in their colleges part time lecturers, teachers and master
through the provision of opportunities to and below degree holders pertaining
increase their knowledge and skills. On learning organization dimensions in TVCs,
the other hand, it was evident that lecturers educational administrators should provide
were quite content with their working them programs such as training, meetings,
project teams, symposiums and workshops.
As respondents in full time, Alavi, S. B., & McCormick, J. (2004). A cross-

doctorate level and lecturer showed the cultural analysis of the effectiveness of the
Learning Organization model in school contexts.
strongest sense of improving the learning
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The Effect of Exposure to Cartoons on Language Proficiency

Taher Bahrani2* and Tam Shu Sim1
Faculty of Languages and Linguistics, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
1
Department of English, Mahshahr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Mahshahr, Iran

2
ABSTRACT
Today, access to various audiovisual programs such as cartoons has become very easy
through the development of audiovisual technologies such as CD and DVD players. In
the same line, many studies have emphasized on the psychological values of utilizing
cartoons in language learning. Accordingly, the present study aims at investigating the
effect of exposure of cartoons on language proficiency at the intermediate level. To this
end, a language proficiency test was administered to 90 language learners. Then, a smaller
population of 40 language learners were selected as intermediate language learners and
randomly divided into two groups, i.e. group one and group two. During the experiment,
group one was instructed via the use of cartoons. In contrast, group two was instructed by
a sample of selected audiovisual programs rather than cartoons. At the end of the study
which lasted for 6 weeks, both groups took another sample language proficiency test to
find out whether or not if any changes happened regarding their language proficiency.
The results of the post-test showed that the first group participants who had exposure to
cartoons had lesser language proficiency improvement in comparison to the second group
of participants who had exposure to non-cartoons programs. This proved that the quality
of the language input should be given initial importance.
Keywords: Exposure, Cartoons, Language proficiency
INTRODUCTION
There are many internal as well as external
factors which influence second language
ARTICLE INFO acquisition (SLA). Among them, the
Article history: language input that learners receive in
Accepted: 14 August 2012 SLA is one of the external factors which
E-mail addresses: plays a fundamental role. According to
taherbahrani@yahoo.com (Taher Bahrani),
tamss@um.edu.my (Tam Shu Sim) Ellis (2008),, theories of SLA attach

different importance to the role of input in speaker or writer. In the same line, Nunan
language acquisition process but they all (1999) defined authentic language materials
acknowledge the need for language input as spoken or written language material
(Ellis, 2008, pg.243).. Considering the fact that has been produced in the course of
that some sort of language input is necessary real communication and not specifically
to acquire the language, the ever-lasting produced for the very purpose of language
developments in audiovisual technologies teaching.
has proven to be very effective in providing There are varieties of authentic teaching
the language learners with easy access to sources and materials available to EFL/
various audiovisual programs which can be ESL teachers to utilize different materials
incorporated in various language learning for different needs for various teaching
situations (Bahrani & Tam, 2012). In fact, situations in formal and in informal language
various types of audiovisual mass media learning settings. While social interaction as
programs brought by different technologies a source of authentic language input is not
have the potential to provide the necessary available in EFL context, other sources of
language input for language learning in authentic language input are available in
both English as a Foreign Language (EFL) both EFL and ESL contexts. In this relation,
context and English as a Second Language desktop technology such as computers and
(ESL) context. These types of programs non-desktop technologies such as through
are considered as sources of authentic the use of TV and radio can provide easy
language input which have the potential to access to authentic audiovisual language
indirectly involve the language learners in input for SLA development in both EFL and
the language learning process. ESL contexts.
The use of authentic language input The review of the literature on the
through authentic materials in foreign/ integration of different audiovisual mass
second language learning has a long history. media programs that provide authentic
For example, Henry Sweet (1899, cited in language input for language learning
Gilmore, 2007) is considered as one of the highlight the pedagogical value of such
first linguists who utilized authentic texts materials. As Gebhard (1996), p. 183)
because he was aware of their potential put forth, there are many sources of
advantages over contrived materials. authentic language materials from various
Taylor (1994) defined authentic audiovisual sources such songs, cartoons,
language material as any material in English news broadcasts, movies, and documentaries
which has not been specifically produced for that language teachers and learners can use
the purpose of language teaching. Gilmore for language learning purposes (Gebhard
(2007) considered authentic language 1996, p. 183).
materials as the language conveying a In the same line, many studies have
real message which is produced by a real highlighted the pedagogical values of
employing various audiovisual mass CARTOONS IN LANGUAGE

media programs such as news broadcasts, LEARNING
movies, songs, and cartoons to provide The application of various authentic
authentic language input for language programs such as news, movies, songs, and
learning. Among them, news broadcasts cartoons from a wide range of audiovisual
have been observed to boost listening technologies such as satellite or conventional
comprehension and speaking proficiency TV to provide the necessary language
as well as help language learners build input for SLA have attracted increased
up their vocabulary over time (Bahrani interest among researchers since the 1970s.
& Tam, 2011; Baker, 1996; Brinton and Although, the review of the related literature
Gaskill, 1978; Poon, 1992). Movies, songs, indicates that most of the researches around
and cartoons, for example, have also been the use of audiovisual news for SLA
considered to be pedagogically valuable were anecdotal than experimental, a few
authentic audiovisual language materials researchers such as Brinton and Gaskill
for language learning because they reduce (1978), Baker (1996), and Poon (1992)
the affective filter and increase motivation provided empirical evidence of the role of
(Aida, 1994; Chapple & Crutis, 2000; Clark, exposure to news on improving listening
2000; Doring, 2002; Heffernan, 2005; skills. The results of these studies were
Lowe, 1995; Ryan, 1998; Schoepp, 2001; based on the findings from pre-post tests
Trapp, 1991). However, more particularly, which were administered to an experimental
the studies that have considered cartoons and a control group of language learners
as a source of authentic language input where the experimental group had exposure
have focused on the psychological aspects to news whereas the control group did not.
of employing such materials in language More recently, Bahrani and Tam (2011) also
learning (which source). Indeed, the effect found out that exposure to news as a genre
of exposure to cartoons on language learning specific listening material compared to
has not been investigated empirically. miscellaneous listening materials reinforces
In the view of the above, the present speaking proficiency more.
research aims at shedding light on the Without providing empirical evidence,
studies which highlight the use of different Ryan (1998), Chapple and Crutis (2000),
audiovisual programs, particularly cartoons, Heffernan (2005) also considered movies as
as authentic sources of language input for authentic and appropriate teaching materials
SLA. More specifically, the present research which are intrinsically motivating for SLA.
will provide empirical evidence on the Aida (1994), Lowe (1995), Schoppe (2001),
effect of exposure to cartoons as a source and Trapp (1991) have also proposed songs
of authentic language input on language in the foreign/second language classroom
proficiency. to lower anxiety and increase motivation,
provide physiological benefits, guide
lesson planning and practical classroom, cause high degree of motivation. The high
familiarize the language learners with motivation achieved through exposure to
dialectal variations, and enhance cultural cartoons is claimed to improve the memory
awareness and sensitivity. of the language learners when they try to
The pedagogical value of cartoons make connection between the new materials
as an authentic source of language input and the prior knowledge through analogy in
has been the focus of few studies . In a comfortable atmosphere (Rule & Ague,
an anecdotal study conducted by Clark 2005). Rule and Ague also claimed that
(2000), it was underscored that cartoons students who use cartoons can improve
can engage the attention of the learners and different language skills and achieve higher
present information in a non-threatening test scores. However, they did not further
atmosphere. Moreover, cartoons have the clarify which language skill(s) can be
potential to push thinking processes and enhanced through exposure to cartoons.
discussion skills (Clark, 2000). Another In short, the point to be highlighted is
study was carried out by Doring (2002) the lack of empirical evidence to support
focusing on the effect of exposure to the pedagogical values of cartoons for
cartoons on language learning. Reflecting language development. In fact, the limited
on his own experience of utilizing cartoons, number of studies on the use of cartoons in
Doring (2002) underscored the point that language learning classes has highlighted
cartoons can encourage thinking processes the pedagogical value of cartoons in an
and discussion skills. Cartoons can also anecdotal manner. In other words, they
engage the attention of the learners and have emphasized the psychological aspects
present information in a non-threatening of utilizing cartoons in language learning
atmosphere. To Doring (2002), the language without providing empirical evidence of the
learners who had exposure to cartoons effect of the pedagogical values of cartoons.
could produce oral answers that were
very proactive and interesting in various RESEARCH QUESTIONS
discussions held in the classes. In addition, The present study was set to answer the
the discussions were linguistically rich and following research questions:
the students had high confidence. It seems
1. To what extent does exposure to cartoons
that the high confidence that the language
as a source of authentic language input
learners acquired is due to exposure to the
improve intermediate language learners
cartoons which create low affective filter
language proficiency?
atmosphere for learning.
In the same line, Rule and Ague (2005) 2. To what extent does exposure to
carried out a research on students preferences miscellaneous programs as a source
to use cartoons in language learning. Similar of authentic language input improve
to songs, cartoons are preferred because they intermediate language learners
create low affective filter atmosphere which language proficiency?
METHODOLOGY was to verify that the two sample IELTS

Participants tests were parallel. Parallel tests are two
tests of the same ability that have the same
The participants involved in this research
statistical means and variances with the same
comprised 40 intermediate language
psychometric indices such item difficulty,
learners, both males and femalesaged
item discrimination, reliability, validity
between 22 to 31 selected from the Islamic
when administered to the same group with a
Azad University in Iran, which is an EFL
short interval. Although we may never have
context. The 40 intermediate participants
strictly parallel tests, we treat the two tests
were selected from a population of 90
as parallel if the differences between their
language learners majoring in TEFL on the
means and variances are not statistically
basis of the scores which they obtained from
great (Bachman, 1990, p. 168).
a sample language proficiency test.
In view of that, both sample IELTS
language proficiency tests were administered
Instruments and materials
to 10 trial language learners with an interval
The first instrument was a sample IELTS of 2 days. Then, the means and the variances
language proficiency test which was used of both tests were calculated separately. The
as a pre-test. The second instrument which results of the statistical analysis of the both
was used as a post-test was another sample tests are shown in the following table.
language proficiency test from IELTS. Both According to the statistical analysis of
sample IELTS language proficiency tests the data obtained from the administration of
were verified to be parallel and reliable both tests, the mean score for the first test
before the study was carried out. was 5.57 and the mean score of the second
Regarding the materials that were used, test was 5.43. Furthermore, the variance of
it should be noted that two kinds of different the first test was 0.51 and the variance for
audiovisual materials in the form of CDs the second test was 0.54. This implies that
were prepared and utilized. The first material the means and the variances of both tests
was a collection of 10 hours of various were almost the same. Accordingly, both
cartoons such as Shrek 1, 2, 3, Toys, and Ice tests were verified to be parallel.
Age. The second material was a collection The second step was to verify the
of 10 hours authentic programs rather than reliability of the two parallel IELTS language
cartoons including various segments of proficiency tests. Utilizing the scores
news, movies, documentaries and songs. obtained from the administration of both
IELTS tests in the first step of instruments
Procedure verification process, the researchers
This research was conducted based on pre- employed parallel tests method to verify the
test and post-test design. The first step to reliability of the two sample parallel IELTS
take, before the participants were selected, tests. The results of the statistical analysis of
the reliability coefficients of the two parallel During the experiment and for every
tests are shown in the following table. session, group one was asked to watch and
From the results of the statistical listen to a sample from the cartoon collection
analysis, the correlation between the two which was selected by the instructor outside
parallel tests was positive and significant. the classroom. Participants were required
Moreover, the reliability coefficients of the to write a summary of whatever was heard.
two tests were calculated as 0.73 and 0.80. Later, when the class met, the instructor
After verifying both tests to be parallel played the selected part of the cartoon
and reliable, one of them was administered again and the participants were required to
to 90 language learners and 40 participants participate in a follow up discussion. The
who scored 5 or 5.5 out of 9 were selected same was done with the second group with
as intermediate language learners. The the miscellaneous programs.
40 language learners were then randomly After 6 weeks of exposure, all the
assigned to group one and group two with participants took the second sample
equal number of participants. language proficiency test from IELTS as a
Throughout the experiment which post-test to find out whether there was any
lasted for 6 weeks (4 hours a week) in change in their language proficiency.
two separate conversation classes run
by the same instructor, the experimental RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
group was instructed with cartoons, while To provide answers to the research questions,
the the control group was instructed with the data obtained from the administration of
miscellaneous programs. pre-post tests to group one and group two
TABLE 1
Descriptive statistics related to the administration of the two tests to the same group
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Variance

First Test 20 4.00 6.00 5.57 0.758 0.51
Second Test 20 4.00 6.50 5.43 0.745 0.54
Valid N 20
TABLE 2
Reliability Statistics related to the two parallel tests
Common Variance 0.46

True Variance 0.49
Error Variance 0.06
Common Inter-Item Correlation 0.83
Reliability of Test 1 (Cronbach s Alpha) 0.73 N=10
Reliability of Test 2 (Cronbachs Alpha) 0.80 N=10
were compared statistically by means of the scores of group two. The result of the
paired samples t-tests. The following tables t-test that was performed shows that the
show the statistical analysis of group one difference is significant (t=-3.764, df=19,
and group two participants pre-post tests paired sample, one-tailed, p<0.01).
scores. The reason behind the difference in the
In relation to group one performance language proficiency development of both
in the pre-post tests, it should be mentioned groups may be related to the quality of the
that the mean score of the participants in language input embedded in the type of
group one in the pre-test was 5.04 out of audiovisual mass media programs which
9. This mean score rose to 5.09 in the post- they had exposure to during the experiment.
test which indicates the fact that a minor In relation to the first group of participants
progress was made in their performance. insignificant improvement in language
The t-test result obtained was not significant proficiency through exposure to cartoons,
(t=-0.754, df=19, paired sample, one-tailed, the point can be mentioned that although
ns.) which indicates that the improvement cartoons are considered to be pedagogically
was not significant. valuable sources of authentic language
In relation to the data obtained from the materials which have the potential to be
pre-post tests for group two, the mean score utilized for language learning (Clark, 2000;
in the pre-test was 5.03 out of 9 and in the Doring, 2002; Rule & Ague, 2005), the type
post-test was 5.67 out of 9. This progress can of language input which is embedded in
be interpreted as improvement. However, cartoons is largely modified or simplified
in order to find out if this positive change to ease comprehension. However, while
in the mean score can be interpreted as a comprehending modified or simplified
significant improvement or not, a statistical language input of cartoons requires less
analysis of t-test should be conducted for cognitive processing for intermediate
TABLE 3
Descriptive statistics related to group one pretest and posttest results
Groups N MEAN SD t-test

Group one pretest 20 5.04 0.43 _0.754*
Group one posttest 20 5.09 0.65
*T-observed= -0.754 T-critical=1.729 T-observed is smaller than t-critical
TABLE 4
Descriptive statistics related to group two pretest and posttest results
Groups N MEAN SD t-test

Group two pretest 20 5.03 0.58 _3.764
Group two posttest 20 5.67 0.49
T-observed=-3.764 T-critical=1.729 T-observed is bigger than t-critical
language learners because of the type of which required more input processing for
data which is presented in a way to facilitate comprehension. Cartoons, on the other
comprehension, it does not contribute a lot hand, include more modified input which
to SLA. facilitates comprehension rather than
According to the observations of causing language acquisition. As a matter
the researchers from both groups, the of fact, comprehending other types of
participants in the first group showed audiovisual programs rather than cartoons
great interest in watching the selected may require much more input processing.
cartoons and participated in the follow up However, these types of materials include
discussions about the content. Moreover, unmodified input which can contribute
they had fewer problems in comprehending much more to SLA than modified input.
the language embedded in the dialogues of
the cartoons. This could be due to the fact CONCLUSION
that the language, and more particularly Various types of audiovisual programs
the vocabulary items, which are used in such as cartoons, movies, songs, and
cartoons are not specialized. Nevertheless, documentaries have proved to be effective
the type of language input which the first in increasing the motivation of the language
group participants had exposure to might learners. It is also believed that these types
not have included much language data of programs are rich sources of authentic
as opposed to the current level of the language input. However, some of these
intermediate language learners to contribute materials may not include the necessary
to language proficiency development. or enough language input to contribute to
According to White (1987), when an aspect language proficiency development.
of the language input is comprehensible, the In view of the above, the present
acquisition of the missing structures would research showed that intermediate language
not occur. In fact, the incomprehensibility of learners do not benefit a lot from exposure to
some aspects of the given language input to cartoons. In contrast, they can benefit more
the language learners draws their attention from exposure to non-cartoon materials.
to specific features to be acquired. One of the reasons behind the insignificant
In contrast, the participants in the second improvement of those intermediate
group who had exposure to various types of participants who had merely exposure to
audiovisual programs, could improve their cartoons may be related to the amount
language proficiency to a significant level of language input which is embedded
although they expressed some difficulties in cartoons. Cartoons include a type of
in relation to comprehending the language language input which may not contribute
input which was presented to them. Non- to intermediate level language learners
cartoons materials such as news and movies language proficiency enhancement.
include more unmodified language input
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Lifelong Learning: The Experiences of Malaysian School

Teachers
Jin Kuan Kok
Department of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Arts and Social Science,
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Barat, 31900, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Lifelong learning has been closely related to the development of human capital from an
economic perspective. The focus of this research study is the social and cultural motivating
and facilitating factors that might have contributed to the life long learning experience as
perceived by the interviewees. Fifteen participants, who have worked as educators or who
are currently teaching in various educational settings, which include primary, secondary and
tertiary levels, took part in this study. The themes that emerged, from a phenomenological
in-depth qualitative interview approach, were analyzed using the constant comparison
method. The findings reveal that the process of life long learning experience encompasses
various stages, namely dissatisfaction, reflection, decision making, overcoming obstacles,
and on-going growth. Both system support from a wider context and micro family support
were found to be essential. Various facilitative factors from the local culture were revealed.
A model of lifelong learning for school teachers was identified.
Keywords: Lifelong learning, lifelong learning experience, lifelong learning model, school teachers, motivation
INTRODUCTION education as a vital means to increase its

Higher tertiary education has been identified human capital, thus higher education has
worldwide as an engine of economical been regarded as catalysts for industry
growth (Brown & Lauder, 2003). Malaysia, transformation (PEMANDU, 2010). High
aiming to become a developed and high amount of funds have been invested in
income nation by the year of 2020, views education and it seems that a high return
was obtained. The education sector has
ARTICLE INFO
contributed close to RM27 billions or 4
Article history: percent of it Gross National Income in 2009
Accepted: 4 March 2013 (Economic Transformation Programme,
E-mail address: 2010).
kokjk@utar.edu.my (Jin Kuan Kok)

Jin Kuan Kok
However, one of the main concerns in viewed in a broader context which includes
the higher education sector in Malaysia is the interaction with society. As the purpose of
mismatch between education and the skills education is to draw out the treasure within
needed to meet the increasing demands of individuals and individuals are living within
a forever changing environment (Kok & a community, the wider education such as its
Tan 2011). Sulaiman and Burke (2009) philosophy, learning climate, practices and
found that skills development is needed the environment within which the individual
to address the issues of unemployment learner is located should be viewed as a
among Malaysian graduates. Therefore whole.
both formal and lifelong education are The dimension of To Know is
needed in the development of human capital inseparable from the dimension of To
in order to keep skills relevant and the Do, meaning, true knowledge will lead
workforce competent. In order to facilitate to behavioural change that should enhance
the continued acquisition of knowledge occupational skills in the workforce.
and development of those skills in the Furthermore, the dimension of To Do
world of work, the implementation of the which involves engaging in activities,
concept of lifelong learning is essential, exhibiting behavioural change is bound to
being beneficial for the development of have effect on the dimension of To Be,
individuals as well as society (Field, 2005). the learners identity and the way he leads
his life. This has been further described in
Lifelong learning and human capital terms of the development of personality
This concept of lifelong education was that would enable a person to act with
initiated by UNESCO in 1965. Since then greater autonomy, judgement and personal
the development of adult education began responsibility (Lee, Chia & Nik Hasnaa,
to promote the extension of the education 2011). The emphasis on To Live Together
process throughout life. It advocated reminds us that we live in a diverse society
continuous learning (OECD, 1996), and and in order to live harmoniously with
highlighted the importance of knowledge others who are different from us, we need
and skills development throughout life to learn to know them and to understand
(Europa, 2003). Jacques Delors, the their culture, tradition and values. Lifelong
President of the European Commission learning has been used not only as a mean
passionately promoted the four pillars of to cope with the challenges of a rapidly
lifelong education in his introduction to changing workplace in this post modern
The necessary Utopia (Delors, 1999). The world which include uncertainty, risk and
four pillars of lifelong education include insecurity (Beck, 1992), but also as a way
learning to know, learning to do, learning to teach individuals to live in appreciation
to be and learning to live together. He was of others. This concept encourages learners
of the opinion that education should be who engage in the lifelong learning process
Lifelong Learning: The Experiences of Malaysian School Teachers
to develop a positive attitude to diversity of lifelong learning should not be limited

and differences so that they respect the to economic gains, as it is found that
values of pluralism, which is essential in this lifelong learning has many other benefits
increasingly globalized village. such as transformative and empowering
In summary, the above mentioned four effects on individuals (Bennetts, 2003),
pillars of lifelong learning, the ultimate creation of wisdom, values, compassion
goal of lifelong learning experience, are not and the construction of meanings (Ikeda,
merely directed towards the betterment of 2001). Secondly, there are challenges and
self but also in the relationship with others. obstacles to be overcome when learning
is extended throughout life such as coping
Lifelong learning in Malaysia with fragile learning identities (Gallacher et
Malaysia has adopted human capital theory al., 2002). Furthermore, adult learners are
as the dominant theory in lifelong learning. often faced with many challenges as they
Developing human capital was one of the need to balance several social and family
six main thrusts highlighted in the National responsibilities while engaged in learning.
Education Blueprint 2006-2010, and the Human capital theory does not address
human capital theory is closely related to issues such as motivating, or facilitating
economic development (PEMANDU, 2010; factors in learning. Therefore this paper
Tenth Malaysian Plan 2011-2015). A study focuses on those elements of the external
by Ghebllawi and his associates (2011) have environment that serve as motivating factors
confirmed that the development of lifelong that enable or facilitate learning.
learning in Malaysia was largely initiated
by the government and closely connected Motivating and facilitating factors in
lifelong learning
to employability and productivity. This is in
line with the development in many countries Motivation in learning has progressed from
(Aston & Sung, 2003; Coleman, 2003), using a behavioural approach to focusing
where the promotion of lifelong learning on students needs (Brophy, 1983), and
is aimed at developing human capital and also on the effect on learning (Nisan &
thus promoting a healthy economy (Peter, Shalif, 2006). The former uses rewards and
2007). Hence, lifelong education is viewed punishments, whereas the latter focuses
as an investment for imparting economically on intrinsic motivation. According to Deci
useful knowledge and developing skills. and Ryan (1985, 2000), intrinsic motivation
However, Peter (2007) reminds us that is largely based on the internalization of
lifelong learning should not be limited to social expectation which arose from a
its instrumental utility. Hence, this human social learning theory perspective (Bandura,
capital theory may not sufficiently describe 1977). Intrinsic motivation describes self-
the notion of lifelong learning experienced determined activities which seem to be
by the lifelong learners. Firstly, the benefits innately a quality of a person which is
Jin Kuan Kok
similar to the construct of locus of control The model proposed by Cross advances
(Heider, 1960). our understanding of lifelong learning
Maslow (1943) proposed a hierarchy as it takes into consideration the internal
theory of needs to explain human choices processes involved, especially the effects
of behaviours. His needs hierarchy theory of life events and transitions (Merriam &
includes basic needs at the bottom and self- Caffarella, 1999; Ng, 2006).
actualization at the top. According to this However, both need approaches such
theory, taking up learning opportunities, be as that of Maslows and Crosss models
it formal or informal, could be understood have been criticized for being highly
as a means to fulfill the need to cope with psychologically focused and for discounting
challenges from the environment. In a the effects of the external environment.
constantly changing society, people tend It was proposed that individuals could
to seek education in order to upgrade their function in a lineal and unaffected manner
knowledge and skills in order to cope regardless of the influences or impacts of
with the challenges of work. All the above their context or environment. The critics
mentioned motivation theories basically of those psychologically focused models
have their foundation in the psychology nevertheless believe that because individuals
of learners, and are relevant to lifelong live within a society, the interaction between
learning, because research shows that environment and individuals is important.
motivation is essential for learning (Gallo Subsequently, building on Cross model,
& Ronaldo, 2011). Ng (2006) developed a complementary
Cross (1981) proposed a chain-of- lifelong learning model which incorporates
response (COR) model for lifelong learning. several sociological factors. While Cross
She held that learning activities should be started with self-evaluation, Ng started with
viewed as series or a chain of behaviours the triggering factors, hence contributing to
or activities. The assumption of her model our understanding of the lifelong learning
was that participants have an inner logic concept by adding on the antecedent
guiding them to various kinds of learning sociological factors. Cross also suggested
activities, whether in organized classes that self-evaluation is the triggering
or self-directed, is not a single act but the motivation of lifelong learning, while Ng
result of a chain of responses, each based on argued that it is external sociological factors
evaluation of the position of the individual that trigger contemplation of learning. In
in his or her environment (Cross, 1981, short, Ng stresses that, since individuals
pp. 125). She holds that a seven-stage live within a community, the context of the
process of adult learning is initiated from environment in which the individuals are
within and it involves the learners own located is important.
self-evaluation, attitude, motivation, life While there are many other models
transitions, opportunities and barriers, in lifelong learning, this paper focuses on
information and decision making. the interaction between individuals and
the environmental motivators for learning, in recruiting fifteen research participants

therefore Crosss and Ngs model will (seven males and eight females) who had
be preferred. This approach emphasizes engaged in lifelong learning experiences.
the importance of environment and is The participants were recruited through
supported by Vygotsky (1987). However, snowball sampling and their ages ranged
he also pointed out the need for learners to from 45to 65 years. All but two of the
take responsibility for their own learning. participants were interviewed two times,
While acknowledging the effect from the half an hour to two hours per participant.
environment, individuals play an active role Since both researchers were over 50 years
in learning to make it meaningful. It is not old, perhaps the participants felt quite
the issue of whether the triggering event or comfortable interacting and mingling with
the contemplating mind is more important, the researchers as they both might be viewed
rather it is the interaction between the two. as part of the group members who pursuing
Therefore, the intrinsic motivation can be lifelong learning. Consequently, it was
triggered or enhanced through a positive very easy and natural for them to engage
response from the environment (Law et al., in processes of disclosing their past, and
2009). talking about their present and the plan for
the future. They were encouraged to explore
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY their inner thinking and feeling through their
Drawing on the synthesis of Crosss and Ngs sharing of their struggles or difficulties as
work, this research seeks to understand and they traveled in their learning journey. The
discover the following from the participants: commonality of all of the participants was
that they either have worked as educators
1. The facilitating factors, both the
or are still working at various educational
external environmental and the micro
institutions at the time of interview. Two
perspectives, which might have
of the participants are retirees. One of
contributed to their lifelong learning
the retirees is currently doing his Masters
experiences.
course while the other one had worked as
2. The participants common lifelong a technician with a government agency
learning experiences. and is now a foundation student. The next
twelve participants are currently teaching
METHODOLOGY in schools with six of them at elementary
This is a qualitative phenomenological level and the other six at secondary level.
inquiry-oriented research study which The last two participants, on the other hand,
focuses on in-depth narrative interviews to are university lecturers, though they were
draw out the participants stories (Seidman, secondary school teachers before.
2006). Two researchers were involved in the Semi structured questionnaire was used
data collection and data analysis processes. during the interview with the participants.
The purposive sampling method was used The participants stories were recorded,
Jin Kuan Kok
transcribed and further analyzed for common RESEARCH FINDINGS

themes. The themes which emerged from Motivating factors and various stages
this phenomenological qualitative interview involved in the process of lifelong learning
approach were analyzed using the method were uncovered.
suggested by Creswell (1998). Common (A) Motivating factors
themes from the verbatim responses were
Two overarching motivating factors (refer
analyzed and constant comparison method
to diagram 1) were discovered in this study.
was done in order to focus on the deep
One was the external support from the
and lived experiences provided by the
government (Ministry of Education) and the
participants.
other was the micro and socio-contexts that
All the participants had given their
have contributed to the participants lifelong
consent for the interviews to be recorded as
learning endeavors. From the participants
they were assured that their personal identity
narrative accounts of their learning journeys,
would be kept anonymous. In their sharing
it is apparent that lifelong learning would
about their past experiences, they discovered
not be possible without the macro supports
how their decisions to participate in this
from the system such as the NKRA scheme
learning journey have made impact in their
and the support of their family members,
lives and the lives of their significant others.
colleagues and friends.
This narrative approach of storytelling
Many participants mentioned the NKRA
from a retrospective perspective is thus
scheme, one of the strategic initiatives
capable of producing social knowledge of
implemented in line with the 10th Malaysia
qualitative aspects such as the meaning
Plan to upgrade all primary and secondary
making process and of revealing patterns
teachers to degree level. Consequently, there
for the phenomenon under studies, thus
was a massive recruitment of teachers into
explains what is going on in this world
various degree programs starting in 2011.
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967)
Data analysis followed rigorous Most teachers are very happy
constant comparison techniques developed to sign up as long as it is fully
by Strauss and Corbin (1998). Excerpts were supported by the government,
quoted using the original spoken English so I also signed up. There is an
of the participants without tidying up to atmosphere of learning and we will
retain the voice of the participants. car pool to attend course together
(Female primary school science
t e a c h e r, 1 8 y e a r s t e a c h i n g
experience from Skudai, Johor).
Other participants said: typically was a deep sense of dissatisfaction

and unhappiness at some point of time in
My parents help me to take care of
participants lives. It was followed by some
young children during the weekends
evaluation as participants reflected on their
when I need to travel to another city
life experiences whereby:
to study.
(1) they compared their life with other
(Female, primary school teacher,
people around them; (2) they felt bored with
of 7 years teaching experience,
their work doing the same teaching chores,
from Ipoh)
thus feeling a burning need for a change;
(3) they were challenged by the rising
demands of their jobs in term of new skills
When I am not around, my
and competencies; (4) they were motivated
husband helped me to oversee and
to pursue a long hidden dream as they had
supervise children doing homework,
felt that they had completed their family
especially for my secondary school
responsibilities or had reached a turning
son. Without my husbands help, I
point in life such as retirement.
will be torn apart.
A few participants disclosed that they
(Female, primary school teacher,
had compared their salaries with recent
of 7 years teaching experience,
graduates who had just started teaching
from Ipoh)
but are earning a higher salary. To date, the
salary scale for non-degree holder teachers
(B) Process oriented with various stages is DG29 to DG32, but a degree holder is on
The findings show that the lifelong learning scale DG41, which is a big jump in terms of
as experienced by these participants was starting salary. Thus, their main motivation
process oriented with various stages, was to earn a better salary.
namely: dissatisfaction, reflection, decision Tu r n e r ( 2 0 0 2 ) s u m m a r i z e d t h e
making, overcoming obstacles, and on- experience of employees in the United
going growth. The enabling and facilitating Kingdom who had taken responsibility for
factors that prompted and supported their their own learning and development in the
lifelong learning were revealed. A learning phrase, Lifelong learning equals to lifelong
model was derived from these participants. earning which describes the job market
reality that education is a way to social
Stage One: Reflection and Evaluation mobility and an increase in ones status and
The narratives of the participants revealed prosperity (Brown & Lauder, 2003).
that their lifelong learning experiences Besides salary comparison with their
started with life reflection or life evaluation. colleagues, the demands of changes in
The event that triggered off changes workplace also played a role in their decision
Jin Kuan Kok
to continue their study. The following are better access to relevant information, good
some of their statements: support network from family and friends,
and attractive government incentives, and
We have to update ourselves with
support system.
abundant of knowledge, the world
The financial support scheme from
is changing.
an eco-systemic environment, such as the
I remember I felt really bored of NKRA scheme from the educational system
day in and day out repeating the mentioned earlier, is essential to motivate
same teaching course. I was 38 lifelong learning.
years old then. I felt like I wont be This participant grasped the opportunity
able to bear such boring routine available and made the decision to sign up
schedule if I were to continue a degree course:
teaching for 20 more years. I was
looking for a change, something I signed up when I was 48 year old
more challenging because I have to wait till all of my
three children were in the secondary
(Female, primary school Home
schools. Then the following year,
Science teacher, 24 years of
new regulation for application of
teaching experience, from Kulim,
biasiswa (scholarship) had changed
Kedah).
and was only available for those
teaching staff under the age of 46.
One participant signed up for a Masters I was very lucky. But my colleagues
course after his retirement. commented that I wont be benefited
much after my graduation as I was
When I finally retired, I asked
quite aged then. The whole degree
myself, what is next?
course cost fifteen thousands, but
(Male, 58, secondary school with sponsorship, I only paid $120
teacher, retired after 32 years of per term and $360 per year. I would
teaching, from Ipoh, Perak). regret it very much if I never did it.
It was like making up for the loss
Stage Two: Opportunity and Decision and pursuing my dream.
Making
(Female, 53, primary school teacher
The decision making process for engaging in with 33 years teaching experience,
lifelong learning shows that the participants from Kampar, Perak).
were motivated after a critical life review
and they took action, responding positively
The biasiswa mentioned above is a
to the opportunities available to them.
government scholarship provided to enable
Some of the important factors influencing
teachers to upgrade themselves in the
their decision to return to education were
teaching profession. Due to the increase in on time, arrange for home-stay, and plan
salary scale from DG32 to DG 41, many for the traveling time. Each course lasted
of the participants were motivated by the for 10 weekends. She had classes from 8am
monetary benefit. This particular participant to 10pm on Saturday, and 8am to 12pm on
had waited until three of her sons entered Sunday. It took perseverance as she usually
secondary schools before taking up this had to stay up late to do her research and
opportunity. With hindsight, she commented writing.
she was lucky as it was the last time that 48
But, it really is worth all the
year old applicants were accepted, as the
efforts. When I compare myself with
policy changed in the subsequent year to
other colleagues who have young
limit the applicants age to 46. Therefore
children, who need to struggle to
responding quickly to the opportunity
balance between family, career
available was important.
and studies, I consider myself
fortunate.
Stage Three: Supports and Overcoming
Obstacles (Female, 40, primary school science
After the decision making stage, the teacher, 18 years of teaching
participants journey towards the completion experience, from Skudai, Johor).
of a four year degree course was not easy
as all but one of the applicants were still This realization occurred during her
holding full time teaching positions. Their conversations with other colleagues. This
challenges included having to balance participant considered herself to be lucky
their many responsibilities to families, because she found out that some of her
children, and work. Occasionally, they female colleagues with young children had
questioned their own rationale for signing a much harder struggle to manage their time.
up for the courses. There were also times It was found that women in this study
when some felt like giving up. However, have to overcome more obstacles to learning
the encouragement and support they than did the male participants. Traditionally
received helped them to persevere until the women deal with multiple roles and family
completion of their studies. tasks and therefore face more obstacles to
One participant faced a two hour drive learning.
once a fortnight to another university
(UTHM in Batu Pahat) which is more A group of supporting course-
than 150 miles from her hometown in mates helps a lot. I need not drive
Johor Bahru. She felt that she had learnt to since my other colleague is driving,
organize her time more effectively so that so a group of us car-pool when
she could prepare lessons for her full-time travelling from Ipoh to Penang on
teaching job, finish the course assignments alternate weekends.
Jin Kuan Kok
Besides overcoming the travel Negative comments from loved ones

difficulties and sharing domestic tasks, made participants think hard. Those
elderly participants struggled with learning moments of reflection and critical soul
to utilize and be familiar with the modern searching enhanced the decision to study.
information communication technology
My wife once told me Stop doing
(ICT).
all those study and examination. It
As I am in my age of 60, so it was is our children turn now and our
tough for me to use the modern time is over. When I finished my
information communication MA, she said, So what? Those
technology (ICT). But the young negative comments motivated me a
people in my class helped me a lot. lot. I wanted to show and let people
know, I can do it.
It was the younger classmates who
(Male, 65, Assistant Professor,
did the assignment very fast using
retired from government sector,
computer, but I was really slow.
administrative position in a private
university, from Perak).
Information technology has transformed
the way we learn and communicate with
Another participant had gone through a
others. Elderly people may need help in
process of self doubt. She asked herself some
adapting to these changes.
soul searching questions, and eventually
she realised that it was her need for self-
Soul searching question: Why am I doing
improvement that sustained her through the
this?
difficult process.
This is a very difficult question which kept
confronting the participants. When facing It was a great challenge for me.
with unceasing demands and challenges, the Alternate weekends, I had to attend
participants kept questioning their motives my tutorial classes which were
for their commitment to lifelong learning. from 9am to 5pm. There were
assignments and examinations. It
I felt guilty sometimes, as I was not was very stressful. At times I felt like
there for my children, to supervise giving up, and I kept asking myself
them for their school work. why do I commit myself to such a
(Female, 50, primary school task I am no longer young?
Home Science teacher, 24 years of (Female, 50, Secondary school
teaching experience). teacher, 27 years of teaching
experience, Ipoh, Perak).
Postponement and temporary exit I waited till my children have gone

Two of the female participants waited for to the university. And 3 years ago I
their children to enter secondary school decided to uproot my family from
before signing up for a degree course. But Alor Star to Kampar to pursue my
by that time they are already in their mid and dreams for a university education.
late forties. A male participant postponed (Male, 65, Foundation student at
his studies due to work commitments which UTAR, 32 years working experience
required him to travel extensively. as technician in Drainage and
Irrigation Department of Ministry
I have to postpone the idea of
of Public Services).
study. After my full retirement I have
more time and financially stable I
felt that it is time for me to pursue One of the participants who was 65 and
my dream for tertiary education. currently a lecturer in a private university,
said he was like a little boy who always
(Male, 65, Consultant in Malayan enjoys study so his dream never ceased
Employer Association, from Kuala and eventually he got his PhD degree when
Lumpur). he was 64.
More female than male participants Role model

postponed their studies because of family
There were a few participants who felt that
responsibilities, especially taking care
they were encouraged by some role models
of young children. Postponement among
around them and after taking up the learning
male participants was mainly due to the
process, they themselves hoped to be role
heavy work load of their jobs and their
models for others.
responsibility for family finances. However,
they finally got to return to studies. They I re m e m b e r t h e re w a s o n e
described the return to studies as pursuing assignment, my other classmates
a dream. took only an hour to complete while
I sat there for 5 hours. It was a new
And now I have more time and
subject for me, I really put my focus
financially stable I felt that it is
down on that subject, I told myself
time for me to pursue my dream for
if they could do it, I also can do it.
tertiary education.
Since I was a matured students, I
(Male, 65, Consultant in Malayan didnt want just get a pass, I wanted
Employer Association, from Kuala to be a role model for my own
Lumpur). children.
(Primary school teacher, 26 years
of teaching experience).
Jin Kuan Kok
She herself was inspired by a sixty-year different people; more confident, daring to
old former headmaster whom she met in the take risks and able to perform better at work,
university. He looked quite elderly with grey more competent, and able to face other
hair and he hoped to pursue a PhD after a challenges in their lives.
degree course. All of his children graduated
Previously I wanted to stay in
from university and he was a free man in
my comfort zone, but now I have
his golden age. With a lot of time, he was
grown a lot and more confident to
pursuing a high degree. After speaking with
take on new courses. I feel that I am
him, she concluded, We should not put a
more equipped and feel very much
full-stop to learning.
refreshed to teach the students.
Another mother shared:
(Female, 50, primary school
I felt that I am so fortunate to Home Science teacher, 24 years of
do assignments together with my teaching experience).
teenage son. Every night he studies
for his examination and I also busy This lifelong learning journey was found
with my home work. He cannot to be transformative and rewarding (Kok &
complain because I am also doing Low, 2011). While not meant for drawing
the same. generalizations, the following diagram of
(She has 20 years teaching the learning model serves to describe the
experience and she is teaching in overall lifelong learning experience of the
a secondary school in Perak state). participants which encompassed various
stages as a result of interaction with the
Stage Four: On-going Growth environment:
The diagram (Fig.1) presents a
When asked in what ways they have
visual summary of the findings.
benefited from this learning process, the
participants said that they had gained
DISCUSSION
new knowledge and learnt new teaching
strategies that could be applied in the work Environmental motivating factors in lifelong
place. Most mentioned they were happy learning, both the macro and micro will
because the last pay drawn before their be discussed in this section. Interpersonal
retirement would affect the amount of the relationships were found to be a motivational
pension they could look forward to. Most factor in the complex process of lifelong
importantly, they were proud to have the learning.
recognition of having completed a degree
course. It showed that they had done Environmental motivating factors
something significant in their lives. Besides, The facilitating factors found in this study
they also shared that they had become very confirm previous research findings on the
On-going Growth
Family
/other
System
Soul Searching, support s&
support
Support & Role
&
Overcome obstacles Models
Informa
tion Decision Making
& Engaging in
Lifelong learning Postponement &
Temporary Exits
Reflection &
Evaluation
Comparison, Being
challenged,
Life Events &
Hidden Dreams
Fig.1: Lifelong learning model derived from school teachers
importance role of motivation from the a motivational construct that is driven

environment (Pan, 1977; Law et al., 2009) from within and seen as a preferred way
which has its theoretical framework from of learning compared to the latter which is
Bronfenbrenner (1979) where family, and seen as being driven by external rewards.
community play a role in learning. The The findings of this study reject the above
similar pattern in the learning process also simplistic dichotomy classification, as it
highlighted the relational aspect in learning. was evidently found that there was complex
Just as Cross (1981) conceptualized lifelong interactions between individuals and the
learning as a chain of activities instead of environment. It was found that most of
a single isolate event, the findings of this the participants rose to the occasion when
research found that lifelong learning should challenged by external environmental
be conceptualized from a large community. factors. Both the presence of challenges and
What actually constitutes lifelong learning supports were found. Challenges include
is a complex process and should not be the demands from work and coping with
viewed from personal and individualized the forever changing environment. The
perspectives. environmental supports include the macro
Traditionally, motivation theories (NKRA scheme initialed by Malaysian
were constructed on a two dichotomy government) and micro aspects (practical
extreme, which is either intrinsic or help from the immediate family and friends).
extrinsic classification. The former depicts On one hand reflecting upon and making the
Jin Kuan Kok
decision to engage in lifelong learning is in the experience of lifelong learning as

intrinsic, on the other hand, learning may revealed by the participants. Firstly it was
not be possible without the environmental due to comparisons with colleagues that the
supports from both the macro and micro participants felt frustrated and dissatisfied;
system These supports facilitate and sustain the postponement of learning was caused
learning, help the learners to overcome by social and family responsibilities; the
obstacles to learning. Therefore, it would facilitating factors that enable and sustain
not be correct to attribute the learning solely learning also came from the family and
to external rewards even in the cases that learning communities, from colleagues and
participants were motivated by a rise in friends; role models were also available from
salary as there was a complex interaction the context within which the individuals
between individuals and environment interacted. Lastly, the self-identity of the
which involved meaning making process learners was transformed (Gallacher et al.,
(Connelly & Clandinin, 2006; Ikeda, 2001). 2002).
Gallo and Ronaldo (2011) acknowledged
Interpersonal relationships: a complex of the limitation of intrinsic motivation theories
interactive processes in learning and hold that the extrinsic motivators in
Lifelong learning is viewed as a contested learning are important. Hazidi and Hamid
concept, compounded by multi-dimensional (2011) who conducted research on the
aspects; neither simple dichotomy motives of in-service teachers pursuing a
classifications nor theories of linear bachelor degree on teaching programs also
construction can sufficiently explain its found that the studys participants had given
complex learning process. Bandura (1977) similar answers such as being left behind
has rightly located the complex learning feel pressured was forced to get ready.
process in a social context, whereas many Those answers were the consequence of their
psychological motivational construct that response to changes in their environment.
derived from Maslows approach (1943), Ngs research findings (2006) have showed
such as locus of control and intrinsic that interaction triggered life reflection,
motivation theory approach (Heider, 1960) which subsequently facilitate the decision
will be individualised focused. Coffield to engage in lifelong learning. Socio-
(2000) criticized a pure psychological cultural and contextual factors indeed play
motivational construct as being a lack of important roles in motivating and supporting
interpersonal relationships. When examining lifelong learning (Law et al., 2009). Those
closely the common lifelong learning emotions were the result of complex
patterns of the participants presented in this interaction processes with the people in the
study, the relational aspect was found to be environment. The role of emotions arising
heavily loaded with emotions. There was a from the interpersonal relationship that
strong sense of human bonds and support promote and sustain lifelong learning cannot
be undermined.
LIMITATION OF THE STUDY micro supports are needed to facilitate and

This research has some limitations. First, it sustain lifelong learning. Motivation for
is not meant as a generalization, the model lifelong learning would include the aspect
presented reflects only the common pattern of complex interpersonal interactions.
of learning experiences of a handful of high
status professional people who engaged in ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
formal education. There are many people The author is grateful for all the research
outside the government sector or educational participants who shared their learning
system who are not qualified to apply for experience, and Ms Low Sew Kim who has
sponsorship for formal education. They helped in the data collection process.
may want very much to fulfill their long
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Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in

Penang, Malaysia
Lee, L. Y.1 and Cheah, Y. K.2*
1
School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
2
School of Economics, Finance and Banking, College of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia,
06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this study is to examine the determinants of consumers willingness-
to-pay for monorail transportation in Penang (Malaysia). Cross sectional primary survey
data with a total of 498 respondents is used for the analysis via a censored regression
model. The results demonstrate that habit of recycling, experience in using urban rail-based
transportation and problems of insufficient cark parks have the significant effects on the
willingness-to-pay for a trip of monorail to travel to work. Whereas, age, gender, ethnicity,
income, education and personal perspective on public transportation system are found to
have no significant impact on the willingness-to-pay for a trip of monorail to travel to
work. Based on these findings, several policies are recommended.
Keywords: Congestion, monorail, transportation, willingness-to-pay, Malaysia

JEL classification code: D10, D12
INTRODUCTION said situation. First, the existence of great

In this age of industrialisation society, job opportunities in Penang where the
the problems of heavy traffic congestion free trade zone in Bayan Lepas posed as
in Penang, which is one of the developed a centre to cluster all the labour-intensive
states in Malaysia, is getting more serious. manufacturing industries (Yeoh, 2011)1.
Two primary reasons exist attribute to the Second, Penang ranks as the eighth most
liveable cities in Asia, which has a very good
standard of living (Tan, 2010). For these
ARTICLE INFO
Article history: reasons, many people migrate to Penang.
As a result of an increasing population in
E-mail addresses:
lianyee50@hotmail.com (Lee, L. Y.),
1
Bayan Lepas is Penangs main factory area
cheahykang@gmail.com (Cheah, Y. K.) where consists of nearly 200 multinational
companies (MNC).
Penang, the demand for private vehicles However, a fundamental question yet to
in Penang increases in tandem which be answered is whether there exist the
eventually results in the rise of and problem significant benefits received by the residents
of serious traffic congestion, especially in using this alternative transportation mode
during office rush hours. in the debate of how much an individual is
Report shows that there are willing to pay for the monorail system as
approximately 2.21 million registered an alternative public transportation to avoid
vehicles in Penang in 2010 with a large congested roadways. The main research
proportion of them are private owned question that arises include what factors
vehicles (The Star, 2011). Despite of its will affect individuals willingness-to-pay
small land capacity, Penang has the third (WTP) for the monorail as an alternative
most number of newly registered vehicles public transportation to work daily. A
in Malaysia where a total of 110882 new better understanding of these determinants
vehicles are registered (The Star, 2011). is important for the public policymakers in
Besides, it is noteworthy that there is promoting usage of the monorail system,
currently a lack of public transportation in solving the traffic congestion problem
in Penang due to a huge increase in travel as well as for future planning purposes.
demand. Worst of all, it is estimated Considering this research gap, present
that the travel demand will increase by study attempts to contribute to the existing
approximately 25% 50% by 2030 (Kaur, literatures and society by investigating
2012). Kaur (2012) also highlighted that the determinants of WTP for the monorail
if the authorities can improve the public system in Penang.
transportation system in Penang, the third
link between the island and mainland would THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
not be necessary. In view of these serious In present study, the SLOTH model, which
traffic woes in Penang, monorail (i.e. urban originally introduced by Cawley (2004),
rail-based transportation) is proposed by the is used as a proxy to explain individuals
government as the solution to these matters. behaviour in using public transport. SLOTH
However, the project has been rejected is a model to describe how individuals
indefinitely after being reviewed. Hence, allocate their time on various activities in
not much significant traffic improvements order to maximise their utility. Specifically,
have been made thus far. the SLOTH model is written as:
Given the fact that Penang residents are
often burdened with having to put up with U (S, L, O, T, H) (1)
serious daily traffic congestion problem
daily, the monorail system appears to where, U = utility; S = time spent in
pose as the most viable alternative public sleeping; L = time spent in leisure activities;
transportation to overcome this problem. O = time spent in occupation; T = time
Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in Penang, Malaysia
spent in transportation; and H = time spent Assuming that individuals are not allowed
in home activities. All of these activities to borrow money, the money that individuals
possess direct impacts on individuals utility spend on transportation goods and other
but the impacts may vary across individuals. non-transportation goods must equal to their
According to Cawley (2004), SLOTH earning. As such, the budget constraint is
model also refers to the time constraint that expressed as:
individuals face when maximising their
utility. Since there is only 24 hours per day, Y.PY + X.PX = W.O (3)
the sum of the time spent in SLOTH must
equal to 24. As such, the time constraint that where, Y = amount of non-transportation
based on SLOTH model is written as: goods purchased; P Y = price of non-
transportation goods; X = amount of
S + L + O + T + H = 24 (2) transportation goods purchased; PX = price
of transportation goods; W = hourly wage;
As argued by Cawley (2004), if given and O = time spent in occupation.
the choice, individuals would rationally Similarly, if given the choice, individuals
choose to allocate their time in the activity would rationally choose to spend their
that could yield larger marginal net utility. money on the goods that could yield larger
For example, if the marginal net utility marginal net utility. For instance, if the
of spending time in public transport is marginal net utility of spending money on
smaller than private owned vehicle, rational private owned vehicle is larger than public
individuals will choose to use more private transport, rational individuals will choose to
owned vehicle than public transport. use more private owned vehicle than public
However, by holding the marginal net transport. However, by holding the marginal
utility of spending time in private owned net utility of spending money on private
vehicle constant, if the marginal net utility owned vehicle constant, if the marginal
of spending time in public transport rises net utility of spending money on public
dramatically due to an improvement in transport rises due to a reduction in its usage
public transport system, individuals would price, individuals would tend to reallocate
tend to reallocate their time and choose to their money and choose to use more public
spend more time in public transport than transport than private owned vehicle. It is,
private owned vehicle. therefore, one can conclude that rational
M o r e o v e r, C a w l e y ( 2 0 0 4 ) a l s o people would choose to forgo the type of
emphasised that individuals maximise their transportation that they value less for the
utility depend on their budget constraint. type of transportation that they value more.
Given the limited resources, individuals need
to choose to purchase between transportation
goods and other non-transportation goods.
LITERATURE REVIEW & Maitra, 2007; Asensio & Matas, 2008;

Since the early development of literatures, Takada & Fujiu, 2010).
WTP has been used as a tool to measure the Study by Brownstone et al. (2003), who
values and the benefits of non-market goods investigated the determinants of WTP for a
and services given that it can accurately reduction in travel time in San Diego, found
reflect the consumers preferences. To our that women, middle age cohorts and those
knowledge, WTP is initially used by the with higher income and higher education
environmental economists to value the level are willing to pay more for faster
goods that are non-traded and without transportation. Using toll fees as a proxy to
property rights such as air, water, forests and measure individuals WTP to avoid traffic
wildlife populations (Tietenberg & Lewis, congestion, Calfee and Winston (1998)
2008). To date, researchers from various observed that income is not significantly
disciplines have used it for policy planning correlated with the value of travel time.
purposes. For instance, Johnson et al. Senbil and Kitamura (2004), who
(2000), Wagner et al. (2000) and Milligan explored the factors affecting WTP for
et al. (2010) used it to determine the values expressways, suggested that females
of health care, Steelman and Powell (1991) generally value the highway more than
and Gertler and Glewwe (1992) used it to males. Markose et al. (2007) exhibited that
value education system, Davis and Tisdell higher income earners are willing to pay
(1999) and Kim et al. (2007) applied it as more to save their travelling time because
a tool to value the place of interest where of their greater opportunity cost, whereas,
tourists visit, Surendran and Sekar (2010) lower income earners are less responsive
use it to study the forest eco-system, and to the increasing cost of congestion. Brent
Zarkin et al. (2000) and Cohen et al. (2004) (2006) and Carson (2000) indicated that
used it to evaluate the drug abuse treatment individuals who are more aware of the
and crime control programmes. environmental issues are more likely to use
On top of that, WTP has also been used public transport.
to measure the value of transportation related Based on the case of Barcelona, Asensio
goods such as air and traffic noise pollution and Matas (2008) found that males and
(Feitelson et al., 1996; Saelensminde, 1999; those individuals with more children value
Bjoner, 2004; Fosgerau & Bjorner, 2006), their travel time more by using a more
improvement in transportation (Khattak et expensive but shorter alternative route. The
al., 2003; Molin & Timmermanns, 2006; study also revealed that older commuters
Eboli & Mazzulla, 2008), improvement are willing to pay more money to save their
in road surface (Walton et al., 2004) and travel time. Phanikumar and Maitra (2007)
reduction in travel time (Calfee & Winston, examined the WTP for rural bus services and
1998; Brownstone et al., 2003; Phanikumar observed that socioeconomic factors such
as age, gender and income do not possess habit of using recyclable bags, experience
any significant impacts on the WTP for a in using urban rail-based transportation
reduction in travel time. (e.g. monorail, MRT, LRT, Komuter),
personal perspective on Malaysia public
METHODS transportation system and problems of
Variables insufficient cark parks (Table 1).
Age of respondents is included in
Owing to the current lack of study on the
present study as a continuous variable, and
WTP for public transport in Malaysia, the
it is hypothesised to have positive effect on
explanatory variables for present study
the WTP for monorail. Respondents gender
are selected closely based on the previous
is included as one of the dummy variable in
studies that have been conducted elsewhere
present study, where males are represented
(e.g. Calfee & Winston, 1998; Brownstone
by a value of 1 and females are represented
et al., 2003; Phanikumar & Maitra, 2007;
by 0. Based on the findings of past studies,
Asensio & Matas, 2008; Takada & Fujiu,
females are expected to have higher WTP
2010). To sum up, the explanatory variables
for monorail than males.
of present study consist of age, gender,
Provided the homogeneous nature of the
ethnicity, marital status, income, education,
population in most of the countries, previous
TABLE 1
Definition of variables in the statistical model
Variables Definitions
Dependent variable
monorail Willingness-to-pay for a trip of monorail to travel to work (RM)
Explanatory variables
Age Respondent's age in years
Male Respondent is male
Malay* Respondent is Malay
Chinese Respondent is Chinese
Indian Respondent is Indian/others
Single Respondent is single
Low Respondent's income is < RM 1000
Lower-mid Respondents income is RM 1000 RM 2999
Upper-mid Respondents income is RM 3000 RM 5999
High* Respondents income is > RM 5999
Tertiary Respondent has tertiary education
Recycle Respondent prefers to use recyclable bag than plastic bag
Experience Respondent has the experience in using urban rail-based transportation
Efficient Respondent thinks that the Malaysia public transportation system is efficient
Park Respondent faces the insufficient cark park problems
Note: *Refers to the reference groups.
studies often do not take into account of RM 2999), upper-middle (RM 3000 RM
ethnic variables. However, since Malaysia 5999) and high (> RM 5999). Based on
is well known for its uniqueness of multi- the previous findings, it is hypothesised
ethnic composition, respondents ethnic that higher income individuals would have
background is taken into consideration in higher WTP for monorail than the lower
present study as three major groups (i.e. income individuals.
Malay, Chinese and Indian/others) to allow Present study uses a dummy variable to
ethnic comparison. This is in light of the indicate respondent education background
possible impacts of cultures, religions, as 1 refers to the respondents who have at
racial-political and ethnic privileges on least tertiary education, 0 otherwise. Based
individuals preferences for monorail. As on the previous studies, it is anticipated that
emphasised by Ng et al. (2009), Chinese individuals who have tertiary education are
in Malaysia tend to face more barriers willing to pay more for monorail than those
in economic advancement compared to who without tertiary education.
Malays, thus they often engage in a hectic In present study, respondents recycling
and fast-paced lifestyle in order to cope behaviour is used as a proxy to indicate their
with their high cost of city living. For these environmental awareness. Respondents who
reasons, Malaysian Chinese are expected to prefer to use recyclable material made bag
value monorail more than Malays given that than plastic bag are coded as 1, whereas
monorail could ease their busy schedule. those who do not have such preferences
Since the presence of children in a are coded as 0. The hypothesis is that
family may pose as a barrier to use monorail individuals who have recycling behaviour
services as an alternative transportation would have higher WTP for monorail than
to work as parents often need to provide those who do not have such behaviour.
transports for their children. Given the Considering the possibility
limited availability of data, present study that familiarity with urban rail-based
uses marital status as a proxy to measure transportation may positively impact ones
these family commitments, whereby, WTP for monorail, respondents who have
respondents who are single are coded as the experience in using urban rail-based
1, and those who are married, divorc or transportation is entered into the current
widow(er) are coded as 0. As such, it is model as 1, and 0 otherwise. Further,
anticipated that single individuals would respondents personal perspective on the
have higher WTP for monorail than the Malaysia public transportation system is
married, divorc and widow(er). also included as a dummy variable in present
Following the guideline used by Cheah study, given that it may be a determining
(2011) based on a sample of Penang, income factor of individuals WTP for monorail.
variable is divided into four groups: low As such, if individuals think that the current
(< RM 1000), lower-middle (RM 1000 public transportation system is efficient are
coded as 1, otherwise 0. It seems reasonable yt= X t + ut if X t + ut > 0

to anticipate that individuals who think
= 0that if X t + ut 0,
the current public transportation system t = 1, 2,..., N (4)
is efficient would have higher WTP for
monorail.
where, yt = WTP for a trip of monorail
Last but not least, respondents who
to travel to work (RM); Xt = explanatory
are currently facing the insufficient cark
variables that are hypothesised to affect the
park problems in their residing areas or
WTP for monorail; = coefficients for the
workplaces are denoted as 1, whereas
explanatory variables; ut = error terms of the
those who are not facing such problems are
regression which assumed to be zero mean
indicated as 0. It is expected that car park
and constant variance N(0,2).
issues in the residing areas or workplaces
may affect individuals preference for
Data
monorail. In particular, individuals who face
the insufficient car park problems may have Data used in present study was collected
higher WTP for monorail than those who are based on convenience sampling method.
not facing such problems. The survey was conducted at the selected
manufacturing factories located in Bayan
Statistical analysis Lepas, Penang from February 2011 to
April 2011. The inclusion criteria were
By using the cross sectional survey data, a
those who were being employed full-time
problem that occurs is the existence of zero
in the factories and had been residing in
amounts reported by large observations
Penang for at least 12 months. Prepared
in the sample. Possible reason that arises
questionnaires were distributed for self-
may due to the lack of preference for the
administration by the respondents, despite,
good and services. As such, application
some explanations were provided upon
of ordinary least square (OLS) that does
giving out the questionnaires.
not take into account of such barriers for
During the survey, several questions
statistical analysis will definitely yield
regarding the perspectives for monorail
biased and inconsistent results (Maddala,
were addressed. In particular, respondents
1983; Kang & Tan, 2004; Greene, 2007). It
were asked to indicate whether they were
is therefore, to deal with such censored data
willing to use monorail as an alternative
(censored at the limit of zero expenditure),
transportation to travel to work, and how
tobit model is suggested to be used (Tobin,
much they were willing to pay for a single
1958). In general, tobit model can be
trip. The targeted sample size was 508
expressed as:
respondents which represented 1611600
populations of Penang (SERI, 2011).
The response rate was about 98% (498
respondents). Stata statistical software Approximately 47% of the respondents are

(version 9) was used to perform the statistical male, and 50% are single.
analysis. Overall, the ethnic breakdown is as
follows: 27% Malay, 61% Chinese and 12%
RESULTS Indian/others. Majority of the respondents
The characteristic of survey respondents is are in the lower-middle income group
presented in Table 2. Out of the total 498 (54%), followed by those in the upper-
respondents, 424 (85%) are willing to pay middle (32%), high (10%) and low (4%)
for a trip of monorail to travel to work, income groups. A large proportion of the
and 74 (15%) are not willing. The average sample (78%) have tertiary education.
amount of money that the respondents are About 87% of the respondents prefer to
willing to pay for a trip of monorail to use recyclable material made bag than
travel to work is around RM 2, which is plastic bag. More than three-quarter (84%)
almost equivalent to the average price of of the respondents have the experience in
monorail in Kuala Lumpur. Mean age of the using urban rail-based transportation. Only
respondents is approximately 31 years old. minority (33%) of the respondents think that
TABLE 2
Descriptive analysis of variables in the statistical model
Percentage or mean (SD)

Variables Those who are willing to Those who are not willing
Total sample
pay for monorail to pay for monorail
(N = 498)
(n1 = 424) (n2 = 74)
Monorail 2 (2) - 2 (2)
Age 31 (6) 31 (7) 31 (6)
Male 46 49 47
Malay 26 35 27
Chinese 61 58 61
Indian 13 7 12
Single 51 42 50
Low 4 4 4
Lower-mid 53 58 54
Upper-mid 33 27 32
High 10 11 10
Tertiary 80 68 78
Recycle 91 68 87
Experience 84 78 84
Efficient 35 22 33
Park 84 57 80
Note: For continuous variable, the value refers to mean, whereas for dummy variables, the value refers
to percentage. SD refers to standard deviation.
the current Malaysia public transportation Further, Likelihood Ratio (LR) test is used
system is efficient. Last, around 80% to test the goodness-of-fit of the model. The
of the respondents face the problems of LR chi-square with 13 degree of freedom
insufficient cark parks in their residing areas has the value of 27.09, with the probability
or workplaces. of 0.012. Hence, the null hypothesis can be
Estimation results for tobit analysis of rejected at 5% level, and conclude that the
WTP for monorail is summarised in Table 3. current model is very good fit.
Correlation coefficients between income and The results show that only habit of
education variables are calculated to detect recycling, experience in using urban
the potential multicollinearity problem. The rail-based transportation and problems
results show that the correlation coefficients of insufficient cark parks variables are
between income and education variables are statistically significant in affecting the
less than 0.8, thus indicating that there exists individuals WTP for monorail. Whereas,
no multicollinearity problem in the current the rest of the variables like age, gender,
model (Studenmund, 2006) (Appendix 1). ethnicity, income, education and personal
TABLE 3
Results for tobit analysis of WTP for monorail in Penang
Coefficient Std. Err. t-stat p-value

Variables
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Constant 0.1175 1.0547 0.11 0.911
Age -0.0008 0.0200 -0.04 0.970
Male 0.2954 0.1966 1.50 0.134
Malay - - - -
Chinese 0.1382 0.2402 0.58 0.565
Indian 0.2458 0.3349 0.73 0.463
Single -0.0730 0.2314 -0.32 0.753
Low -0.0229 0.6538 -0.03 0.972
Lower-mid -0.3822 0.3912 -0.98 0.329
Upper-mid -0.5022 0.3616 -1.39 0.166
High - - - -
Tertiary 0.3257 0.2826 1.15 0.250
Recycle 0.6220 0.3022 2.06 0.040**
Experience 0.4730 0.2771 1.71 0.088*
Efficient 0.3007 0.2120 1.42 0.157
Park 0.5965 0.2474 2.41 0.016**
LR 2 (13) 27.09
P> 2 0.012
Observations 497
Note: Asterisks *** indicate significance at the 1% level, ** at the 5% level, and * at the 10% level.
perspective on Malaysia public transportation Kitamura (2004), there are no gender

system are not significantly associated with differences in the preference for monorail.
individuals WTP for monorail. In terms The reason may be that there exists an
of environmental awareness factor, it is equal labour force participation rate
found that individuals who prefer to use between males (51%) and females (49%)
recyclable material made bag than plastic in Malaysia, and thus somewhat indicating
bag are willing to pay RM 0.62 more for a that both Malaysian males and females have
trip of monorail to travel to work compared the same likelihood of engaging in a busy
to their counterparts who do not have such working lifestyle (Department of Statistics
awareness. Meanwhile, individuals who Malaysia, 2010). It appears, therefore, one
have the experience of using urban rail- can conclude that Malaysian males and
based transportation are found to have RM females may equally value their travel time
0.47 higher of WTP for a trip of monorail in this urbanisation society.
to travel to work in relative to their peers It is surprising to observe that there is
who do not have such experience. Further, no significant relationship between ethnicity
individuals who face the problems of and the WTP for monorail. The absence of
insufficient cark parks in their residing ethnic differences in present study may be
areas or workplaces are willing to pay RM because of the data that used in present study
0.60 more for a trip of monorail to travel to is unable to represent the ethnic Malays
work as compared to their peers who are not in Malaysia given that it consists of small
facing such problems. proportion of Malay respondents (27%).
It is worthwhile to note that marital status
DISCUSSION does not possess any significant impacts on
Age is found to have no significant ones WTP for monorail. Although single
impact on the WTP for monorail. This individuals do not have as much family
observed outcome contradicts the studies commitments as those married, divorc or
by Brownstone et al. (2003), Asensio and widow(er), they equally appreciate their
Matas (2007) and Phanikumar and Maitral travel time. The reason may be that both of
(2007), who claimed that age is able to affect these groups of individuals utilise their time
ones preference for public transportation. in a different manner. For instance, single
Perhaps, this is due to the widely known individuals would often allocate most of
facts that monorail transportation system in their time for works, whereas, those who
Malaysia is designed to be user friendly to are non-single would tend to spend most of
both the elderly and youngsters. Therefore, their time with their family.
the taste for monorail does not vary across Present study found that income is
the age of individuals. not significantly associated with the WTP
Contrary to the arguments by for monorail. These unexpected outcomes
Brownstone et al. (2003) and Senbil and contradict the previous arguments by
Brownstone et al. (2003), Markose et al. Hence, they tend to find monorail easier to
(2007) and Phanikumar and Maitra (2007). be used. Second, they are also more aware
Based on these, one can conclude that of the advantages of using monorail.
opportunity cost of time does not play an Contrary to the prior supposition, it is
important role in affecting individuals ascertained that individuals perspective on
decision to use time saving transportation the Malaysia public transportation system is
such as monorail. In contrast to the findings not significantly correlated with the WTP
by Brownstone et al. (2003), no significant for monorail. This may be mainly due to
relationship is found between education majority of the people in Penang have the
and the WTP for monorail. It may be confidence that the public transportations
because both education and income are will improve substantially in the future.
complementary in nature. Hence, education Based on these outcomes, one can reject
per se does not possess any significant the notion that people who do not think that
impacts on the WTP for monorail given that the current public transportations system is
income is not significant. efficient would not value the monorail.
With regard to the environmental In agreement with the earlier
awareness factor, individuals who have the expectation, individuals who are currently
habit of recycling such as using recyclable faced with insufficient cark park problems
material made bag are observed to have a in their residing areas or workplaces tend
higher preference for monorail in relative to place higher value on monorail. In other
to those who do not have such recycling words, insufficient cark park problems pose
habit. The fact of the matter is that monorail as an incentive for one to use monorail.
transportation is more environmental This is owing to use of urban rail-based
friendly as compared to automobile due transportation can ease the troubles in
to its low carbon emission system. Hence, finding car parks.
those commuters who are more aware of
the environmental issues would be more CONCLUSION
likely to use monorail as an alternative The present study has shed new light on
transportation to work. the determinants of WTP for monorail in
Conform to the prior conjecture, Penang, Malaysia. Findings of present
individuals who have the experience of study appear to be very useful for the
using urban rail-based transportation tend to policy makers in designing the proper
value the monorail system more than their interventions for solving the problems of
peers who do not have such experience. heavy traffic congestion. Specifically, the
Two likely reasons exist for these findings. factors that found to be able to affect ones
First, individuals who have the experience preference for using monorail include habit
of using urban rail-based transportation are of recycling, experience in using urban
more familiar with the monorail system. rail-based transportation and the problems
of insufficient cark parks. Based on these public transportation system. As a result,

findings, several policies are recommended. rational individuals would be more likely
First, environmental awareness to substitute monorail for private owned
programmes directed toward the public vehicle as the transport to travel to work
to increase the awareness of the risks of during rush hours.
excessive carbon dioxide in the atmosphere Given the budget, time and geographical
may help reduce the traffic congestion in constraints, several limitations are
Penang. As a suggestion, these programmes acknowledged in present study. First, the
should take into consideration of making collected survey data is somewhat limited to
environmental courses and seminars adults who are working in the Bayan Lepas
compulsory in the schools and workplaces to areas. Ideally, respondents travelling to/from
deliver the information about environmental work throughout the Penang Island as well
issues. Nevertheless, efforts could also be as mainland should be canvassed in order to
made to invite the environmental specialists obtain a more representative sample. Others
to become the spokespersons to highlight such as students and pensioners should also
the alarming evidence of environmental be examined for their travel patterns and
pollution. preferences. Second, owing to a lack of
Second, policy makers are suggested to measuring instrument, few variables that are
promote the benefits of monorail, such as deemed important are not taken into account
less expensive, quicker and environmental in present study. For instance, the distance
friendly, to the community, with focus on of travelling from house to workplace and
those individuals who without the experience the time spent in traffic congestion. As such,
of using urban rail-based transportation. For suggested future researches should not only
instance, multi-lingual mass media such as be limited to the Bayan Lepas area. Since the
newspaper, magazine, radio channels and city of Georgetown is facing heavy traffic
television programmes could be used as the issues during rush hours as well, the study
channel to deliver the messages regarding should be extended to the whole of Penang
the benefits of monorail to the public. While, island.
this is to guarantee the messages to reach a
wider population. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Moreover, based on the economic The authors are grateful to Associate
interventions to discourage people from Prof. Dr. Andrew Tan Khee Guan forhis
using private owned vehicle, government insightful comments and suggestions to
should consider imposing heavy parking this manuscript. All the remaining flaws
fine in the areas where have a lot of illegal are the authors responsibility and the usual
car parking. Government can thus use this disclaimer applies.
collected revenue to further subside the
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APPENDIX
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT BETWEEN INCOME AND EDUCATION
VARIABLES
Variables Low Lower-mid Upper-mid High
-0.3349 -0.1222 0.1985 0.1135
Tertiary
(0.000)*** (0.006)*** (0.000)*** (0.011)**
Note: P-value in parentheses. Asterisks *** indicate significance at the 1% level, ** at the 5% level, and
* at the 10% level.

Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools

in Mid-Western Nigeria
Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede* and Austine Itohan Ojugo
Department of Guidance and Counselling, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma 310001, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the job satisfaction among school counsellors in secondary schools
in mid-western Nigeria. The study adopted a survey research design. The participants
were 121 secondary school counsellors drawn from secondary schools in mid-western
Nigeria. A questionnaire titled Counsellors Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (CJSQ) was
used to collect data for this study. The results indicated that the majority of the secondary
school counselors are satisfied with their jobs. Also, promotion was the best single factorr
predicting job satisfaction. In addition, job dimension variables such as promotion, job
tenure, salary, social support and supervision significantly correlated with job satisfaction
among school counsellors. Based on these findings, it was recommended that school
counsellors job satisfaction could be further enhanced and sustained by government and
school administrators by paying adequate attention to the welfare of counsellors in terms
of regular promotion, enhanced remunerations, guaranteed job security, adequate social
support system and provision of well equipped counselling centres for counselling practice.
Keywords: Job satisfaction, secondary school counsellors, best counselling practices, career advancement,
career counselling
INTRODUCTION
Counselling is a notable field for its diversity
and dynamism. It is influenced by diverse
political, economic and social forces
within the society. As a result, tremendous
ARTICLE INFO
expansion has been witnessed in the field of
Article history:
Received: 2 February 2012 counselling in terms of promotion of good
health, family dynamics, career assessment,
E-mail addresses:
oyaziwoaluede@gmail.com (Oyaziwo Aluede), school adjustments, development tasks,
austine_ojugo@yahoo.com (Austine Itohan Ojugo)
* Corresponding author ethical standards, and research training.

Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede and Austine Itohan Ojugo
One of the tasks of school counsellors is scarce, government shall continue to make
to educate and assist students in their overall provisions for the training of interested
development. In the 21st century, the job of teachers in guidance and counselling. The
helping students to achieve success in schools thrust of this policy is that government
and become more productive members of believes that guidance and counselling is a
the society is challenging. According to crucial educational service that can enhance
Gysbers, Lapan and Blair (1999), todays the personal growth and psychological
youth must confront a rapidly changing development of students in the school
world of work and labour force, violence in system (Federal Government of Nigeria,
the home, school and community, divorce, 2004).
teenage suicide, substance abuse, and sexual For counsellors to be able to provide
experimentation. Thus, school counsellors this crucial educational service to the
occupy an important position within the students, they have to be interested and
school system to assist students to cope willing to contribute meaningfully to the
with these crucial issues and the normal students personal growth and psychological
developmental tasks adolescents face in life development. Therefore, the study of job
(Aluede, 2009). satisfaction among school counsellors
The demand for school counsellors is very crucial to the improvement of
would continue to be on the increase. productivity among school counsellors. This
This is especially so in Nigeria in the is because for members of a profession to
face of increasing school enrolments with discharge their duties effectively, they must
the introduction of the Universal Basic be satisfied with their jobs (Eduwen, 2008).
Education on September 30, 1999 (Imonikhe Job satisfaction is a pleasurable
& Aluede, 2010). This programme has made emotional state resulting from the appraisal
school attendance compulsory for children of ones job. There are a number of factors
aged between six and thirteen years of age. that can influence a persons level of job
It is in realization of this fact that the Federal satisfaction. Some of these factors include
Government of Nigeria has devoted much the level of pay and benefits, the perceived
time to the planning and implementation fairness of promotion in an organization,
of guidance and counselling programmes recognition, favourable working conditions
in secondary schools. Hence, the Federal and the job itself (DeMato, 2001). The need
Government of Nigeria (2004) stated that to cater for the working conditions of school
in view of the apparent ignorance of many counsellors and ensure their job satisfaction
young people about career prospects and in the school system becomes imperative if
personality maladjustments among school they are to carry out their responsibilities
children, career officers and counsellors shall to the admiration of all. If they are unable
be appointed to post primary institutions. to achieve their goal as counsellors,
Since qualified personnel in this category are they experience feelings of inadequacy
Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools in Mid-Western Nigeria
and unhappiness that may make them satisfaction and the best conclusion to draw
vulnerable to stress and job dissatisfaction. from these works is that, although there are
Job dissatisfaction promotes stress, fatigue, many specific and diverse job dimensions,
frustration and low productivity (DeMato, which have been shown to relate to job
2001). satisfaction at one time or the other, there
is a set of dimensions common to most
Extent of Job Satisfaction among School jobs that is sufficient to describe most of
Counsellors the predictable variances in job satisfaction
Among the existing studies on school ( DeMato & Curcio, 2004). The specific
counsellors job satisfaction, is that of dimensions identified represent those job
DeMato and Curcio (2004), which examined characteristics typically used to assess job
how elementary school counsellors in satisfaction for which the organizational
Virginia reported their job satisfaction. members have some positions on a like-
Results of the study indicate that a vast dislike continuum.
majority (90.4%) of Virginia elementary Job satisfaction characteristics have
school counsellors surveyed in 2001 been classified into two namely intrinsic and
were either satisfied or mostly satisfied in extrinsic dimensions (Rose, 2001; Eduwen,
their positions. Similarly, Baggerly and 2008). Intrinsic dimension is the outcome
Osborn (2006) reported a survey of school or the result of a work situation that people
counsellors in Florida in 2002, which enjoy, because they are in charge and they
revealed that majority of the respondents have the opportunity to acquire new skills
(39.8%) were either satisfied or somewhat and abilities to make a different challenge,
satisfied (44.7%) in their positions. Baggerly or because they are part of success team
and Osborns (2006) study further asked (Clark, 2005). Intrinsic motivation leads
respondents to report the frequency with to outstanding creative productivity energy
which they performed appropriate and that seems to have virtually no limit.
inappropriate school counsellors roles as Intrinsic motivation, which has to do with
defined by the American School Counselling the job content, then, is motivation which
Association (ASCA). The study revealed comes from the inside of a person. It is
that school counsellors who implemented an emotional preference for a task that
appropriate duties more frequently indicated gives pleasure and enjoyment. It arises
greater job satisfaction, while those who from having a strong emotional interest
implemented inappropriate duties more in an activity and a sense of freedom and
frequently indicated low job satisfaction. autonomy relating to it (Kashel, 1994).
Extrinsic dimension involves the job
Facets of Job Satisfaction context, that is, the external environment in
Over the years, considerable time and efforts which the worker operates. This includes:
have been devoted to studies on facets of job the social and administrative atmosphere;
working conditions; remunerations; and Salary is recognized as a factor in

other benefits (Clark, 2005). A thorough employees job satisfaction. Akintoye
review of literature reveals that these (2000) asserted that money remains the
facets of job dimension include promotion, most significant motivational strategy
job tenure, salary, school support and to achieve greater productivity. Tella,
supervision (Clark, 2005; Eduwen, 2008). Ayeni and Popoola (2007) stated that to
Promotion has been recognized as use salaries as a motivator effectively,
a factor in employees job satisfaction. personnel managers must consider four
Promotion constitutes an important aspect major components of a salary structure.
of workers labour mobility most often These are the job rate, which relates to the
carrying substantial wage increase (Kosteas, importance the organization attaches to each
2009; Blau & Devaro, 2007; Cobb- Clark, job; payment, which encourages workers
2001). Accordingly, lack of promotion or groups by rewarding them according
breeds lower staff morale resulting in to their performance; personal or special
frustration, resignation and premature allowances, associated with factors such
retirement (Clark, 2005). Souza-Poza and as scarcity of particular skills or certain
Souza-Poza (2003) estimated the effect of categories of information, professionals, or
promotion on workers satisfaction, focusing with long service; and fringe benefits such
on promotion satisfaction in a small sample as holidays with pay, pensions, and so on.
of managers. They found that managers who Collins (2008) reported the relationship
received promotions were more satisfied between social support and job satisfaction.
with promotion opportunities and have Specifically, Collins stressed the importance
greater promotion expectation for the future, of social support in an organization, asserting
than those who did not. that the workers support group encouraged
Job tenure correlates with job discussion, built consensus, coalitions and
satisfaction. Kosteas (2009) asserted that networks, helped members articulate agency
there is a correlation between job tenure and demands, enabled them to be clearer about
job satisfaction. Job satisfaction appears to explicit and implicit rules and conflict issues-
initially decline with job tenure and then encouraging movement towards resolution
rises. This finding is consistent with the of these issues, while clarifying the workers
dynamics that individuals with lower job own sense of role and mission. Similarly,
satisfaction are more likely to leave their Coulshed and Mullender (2006) revealed
jobs, but will give it some time on a new job that learning sets or seminars based around
before doing so. Conversely, Duffy, Ganster social workers own agenda, work-based
and Shaw (1998) reported that individuals issues, seeking practical outcomes, are other
with longer tenure were more likely to possible means of providing mutual group
experience dissonance and leave the job if support and shared problem-solving. This
they become dissatisfied. implies that a wide range of opportunities
for mutual group support should be available that the government has embarked on the
on the particular needs, wishes and wants of training and re-training of school counsellors
the staff of the organization. through seminars, conferences, workshop
DeMato and Curcio (2004) revealed that and in-service courses. School counsellors
supervision is linked to job satisfaction. In serve dual purpose by engaging in other
other words, the supervision by a district ancillary functions, including teaching
superior and peers positively predicted of different subjects in addition to their
school counsellors career satisfaction primary functions of counselling students
(DeMato & Curcio, 2004). Evans and (Aluede & Imonikhe, 2002). At times, there
Hohenshil (1997, as cited in DeMato, 2001) are cases of counsellors being assigned
investigated 231 substance abuse counsellors as full-time teachers in the classroom
and concluded that job satisfaction could be thereby relegating to the background their
predicted by a combination of four clinical professional responsibilities (Aluede, Afen-
supervision variables. The supervision Akpaida & Adomeh, 2004). The implication
variables were the numbers of hours per is that the educational structure creates
week, length of time the supervisor had been strain and stress, which have given rise to
in clinical supervision, degree level of the the question as to whether secondary school
supervisor, and whether the supervisor was counsellors experience job satisfaction.
the clinical or administrative supervisor. A number of problems face Nigerias
educational system, which tend to
Rationale for the Study have negative effects on the degree
Today, the world is in dire need of of counsellors job satisfaction. These
development in science and technology include current pressure from working
through education. Nigeria cannot afford with more challenging students, increased
to be left behind in the scheme of things in administrative and managerial tasks,
which secondary education will play a key shortage of funds, increased counsellor-
role. The counsellors in the school system student ratios, and inadequate facilities(
need to be satisfied with their jobs if they are Aluede, Afen- Akpaida & Adomeh, 2004;
to play their expected role. The implication Aluede, McEachern & Kenny 2005).
is that without improving the working The study of job satisfaction among
conditions of counsellors and making them teachers in Nigeria has been widely
satisfied, the probable result is that very researched (e.g. Arubayi, 1981; Nwagwu,
few of the educational aims can be properly 1981; Clark, 2005). These studies have
achieved. indicated that majority of teachers are
The role of school counsellors in the satisfied with their job. Similarly, the study
educational process has been a matter of of job satisfaction among school counsellors
public interest. It is in recognition of this has also been widely researched especially
vital service in the educational enterprise in developed countries (cf Morgan, 1977;
Kirk, 1988; Murray, 1995; DeMato, 2001; secondary schools in Midwestern- Nigeria
DeMato, 2004; DeMato & Curcio, 2004; were targeted for use in the study. At the
Bryant & Constantine, 2006). However, time of data collection, only 121 secondary
little is known about job satisfaction of school counsellors duly responded. Their
counsellors in Nigerian schools (Eduwen, demographic characteristics were as follows:
2008). Hence, it became imperative to 53 males with an age average of 35.6 years.
survey job satisfaction among counsellors in The number of females was 68 with age
secondary schools and to determine which average of 33.2 years.
of the following dimensions: promotion, job
tenure, salary, social support and supervision Measurement
significantly contribute to job satisfaction of A questionnaire entitled School
school counsellors. Thus, the problem of the Counsellors Job Satisfaction Questionnaire
study is how satisfied are secondary school (SCJSQ) was the instrument used in
counsellors on their jobs? To resolve this this study. It was adapted from the Job
problem, the following research questions Descriptive Index (JDI) developed by Smith,
were raised being, Kendall, and Hulin (1969) and adapted by
1. How do secondary school counsellors DeMato (2001). In the original JDI, five
in Midwestern Nigeria express their facets of job satisfaction (pay, promotion
job satisfaction? and promotion opportunities, workers
2. Which of the job dimensions (promotion, social support, supervision and the work
job tenure, salary, social support itself) were measured. Respondents were
and supervision) most significantly required to answer yes, no, or cant decide
contribute to job satisfaction of in response to whether given statements
secondary school counsellors in accurately describes their job.
Midwestern- Nigeria? The current version was also made up
of five facets of job satisfaction. Pay was
METHODOLOGY modified as salary; work itself was replaced
by job tenure; promotion and promotion
Participants opportunities; workers social support; and
The study adopted the survey design supervision were retained. Each facet has
approach. The population of the study six items. In the current instrument, the
comprised of all the 128 secondary school following work itself items: Repeated; Hot
counsellors drawn from the existing 57 (Temperature); Pleasant; Useful; Tiresome;
public secondary schools in Midwestern and Helpful were completely deleted
Nigeria with practicing school counsellors. and replaced with the following items on
In view of the fact that the population Supervision: The way my job provided
of the study was relatively small, all the 128 for a secure future; the level of my job
secondary schools counsellors practicing in security; the way layoff and transfers
are carried out in my job; the opportunity counsellors respond to the questionnaire.
to be important in the eyes of fellow In each school, the questionnaire was
colleagues; the opportunity provided for administered and retrieved from the
staff development; and my present job respondents the same day.
gives me a sense of accomplishment. In The data collected were collated and
addition, the sentence structure of item 15 analyzed with descriptive and inferential
on the original JDI which read my pay and statistics. To answer research question as to
the amount of work I do was modified to whether school counsellors were satisfied or
now read my salary value in relation to the not on their jobs, their responses in all the
amount of work I do five facets of job satisfaction were collapsed
Both the original version of JDI and from the four- point response format and
the modified version used in this study had classified into twosatisfied and not
thirty (30) items. In the modified version, satisfied. The second research question used
the response format was modified from its the four- point response format.
original nominal scale format of yes, no
and cant decide to a four point Likert- type RESULTS
format of very satisfied (4 points), satisfied The data generated, when analysed, yielded
(3 points), dissatisfied (2 points) and very the following results that are presented in
dissatisfied (1 point). The modification of this section:
JDI became necessary to suit the Nigerian
school system and the aims of the current Research Question One
study.
How do secondary school counsellors in
The instrument was content validated
Midwestern Nigeria express their job
by three professors of counselling, and
satisfaction? Job satisfaction as expressed by
educational management in the Faculty
secondary school counsellors in Midwestern
of Education, Ambrose Alli University,
Nigeria is presented in Table 1.
Ekpoma-Nigeria and the reliability of the
Based on the survey, the majority
instrument was determined using splithalf
of the respondents (total of 88. 3 %)
method. The reliability yielded a correlation
indicated satisfaction in all the facets of
co-efficient of 0.94, which was considered
job satisfaction. Also, the survey further
adequate for this study
indicated that an insignificant percentage
(11. 7%) of school counsellors expressed
Procedure
dissatisfaction with their job.
Copies of the questionnaire were personally
distributed by the principal author with Research Question Two
the assistance of research assistants. The
Which of the job dimensions (promotion,
principal author sought the permission
job tenure, salary, social support and
of school principals to have their school
supervision) most significantly contribute
TABLE 1
Secondary School Counsellors Job Satisfaction (N=121)
Response Categories
Satisfied Not-satisfied
S/N Job Satisfaction items F % f %
1 The opportunity for advancement on the job 100 82.64 21 17.36
2 The opportunity of getting ahead on the job 110 90.90 11 9.10
3 The way promotions are carried out in the organization 102 84.3 19 15.7
4 The way I get promotion for the work I do 105 86.78 16 13.22
5 Am satisfied with the promotion criteria 107 88.43 14 11.57
6 The feelings of accomplishment I derive from the promotion 106 87.6 15 12.4
7 The way my job provides for a secured future 105 86.78 16 13.22
8 The level of my job security 102 84.30 19 15.70
9 The way layoff and transfer are carried out in my job 109 90.10 12 9.90
10 The opportunity to be important in the eyes of fellow colleagues 108 89.26 13 10.74
11 The opportunity provided for staff development 107 88.43 14 11.57
12 My present job gives me a sense of accomplishment 104 85.95 17 14.05
13 The opportunity to make as much money as my friends in other 102 84.30 19 15.70
jobs
14 How my pay compares with that of similar positions in the 100 82.64 21 17.36
school system
15 My salary value in relation to the amount of work I do 104 85.95 17 14.05
16 The level of my salary with reference to my experience 108 89.26 13 10.74
17 The way regular salaries and allowances are paid 112 92.56 09 7.43
18 The opportunity for salary advancement 109 90.10 12 9..90
19 The spirit of cooperation among my co-workers 109 90.10 12 9.90
20 The friendliness of my co-workers 112 92.56 09 7.43
21 The way my co-workers get along with each other in the 113 93.40 08 6.60
organization
22 Inter-personal relationship among co-workers 101 83.47 20 16.53
23 The way I get praised from my co-workers for a job well done 110 90.90 11 9.10
24 The level of support I get from my co-workers 115 95.04 06 4.96
25 The technical know-how of my supervisor 111 91.74 10 8.26
26 The opportunity to do new things on my own 107 88.43 14 11.57
27 The way school system policies are administered 108 89.26 13 10.74
28 The opportunity to supervise other people 106 87.60 15 12.40
29 The opportunity to work alone on the job 107 88.43 14 11.57
30 The nature of supervision 107 88.43 14 11.57
Total 3206 88.3 424 11.7
to job satisfaction of secondary school Salary accounted for an increment (27.9%)

counsellors in Midwestern- Nigeria? of variance. Social support accounted for an
Job dimensions (promotion, job tenure, increment (13.45) of variance. Job tenure
salary, social support and supervision) that accounted for an (10.5%) of variance, while
significantly contribute to job satisfaction supervision accounted for a significant
of school counsellors was determined increment (7.7%) of variance. Based on the
using Regression analysis to analyze the analysis, it can be concluded that promotion
respondents score on each of the dependent is the most significant predictor of job
variables as significant predictors of job satisfaction.
satisfaction. The results of the analysis are
presented in Tables 2 and 3. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Tables 2 and 3 reveal that in separate This study found that the majority of
stepwise regression equation, hygiene school counsellors in Midwestern Nigeria
variables were presented as independent expressed satisfaction with their job
(potential predictors) variables with job as school counsellors. In addition, job
satisfaction as the dependent measure. satisfaction was significantly correlated with
These variables which were significant promotion, job tenure, social support, salary
predictors in the hygiene group were used and supervision of school counsellors.
in a stepwise regression to identify the best Promotion was the best single predictor
predictors of job satisfaction. Promotion was of job satisfaction. This is an indication that
the best single factor, which accounted for a promotion is a morale booster to counsellors
significant increment (40.6%) of variance. and perhaps other employers in the school
TABLE 2
Regression Analysis of the Dimensions of Job Satisfaction
Mode Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 2007.179 1 2007.179 81.258 .000a
Residual 2939.449 119 24.701
Total 4946.628 120
2 Regression 3384.883 2 1692.442 127.875 .000b
Residual 1561.745 118 13.235
Total 4946.628 120
3 Regression 4046.206 3 1348.735 175.254 .000c
Residual 900.422 117 7.696
Total 4946.628 120
4 Regression 4567.828 4 1141.957 349.701 .000d
Residual 378.800 116 3.266
Total 4946.628 120
5 Regression 4946.628 5 989.326 1.099 .000e
Residual .000 115 .000
Total 4946.628 120
system. This is in line with the work of individuals with longer tenure were more
Kosteas (2009) that stressed the importance likely to experience dissonance and leave
of promotion in an organization because the job if they become dissatisfied.
of its social prestige. Promotion boosts In the present study, salary was
staff morale and motivates them to work significantly correlated with job satisfaction.
harder thereby increasing productivity and This is indicative of the fact that salary is a
efficiency (Clark, 2005). positive motivator that a worker values and
Job tenure was found to be significantly which guarantees his/ her commitment to an
related to job satisfaction. This is an organization. This finding is buttressed by
indication that once a worker has the the postulations of Okpara (2004) and Tella
assurance that his/ her job is guaranteed, et al. (2007) that workers value pay, and
the more likely for/ her to experience higher once they are well paid they will be satisfied
level of job satisfaction and organizational and committed to their organization.
commitment. Also, the tendency to regard Social support was also found to be
the present job as a stepping stone to other significantly correlated with job satisfaction.
jobs is erased and there is the assurance of This is an indication that school counsellors
looking forward to retirement and pension. individuals are indeed influenced by their
The finding is supported by the study of perceptions of others assistance and
Kosteas (2009), which stated that workers recognition. The social nature of man is also
initially have high morale when starting a exhibited by the school counsellor as he/
job but morale decreases during the first she consciously or unconsciously evaluates
few years of service and then increase as his/her input and how this is perceived by
the number of years of service increases. others. This finding agrees with that of
However, this finding differs from the studies Mausner, Peterson and Capwell (1957, cited
of Duffy et al. (1998) which concluded that in Eduwen, 2008) that workers who identify
TABLE 3
Model Summary of Regression Analysis of Dimensions to Job Satisfaction of School Counsellors
Mode R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of Change Statistics

Square the estimate R F. Df1 df2 Sig. F
Square Change Change
1 .637a .406 .401 4.97004 .406 81.258 1 119 .000
2 .827b .684 .679 3.63801 .279 104.095 1 118 .000
3 .904c .818 .813 2.77415 .134 85.932 1 117 .000
4 .961d .923 .921 1.80708 .105 159.736 1 116 .000
5 1.000e 1.000 1.000 .00000 .077 4.175 1 115 .000
a. Predictors: (Constant), Promotion
b. Predictors: (Constant), Promotion, Salary
c. Predictors: (Constant), Promotion, Salary, Social Support
d. Predictors: (Constant), Promotion, Salary, Social Support, Job Tenure.
e. Predictors: (Constant), Promotion, Salary, Social Support, Job tenure, Supervision.
with the group are more satisfied and are IMPLICATIONS FOR BEST
more likely to have their interpersonal COUNSELLING PRACTICES
and friendship needs met. This is further In guidance and counselling literature, there
buttressed by the findings of Collins (2008) is obvious evidence suggesting that job
that individuals who had a variety of support satisfaction among school counsellors has
networks such as work, family, friends, and been widely researched in few developed
community were better adjusted at work economies. But little is known about job
while those individuals with deficient social satisfaction among school counsellors in
networks experience more stress and are less developing countries, which this study and
able to cope. future ones hope to fill. Constant research
This study found a positive relationship on job satisfaction will obviously help the
between supervision and job satisfaction of profession to appreciate the level of job
school counsellors. This suggests adequate satisfaction among counsellors, which is
level of supervision by school principals fundamental to quality counselling service
over counsellors in the performance of their delivery. Therefore, continuous research on
responsibilities. Also, it is an indication job satisfaction among school counsellors
that government officials are effective in must be periodically conducted if the
their monitoring and supervision of school profession is to guarantee best practices
counsellor. This finding buttressed those of across the globe.
DeMato and Curcio (2004) and Evans and It is the expectation of this study that
Hohenshil (1997) that supervision is vital greater job performance/ productivity
to job satisfaction and should be based on among school counsellors can be further
the following supervision variables: number sustained across the globe, if governments
of hours per week; length of time the and school boards pay greater attention
supervisor had been a clinical supervisor; to the welfare of school counsellors
educational level of the supervisor; and especially through enhanced remunerations,
whether the supervisor is a clinical or guaranteed job security, adequate social
administrative supervisor. support and provision of well equipped
counselling centres
CONCLUSION Since promotion is the major predictor of
Based on the findings, this study concludes job satisfaction, it is therefore recommended
that the majority of secondary school that promotion decisions should be based on
counsellors in Midwestern Nigeria are merit and performance. Managers of schools
satisfied with their jobs; and that promotion should ensure that performance evaluations
is the most significant predictor of job are fair and bias free. Promotion based
satisfaction among them on merit and performance will encourage
better performance, and lead to greater
level of job satisfaction and ultimately
higher productivity. In addition, further Blau, F. O., & De Varo, J. (2007). New evidence
research should be conducted across the on gender differences in promotion rates: An
empirical analysis of a sample of New Hires.
globe to determine the effectiveness of
Industrial Relations, 46(3), 511-550
promotion as a mechanism for eliciting
efforts and reducing turn over relative to Bryant, R. M., & Constantine, M. G. (2006). Multiple
role balance, job satisfaction and lfe satisfaction
other mechanisms such as pay increase and
of women counselors. Professional School
job tenure.
Counseling, 9, 265- 271
Carraher, S. M., & Buckely, M. R. (1996). Cognitive

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Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by

Adult Arabic Speakers
Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng*
Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the acquisition of the verb movement parameter in English by adult
Arabic-speaking learners of English as a Second Language (ESL)1. English and Arabic
differ in the settings they adopt for the verb movement parameter. English is [-strong],
while Arabic is [+strong]. Accordingly, the placement of the verb with respect to negation,
adverbs and floating quantifiers (FQs) in English are considered difficult to acquire for
adult Arabic ESL learners. In order to examine the nature of adult Arabic ESL learners
interlanguage (IL) grammar at the L2 ultimate attainment level as well as the extent to
which the adult Arabic ESL learners can reset the verb movement parameter and correctly
place the verb with respect to negation, adverbs and FQs in finite and non-finite contexts
with lexical and auxiliary verbs, an oral production task was conducted with 77 adult
Arabic ESL learners who were subdivided into three proficiency levels (lower-intermediate,
upper-intermediate and advanced). The results reveal that the Arabic ESL learners, even
at ultimate attainment level, have great difficulty in resetting the parameterized property
associated with the verb movement. These results support the Failed Functional Features
Hypothesis (FFFH) (Hawkins and Chan, 1997) which proposes that post-childhood adult
L2 learners are unable to reset parameters from their L1 values to the L2 settings where
these differ from the L1 settings.
Keywords: Second Language Acquisition, verb movement parameter, Failed Functional Features Hypothesis,
Adult L1 Arabic speakers, Negation, Adverbs, Floating Quantifiers
ARTICLE INFO INTRODUCTION

Article history:
Received: 8 February 2012 Universal Grammar theory (UG), the
Accepted: 19 March 2013
theoretical framework adopted for the
E-mail addresses:
muneeramuftah@yahoo.com (Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah), present study, was postulated by Chomsky
bee@upm.edu.my (Wong Bee Eng)
in the 1950s as an attempt to describe the

constitution of language knowledge, and period L2 learners. Functional categories

to explain the language acquisition and are grammatical categories which play a
production interactions that take place formal role in a sentence and the learning
in the language faculty. Accordingly, of these categories is essential to the
language acquisition, native or non- native, acquisition of L2. Hawkins and Chan (1997)
means setting all the parameters of UG provide evidence from the acquisition
appropriately (Cook & Newson, 2007, of wh-movement by intermediate and
p. 59). This Chomskyan approach to advanced speakers of Chinese, and argue
language acquisition has inspired hundreds that Chinese speakers did not acquire
of scholars to investigate the nature of these the strong value of the [+wh] feature of
assumed grammatical categories and the English complementizers. They attribute
research is still ongoing. the difficulties in achieving native- like
Among current views on the acquisition attainment to the critical period that affects
of functional categories in post-critical functional features in the syntax that host
period L2 (second language) acquisition, inflectional morphology.
a major distinction can be made among The Failed Functional Feature
views that contend that there is no access Hypothesis (FFFH) espoused by Hawkins
to UG, those that claim that access to UG is and Chan (1997) is one of the partial access
partial and those that maintain that there is models that addresses the role of the L1,
full access to UG. According to the partial the nature of linguistic representations
access hypothesis, principles of UG remain in interlanguage (IL) grammars and the
accessible in L2 acquisition but parameter issue of the critical period. It provides an
values cannot be reset (Hawkins & Chan, explanation for the apparent failure of most
1997). This entails that L2 learners only adult L2 learners to achieve native-like
have access to the functional categories attainment. Based on Chomskys (1986)
and feature values available from their first Principles and Parameters framework,
language (L1) (see e.g. Muneera & Wong, Tsimpli and Roussou (1991) argue that
2011). learners are unable to reset parameters,
Advocates of the partial accessibility to and as a result, the L2 will be unattainable
UG position (e.g. Hawkins & Chan, 1997; if the L1 and the L2 parameter values are
Tsimpli & Dimitrakopoulou, 2007; Hawkins different. This is known as the No Parameter
& Casillas, 2008) have further argued that Resetting Hypothesis. This position was
adult L2 acquisition of functional categories further developed by Smith and Tsimpli
such as tense and agreement, functional (1995), who highlight the parameterization
features and parameter setting are subject of functional categories, assuming that in
to a critical period, in which categories and post-critical period, which is generally said
formal features not instantiated in the L1 to be after the age of seven (see e.g. Johnson
grammar are not available to post-critical & Newport, 1989, pp. 60-99), L2 learners
Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic Speakers
cannot acquire new functional categories operator movement in restrictive relative

(e.g. tense and agreement), functional clauses which is assumed to be lacking in
features (e.g. [past]) or feature strength Chinese. Chinese, unlike English, lacks a
(e.g. feature strength of T [strong]). [wh] feature; therefore, L1 Chinese learners
Hawkins and Chan (1997) extend this will be unable to acquire the [wh] feature in
claim and propose the FFFH, developing English, the L2. In contrast, French has the
the view that L2 learners have different [wh] feature; hence, L2 learners should have
mental representations from those of native no problem as French and English share
speakers. Therefore, new parametric values this property. Hawkins and Chans results
as instantiated in functional categories and show that Chinese learners are significantly
their associated features are inaccessible different from the French learners, even
in post-critical period L2 acquisition. As a at the advanced levels. In other words, in
result, the post-critical period acquisition the case of learners whose L1 functional
of those functional features by L2 learners feature specifications are different from
will tend to diverge from those of native the L2, fossilization will occur, such that
speakers due to the differences between grammatical development stabilizes short of
L2 learners L1 parameter settings and the the target grammar (see e.g., Lardiere 1998a,
target L2 parameter settings (Hawkins & 1998b, Franceschina 2001, White 2003).
Chan, 1997, p. 189). In other words, L2 Hawkins and Chan have further asserted
learners may be able to map features from that in cases where L2 learners performance
functional categories in their L1 onto new approximates that of the native speakers
L2 morphology, but will not have access to of the target language, this cannot be the
the functional features of the L2 (Hawkins result of changes in the specification of
& Chan, 1997, pp. 188-199). They may use functional categories. Instead, some other
the morphology of the target language but operation that does not involve parameter
with the feature specifications of their L1. resetting, might be involved, producing
This means that the L2 learners underlying the observed restructuring of the learners
competence of the target L2 grammar in grammar away from the L1 and towards
relation to the parameterized functional the L2 (1997, pp. 199-200). In short, UG
features is different from those of the native is said to be accessible in L2 acquisition
speakers underlying competence (Hawkins in some attenuated form (Bley-Vroman,
& Chan, 1997, p. 189). This explains the 1989) because a systematic divergence of
observation that L2 learners despite their the near-native grammars from those of the
best effort could only arrive at near native- L2 target grammars has occurred.
like attainment in the acquisition of an L22. On the other hand, L2 grammars are
Hawkins and Chans (1997) study also considered to be attainable grammars
investigate the extent to which L1 Chinese due to the full availability of UG principles
learners of L2 English could acquire English that constrain the construction of mental
grammars in adult L2 learners. However, studies (e.g. Hawkins et al. 2002; Hawkins
divergence occurs due to deficit relating to & Liszka 2003; Hawkins & Franceschina
L1 influence, that is the different parameter 2004; Hawkins & Hattori 2006; Hawkins et
settings of the parameterized features al., 2008) have suggested that L2 learners
associated with functional categories IL grammars lack uninterpretable features;
between learners L1 and the target L2 thus supporting the view that L2 learners
(Hawkins & Chan, 1997, p. 189). Thus, have partial access to UG.
L2 learners are constantly developing IL Hawkins (2004) proposes that L2
grammars that are different from the target learners syntax is selectively impaired
grammars but are nevertheless constrained and marked by a representational deficit
by UG (White, 1996, in Mitchell & Myles, due to the lack of parameterized formal
2004, p. 65). features and functional categories. Those not
The idea of a syntactic deficit in the IL present in the L1 are no longer accessible
grammars of learners whose L1s lack the for acquisition following the critical period.
corresponding functional categories and However, accounts of the partial UG
features was further developed by other availability stand consider uninterpretable
researchers. In this context, advocates of features (such as -features on verbs)
the Representational Deficit Hypothesis to be maturationally constrained and a
(RDH) (e.g. Hawkins, 2005; Hawkins permanent locus of L2 divergence. In
& Hattori, 2006) and the Interpretability contrast, interpretable features (such as
Hypothesis (IH) (e.g. Tsimpli, 2003; Tsimpli [definiteness], -features on nouns) are UG-
& Dimitrakopoulou, 2007; Tsimpli & accessible at all times (Hawkins & Hattori,
Mastropavlou, 2008) have proposed that it 2006; Tsimpli & Dimitrakopoulou, 2007).
is only the uninterpretable syntactic features Further, Tsimpli and Dimitrakopoulou
which are inaccessible in post-critical L2 (2007) and Hawkins and Casillas (2008)
acquisition, and as a consequence, these argue that representational deficits in the L2
features remain problematic for L2 learners. grammar are restricted to the uninterpretable
According to this view, the uninterpretible syntactic features (e.g. agreement features
features, except for those already activated of verbs) and do not apply to interpretable
in the L1 grammar, will pose a learning features (e.g. tense features of verbs).
problem for adult L2 learners because they Similarly, Hawkins and Liszka (2003) claim
are inaccessible for modification beyond that the L1 Chinese learners of L2 English
the critical period. On the other hand, the in their study are unable to acquire the tense
properties associated with the interpretable feature due to the fact that such feature is
features are acquirable in L2 acquisition even lacking in Chinese; hence, the L2 learners
if they are not available in the L2 learners have problems acquiring tense morphology
L1 grammar because they remain accessible on verbs in English. The inability to acquire
throughout life. Findings from a number of L2 uninterpretable features leads to omission
of morphology in the case of tense or before Spell-out to have their strong, and
inappropriate substitution of one form for therefore visible, morphological features
another in the case of gender. checked and erased to avoid a violation of
In summary, the claim made by the the Full Interpretation Principle (FIP). This
FFFH asserts the influence of the L1 in movement, or raising, of the verb occurs in a
the L2 learners IL grammar through the variety of structures including negation and
transfer of features and parameters, and in adverb placement and placement of floating
cases where the L1 grammar lacks certain quantifiers among others. The parameter
functional features that need to be checked in in question is alternatively referred to as
syntactic representations, L2 morphological the verb movement parameter (Pollock,
errors result (see e.g. Muneera & Wong, 1997), the V-Raising parameter (Culicover,
2011, pp. 129-130). At times when adult 1997), the V-to-I parameter (Dprez, 1994)
L2 learners production approximates the or (the strength of) Agr parameter, for it
target surface structure this is because they depends on the strength of morphological
actually rely on other cognitive learning verbal features. The parametric effects of
skills3 (Hawkins & Chan, 1997, p. 200). strong versus weak morphological features
The revised version of the FFFH refines the have been studied mostly with French
claim that it is the uninterpretable functional (Dprez, 1994; Emonds, 1978; Pollock,
features that are inaccessible to L2 learners 1989, 1997) and English (e.g., Chomsky,
especially adults L2 learners (e.g Hawkins et 1995; Culicover, 1997; Pollock, 1989, 1997;
al., 2002; Hawkins & Liszka 2003; Hawkins Roberts, 1998). However, Arabic and other
& Hattori, 2006; Hawkins et al., 2008). This languages with asymmetric agreement word
study investigates the acquisition of the verb order have also been studied (Bolotin, 1995;
movement parameter in English by adult Ouhalla, 1994).
Arabic-speaking learners of English as a Previous research on V-movement has
Second Language (ESL), where English and led to the conclusion that this process does
Arabic differ as to the settings they adopt for not apply in the same manner in all natural
the parameter. languages (Rahhali & Souli, 1997, p. 320).
In other words, in languages where the
THE VERB MOVEMENT V-features in Infl are strong, there is overt
PARAMETER movement of the [+finite] verb, which raises
The verb movement parameter or VtoI from the VP to Infl for feature checking.
movement (Pollock, 1989, 1997) involves On the other hand, languages in which
the movement of the [+finite] verb from its V-features are weak, overt movement does
VPposition to a functional head linked to not take place. Instead, features are checked
infle(ctional) features. Within the Minimalist at LF; this movement is not visible in the
Program (MP) framework (Chomsky, 1995), syntax and is said to be covert (White, 2003,
[+finite] thematic verbs may move to Infl p. 11). If we suppose further that French
and English share the D-Structure form in that neither French nor English allows for
(1), where (Adv) is an optional adverbial Adverb Movement (to the right), the only
position that can be occupied by VP adverbs way for often in (4a) to end up between the
like often/souvent and seldom/rare-ment, verb and its object would be for the verb to
then we can account for the minimal pairs in move to Infl, which it cannot do. The only
(2)-(4) as the surface reflex of one abstract acceptable English sentence is therefore
syntactic difference, the respective scope of (4c). Since embrasser can, on the contrary,
Verb Movement in the two languages. move to Infl, (4b) is accounted for. As for
the ungrammaticality of (4d), it can also be
1. [IP NP I ([Neg not/pas]) [VP (Adv) V . ..]] dealt with if we assume, as Emonds (1978)
did, that French Verb Movement to Infl is
2. a.*John likes not Mary.
obligatory.
b. Jean (n) aime pas Marie.
Due to its rich verbal agreement features,
3. a.*Likes he Mary? Arabic is analyzed with the functional
b. Aime-t-il Marie? feature strength set to [+strong], while
the functional feature strength in English
4. a.*John kisses often Mary. is set to [-strong]. Weak (i.e. [-strong])
b. Jean embrasse souvent Marie. features are invisible at PF and thus the
c. John often kisses Mary. relevant categories are not able to move
d.*Jean souvent embrasse Marie. overtly. Take the following English sentence
(Examples are taken from Pollock, 1989, p. 367) for exampleFatima always cooks fish.
English agreement is weak/[-strong];
Clearly, (2a) is excluded because for the therefore, the main verb does not have
verb to end up in pre-negative position, it to raise overtly in English. Conversely,
would have to move to Infl, which it cannot [+strong] features are visible at PF so that
since English Verb Movement is restricted to the features of the relevant categories have
have and be. (2b) is fine because all lexical to be checked overtly. Consider the Arabic
verbs undergo Verb Movement in French. sentence taTbuXu fatimatu daa?iman
(3a) is straightforwardly excluded if we ssamaka/Fatima always cooks fish. Arabic
analyze Aux-NP Inversion as movement agreement is [+strong]; consequently, the
to the left of Infl (say, (head) movement main verb has to raise overtly.
of Infl to Comp, as in Chomsky (1986)), Generally, the term verb movement or
i.e. for a lexical verb like kiss to occur in verb raising (Pollock, 1989, 1997) refers to
presubject position, it would first have to the displacement of the verb from its base
move to Infl, which it cannot. Therefore, position as a head of the VP to some higher
(3b) is fine for exactly the same reasons as functional head in the functional layer.
(2b): lexical verbs move to Infl in French. Within minimalism, it is assumed that all
Given the structure in (1), the facts in (4) verbs enter the syntactic derivation already
also follow straightforwardly. Assuming
inflected for both tense and agreement movement parameter in both English and
features and that these only need to be Arabic can be determined by observing
checked against appropriate functional the placement of the verb in relation to the
heads above VP. These functional heads left-adjoined elements, such as the negation
contain abstract morphosyntactic features marker, adverbs and floating quantifiers (see
which serve to check the corresponding examples 5, 6, 7, & 8).
inflectional features of the lexical heads. English [+finite] thematic verbs cannot
In order for feature checking to take place, move to Agr via T due to the weak nature
the verb has to move from its base position of agreement; hence, it appears to the right
to the relevant functional heads in the of negation (5a), adverbs (5b) and floating
functional layer above the lexical layer. quantifiers (FQ) (5c). However, auxiliaries
Hence, all types of movement according to (see 6a-6c) and the copula be (see 7a-7c)
the MP is triggered by the feature-checking can do so.
requirement. In Arabic, on the other hand, verb
Arabic exhibits verb movement for all movement is not blocked by negation. The
[+finite] thematic verbs whereas in English thematic verbs in [+finite] contexts must
verb movement is limited (see e.g. Muneera move across the subject and any other XP
& Wong, 2011). The setting of the verb
5 a. The boy does not eat grapes Negation placement

S Neg V O Thematic verb
b. The boy always eats grapes Adverb placement
S Adv V O Thematic verb
c. All the boys ate grapes FQ placement
FQ S V O Thematic verb
6 a. The boy is not eating grapes Negation placement

S aux Neg V O Auxiliary Be
b. The boy is always eating grapes Adverb placement
S aux Adv V O Auxiliary Be
c. The boys were all eating grapes FQ placement
S aux FQ V O Auxiliary Be
7 a. The lady is not at the hotel Negation placement

S Cop Neg Comp Copula Be
b. They are always ready for exams Adverb placement
S Cop Adv Comp Copula Be
c. My parents are both doctors FQ placement
S Cop FQ Comp Copula Be
immediately following the negative marker, before or after negation, adverbs and FQs.
so that neither the subject nor any other Finally, as opposed to English, there
XP will be allowed to intervene between are no infinitives in Arabic. However, either
the negative marker and the verb (8a). nominalization (see 10a) or finite clauses
Moreover, lexical verbs may also precede (see 10b and 10c) can be used to express the
VP adverbs (8b) and FQs (8c), in contrast notion of non-finiteness.
to English4. Thus, whether or not a finite verb
In English, [-finite] thematic verbs do raises overtly is determined by strength of
not raise at all, as it is the case for [+finite] features (i.e. [strong]) in higher functional
thematic verbs. Therefore, they cannot categories. Arabic has strong Infl (Bolotin,
appear immediately before the negative 1995) while the English Infl feature is weak
marker not (9a), a frequency adverb (9b), or (Chomsky, 1995), i.e., the feature strength
an FQ (9c) whereas [-finite] auxiliaries and is set to [+strong] in Arabic and to [-strong]
the copula be may raise past negation and in English. Accordingly, in Arabic, the main
adverbs. They are free to move to Agr and verb overtly moves out of its base-generated
may optionally appear either immediately position, while in English, it does not
8 a. maa ?akala ?al-waladu 3inaban Negation placement

not ate the-boy grapes Thematic verb
Neg V S O
The boy does not eat grapes
b. ya?kulu ?al-waladu daa? iman 3inaban Adverb placement
eat the-boy always grapes Thematic verb
V S Adv O
The boy always eats grapes
c. ?akala ?al-?awaladu kulla-hum 3inaban FQ placement
ate the-boys all-clit(them) grapes Thematic verb
V S FQ O
All the boys ate grapes
9 a. Not to sleep enough makes you tired Negation placement

Non-finite thematic
verb
b. To often sleep late is unhealthy Adverb placement
Non-finite thematic
verb
c. To all own cars is the boy's ambition FQ placement
Non-finite thematic
verb
(Chomsky, 1995; Pollock, 1989). In other the issues concerning the FFFH in SLA
words, Arabic exhibits verb movement for (Second Language Acquisition) within
all finite lexical verbs whereas in English the minimalist program (MP). The paper
verb movement is limited to auxiliary and will look at data gathered from an oral
copula raising. production task (ORPT) with the aim of
Differences between the behavior of testing learners underlying knowledge of
finite and non-finite verbs in English and English verb movement parameter. The
Arabic have been accounted for in terms verb movement parameter is selected in this
of verb movement. Under this account the study due to the fact that this property does
setting of the verb movement parameter can not apply in the same fashion in all natural
be determined by observing the placement languages. Languages such as English have
of the verb in relation to certain other been shown to involve only covert verb
elements that occur left adjoined to the VP, movement. With regard to verb movement
such as the negation marker, adverbs and in Arabic, there is clear evidence that it takes
FQs (what have been called left-adjoined place overtly. This study aims to examine
elements). In languages that have a positive the consistency of the FFFH in explaining
value of the parameter [+strong], such as the acquisition of English verb placement
Arabic, the verb precedes the left-adjoined with respect to negation, adverbs and
elements; in languages that have a negative floating quantifiers by adult Arabic speakers.
value of the parameter [-strong], such as In particular, this study tests the hypothesis
English, the verb follows the left-adjoined of the inaccessibility of functional features
elements. which is not instantiated in adult learners L1
inventory due to the critical period. Towards
THE STUDY this end, the study sets out to answer two
This study investigates the acquisition research questions:
of English verb movement parameter by 1. Given exposure to the English language,
adult Arabic ESL learners in relation to to what extent can the adult Arabic
10 a. mo3amalata ?al-waledayni bighayri iHtiraam amrun moXjil-un

treatment the-parents without respect thing shameful
To treat ones parents with no respect is a shame.
b. ?al-lai laa-yu-3amilu waleday-hi b-iHtiraam-in 3aaq

who Neg-3sgm.treats parents-his with-respect shame
He who does not treat his parents respectfully is a shame.
c. 3aqun man-laa-yu-3amilu waleday-hi b-iHtiraam

shame who- Neg-3sgm.treats parents-his with-respect
Its a shame not to treat ones parents respectfully.
ESL learners reset the verb movement schools. Their average age at first exposure
parameter and correctly place the verb to English was 12.44 years. They studied
with respect to: English for three years before they began
a.) negation in finite contexts? secondary school and they continued to
learn English at secondary schools. In
b.) negation in non-finite contexts?
addition, first year undergraduate students
c.) adverbs (frequency and manner had to learn English as a requirement course
adverbs) in finite contexts? in Yemani Universities. This means that
d.) floating quantifiers (FQs) in finite the learners have had at least seven to eight
contexts? years of tutored exposure to the English
language when they begin university level
2. Given exposure to the English language, education. However, most learners had
what is the nature of adult Arabic ESL very little contact with English outside the
learners verb movement parameter in classroom before they joined the university.
their IL grammar at the L2 ultimate
attainment level? Is there evidence TEST INSTRUMENT
to indicate that the adult L1 Arabic
The test instrument was an oral production
speakers of L2 English have a different
task (ORPT) (see similar tasks used by Wen,
underlying representation from English
2006; McCarthy, 2006; Epstein et al. 1998;
native speakers?
Polio, 1994). This was a story telling task
based on a set of pictures given. First, the
PARTICIPANTS
Arabic ESL learners were asked to take a
In total 77 adult Arabic native speakers few minutes to look over the pictures. Then,
participated in this study. The Arabic they were asked to orally narrate the story
ESL learners were subdivided into three as they look through the pictures one by one
proficiency groups (the lower-intermediate starting with One day and using the
group (LIG), the upper-intermediate group verbs and phrases given under each picture.
(UIG) and the advanced group (AG)) There were no right or wrong answers in
on the basis of their performance on an this story telling task. The important thing
independent measure of proficiency, the was that they say as much as they can. If
Oxford Placement Test (OPT) (Allan, the learners do not know a particular word
1992). The participants were undergraduate in English, they were allowed to ask the
university students in Yemen from the instructor. The verbs provided with the
science and social science disciplines. pictures were in the infinitive form and the
Their average age was 22.67 years. All of L2 learners had to conjugate them where
the participants started learning English necessary.
at the age of 12 and a few of them at 13 The learners oral production was
years of age at preparatory/pre-secondary taped and transcribed. The instances of
grammatical and ungrammatical placement placed negation items with finite clauses
of verbs with respect to negation, adverb (e.g. *The girl not drinks milk from the
and floating quantifiers in finite and non- fridge).
finite contexts with thematic as well as be Type 2 (T2): ungrammatical negation
auxiliary and copula be verb forms were in non-finite contexts (UNIFC), that
counted. is wrongly placed negation items with
The possible grammatical sentences in non-finite/infinitive clauses (e.g. *To
English can be classified into the following sleep not enough makes you tired.).
types:
Type 3 (T3): ungrammatical adverb
Type 1 (Tl): grammatical negation in placement in finite contexts (UAdvFC),
finite contexts (GNFC), that is correctly that is wrongly placed adverbs with
placed negation items with finite clauses finite clauses (e.g. *John lost completely
(e.g. They do not watch movies in the his mind).
cinema).
Type 4 (T4): ungrammatical floating
Type 2 (T2): grammatical negation in quantifier (FQ) placement in finite
non-finite contexts (GNIFC), that is contexts (UFQFC), that is wrongly
correctly placed negation items with placed floating quantifiers with finite
non-finite/infinitive clauses (e.g. Not clauses (e.g. *Jane and Sarah built both
to succeed at the university causes a house; *The fans all are gathering
anxiety). beside the entrance to the theatre).
Type 3 (T3): grammatical adverb
The mean percentages of correct
placement in finite contexts (GAdvFC),
production for grammatical items and
that is correctly placed adverbs with
incorrect production for ungrammatical
finite clauses (e.g. John completely lost
items for each item type were tallied and
his mind).
analyzed. Then, statistical tests were also
Type 4 (T4): grammatical floating run on the learners production for each of
quantifier (FQ) placement in finite these typess.
contexts (GFQFC), that is correctly
placed floating quantifiers with finite RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
clauses (e.g. My teachers both agree on
This section presents the findings of the
this subject; The guests are all sleeping
grammatical and the ungrammatical oral
in this room).
production data which are aimed at testing
the learners underlying knowledge of the
The possible ungrammatical sentences are
feature strength of T [strong] that accounts
the following:
for the placement of the verb with respect
Type 1 (Tl): ungrammatical negation in to negation, adverbs and floating quantifiers
finite contexts (UNFC), that is wrongly
(FQs) in finite and non-finite contexts with was not a single instance where the L2
thematic as well as be auxiliary and copula learners used negation in non-finite contexts.
be verb forms. Both of the grammatical This can be attributed to the fact that unlike
and the ungrammatical sets contain the English, Arabic (the learners L1) has no
following: type 1 (Tl): negation in finite infinitives. The notion of non-finiteness,
contexts, type 2 (T2): negation in non- however, can be expressed through
finite contexts, type 3 (T3): adverbs in nominalization or by tensed/finite clauses.
finite contexts, and type 4 (T4): floating Therefore, the L2 learners did not tend to
quantifiers (FQs) in finite contexts. use negation in finite contexts in their oral
production, presumably due to the absence
Production of Grammatical Item Types of the said category in the their L1 inventory.
Table 1 presents the data obtained from Adverbs in (T3) GAdvFC constructions
the three proficiency groups production of proved to be problematic for the less
grammatical item types on verb movement. proficient learners whose scores were rather
Figure 1 shows the same results visually. low (45.45% for the lower-intermediate and
As shown in Table 1 and Fig.1, the 25.00 % for the upper-intermediate learners
performance of the advanced learners was respectively). Although their performance
the highest on (T1) GNFC constructions. increased with proficiency (73.91%), the
However, the results showed that the advanced learners at ultimate attainment
advanced learners scored below 80% for level did not achieve native like level.
this construction (76.00%) indicating that Again, the learners production of placement
they have not achieved native like level (the of adverbs with thematic verbs was better
cut-off point is 80%, following e.g. Wong, than that with be auxiliary or copula for
2002). The performance of the upper- most of the L2 learners, particularly for the
intermediate and the lower-intermediate advanced learners (77.82% for the thematic
learners was much lower on (T1) GNFC verbs and 70.82% for the be auxiliary or
(57.14% and 29.03% respectively). In copula respectively).
general, the advanced learners had better As far as (T4) GFQFC constructions
performance on negation with thematic were concerned, results indicated that
verbs (79.15%) than on negation with be the accuracy levels for all learners were
verb forms (be auxiliary/copula) (72.85%). also low (below 80%) across all groups
Similarly, the upper-intermediate learners (68.75%for the advanced group, 57.58%
were more accurate on items with thematic for the upper-intermediate and 44.12%
verbs (61.86%) than on be verb items for the Lower-intermediate group). These
(52.42%). The lower-intermediate learners results suggest that placement of floating
hardly used negation with be verb forms5. quantifiers in finite clauses had not been
Wi t h r e g a r d t o ( T 2 ) G N I F C acquired to a native like level by the Arabic
constructions, the data showed that there ESL learners although accuracy did increase
with proficiency.
TABLE 1
Production of Grammatical Item Types by the 3 Groups
Proficiency Group
Item type Advanced Upper-Intermediate Lower-Intermediate (%)
N=20 N=25 N=32
19/25 16/28 9/31 44/84
T1 (GNFC)
76.00% 57.14% 29.03% 52.38%
0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
T2 (GNIFC)
00.00% 00.00% 00.00% 00.00%
17/23 10/22 9/36 36/81
T3 (GAdvFC)
73.91% 45.45% 25.00% 44.44%
22/32 19/33 15/34 56/99
T4 (GFQFC)
68.75% 57.58% 44.12% 56.57%
58/80 45/83 33/101 136/264
Average
72.5% 54.22% 32.67% 51.52%
GNFC= grammatical negation in finite contexts; GNIFC= grammatical negation in non-finite contexts;
GAdvFC= grammatical adverb placement in finite contexts; GFQFC= grammatical floating quantifier
placement in finite contexts
100
T1 (GNFC) T2 (GNIFC)
80 T3 (GAdvFC) T4 (GFQFC)
60
40
20
0
Advanced
1 Upper-Intermediate
2 Lower-Intermediate
3
Fig.1: Comparison of Production of Grammatical Item Types for the 3 Groups
Performance on Ungrammatical Item the highest number of errors for (T1)

Types UNFC (70.97%). Out of the 31 instances
Table 2 and Fig.2 display the data obtained in which negation was used, 22 instances
from the participants performance on were of inappropriate use involving either
ungrammatical items. wrongly placed thematic verbs or be verb
The data indicate that the lower- forms (be auxiliary and copula) preceded by
intermediate learners seemed to produce negation. Similarly, out of the 28 instances
in which negation was used, the upper- use of negation in finite contexts are given
intermediate group showed 12 instances of below:
inappropriate use. However, the higher the i. *They not get the ball (from advanced 16)
proficiency level, the better the performance. back.
Only six of the 25 instances of negation ii. *They not are happy (from upper-
placement produced by the advanced group because, the ball fall in the intermediate 13)
backyard.
were inappropriate placement of negation
(24.00%). Some examples of inappropriate
TABLE 2
Production of Ungrammatical Item Types by the 3 Groups
Proficiency Group
Item type Advanced Upper-Intermediate Lower-Intermediate %
N=20 N=25 N=32
T1 (UNFC) 6/25 12/28 22/31 40/84
24.00% 42.86% 70.97% 47.62%
T2 (UNIFC) 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
00.00% 00.00% 00.00% 00.00%
T3 (UAdvFC) 6/23 12/22 27/36 45/81
26.09% 54.55% 75.00% 55.56%
T4 (UFQFC) 10/32 14/33 19/34 43/99
31.25% 42.42% 55.88% 43.43%
Average 22/80 38/83 68/101 128/264
27.5% 45.78% 67.33% 48.48%
UNFC= ungrammatical negation in finite contexts; UNIFC= ungrammatical negation in non-finite
contexts; UAdvFC= ungrammatical adverb placement in finite contexts; UFQFC= ungrammatical
floating quantifier placement in finite contexts
100
T1 (UNFC) T2 (UNIFC)
80 T3 (UAdvFC) T4 (UFQFC)
60
40
20
0
Advanced
1 Upper-Intermediate
2 Lower-Intermediate
3
Fig.2: Comparison of Production of Ungrammatical Item Types for the 3 Groups
iii. *They not played in the (from upper- production, there were 43 instances of
yard. intermediate 10)
misplaced floating quantifiers across the
iv. *The woman not invited (from lower- three groups. Yet again the performance
a lot of children for a intermediate 9)
birthday for her two boys. of the lower-intermediate learners was less
v. *Therefore, he is very shy, (from lower- favourable (55.88%) compared to that of
he not is laughing and intermediate 23) the upper-intermediate learners (42.42%)
playing while the other and the advanced learners (31.25%). Some
laughing and playing.
examples of misplaced floating quantifiers
which include either thematic verbs followed
Adverb placement as shown in UAdvFC
by floating quantifiers or be verb forms (be
constructions seemed to be also problematic
auxiliary and copula) preceded by floating
for the L2 learners. Out of a total of 81
quantifiers are given below:
instances of adverb placement, there were
45 instances of misplaced adverbs across i. *The children all are (from advanced 19)
playing and so they are
the three groups. Again the performance
very happy.
of the lower-intermediate learners was
ii. *Then the two boys (from advanced 3)
the least favourable on (T2) UAdvFC explain both what
(75.00%) compared to that of the upper- happened.
intermediate (54.55%) and the advanced iii. *The boys run all away (from upper-
learners (26.09%). Further, it was observed to get the ball with two intermediate 4)
children.
that adverb misplacement was higher with
iv. *The boys both were (from lower-
be auxiliary verb forms than with thematic running in the yard of the intermediate 10)
verbs. An interesting finding is the L2 house to play.
learners hardly used adverbs with copula be In sum, the placement of the verb with
at all. Some examples of the ungrammatical respect to negation, adverbs and floating
placement of adverbs found in the oral quantifiers in finite and non-finite contexts
production data are given below: with thematic, be auxiliary and copula be
i. *But one boy slowly is (from upper- verb forms proved to be problematic for the
knocking the door and his intermediate 13) adult Arabic ESL learners who seemed to
friends are worried.
have stabilized at below 80%, an accepted
ii. *The boys kick (from lower-
accidentally the ball over intermediate 17) cut off point for native/near native-like level
the wall. of acquisition.
The results for sentences involving
floating quantifiers (i.e. (T4) UFQFC) also DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
indicate that the learners displayed poor The acquisition of the verb movement
performance. The data presented above parameter can be determined by looking
show that out of a total of 99 instances at the syntactic behaviour of the verb in
of floating quantifiers in the learners oral relation to certain other elements that occur
left adjoined to the VP, such as negation have produced ungrammatical constructions
element, adverbs and floating quantifiers such as *the boys kick accidentally the ball
(FQs). Arabic is a [+strong] language while over the wall. The same holds true for T4
English is [-strong] where verb movement (placement of FQs in finite contexts) where
is restricted to only auxiliary and copula the L2 learners misplaced the FQs after the
raising. Therefore, to say that the adult verbs (e.g. *Then the two boys explain both
Arabic ESL learners have acquired the what happened). These findings suggest that
English verb movement parameter, they the L2 learners, even at ultimate attainment
should set the features values from [+strong] level, did not recognize the impossibility
to [-strong], thus placing the thematic verbs of verb movement in English. Therefore,
after negation (NegV), adverbs (SAdvV), they have difficulty producing the NegV,
and FQs (SFQV). The findings of the oral SAdvV and SFQV orders, indicating
production task showed that resetting the failure to reset the parameters of [strong]
English verb movement parameter seemed to to their target values in English. Their
be problematic for the adult Arabic learners. performance seemed to show that the L2
They have stabilized below 80% in terms of learners were still indeterminate in their
accuracy of their production of associated production and that their IL representations
construction types. The adult Arabic ESL with respect to the placement of the verbs
learners seemed to have difficulty with T1 with negation, adverbs and FQs were
(negation in finite contexts); therefore they inconsistent with those of native speakers.
have erroneously placed thematic verbs In other words, adult Arabic ESL learners
before negation (SVNeg) (e.g. *they played IL representations in postcritical period
not in the yard). Further, the results of T2 L2 acquisition diverge from that of the
(negation in non-finite contexts) showed that native speakers where L1 and L2 parameter
there was not a single instance where the L2 settings differ (Hawkins & Chan, 1997).
learners used negation in non-finite contexts. Similar findings were also found by Wong
This can be attributed to the fact that unlike and Hawkins (2000), Wong (2002), and
English, Arabic has no infinitives. The Muneera and Wong (2011).
notion of non-finiteness, however, can be In conclusion, this study has set
expressed through nominalization or by out to contribute to the on-going debate
tensed/finite clauses. Therefore, the L2 concerning persistent difficulties posed
learners did not tend to use negation in by certain morphosyntactic properties in
non-finite contexts in their oral production. post-critical L2 acquisition. The findings
For T3 (placement of adverbs in finite presented in this study have shown that
contexts), the production data showed that L1 Arabic speakers learning English as
the L2 learners were generally less than L2 exhibited the following behaviours:
accurate in their placement of verbs in difficulty with negation in finite contexts,
relation to adverbs. On the contrary, they S-Adv-V constructions, and S-FQ-V orders.
Based on the findings, the main to be features that are associated with
generalisation that can be made is that functional categories found in the UG
L1 V-movement persists in L2 English. lexicon, which however, do not exist in the
This generalization is the most significant L2 learners L1 inventory. It is said to be
contribution in the study. It provides solid attributed to the disappearance of a layer of
evidence that verb movement persists in L2 options in the UG lexicon which happens
English. The results shows the validity of the to provide options for parameter setting
generalization that the L1 Arabic learners and to determine parametric differences or
had not acquired the English setting of variations between languages. As a result,
the parameter and this generalization does the L2 learners are no longer able to reset the
work better within the FFFH (or perhaps a L1 parameter setting into L2 settings nor are
very highly flexible version of the FTFAH) they able to transfer the features from their
compared to the other hypotheses. L1 into their L2 inventory. Such features are
Supporters of the FFFH assumption more appropriately known as parameterized
(see e.g. Smith & Tsimpli, 1995; Hawkins functional features as such features are not
& Chan, 1997; Hawkins, 2000; Wong & necessarily present in all languages; rather
Hawkins, 2000; Wong, 2002; Hawkins they are selected by only certain languages.
& Liszka, 2003; Hawkins & Hattori, Hawkins (2004) proposes that L2 learners
2006; Tsimpli & Dimitrakopoulou, 2007; syntax is selectively impaired and marked
Tsimpli & Mastropavlou, 2008) contend by a representational deficit due to the
that access to UG is partially available but lack of parameterized formal features and
only through the L1. Features and functional functional categories. If these are not present
categories that are not instantiated in the in the L1, they are no longer accessible
L1 but available in the L2 are impossible to following the critical period for acquisition
acquire. Most importantly, the data indicate of language.
that the FFFH is the logical theoretical The inaccessibility of the parameterized
explanation of the findings discussed in the functional features in post critical period L2
oral production task (ORPT). acquisition causes L2 learners, particularly
The FFFH claims that in the process adults, to have persistent difficulty in the
of L2 acquisition, a certain subpart of acquisition of the full significant functions
the Universal Grammar (UG) becomes of the features. The L2 learners are thus said
inaccessible to L2 learners if that certain to have a different underlying representation
subpart is acquired beyond a critical period. from the native speakers. Despite the
Based on Johnson and Newports (1989) difficulty, the L2 learners are said to be
study, the critical period can be as early able to map new morphophonological
as the age of seven. According to Smith material on the surface level by mapping
and Tsimplis (1995) assumption, the L2 lexical items onto L1 syntax. Therefore,
particular subpart has been identified the learners are unable to achieve native
like performance and there appears to be associated with uninterpretable features.

variation in their linguistic ability due to However, as experience would tell us, it
L1 transfer that occurs in the L2 learners may be possible for L2 learners to learn
production of IL grammars. the surface structure associated with them
The results of this study seem to support by deploying other cognitive skills in an
the above hypothesis. The results show that immersion context.
adult Arabic ESL learners have failed to
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ENDNOTES functional categories are not intact in L2 learner

1
The Arabic learners are studying English as grammars. In other words, according to this
non-native speakers. Depending on where the account, representations for verbal inflectional
learners are from, the term ESL may be more morphology may be fully specified in the L2
inclusive and includes English as a Foreign grammar, but L2 learners may fail to produce the
Language (EFL). For some people the reverse corresponding overt forms, due to performance
seems to be true. limitations resulting from communication
pressure (Prvost & White 2000, p. 129).
2
Supporters of the Mapping problem (Lardiere,
1998, 2000) and the Missing Surface Inflection
3
These are skills such as problem solving,
Hypothesis (MSIH) (Prvost & White, 2000) hypothesis testing, decision making and
have claimed that L2 learners have full evaluating.
and appropriate abstract knowledge of the 4
The Arabic examples in this paper were
functional categories and associated functional adapted mostly from Benmamoun (2000) and
features, but sometimes fail to realize them Rahhali and Souli (1997).
in overt morphology. In fact, the proponents
of the MSIH have argued that the presence or
5
To substantiate these results, a further study
absence of morphology on the surface does would be to investigate L2 learners whose L1
not necessarily reflect that the underlying is similar to English in their acquisition of the
same property.

Restorative Justice In Relation to Collectivism/Individualism,

Shyness, and Conflict Resolution Method Preference
Taufik Mohammad* and Azlinda Azman
School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Restorative justice has been widely practiced across countries, but it is still a relatively
new concept in Malaysia. Its implementation in the nation is desired, however, there are
issues of culture, shyness, and the peoples preference of conflict resolution methods that
can interfere with its effectiveness. This paper seeks to explore the individual degree of
collectivism/individualism and shyness of the Malaysian people and the kinds of conflict
resolution practice that they prefer. The findings showed that the sample is collectivistic
and individualistic in general, but they are more collectivistic when it comes to decision
making relating to criminal cases. Although the sample appears to be shyer, they seem to
be less shy in criminal context. Restorative justice programs also seem to be a good fit
in Malaysia since authority is a preferred way of resolving conflict, although they also
prefer negotiation and mediation; and both are important elements in programs such as
victim-offender mediation.
Keywords: Restorative justice, collectivism, individualism, shyness, conflict
INTRODUCTION to the person who commits the crime, this

Restorative justice is an evolution of practice lets the victims to come forward
criminal justice system in many countries in in the decision making process, and have
the world. Rather than letting the court and a face-to-face session with the offenders
the distant authorities decide what happens (Wolhuter, Olley, & Denham, 2009). Hence,
the offenders will be directly accountable
to the victims. The movements of victims
ARTICLE INFO rights that became the basis of restorative
Article history:
Received: 13 February 2012 justice were initiated in the United States
(Shapland, Willmore, & Duff, 1985; Austin/
E-mail addresses:
star_capricorn03@yahoo.com (Mohamad Taufik Mohamad),
Travis County Victims Services Task Force,
azlindaa@usm.my (Azlinda Azman)
2005; Karmen, 2007).

Taufik Mohammad and Azlinda Azman
Restorative justice is generally a has been practiced in countries that value

practice that usually handles cases of assertiveness and explicit expression
minor offences such as mischief, assaults, of opinions; a characteristic of some
and theft (Ministry of Public Safety and individualist cultures (Triandis, 1991).
Solicitor General, 2009). However, lately Several research on this will be discussed
it has been considered for more serious which indicate varied findings.
crimes such as rapes, and violent crimes. An early research on conflict resolution
Being documented as effective in preventing was conducted to see if different cultures had
recidivism (e.g. Umbreit, Coates, & different preference for conflict resolution
Roberts, 2000; Umbreit, Coates, &Vos, (Leung, 1987). Leung presented a conflict
2004; Bradshaw, Roseborough, &Umbreit, scene to a group of Chinese and American
2006), the practice has gained acceptance respondents and asked them if they preferred
worldwide and being utilized in many the method of resolution to be bargaining,
countries such as New Zealand (Galaway, mediation, inquisitorial adjudication,
1995; Maxwell & Liu, 2006), South Africa or adversary adjudication. The Chinese
(Venter & Rankin, 2006), and in the Europe respondents showed a high preference
(Hydle, 2008). In fact, restorative justice on mediation and bargaining, while the
was, part of it, inspired by a long-standing American respondents preferred the conflict
tradition in Maori tribe in New Zealand to be settled adjudicatorily.
that used to do conferencing between the In response to Leungs research, Gire
offenders and the community (Marshall, (1997) conducted a research to see if
1999; Van Ness & Strong, 2010). there was any difference in the preference
of conflict resolution methods between
ISSUES TO CONSIDER BEFORE Nigerian and Canadian respondents who
IMPLEMENTATION OF are of collectivist and individualist culture
RESTORATIVE JUSTICE
respectively. The researcher presented a
Realizing its effectiveness in handling conflict scene and asked the respondents
offenders and victims, Malaysia has begun to choose a preferred resolution method
to get acquainted with this concept although between threats, acceptance of the
it has not been introduced in the countrys situation, negotiation, mediation,
criminal justice system (Prison Fellowship and arbitration. The conflicts were either
International, n.d.; Koshy, 2008). This between individuals or between groups.
is a great initiative since this might be a Nigerian respondents indicated that they
stepping stone for Malaysia to recognize preferred threats for interpersonal conflicts
the importance of victims voice in the rather than for the intergroup ones, while
process of criminal justice. However, one Canadian respondents preferred willingness
important issue has to be raised. Restorative to accept the conflict in interpersonal
justice as a form of conflict resolution, over intergroup conflicts. However, in
Restorative Justice In Relation to Collectivism/Individualism, Shyness, and Conflict Resolution Method Preference
the case of preference for arbitration, The members of collectivistic cultures

Nigerian respondents preferred the method believe that a society or group is the basic
to be applied on conflicts between groups unit of survival (Triandis, Brislin, &Hui,
rather than between individuals, while the 1988; Hui&Villareal, 1989). They believe
Canadian counterparts did not differ in in living in societies; protecting and being
their answer. While Leung (1987) found a loyal to their society (Hofstede, 1991).
support for collectivist-individualist cultural These promote maintaining harmony
influence per se, Gire has found that the and concern about others. Malaysia,
pattern is inconclusive. according to Hofstede (n.d.), is a collectivist
This led to the discussion of a more country. Therefore, Malaysians are more
specific classification of types of cultures characterized in ways that are difficult for
which are broken down to horizontal them to voice their opinions or feelings as
and vertical type of collectivism and it might not be healthy for the relationship
individualism. In relation to this, Aizawa with their groups. Consequently, most
and Whatley (2006) hypothesized that there of the people will more likely hold their
was a difference in shyness degree between opinions back. It may also be attributed to
cultures, and their level of collectivism and the influence of religion as each religion is
individualism, in relation to the horizontal concerned with the values of its adherence,
and vertical types. Respondents from Japan, especially in sensitive matters that could
Chile, and the United States were involved lead to clashes.
to test this hypothesis. The respondents Thus, Malaysians become more
were given two sets of scales, being shyness confined, especially in cases where
scales and individualism-collectivism expressiveness is concerned. According
scales. While Japanese and Chileans were to Triandis (1991), people in collectivist
generally collectivist cultures, Japanese cultures spend much of their time building
people were found to report a lesser level relationships because the members of the
of horizontal, and vertical collectivism and groups they belong to matter to them. They
horizontal individualism. It was also found believe in life long relationships (Triandis,
that despite the cultural difference, Japanese Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, & Lucca, 1988).
respondents were the shyest among the As a result, they are concerned more about
three groups of participants, with their others needs, views, and goals rather
American counterparts being the least shy. thanexpressing their own opinion. They are
This finding showed that being a collectivist afraid to voice out their feelings because
group of people (as shown by the Japanese they do not want to be excluded from the
and Chilean respondents in this research) society.
might be an indication of the peoples level Therefore, it is expected that Malaysians
of shyness. in this paper will exhibit behaviors that
are consistent to the characteristics of the victim, the offender and the community.
people in collectivist culture, such as Communication (or another important
depending on groups and seeking for group component, the dialogue) is the key to a
harmony. If Malaysian people are similar successful implementation of restorative
in terms of their level of shyness with that justice program.
of other people of the same type of culture
(Aizawa & Whatley, 2006), then this PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES
characteristic can have huge impacts on the This paper seeks to understand and
practice of restorative justice in this country. investigate Malaysians level of shyness
Restorative justice requires the participants and collectivism-individualism, and their
to be expressive and participative in the general perception of restorative justice
sessions. Thus, one would ask, Will and its possible implementation in this
Malaysians be able to be as assertive as country. It is hypothesized that shyness
people in the individualist countries? level and collectivist culture of Malaysia
Furthermore there are various aspects will positively correlate with the perception
of restorative justice programs that are of Malaysians on the implementation of
relevant to the culture and shyness of the restorative justice. Perception of the practice
victims (OBrien, Buttcane, & Seward, of restorative justice will be analyzed
2008). Although the author did not mention from the respondentsopinion of certain
the applicability of these components procedures of restorative justice programs.
in terms of the issue of culture and The importance of this research
shyness of the victims, the implication is includes providing conceptual support
overwhelmingly alerting. Alongside with for the restorative justice practice to be
the need to involvethe community, the implemented in this country. Although
process is expected to involve issues like the effectiveness of this practice has been
1) encounter, 2) amends, 3) reintegration, supported in literature, we still need to be
and 4) inclusion. The emotions involved in cautious of blind implementation which
the encounter should help the process of the could lead to complications. This research
program, rather than impede it. Therefore, aims to examine whether certain aspects of
a victims willingness and confidence level restorative justice programs can be adjusted
should be something that the program to fit the culture of a collectivist country
handler should be aware of beforehand. like Malaysia. Thus, the objectives of this
Other than that, an issue that the program paper are to,
handler needs to understand is how the
1. Examine the levels of shyness and
victim sees the offender: Is he someone who
collectivism-individualism, the general
lacks integration, or someone who needs
perception of a sample of Malaysians on
help? In a restorative justice program, all
restoratice justice and if they think that
parties are expected to participate and do
it will be a good practice in this country
their share of roles in the process, including
2. Explore if Malaysians will prefer given before survey and they were free to
restorative justice as a way of refuse the survey if they decided so.The
dealingwith crimes and offenders in demographic data of the sample was as
this country, and shown in Table 1.
3. Provide the basis of further research if
any amendments of restorative justice Materials and Measurements
programs need to be made in order to be The research employed survey as the
applicable to the people in this country. design, where only basic stationery and a
tape recorder was utilized in the session.
METHODOLOGY However, there were four measurements
Sample used for the purpose of measuring the
variables which included,
This research targeted Malaysians in
general, and any Malaysian is a potential 1. Shyness scale was adapted from Cheek
respondent. However, the researchers and Buss (1981). This scale has been
specified that the respondents should at reported to have an internal consistency
least be ofthe age of 18 to qualify as a of .82 (Aizawa & Whatley, 2006).
respondent. In total, 85 respondents who 2. The individualism-collectivism scale
consisted of Malaysians ranging from 18 was adapted from Singelis, Triandis,
to 62 years old successfully completed the Bhawuk, and Gelfand (1995). In
questionnaires. The researchers employed the original research, the questions
convenience sampling method; where consist of four main divisions namely
Malaysians in various places (e.g. caf, horizontal collectivism, horizontal
restaurant, hospital, university classrooms, individualism, vertical collectivism,
etc.) were approached and asked if they were and vertical individualism. The internal
willing to participate. The consent form was consistency of each division was .74,
.67, .68, and .74 respectively (Aizawa
& Whatley, 2006).
TABLE 1 3. A questionnaire on the preference
Demographic characteristics of respondents
of conflict resolution method was
Demographic characteristic n employed from Gire (1997). The
male = 32 questionnaire featured a story of two
Gender female = 52
neighbors having a conflict about
missing = 1
their lawn. The respondents would be
Malay = 64
Chinese = 11
presented with five possible kinds of
Race Indians = 8 conflict resolution methods: Threat,
Others = 1 negotiation, acceptance, mediation, and
missing = 1 authority.
4. A set of questions pertaining to individualism/collectivism, shyness, and

the respondents perception on the conflict resolution method preference
applicability of restoratice justice with a total of 15 questions. The points
practice in this country was developed assigned were the same as the rest of the
by the researchers themselves. questionnaires to avoid confusion, with
1 representing mostly disagree, 2 for
The questions were built upon the basis
disagree, 3 for neutral, 4 for agree,
of the three previous concepts, namely
ans 5 for mostly agree. Therefore, the
collectivism-individualism, shyness, and
highest score a respondent could yield for a
conflict resolution method. These concepts
certain component would be 25 points, and
were made into similar questions, in
the lowest would be 5 points. The higher the
addition to a crime situation presented.
score, the higher the respondent possessed
Only some items were adapted and some
the measured characteristic.
were changed significantly. Four most
Before the administration of the
common offences (as stated in Umbreit,
sets of questionnaires, the participants
Coates, & Roberts, 2000) were used, which
were first asked to provide their consent
are vandalism, assault, theft, and burglary.
in participating in this research. After
Table 2 shows some of the items developed
obtaining their informed consent, in order
for the perception scale while Table 3 shows
to ensure that the participants answer the
the result of Pearson correlation analysis
questions correctly, the researchers handed
between Shyness Scale, Collectivism/
out the first three questionnaires, which
Individualism Scale, and their respective
were the collectivism-individualism scale,
adaptations in the perception scale.
the shyness scale, and the preference of
The questions asked the respondents
the conflict resolution method. Next, the
the various aspects of restorative justice
researchers described and explained what
programs especially victim-offender
restorative justice was. The description
mediation in relation to the components
was offered in Malay or English language
from OBrien, Buttcane, and Sewards
as follows:
account (2008). These various aspects
include the involvement of community Restorative Justice is a practice
and others in the decision making process of criminal justice system where
within the criminal justice system, the the crime victims are given a
victims willingness and confidence issues in chance to participate in the justice
actively participating, the preferred method process. The victims of crime will
of mediation in resolving conflict, and if be given an opportunity to talk
Malaysians prefer to act alone in making about it and express their feelings
a decision. or dissatisfactions, and the power to
Five questions were made for each contribute to the decision that can
of the three components namely be sanctionedonto the offenders.
The offenders will be given a chance the fourth questionnaire was administered.
to apologize and make amends. Once completed, the participants were
Usually this practice is done with debriefed with necessary information about
offenders who committed minor the research should there be any.
offences such as theft, bullying,
and snatching. This second set RESULTS
of questionnaire will evaluate The scales of shyness and individualism/
your perception on the practice of collectivism were analyzed using
Restorative Justice in Malaysia. means whereas the conflict resolution
survey was analyzed using descriptive
After this explanation, the respondents frequencies. Meanwhile, the restorative
were given an opportunity to voice out justice applicability perception scale
any concerns should there be any. Then, was analyzed item-by-item and also by
TABLE 2
Adapted items in the self-built questionnaires
Scale Items Their respective adapted items

from perception scale
Individualism item from I rather depend on myself than I can decide the fate of the person
Collectivism/Individualism Scale on others who does wrong to me without
anyones help
Collectivism item from It is important to consult close If theres someone who breaks
Collectivism/Individualism Scale friends and get their ideas before into my house, the community
making a decision should also participate with me to
decide what to do to the person
Shyness Scale I feel tense when Im with people I do not feel comfortable if I have
I dont know well to confront the person who steals
my money
Conflict resolution survey Arbitration by authority The person who damages my
valuables should be judged by an
authority
TABLE 3
Correlation coefficients for the original questionnaires and the perception scale
Scales Correlation coefficient Scales

Shyness scale/shyness items in r = .688, n = 83 (missing = 2), Shyness scale/shyness items in
perception scale p = .001 perception scale
Individualism items/ Individualism items/
r = .401, n = 84 (missing = 1),
Individualism items in perception Individualism items in perception
p = .001
scale scale
Collectivism items/collectivism r = .009, n = 84 (missing = 1), Collectivism items/collectivism
items in perception scale p = .936 items in perception scale
descriptive frequencies. The individualism Male respondents only scored slightly

and collectivism were analyzed according to lesser than female respondents for vertical
individual basis. Although Triandis (personal collectivism, with a mean of 24.4, while the
communication, November 23, 2010) female respondents had an average of 24.6
insisted that the scale should yield a mean of for the division.
score that should explain whether a culture
is individualistic or collectivistic in nature, Conflict resolution method preference
this current research is concerned with the The Malaysian sample showed the highest
assumption that the score belongs to some preference for negotiation as a conflict
of the respondents, which could result in the resolution method, with a mean of 4.3
high or low score of both individualism scores, while the lowest score with a
and collectivism. Since the ratios between mean of 1.8 for the use of threat. For other
races werealso imbalanced, the analysis was methods, which are acceptance, mediation,
only performed on Malaysians in general and the use of authority, the sample scored
and between genders. a mean of 2.1, 3.6, and 3.5 respectively. It
is interesting to note that male and female
Average Scores respondents scored similarly for threat (1.8),
Shyness scale negotiation (4.35 and 4.36), and acceptance
(2.1). Male respondents preferred mediation
In general, the Malaysian sample yielded
(3.78) and the use of authority (3.78) more
a mean of 53.6 scores in the shyness scale.
than their female counterparts (3.67 and 3.48
Although not significant, this is higher
respectively).
than the mean of scores from the scale
developers sample, which was 51.8 (Cheek,
Perception of Restorative Justice
n.d.). Female respondents appeared to be Programs Implementation
shyer than male respondents, with means of
For the perception scale, each component
55.2 and 50 scores respectively.
is analyzed separately. Generally, the
Malaysian sample yielded a mean of
Collectivism/Individualism scale 12.2 scores for possible shyness in the
The means of scores for vertical and practice. The means for collectivism and
horizontal individualism and collectivism individualism in the perception scale were
showed that male respondents scored considerably low, with a score mean of
higher, except for vertical collectivism. 5.98 and 8.8 respectively. For the conflict
Male respondents scored a mean of 23.2, resolution method component, the item
28.2, and 30.9 on vertical individualism, is analyzed separately. Acceptance was
horizontal individualism, and horizontal preferred the least (2.8) and threat slightly
individualism respectively, with the female higher (2.4), and the use of authority
counterparts scoring 21.1, 25.5, and 28.7. was preferred the most (3.7). There were
preferences for negotiation (3.5) and a restorative justice program as shown in

mediation (3.2). Table 5. For items on shyness component
On the comparison between genders, (item 1, 4, 7, 10, and 12), it was found that
male respondents appeared to be more the respondents feel bold (42.4%) and less
individualistic (10.0) than their female shy (67.1%) if meeting with the offender
counterparts (8.2). On the other hand, female face-to-face. They are also less nervous
respondents scored higher in collectivism (a (42.4%) and 49.4% agreed that they feel
mean of 6.1) than their male counterparts (a confident meeting the offender. However,
mean of 5.9). Female respondents appeared there are mixed responses when it comes to
to be shyer with a mean of 12.6 and male feeling comfortable, with 29.4% disagreed
respondents scored a mean of 11.5. On the and 31.8% agreed that they would feel
conflict resolution method, male respondents comfortable meeting.
preferred the use of authority, acceptance, All in all, 54.1% agreed that community
and the use of threat (3.8, 2.0, and 2.8 should be involved in decision making
respectively) than female respondents (3.6, process involving criminal justice system,
1.9, and 2.3). On the other hands, female and a considerable cluster of the respondents
respondents preferred to use negotiation showed that they would not let race be
(3.63) and mediation (3.4) than their male an influencing factor (28.2%). On the
counterparts (3.46 and 3.0). component of individualism, although
Some of the correlational analyses 31.8% agreed that they would feel annoyed
that show the relationships between some if others try to get involved in deciding what
of the measures are worth mentioning. to do to the offender, but they agreed that
The correlational coefficients can be they could not decide without anyones help
seen in Table 4. From this Table, we can (29.4%) and that they disagree that they do
see that each of the components in the not need others opinions (42.4%).
perception scale is significantly related to For the component of conflict resolution
their respective original scales, except for method, the use of authority was rated
the collectivism and negotiation component as the most preferred method when it
in the perception scale. Each of the items comes to dealing with a crime (mean
in the conflict resolution method is also of 3.7). Acceptance was deemed as the
significantly related to their corresponding least preferred method (mean of 2.0),
items in the perception scale, except for followed by the use of threat (mean of 2.4).
negotiation. Additionally, negotiation and mediation
were also reported as preference (with a
Component-by-component analysis mean of 3.5 and 3.2 respectively).
For the perception scale, each component
was analyzed individually since they
represent various issue that can occur in
TABLE 4
226
Correlation coefficients between the original scales and the components in the perception scale
Scale/Item Shyness Individualism Collectivism Threat item Negotiation Acceptance Mediation Authority item
component component component item item item
Shyness scale R=0.688,
p<.001
Individualism R=0.401,
p<.001
Collectivism R=0.009,
p>.936
Threat R=0.313,
p<.004
Negotiation r=0.041,
p>.406
Acceptance r=0.373,
p<.001
Mediation r=0.327,
p<.042
The use of authority r=0.231,
p<0.33

TABLE 5
Scores obtained by the respondents in the perception scale
1= 2= 3= 4= 5=
No. Item Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
disagree agree
1 I feel shy to see face-to-face with the 27.1 40.0 17.6 12.9 2.4
person who wrongs me
2 I believe if we talk to the person who 2.4 10.6 24.7 50.6 11.8
wrongs us face-to-face, we can achieve a
peaceful agreement.
3 If theres someone who breaks into 5.9 7.1 18.8 54.1 14.1
my house, the community should also
participate with me to decide what to do
to the person.
4 I feel bold when it comes to confronting 0.0 17.6 21.2 42.4 18.8
the person who bullies me.
5 If theres a person who steals my vehicle, 9.4 18.8 15.3 47.1 9.4
there should be a third-party to decide
what the best action between me and the
person is.
6 If the person who does wrong to me is the 18.8 28.2 29.4 17.6 5.9
same race as me, I can be quick to forgive
him.
7 I do not feel comfortable if I have to 18.8 29.4 15.3 31.8 4.7
confront the person who steals my money.
8 The person who damages my valuables 2.4 10.6 20.0 47.1 20.0
should be judged by an authority.
9 I feel annoyed if others get involved in 3.5 28.2 29.4 31.8 7.1
my way deciding the fate of the person
who wrongs me.
10 I feel nervous when I have to face with 17.6 42.4 22.4 17.6 0.0
the person who bullies me.
11 I should just accept it if someone steals 36.5 37.6 17.6 3.5 4.7
my things.
12 I am confident to confront the person who 3.5 12.9 17.6 49.4 16.5
breaks into my house.
13 I feel that threat is the best way to deal 17.6 37.6 25.9 16.5 2.4
with the person who tries to inflict injury
on me.
14 I can decide the fate of the person who 7.1 29.4 27.1 23.5 12.9
does wrong to me without anyones help.
15 I dont need others opinions to decide 8.2 42.4 24.7 17.6 7.1
what should happen to the person who
wrongs me.
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS others get in their way of making decision.

OF THE STUDY This might account to different definition
The findings indicate the exploration of of collectivism in Triandis scale and the
Malaysians perception on the various one that was implied in the perception scale.
aspects of the implementation of restorative Collectivism as purported in the literature is
justice programs in this country. On a characteristic of a culture whose members
the overall, the sample shows that they value the relationships with the community
can individually be collectivistic and and the influence the community has in
individualistic perceptions. Although it has their life. However, in face value, to get
been stated in the literature that Malaysia in their way of decision making might
consists of collectivistic cultures, (and it not be inclusive with the definition offered
has been shown so in the results), they can by the literature (e.g. Triandis 1991). In
also be individualistic in nature, depending face value, the item suggested that while
on the context where it requires them to members of collectivistic culture value the
be so (Triandis, personal communication, opinions of other members, but the fact that
November 23, 2010). According to the victimization is a very personal experience,
findings, in a context where they have to to be stripped off of their decision making
make a decision in regards to a criminal ability might challenge their personal
situation (e.g. whether or not to report, individualism.
whether or not to tell the family), the It is similar with the negotiation item in
Malaysian sample shows that they are the original scale that does not really correlate
collectivistic. They need to seek other with then negotiation component in the
peoples opinions, and they need to ask perception scale. This might show us that the
their significant others, such as their family setting of the original scale is different than
or friends, when making a decision. Since the setting intended in the perception scale.
restorative justice programs have a strong The original scale deals with two neighbors
element of the community, this characteristic who are in conflict, while the perception
of collectivism can be a helpful aspect in the scale asks the respondents if they would
implementation. negotiate if they are victimized. Although
However, it is interesting to note the average scores and the sum of score do
that although Malaysians appeared to be not really tell this, Looking at the response
collectivistic, the results for collectivism individually can give us a perspective. For
in the perception scale were mixed. They example, two respondents gave a 5 for
tended to be more collectivistic when the negotiation in the original scale, but 1 for
question item asked if they needed an negotiation in the perception scale, and three
opinion (item 15), but they appeared to be respondents who gave a 5 negotiation in
more individualistic in item 9, when they the original scale, but 2 for negotiation in
were asked if they would be annoyed if the perception scale.
The purpose of comparing the involve their participation. Fortunately,

average scores between male and female since one of the programs of restorative
respondents was conducted because it can justice involves mediation (i.e. Victim-
give us additional perspective of Malaysian Offender Mediation), the sample shows that
population in terms of their collectivism- they also prefer mediation and negotiation as
individualism, shyness, and preference a way to resolve a conflict. By highlighting
of conflict resolution methods. Different the benefits of mediation in the program
genders are known to have their own as an educational effort, Malaysians can
psychological ways of dealing with the understand on how this program can satisfy
events around their life and this includes the victims through their participation; and
victimization. The findings that show male help the offender lessens the likelihood that
respondents to be more individualistic and he or she repeats the offence.
female respondents were more collectivistic On the issue of shyness, generally
give insight about their openness towards Malaysian respondents, although not
others involvement in their decision statistically significant, scored a higher
making. Female respondents higher average mean of shyness than the original sample in
score of shyness is an early indication of the research of the scale developer. Female
what to do and not to do should restorative respondents showed even a higher mean.
justice be really implemented in this country. This might affect how restorative justice,
However, this paper only provides the basic which will need more of their participation,
picture and it is suggested that in future is implemented in the country. A future
studies, higher cohort of sample can be research can be conducted to further identify
obtained to give more accurate description the level of shyness Malaysians would have
of collectivism-individualism and shyness when it comes to standing up for their right
between genders. and how some adjustments to the programs
However, since restorative justice can be done so Malaysians can fully benefit
programs rely very scarcely on the from it.
involvement of the local authority, education Another issue worth mentioning in
is important to inform on the processes and the aspect of shyness is although the
structures of the programs. This is because respondents were generally shyer than their
the findings show that they still have a western counterpart, they seemed to have a
strong dependence on the authority when/ different shyness-related personality in the
if they are victimized and that there are perception scale. People in collectivistic
no agencies or institutions that specialize culture tend to be concerned about the
in and are concerned about the victims feelings of the members of their same
welfare where they can go to (Aziz, 2010). group, but in criminal cases, there may be
The victims in the current system are very another explanation; one that is particularly
passive, and very few decisions actually related to the concept of ingroups and
outgroups (Tajfel, 1974). In criminal cases, Aziz, S. A. (2010, November 2 ).Usaha memastikan
the offenders are considered as the victims hak mangsa jenayah terbela. BeritaHarian.
outgroup, which explains their attitudes Bradshaw, W., Roseborough, D., & Umbreit, M. S.
and behaviors toward the former. There are (2006). The effect of victim offender mediation
various stakes involved when a crime is on juvenile offender recidivism: A meta-analysis.
Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 24 (1), 87-98.
committed, and the shyness of the victims
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Many victims choose to involve the
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Gire, J. T. (1997). The varying effect of individualism-
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Hofstede, G. (n.d.). Geert Hofstede Cultural
welfare needs to be established in order to be
Dimensions: Malaysia. Retrieved from Geert
the platform for restorative justice programs Hofstede Cultural Dimensions: http://www.
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Language and Identity: The Impact of a Multilingual

Environment on the Personal Identity among German Mother
Tongue Speakers Living in Malaysia
Miroslava Majtanova* and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar
Department of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication,
ABSTRACT
Through 18 interviews with German mother tongue speakers living in Malaysia, we
investigate the impact of a foreign language on the individuals identity. In this context,
the study relies on the Social Identity Theory and Social Categorization Theory which
focus on identity. We suggest that the use of a foreign language serves as a substitute for
the mother tongue in the construal of identity only to a certain extent. This phenomenon
becomes most apparent in situations where the competency of the language is crucial for
the respondent involved in communication. Depending on the importance of the situation
the respondents experience a different level of achievement/failure in expressing their
identity. At the same time, the respondents evaluate identity of their communication
partner by rating their language skills. Our findings further indicate that language makes
a linkage between personal and social identities which is reflected in the feelings and
behaviour of respondents in situations, when they cannot understand the language others
use around them. Additionally the individuals identity perception does not seem to be
influenced by the length of stay in Malaysia, nor by a long/short term relationship with a
non-German speaking partner. The mother tongue however becomes replaceable, provided
the respondent gained the knowledge in a certain area in a foreign language. In this case,
the individual will have difficulty to communicate about that particular area in his mother
tongue except with practice.
Keywords: Identity, foreign language, German native speakers, language and identity, multilingualism
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
INTRODUCTION
Received: 14 February 2012
Accepted: 2 August 2012 Edwards (2009, p.20) states that since
E-mail addresses: language is central to the human condition,
miroslava@upm.edu.my (Miroslava Majtanova),
azid@upm.edu.my (Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar) and since many have argued that it is the

most salient distinguishing characteristic We also used the Twenty Statement Test
of our species, it seems likely that any (TST) developed by Kuhn and McPartland
study of identity must surely include (1954) to expand the angle of evaluation in
some consideration on its use. We our study. The SIT and SCT were derived
share Edwardss opinion and explore the from studies by Henri Tajfel, John C. Turner
individuals identity perception in terms of and others. Both theories have a long term
language within the scope of a multilingual tradition in the social psychology (see Brown
environment which mirrors other studies 2000, p.746) and deal with the identity
(Pavlenko & Blackledge, 2004; Anchimbe, through group memberships. They argue
2007). However, this study is investigated that individual perceives oneself and others
from the perspective of a Malaysian through categories. Categories, according to
context and that from the German mother Tajfel and Turner relate to the psychological
tongue speakers living in this country. The representations in the mind; where there is
objective of our investigation was to find presence of cognitive structures which
out, how the use of a foreign language people use to define themselves and to
affects the individuals personal identity change their behavior (Turner, 1982,
in a multilingual environment. We were p.21; Turner & Reynolds, 2003, p.137).
further interested to learn if our respondents Individuals thus categorize others and
perceived a foreign language as an equal themselves, i. e. self-categorize, into various
substitute for their mother tongue, in relation sociological groups either/or cognitively
to their personal identity and feelings about and/or evaluative and/or emotionally. The
their identity in case they do not speak a range of one to three of these factors also
language where their conversation partners builds the main components of social
communicate in. We hypothesized that the identity as defined by Tajfel (1974, p.69,
level of proficiency in the target foreign 1978b, p.63). In the said study by Tajfel, he
language plays a significant role in the developed a definition which we also follow.
construal of the individuals identity and For the purpose of our current paper: social
thus influences the individuals perception identity will be understood as that part of
of the importance of his mother tongue. We an individuals self-concept which derives
further hypothesized that the longer period of from his knowledge of his membership of
time the individual spends in a multilingual a social group (or groups) together with the
environment, the less importance will he put value and emotional significance attached
on his mother tongue. to that membership (Tajfel, 1978b, p.63).
To analyze this matter, we outlined The self-concept, as defined by Turner, is
our interview questions based on previous in simplified words a cognitive system that
studies conducted on language and identity allows individuals to perceive themselves
based on the Social Identity Theory (SIT) as coherent entities over time (Turner,
and the Social Categorization Theory (SCT). 1982, pp.18-19). Turner himself build the
The Impact of a Multilingual Environment on the Personal Identity among German Mother Tongue Speakers Living in Malaysia
SCT based on the principals of the SIT LANGUAGE SITUATION IN

and targeted his research on explanations MALAYSIA
of how a sociological group becomes a Malaysia embraces a number of variations
psychological group (Turner & Reynolds, of the local official language Bahasa
2003, p.137). The TST from Kuhn and Melayu (for the term language variation
McPartland (Turner & Reynolds, 2003) cf. Ammon, 1995, 1997). In addition, other
addresses the identity through the question languages were introduced during the
Who am I? that respondents usually have colonization of the country. In 1957, when
to answer with twenty different statements Malaysia gained its independence, people
(comp. e. g. Dana, 2005, p.109; Carpenter of Chinese and Indian origin had formed
& Meade-Pruitt, 2008). The TST provides already a significant part of the Malaysian
to some extent an access to the way an population. The presence of Chinese, Indian
individual self-categorizes himself into and other foreign inhabitants in Malaysia
different sociological and psychological started according to Omar (2007) in the
groups for which we perceive it to be a 14th century and then increased especially at
valuable complement of our analysis and the end of 19th century. Many Indians were
that is why we included it into our study. brought to Malaysia by the British to fill
Personal identity will be for the purpose job vacancies, Chinese chose this country
of this paper understood as the individuals for entrepreneurial purposes. This is why
perception of himself as an individual Malaysian policy distinguishes between
person and as a member of diverse groups people who are said to be the original
that are meaningful to him. The expression population of the geographical area of
self refers in our text to an individual Malaysia and between those who originate
person and the expression other(s) refers from other states. The indigenous population,
to other individuals. also called Bumiputera (i.e. the sons and
In the following sections, we will daughters of the soil) is further differentiated
first illuminate the language situation in into Malays and Other Bumiputera. The
Malaysia and address the factors that led former group comprises people who are
to a multilingualism of this country. In the Muslims, lead a Malay way of life and speak
next section, we will discuss the views the Malay language. Other Bumiputera
and theories of researchers with regard refer to aborigine ethnic groups who are
to language and identity and we will also not Muslims, but are closely related to the
outline the theories concerning identity Malays in terms of language and primordial
that we build our investigation upon. culture (Omar, 2007, p.337). At the present
Subsequently, the results of our research will time, Malays and the Other Bumiputera
be presented and summarized in a separate groups represent 60,6%, Chinese 22,8% and
section. Indians 6,8% of the Malaysian population
(Population census, 2011). The Other
Bumiputera nevertheless embrace more They set up their own businesses and also
than fifty different indigenous ethno- their own schools that followed the Chinese
linguistic groups, including the descendants education system. Thus the language
of Portuguese and Thais, who came into this of instruction in Chinese schools was
country in the early 16th century (Population Mandarin. Later on primary and secondary
census, 2011). Malaysian Chinese as well government schools were established by
as Indian citizens likewise do not fall into the British and replaced the indigenous
homogenous ethno-linguistic groups, but education system. The instruction in these
have many different ones in accordance to schools was in English and they were
their background. Hence there are Malaysian however parallel institutions to the Indian
Chinese communicating among each other and Chinese schools. These English medium
in Hokkien, Cantonese, Khek, Hakka, schools were not financially accessible to
Teochew, Hokchiu, Hainanese, Kwongsai everyone, hence only people with a strong
or Mandarin. Malaysian Indian citizens financial background could afford going to
are usually proficient in Tamil, yet the use these English medium schools (Omar, 2007;
of other Indian languages is also common David & Govindasamy, 2006).
(comp. also Omar, 1982, p.52, 2007, p.346). Naturally there were some sectors of
There are several reasons for the neighbourhoods that embraced various
Chinese and Indian Malaysians to preserve ethnicities. Yet the majority lived within
the languages of their ancestors. One reason their own ethnic group and thus had no
is the relatively separate lifestyle they led reason to interact with their ethnic outgroups
up to the 1960s. Indians usually worked (comp. Zaman, 2008, p.234; Omar, 2007).
on rubber plantations or the railways and The first foundation that allowed ethnic
thus lived in areas that were near to their mingling via education was through the
work. Schools as well as other facilities were establishment of a tertiary institution named
established and financed by the government The King Edward VII Medical School
in those areas for them. The language chosen in 1905. After the Second World War
as the medium of instruction in the schools this college was merged with the Raffles
was Tamil. Bumiputeras usually lived in College, Singapore in 1928. Together, they
rural areas in kampungs (villages) and made formed a university called University of
their living through agricultural work or Malaya (Moris, 2007, p.7 & 14). In 1959, the
fishing. The language of communication university was developed in Kuala Lumpur
was a local variation and literacy was first as well as in Singapore. Considerable
established in Arabic with instruction in expansion took place in a short time and by
Islam in the houses of chieftains, in mosques 1962 the university became an autonomous
and privately founded village religious national university in Kuala Lumpur. Its
schools (Omar, 2007). The Chinese mainly campus in Singapore was subsequently
settled down in tin mining or urban areas. renamed into University of Singapore after
Singapore became an independent state in a period of three months. This program is

1965 (Moris, 2007, p.16, see also Universiti called national service.
Malaya Calender 1970-71, pp.5-7). Even Notwithstanding the efforts mentioned
though it was open to all, only families of above, multiethnicity and multilingualism
higher status could consider this institution continue to grow in Malaysia. David and
as the right choice for their children. In view Govindasamy (2006, p.56) state that there
of its expenses and location, the majority or were at least a hundred languages in
85% of the students were Chinese (Omar, use at the time of writing. One factor in
2007, p.343). this diversity may be that professionals
At the present time (the ethnic and along and companies from all around the world
with it the language interaction) still depend contribute to Malaysias development,
to a large extent on the education system through their expertise or their own
(David & Govindasamy, 2006; David, 2004; investments. Immigration of laborers
Kim, 2008, pp.56-57; Syed Husin Ali, 2008, and domestic workers in search of job
p.92). The primary and secondary education opportunities - mainly from Asian countries,
takes place in the national and vernacular and especially Indonesia, the Philippines
schools which distinguishes them in the and Bangladesh - may be another factor.
language of instruction and in the ethnic Moreover, being depicted as an opportune
population of their pupils. Thus, the medium educational hub, Malaysia saw an increase
of instruction is Malay, English, Mandarin, in the influx of foreign students from African
Tamil or a combination of them. The and Middle East countries, who flock to
pupils ethnicity reflects the main language Malaysian universities.
of instruction. Among the other factors Malaysia could thus appear to
contributing to the state of the language be a modern Babylon. However, the
use in Malaysia is the degree of ethnic country certainly does not suffer lack
diversity in the place of the individuals of communication among its people. A
residence and the cultural heritage of the common language has in fact been one of
ethnic groups. An attempt to bridge the the main concerns of the government since
gaps among the various Malaysian groups independence. The discussion about the
is the establishment of the vision schools. Malaysian national language started in 1948,
These schools, usually a pair consisting of at the time of the formation of the Federation
a government and a vernacular one, share of Malaysia (Omar, 2007). Malays suggested
some of their facilities such as playgrounds the Malay language, but the rest of the
or canteens. Currently there are five schools population did not agree. Non-Malays were
of this type in the country. Apart from that, slightly dominant in number then (David &
a new program was introduced in Malaysia Govindasamy, 2006, p.56) and suggested
to create opportunities for youth to interact to have either two languages, Malay and
with their peers of other ethnic groups over English or four national languages by adding
Mandarin and Tamil as well. Finally it was certain patterns of linguistic behaviour. S/
decided to recognize Malay and English as he will then modify his linguistic behaviour
national languages for a period of 10 years. into focussed and non-focussed language
After that a language nation was supposed acts according to his intention to identify
to arise (cf. Ammon, 1995, pp.18-34 for himself with a certain group or to distinguish
the term language nation) and according himself from others. There are however,
to Omar (1998, p.202) eventually it did four main criteria that need to be fulfilled
indeed succeed: For the last three and in terms to use the focussed linguistic
a half decades, the Malay language has systems. Firstly, the individual has to be
faced the challenge of building itself to able to identify groups. Secondly, s/he has
give an identity to the people who use it to have access to the groups and to be able
as a vehicle of communication within its to analyse the behaviour of these groups.
national boundary. It has achieved its goal Thirdly, the individual has to be motivated
in this aspect. Malaysians have an identity to join these groups and finally s/he has to
in having a national language that is native be able to modify his/her behaviour. The
to the soil. Although English stopped motivation seems to be according to Le Page
being an official language of the country in and Tabouret-Keller the most important
1967 in Peninsular Malaysia and in 1985 in criteria. The motivation to learn a certain
Sabah and Sarawak, it still remained in use language for instance can lead to neglecting
within the court rooms, because of the fact of or even to an aversion towards the mother
that many Malaysian lawyers had pursued tongue. Language is in their opinion not the
their studies in England. Similarly on many only factor that defines identity, but it serves
occasions communication among Chinese as a tool to decode and to express identities.
and Indian citizens were and still are held We can find a similar point of view
in their respective languages, whereas on language in the work of Giles and
functions with multiethnic participants his Accommodation Theory (comp.
often involve English along with other local also Coupland, 2007, p.109; Tabouret-
languages. Keller, 1998, pp.322-333). Giles Theory is
based on the work of social psychologists
LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY related to similarity attraction. This theory
Le Page and Tabouret-Keller (1985) explain says that individuals are evaluated by
linguistic acts as acts of identity. They say others better, when they manage to reduce
that the prior function of words is to first dissimilarity between each other (Giles &
of all express the identity of oneself and Powesland, 1975, p.157). In addition to this
others and not to name things. Le Page and theory, Giles assumes that individuals will
Tabouret-Keller believe that each individual reduce linguistic dissimilarities between
knows the linguistic patterns of his ingroup themselves and the individual/group by
and thus is able to develop for himself whom they wish to be judged positively.
Giles calls this kind of linguistic behaviour, and legalisation of a language. Once a
which includes also non-verbal features language is given a legitimacy linked to
such as smile, eye contact etc., convergence. power over a territory for instance or over
The opposite of this linguistic behaviour key institutions in a country, it can be
Giles calls divergence (Giles, Bourhis & materialised and totemised. Materialisation,
Taylor, 1977, p.322; Giles, 1978, p.384). or reification as Tabouret-Keller puts it, is
According to the Accommodation Theory, usually related to the use of the particular
individuals always adjust their speech language in written texts, in dictionaries,
acts depending on the fact if they wish to in the courts etc. Totemization is related
identify themselves with others. This theory to the social features of the language,
has been studied by many researchers and especially its representation of a certain
throughout the years became an integrated, social group.
interdisciplinary statement of relational Riley (2008) argues that language and
processes in communicative interaction social identity are connected in at least
(Giles,Coupland & Coupland, 1991, p.2). three ways. The connection to language
Convergence and divergence can further is in his opinion first of all to be seen in
emerge in different grades and combinations. the fact that the social identity is coded
It means that the speaker can adjust his in language. Secondly, the social identity
linguistic behaviour completely or just influences the vocabulary and the speech
partially to the style of his communication style of the individuals, and thirdly it allows
partner. It is also possible that within a multilingual individuals to express their
conversation one of the partners might apply membership in diverse social groups. Based
convergence, whereas the other divergence. on Rileys examples, individuals apply
In his later work Tabouret-Keller (1998, their repertoires consciously according
p.317) states that language does not just help to the given situation. To him language
to express or decode identity, but it also is actually the basis of the individuals
combines personal1 and social identities: identity: identity is made of knowledge and
Language features are the link which binds language is both what we know and how we
individual and social identities together. know it (Riley, 2008, p.91).
Language offers both the means of creating Also the contributors in Pavlenko and
this link and that of expressing it. He sees Blackledge (2004, p.19) understand identity
the foundation of this phenomenon on the to be interlinked with language, since they
one hand in the conscious or unconscious explain it as social, discursive, and narrative
adoption of a feature or a set of features options offered by a particular society in a
of behaviour of another individual. On the specific time and place. Individuals as well
other hand this relationship is supported as groups use these options in their social
according to him by the institutionalisation life to name themselves, to characterize
themselves or to win their social privileges.
1
Tabouret-Keller uses the term individual
identity. They further state, that identity choices
are however not possible in all situations. instance 2. Groups also choose and get 3
They further argue that individuals cannot names in order to achieve to some extent
express their identities to their liking once an expression of their identity. The indirect
certain common identity interpretations linkage between language and identity is
exist that are supported by a higher power. again seen in the importance of language
These kinds of identities should be then when it comes to religion or to unconscious
understood as conditioned ones through perceptions of identity based on language.
socio-political and economic circumstances In the first case one can think of the fact that
for instance. Identities should be therefore language was frequently spread together
investigated rather in situations where the with religion. Nowadays, there are still cases
individuals experience concurrence or a where the holy scripts of some religions
certain crisis in their life, because their are introduced in the original language and
identities become most apparent at that cannot be translated into another.
point of time. Language and identity shape Joseph (2004, p.13) holds like Tabouret-
each other, since language provides certain Keller (see above 1998, p.315) the opinion
linguistic tools that construct and negotiate that language and identity are inseparable.
identities and identity ideologies steer the He argues that each individual decodes
linguistic tools, which individuals use to and categorises others also based on their
express their identities as well as to reckon linguistic features (what they say and how
identities of others. they say it, e. g. accents, voices etc.) and at
The way Edwards (2009) describes the same time ascribes them certain identity
the ties between language and identity features (Joseph, 2004, pp.2-3; see also
can be in our opinion understood as direct Spolsky, 1999, p.181). This applies not just
and indirect. The direct relation is in the to individuals one meets in person, but also
use of language by individuals. They to people one speaks on the phone with,
adjust their speech style according to hears on radio or sees on the television etc.
their gender and to the given situation Joseph suggests that in order to investigate
to represent their identities. Thus certain somebodys identity the individual himself
linguistic features will become apparent must become a part of the interpretation
only in the communication with members instead of just being a subject of observation:
of distinct groups. Edwards points also out 2
e.g. the female Slavic name Miroslava carries
that language carries identity features when the meaning of the one, who celebrates peace
it comes to names of individuals as well or the male name Daniel originates in the
Hebrew culture and means God is my judge
as of groups (Edwards, 2009, pp.34-39).
(examples added by the authors of this paper).
Names are of a great importance especially 3
For instance while the Welsh call themselves
if they are supposed to highlight a certain Cymry (meaning something like fellow
feature of its carrier or if they are linked countrymen), the English name for them
derives from the Anglo-Saxon w(e)alh, via the
with religious or protective meanings for
Germanic Wlsche (stranger, foreigner, or
even barbarian) (Edwards, 2009, p.37).
A full account of linguistic communication partner in terms of the personality of the

would have to start with, not a message, but communication partner.
again the speakers themselves, and their From the discussion in the literature
interpretation of each other that determines, review it becomes apparent that Malaysia
interactively, their interpretation of what is offers an ideal situation to investigate
said (Joseph, 2004, p.226). He suggests the links between language and identity.
further that identity should be recognized However, the research in Malaysia has
as another function of language along with focused mainly on matters pertaining to
representation and communication: identity national identity: Identity at the lower level,
is itself at the very heart of what language is for example the community or the group, has
about, how it operates, why and how it came not really been given much attention to by
into existence and evolved as it did, how it researchers. Among the few who have made
is learned and how it is used, every day, by this topic their area of research interest
every user, every time it is used (Joseph, are Maya Khemlani David (1996) in her
2004, p.224). research on the Sindhis (a minority group)
All of the researchers mentioned above in Malaysia, and Asmah Haji Omar with her
perceive language as a tool to identify others research on a group of bilingual academics
as well as oneself. We also hold the view that (Asmah Haji Omar, 2003). Apart from
language helps individuals to understand these two linguists, the work of Nur Atiqah
and to express their own identity as well as Tang Abdullah (2001) can be mentioned,
to understand and to describe the identity of who deals with the connection between
others. We further argue that this position is the identity and citizenship education in
in line with the SIT and SCT. As stated in the Malaysia. Othman Mohamed Aris (1978),
introductory part of this paper the perception who looked at the ethnic identity in a Malay
of identity requires categorization. And we community in Malaysia, similar to Sharin
see the connection between the language Selva Raj (2005), whereas her investigations
and categorization in the fact that when were among Malaysian Chinese and Indian
we hear someone speak, we immediately respondents. Lyngkaran and Kunaletschumy
make guesses about gender, educational (2002) researched the Malaysian Indian
level, age, profession, and place of origin community, Colin Nicholas (2005) focused
Spolsky (1999, p.181). Hence we categorize his paper on Malaysias Orang Asli, i. e. the
others and ourselves, i. e. self-categorize, aboriginal population and John R. Clammer
into certain sociological groups. We believe (1980) discussed the ambiguity of identity
that in certain situations individuals make in the Baba communities of Malaysia and
even more guesses and judgments based on Singapore. An attentive eye will not miss
language than as cited earlier. We assume that even though these studies involve
that individuals may additionally distinguish different groups, they still remain in the
some identity facets of their communication scope of Malaysian identity, since they all
elaborate on Malaysians. We decided on the instance as a quiet person by the others?

contrary to explore our research questions Will he feel disadvantaged and experience
among foreigners and chose for this purpose lack of expression of his personal identity?
German mother tongue speakers. Our Yet, what does a person who masters the
decision was driven by the notion that our language to the highest proficiency level
subjects will be on the one hand less likely experience in the very same situation?
affected by the stereotypes spread among What does the very same person feel, when
Malaysians towards each other in terms of he cannot find the proper word he would
various group memberships and that the have used in his mother tongue? Last but
German mother tongue speakers might on not least, does it come to an identity change,
the other hand find themselves more often if an individual uses a foreign language as
confronted by the language variety used in a lingua franca for a long period of time?
Malaysia than the locals would. The main questions we set to investigate
in terms of the effects the use of a foreign
RESEARCH QUESTION language has on the individuals personal
Language plays a big role in the expression identity in a multilingual environment are:
of the individuals identity. It allows him to 1. Do our respondents perceive a foreign
some extent to comprehend and to describe language as an equal substitute for their
himself through language. Furthermore the mother tongue, when it comes to their
language gives the individual the possibility personal identity?
to compete with identities that would be 2. How do they feel about their identity in
otherwise ascribed to him by the society. case they dont speak a language their
In our view, the language the individual is conversation partners communicate in?
most fluent in is the language(s) he grew up
with, in other words his mother tongue(s). 3. Does the length of stay in Malaysia
So what happens with the expression of the affects the respondents personal
personal identity if one is not or not always identity?
able to use his mother tongue? How does 4. How important is the mother tongue vs.
the individual feel in such situations? Is the foreign language for the respondents in
use of a foreign language an equal substitute terms of relationships?
for his mother tongue when it comes to his
personal identity? And what if his language PARTICIPANTS
skills in the target language he ought to Overall 19 participants took part in our
use reach less than an intermediate level investigation during October and November
or if he does not speak nor understand that 2011: 10 females and 9 males. As mentioned
particular language at all? Will it matter above, all respondents were German mother
to him not being able to take a part on the tongue speakers, the majority (17) were of
conversation and thus being perceived for German origin. The length of stay of the
participants in Malaysia varied between few only used the descriptive tools of the SPSS,
weeks (six weeks the shortest) to 37 years. i. e. frequencies and cross tabulation, for data
evaluation. The choice to partially evaluate
METHODOLOGY and to present the data in percentage serves
The data were collected from 18 interviews at the same time as a guideline for setting
with German mother tongue speakers working hypothesis for further research in
currently living in Malaysia. We decided to regard to this topic.
exclude the data collected from one male We started the data evaluation with the
participant, because he chose not to answer insertion of data from transcripts into the
most of our questions with an explanation SPSS. We followed the usual procedure for
such as I cant give you the answer now nominal and ordinal data such as gender,
and hence no valid feedback was obtained. length of stay, country of origin, proficiency
We placed emphasis on the fact that they and fluency in languages etc. Questions that
grew up in Europe and only came to are related to emotions and behaviour such
Malaysia as adults. The other important as What do you do and how do you feel in
factor to us was their length of stay in case you are excluded from a conversation
Malaysia in order to check, whether it has because of the language? were turned into
any influence on their identity perception. variables the following way: bad feeling,
We set no other criteria in terms of being cant understand language - 1=yes, 2=no;
able to look for tendencies that could be in behaviour, cant understand language
the future studies investigated quantitatively. string (i. e. we typed in the keywords from
Some of the respondents were known to us, the statements). Questions related to self-
whereas some were added to the project via categorization were turned into variables
the snowball sampling method (see e. g. also in a standard way, e. g. identification
Babbie, 2013, pp.191-192; Babbie, 2011, with Malaysians: 1=yes, 2=no, 3=partially
p.208; Bailey, 1994, p.96). All interviews both. Based on the SPSS-frequencies we
were conducted in the German language. turned back to our transcripts and checked
The respondents were further informed that for similarities among yes and no answers
their answers would remain anonymous. etc. After that we distinguished factors and
The interviews were later transcribed categories among similar statements, to
and coded so that the data could be entered highlight the respective finding (e. g. strong
into the Statistical Package for the Social family orientation or subconscious code
Sciences (SPSS). The transcriptions helped switching).
us to maintain a qualitative insight into
the responses, while the coding of the INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
responses into variables helped us to gain We started our interviews with the Twenty
a faster and clearer overview over the data. Statements Test (TST) from Kuhn and
In accordance to the nature of our study we McPartland (1954), which is a frequently
used technique for assessment of an involving foreign language, nor do you

individuals sense of identity (comp. e. g. have to deal with correspondence in a
Dana, 2005, p.109). Our respondents were foreign language.)
thus asked to give us 20 different answers 6. What do you do and how do you
to the question Who am I? We used this feel in case you are excluded from a
method to observe whether our respondents conversation because of the language?
would include a mention of their mother (e.g. People at your table communicate
tongue. in a language in which you are not
The second part of the interview proficient.)
consisted from 20 open-ended questions we
7. Is it/would it be important for you
developed in line with the SIT and SCT. The
that your partner and children speak/
questions are focused on self-categorization
understand your mother tongue? Why?
through group memberships and on the use
of language and its personal value for the 8. Is it/would it be important for you to
participant. The participants were however learn the mother tongue of your partner?
given the opportunity to report freely on Why?
additional matters that were of importance 9. With whom do you spend your free
to them. Our main questions were the time? Does your mother tongue play
following: any role in it?
1. Do you identify with Malaysians/with 10. a) Do your good friends tell you that
your fellow countrymen that live in you changed as a person since you live
Malaysia in some way? If yes, in what in Malaysia? If yes, in what way?
ways?
b) Do you think you have changed
2. Do you perceive your identity to be because of living in Malaysia? If yes,
different in comparison to Malaysians/ in what way?
to your fellow countrymen that live in
11. To what extent does your mother tongue
Malaysia? If yes, in what ways?
and other languages you use play a role
3. What languages do you speak and in expressing your identity?
at what level (fluent, good, just few
12. Do you judge others by their language
words...)?
skills? When? How? (e. g. You receive
4. What languages do you use in Malaysia? an e-mail/phone call. You meet a new
When? Which one is your favourite and person at a party).
why?
5. Does it happen that you sometimes RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
think in a foreign language even though The number of answers related to mentioning
you dont necessarily have to? (e. g. German as part of the self in the scope of
You are not engaged in a conversation the Twenty Statements Test reached 33%.
28% mentioned connection to the language The statements about dissimilarities

indirectly by mentioning the use of German in identity perception when compared to
in their profession and/or by stating their Malaysians indicate three main points:
ethnicity. The rest, i. e. 39%, did not mention time management and efficiency, values
the mother tongue at all. It could be argued (especially in prioritizing form over content)
that the respondents did not see the necessity and the concept of hygiene. What follows
to stress their mother tongue as part of their are extracts taken from the interviews
identity, since the interview was held in their illustrating the above findings. All three
mother tongue. However, we can report that participants are married to Malaysians. The
when the respondents were asked directly first example is from a respondent, who has
about the role of the mother tongue and lived in this country for the past six years:
other languages they speak in expressing
They have this listlessness, I would
their identity (question (11)), 83% of them
love to have it, but I dont have
stated that they perceive it to be important.
it. ... And they are old fashioned.
We will come to this point again and discuss
They love these endlessly long
it in more detail.
names and titles and hierarchy,
Our data concerning identity perception
all of it is totally foreign to me.
based on self-categorization in comparison
And sometimes they would come
with Malaysians and fellow countrymen of
up with something very funny like
the respondents show that the time spent
the pregnant ladies are expected
in Malaysia by the respondents has no
to dress less sexy, because it might
significant influence in this matter. In total,
disturb the students!
only 39% of the respondents identify in
some way with Malaysians, despite the fact
that 61% of them live in a relationship with This person spent in Malaysia 27 years:
a Malaysian. They identify with Malaysians
I always believe to be completely
as follows: in the concept of simplicity of
different, completely otherwise.
the self, strong family orientation, taking
Since I find it to be important to
religion as a part of the everyday life and
come on time, or at least to let the
placing less value on materialism and
other know that Im running late as
individualism. One of the respondents
well as I find it to be important to
added:
treat others nicely despite having
... Apart from that I can identify bad mood myself. ... My friends
very well with the lepak-custom. are actually only Europeans, even
Thus just sit around, eat, drink and though I work with Malaysians I
talk. dont like to meet them in my free
time. ... And I find it difficult to work
with them.
The third utterance is from a respondent identification. For those who have a similar
living in Malaysia since 31 years: perception with other GMS we were able to
conclude that the bonds are: similar values,
There is no such thing as German
similar interests and similar fate. The same
perfectionism here. I am still not
lingua franca and country of origin was
used to it and I am inwardly much
mentioned only by one respondent when
more German in this regard. ... Or
including answers solely to question No.
ok, I live in a high building and
(1) and (2) (see the list of our interview
200 meters from another 30-stock
questions). Those that do not have a similar
office tower, yet I have to walk to
perception with other GMS regarded as due
LRT4 through a pile of dirt. I guess
to social status. These respondents are not
I will never get used to things like
inclined to meet other GMS, unless they
that. ... I have the impression that
match their own social status. Expatriates
Malaysians dont take their work
are further perceived as people living in an
seriously. At least not as seriously
unnatural world missing the true picture of
as Germans do. They lack the
the host country. One respondent expressed
ambition to improve or show that
her dislike in GMS, who are too critical
they are worthy of their position.
towards Malaysians. Another said that she
That is not good on the one hand,
does not like to mingle with GMS, who are
because then many things dont
too German in a negative way.
work as they should. On the other
All of the respondents are fluent
hand I like that the locals dont put
in English except one, who ranked her
themselves under such a huge self-
proficiency to be moderate. 13 respondents
pressure like the Germans do.
speak other non-Asian language(s) of who
two rated the level of their proficiency as
The comparison with other country fluent, three as moderate and eight as basic.
members living in Malaysia brought us The knowledge of Asian languages was
to the following piece of finding: our slightly higher, since three respondents do
respondents strongly differentiate between not master any, while five do not master any
German mother tongue speakers (GMS) other non-Asian ones. Three respondents are
living locally in a financially equal way fluent in an Asian language, two moderate
to that of the Malaysians and those living as and ten have basic skills mostly in Bahasa
expatriates5. The frequency of identification Melayu. Most of the respondents also use
regarding this point equaled the non- English at work and in their everyday life,
4
LRT (Light Rapid Transit) is a town train. when dealing with locals and foreigners with
5
The word expatriate carries within Malaysia other language background. 10 respondents
generally the connotation of foreigners who
also use German at their work place and five
were send to Malaysia by a foreign company,
which covers all their expenses above the local within their family. Respondents living in
average standards.
a mixed relationship with a Malaysian use course. But German is completely

English for communication, one respondent different from Swabian. Its as
uses also Tamil and two speak Malay different as German from English,
occasionally with their partners. Two for instance. It is the language of
respondents admitted using an appropriate my home, I grew up with it. I can
language to ease certain situations. One of express completely different things
them swears in German when she wants with it and feel other emotions when
to express anger, but does not want others using it.
to understand the exact words. The other (Respondent No. 13, he is fluent
respondent speaks Malay with officers and in English and Malay)
policeman in order to achieve the goal with
ease. Respondent No. 2, 4 and 13 feel that The language of eye contact, since
Malaysians like it when foreigners use their Im no friend of many words.
mother tongue(s) but they also learn and use (Respondent No. 1, he is fluent in
Bahasa Melayu to be perceived better by English, Portuguese and has basic
the Malaysians. These last five mentioned language skills in Spanish)
respondents thus use language as a tool for
self-categorization into local groups when
The most frequently given reason for
they consider it to be appropriate.
perceiving German as the favourite language
The question What is your favourite
was because it is my mother tongue. The
language? yielded the answer German
second most frequently given reason was
from 72% of respondents. 5.5% answered
because I have the best vocabulary in
English and a local Asian language each and
German so I can express myself best in it.
17%, i. e. three replies, were ascribed to the
Some other reasons are stated below, all
variable other. The answers we marked as
cited subjects are fluent in English:
other are the following:
I feel safer when speaking German.
I speak German at work, English
(Rrespondent No. 17)
in life and Tamil with friends and
volunteers in the society Im active
in. I like all three languages each in Sometimes its really demanding
its own setting. to speak a foreign language,
(Rrespondent No. 2, he is fluent in especially when Im tired. Words
all three languages) simply dont come as easy as in
the mother tongue in a foreign
Swabian (Schwbisch) is the closest language and when Im tired, its
one to me. I cant say German, even even worse. Thats sometimes
though I speak perfect German of also frustrating ... because I like
to express myself through rich sometimes English words pop up in my

vocabulary ... sometimes I just dont mind, even though Im thinking in German.
feel like talking in English at all, The other frequent answer we added to
when Im tired. this category was e. g. when I think of
(Respondent No. 18) somebody, with whom I usually speak
English, then I also talk to him in my mind in
I like to speak English, Im an English. Therefore it appears to us useful to
English teacher, I studied in orientate questions in future studies in more
England, I speak English already detail on this phenomenon and to explore it
longer than for a half of my life. I can in regard to whom the respondents thinks
express myself very well in English, about. One respondent realized during our
throughout the years sometimes session that the language he used last stays
even better than in German. But in his mind because he can speak and think
when I can talk German, fluently well in three languages:
and freely like with you now, thats
wonderful! Then I can be me. I can Very often, but it is usually
be myself. influenced by the time of day. The
(Respondent No. 14) language I use as the first one ...
and I usually switch to the language
German because it is the of my communication partner. All
language in which I think most of that happens subconsciously. ...
often. Then I keep thinking in the language
(Respondent No. 9) I talked with to that person. ... Yes,
even though the conversation is
In what language(s) do you think and
over and I am by myself again. ...
if it happens that you think in a foreign
Yes, I stay in that language until
language, even though it is not necessary
I deal with somebody in another
at that moment (5), was our next question.
language again.
39% of the answers indicated thinking in
(Respondent No. 2)
German and 61% in various languages.
One respondent stated to use English
Why is the topic the respondents think
proverbs with the explanation that some of
about important for their choice of language?
them do not exist in German and that s/he
The medium for thinking was described in
finds them fitting in certain circumstances.
all cases with statements such as I learned
S/he feels the need to apply those utterances
it in that language, I cant think of it in
to express hers/his attitude and thoughts. The
any other language (Respondent No. 14).
explanations we interpreted as subconscious
Respondent No. 13 stated:
code switching were described usually as
Praying and things like that I never to read them and they make it real
translate. I grew up with it, yet when hard to read them even in your
you ask me about computers, I will mother tongue. Or when I need to
rather explain you all about it in follow such texts as instructions to
English than in German, because do something.
I learned it that way. I started to (Respondent No. 7)
work with computers as an adult
here in Malaysia and whatever I When I want to express myself
know about it is in English. Then precisely, when I want to go deeper
its really difficult for me to speak in conversation. ... its hard for me
about it in German. to read in English when Im tired ...
(Respondent No. 12)
Are there situations when the
respondents would prefer to use their The 17% who dont feel the need to use
mother tongue? This was confirmed with their mother tongue in any situations gave
a yes by 83% of the respondents. In what us these answers:
situations would that be, was answered with
replies that we understand as belonging I like to learn new languages.
to two categories: when lacking language (Respondent No. 5)
proficiency in the foreign language and
when lacking physical energy. The lack No, Id rather use more English,
of language skills causes uncertainty and especially at work, so that I could
negative feelings about oneself and the explain things better ...
whole situation. The lack of physical power (Respondent No. 10)
is interlinked with the lack of mental power,
hence causes difficulty using a foreign No, because I like to keep distance.
language. Here some examples in the words (Respondent No. 1)
of our respondents:
At the doctor, offices, car workshops How do the respondents feel and what
... I feel like a fool there just because do they do in situations, when they do
I dont know the words. not understand the language others use
(Respondent No. 8) around them? 39% stated they do not feel
troubled by being a part of conversation
they do not comprehend, whereas the other
When I have to understand small
61% do feel troubled. The former finds
printed texts! They are usually
that in Malaysia it is completely normal
tricky, companies dont want you
to be excluded through language from a conversation companion doesnt get

conversation, so they just observe the others the impression from me he would
the mimicking and gestures of others or have, if I used my mother tongue.
they just switch off. Therefore this group (Respondent No. 8)
could be characterized as a passive one. The
second group is on the contrary an active H o w e v e r, w h e n i t c o m e s t o
one, since all the respondents do not hesitate relationships, the minority, i. e. 44%, think
to interfere by asking questions, such as their companion should also speak German.
What did s/he say? or by saying something The majority thinks it sufficient, when their
to call attention to themselves. Most of the companions speak English or any other
respondents stated that when that does not tongue they can both understand. Yet 83%
work, they stop trying and either endure the hold the opinion that it is important to learn
situation with a negative feeling or leave. the mother tongue of their partner and 72%
Some of the respondents from the latter want or would want to their children speak
group emphasized that they view using any German. It might be noted that 61% of our
language the conversation partner cannot respondents live in a relationship with a
understand for an unnecessary long time as non-German speaking partner. The reasons
highly impolite. given for the importance of the children to
Our next question was, whether the master German were most frequently due to
respondents experience lack of expression its advantages, such as the children can later
of their personal identity in those kind of on have better chances on the job market
situations or in any kind of situation, where or have a conversation with their German
they lack certain language proficiency. speaking grandparents. Respondents who
Again the percentage of yes was higher consider it important that their partner either
than those no, and the percentage remained speaks or learns also their mother tongue
the same as in the previous data set. The were predominantly female. Among their
39% who gave no as an answer were not reasons was the believe that the language
able to explain their reasons. Among the might: decrease the misunderstandings
61% experiencing lack of expression of in the relationship, demonstrate respect
their personal identity the answers were and understanding for the other, enhance
dominated by the fear from misinterpretation closeness (also due to similar social
of their identity, see example below: background) and enable a relationship that
is not based only on physical attraction.
Of course I feel like passing out,
As discussed above, 56% dont find
when Im not able to express myself
it important for their partner to learn their
in a foreign language the way I can
mother tongue, but 83% believe it to be
in my mother tongue. And of course
important for them to learn the mother
I feel and realize then that my
tongue of their partner so that they could
learn something about their companions In the second example our respondent
culture. Here two of the replies we received No. 2 talks about being accepted by the
to question (8): culture, but what it means in reality is of
course to be accepted by the people, who
Yes, absolutely, that is the only way
speak the language. Thus in this case we
to truly understand the mentality
come across once again - the awareness
and culture of a person!
language can play in social identity and
(Respondent No. 3)
self-categorization.
The majority, i. e. 78%, of the
Yes, but only to learn something respondents do not prioritise meeting people
about the culture behind it. I think who speak German and choose to spend their
the culture can only be learned free time with people with similar interests
through the language. Everything and/or problems. Among the remaining
else is just a try, but one will never 22% were respondents, who often came to
be accepted by the culture as a part Malaysia with poor proficiency in English,
of it. Tamils talk with me about therefore sought people, who shared their
these white ones..., because they mother tongue. Most of them remained
see me as a Tamil. good friends, while they also gained local
(Respondent No. 2) or international friends throughout the years.
While 39% of the respondents heard
The first example shows that the that they changed their personality from
awareness of the role the language(s) one their friends, question (10) a), 56% of
speaks only becomes apparent when talking them think of themselves to have changed,
about other individuals. The comparison question (10) b). Looking at the data based
between the self and other is a crucial factor on crosstabulation, 11 cases out of 18 match
in investigations of identity. However it their identity perception with the perception
seems insufficient to enhance the subjects of their identity by others. Another 5 cases
awareness of the role the language(s) he are perceived by their friends as unchanged,
master play for himself. A double check although they themselves believe it to
on this phenomenon was made by question be otherwise and two cases thought the
(11), which we asked as the penultimate opposite. We take into account that the data
question during our interviews (To what set for this question is very subjective, since
extent does your mother tongue and other we have not the statements from the actual
languages you use play a role in expressing friends, but from the respondents responding
your identity?), when the majority of on behalf of their friends. However most of
respondents still believed that their language the replies in terms of identity changes that
skills have no influence on their identity or we received can be interpreted as adaptation
the way they are perceived by others. to Malaysian circumstances and expansion
of knowledge. Another feature we detected way possible and surprise people

during the data analysis is perception in the with them.
change of personality. 5 subjects feel to have (Respondent No. 5)
become more laid back and patient. On the
contrary, respondents, who do not perceive Viewing the mother tongue as a feature
changes in their personality expressed the in common in terms of group memberships
opinion that their personality and identity is can be noted in the response of our interview
to a large extent conditioned by their inborn partner No. 17.
attributes.
To what extent does your mother One notices, how easy it goes, when
tongue and other languages you use play a one speaks a common language.
role in expressing your identity? was the What kind of appurtenance there
penultimate question we asked, question No. can be thanks to language alone.
(11) in this paper. As mentioned in the first How strong it can be, how much
paragraph of the data analysis, 83% of the it can bring us together. One
respondents consider the language(s) they can survive with English well,
speak an important feature of their identity. pragmatically and rationally, but
Accordingly we were able to distinguish some things one can express only,
two main factors in the construal of their one has to use his mother tongue
identity: as an expression of their personal and then other connections are
identity and as a tool for the expression of made. I believe, it is simply like that.
their social identity. The latter expression And then there are situations, when
varies with the level of their motivation to it becomes clearly apparent.
express their self-categorization as an in- or
out- group member. Respondent No. 5 for The remaining 17% feel that their
example holds the opinion that the level mother tongue doesnt play any significant
of his language proficiency conditions the role in expressing their identity. They
level of expression of his identity. He further reasoned their opinions with the following
believes that the language skills are the statements: The country of origin influences
keys to the world: the better the language the way one is perceived by others. Germans
skills, the more doors stand open. Similar are regarded as reliable. But that has nothing
views are held by some other respondents, to do with the language (respondent No.
one of them states: 6). Respondent No. 10 believes that his
mother tongue influences his identity in
My mother tongue is important for
a very limited way, because he believes
my identity, because only in that
to express his identity and to perceive
language I can search for various
others identity via other features, such
formulations in the most detailed
as sex appeal and respondent No. 1 is
convinced that languages play no role in gained through a series of interviews we

somebodys identity whatsoever: Words came to the conclusion that the use of a
are not important at all. (Wort ist Schall und foreign language serves as a substitute for
Rauch.). the mother tongue in the construal of identity
The final point we addressed in our only to a certain extent. This phenomenon
interviews was question No. (12) - Do you becomes most apparent in situations where
judge others by their language skills? When? the competency of the language is crucial for
How? In terms of frequency, we detected the respondent involved in communication.
83% of answers as yes and the remaining Depending on the importance of the situation
17% as no. The replies to When? were the respondents experience a different level
usually related to interaction with new of achievement/failure in expressing their
people. The answers we gained to How? identity. At the same time the respondents
can be basically divided into two categories: evaluate identity of their communication
the level of interest for the communication partner by rating their language skills. It
partner and judgments about the intelligence means that our results support Josephs
of the communication partner. In the first (2004, p.13) and Spolskys (1999, p.181)
case the respondents gain or lose interest suggestion that individuals decode and
for their communication partners based on evaluate the identity of others also based
the language skills their partners possess. on language and thus perceive linguistic
In the latter case they evaluate the other on acts as acts of identity, what was suggested
her/his mental ability based on the language in the work by Le Page and Tabouret-
proficiency. One respondent stated that Keller (1985). The perception of ones
she takes language very seriously most of own achieved/failed identity expression
all in the professional life: I wont start supports at the same time Pavlenkos and
any business partnership with somebody Blackledges (2004, p.19) argument that
unable to demonstrate good language identity choices are not possible in all
skills, because I take that kind of person as situations. Our findings further show that the
incompetent. majority of our respondents dont feel well
in situations when they cant understand the
language others use around them. In this
CONCLUSION
regard our results further indicate that the
With our case studies we aimed to investigate identity perception and expression is at the
the relationship between the language and same time most apparent when accompanied
identity among German mother tongue by strong feelings (positive or negative).
speakers living in Malaysia. We fall back This is however an observation based on the
on the Social Identity Theory and the Social overall evaluation of our data and since we
Categorization Theory in regard to research did not explicitly ask about the intensity of
on language and identity. Based on data the feelings our respondents experienced in
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The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System

in Kelantan, Malaysia
Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain1*, Abd Rahim Md Nor2 and Hamidi Ismail1
1
Department of Development, School of Government, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok,
Kedah, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Social Science and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The community in the Kelantan River Basin is still confronted by the problem of
ineffectiveness of flood management system despite the governments efforts to come
up with various approacheson flood management systems to assist flood victims. The
main objective of this study is to evaluate the level of residents satisfaction towards
the implementation of flood management system. This study is quantitatively designed
which utilized a questionnaire distributed to 160 respondents selected by stratified cluster
simple one-stage sampling technique. The statistical technique used is mean comparison
and one-way ANOVA to explain the residents perceptions among the districts involved
with regards to the efficiency of the implemented flood management system. Based on the
outcome of the study, the mean value related to the level of satisfaction of flood victims
showed a decreasing pattern from before, during and after flood occurrences. For example,
the mean comparative study reveals that the residents of Tanah Merah district recorded
the highest dissatisfaction level for the three periods (before 3.04, current 2.95 and after
2.02) in comparision to other districts. The results illustrate a low efficiency level in flood
management before flood occurrence. For instance, the community is still not quite satisfied
with the effectiveness of warning system, action time intervals and current announcement
time intervals regarding latest developments in flood situation with all these variables not
achieving significant level of 0.05. The same applies to the situation on after flood effects
such as in terms of dispensing flood assistance, controlling of infectious diseases and
actions toward each residents complaints.
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Thus, government have to reconsider about
Received: 20 February 2012 the level of residents satisfaction to current
E-mail addresses:
flood management systems namely before,
sh.rokiah@uum.edu.my (Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain), during and after floods occurrence and
rahim@ukm.my (Abd Rahim Md Nor),
hamidi@uum.edu.my (Hamidi Ismail) systematic planning in flood management

Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and Hamidi Ismail
system reflects proactive cooperation among method. Normally, the structured method
relevant parties in preparation for flood of controlling flood is more objective in
disaster. nature since the level of risks is measurable
and convincing (Cvetkovich et al. 1992).
Keywords: Satisfaction level, flood management
However, due to the escalation of cost, the
system, river basins
non-structured method is also important
to be introduced as an alternative method
INTRODUCTION to flood management. In addition, the
Flood occurs when water over flows from involvement of government, community,
the river banks and inundates the closest private sector and NGOs is vital to
plain where water was not prevalent earlier.. maximize the effectiveness of any forms
Normally, this overflow happens when of implemented flood management. For
heavy rain takes place non-stop for a the Kelantan River Basins, although the
duration of several days at certain locations. government has already implemented
Flood is also defined as a situation where various steps and actions to assist flood
water flows exceed the carrying capacity of victims at the before, current or after flood
a river resulting in overflows over the river stage, the residents are still being engulfed
banks (Erickson 1971, Goh 1981, Griffiths with the issue of poor effectiveness of the
1985, Hoyt & Langbein 1966, Jamaluddin flood management system.
& Ismail 1990, Smith 1993). The main question however is
Massive floods in Malaysia occurred as to understand the level of satisfaction
early as 1886, 1926, 1967, 1971 and 1986 among residents involved toward the
and lately this situation has continuously implementation of the flood management
worsened.. One of the areas in Malaysia system. This study assumes that this level
which experienced frequent flooding is in of satisfaction among residents towards
the Kelantan River Basin (DID, 2005). This government flood management system is
is because the flood that inundated the basin significantly varied among the districts
is categorised as a major flood area (?) and involved at each stage; before, during
the frequency of occurrence is high (Sham, and after the flood occurrence. Therefore,
1973). For example, the major flood episode the objective of this study is to evaluate
in 1967 caused the area to be declared as this level of satisfaction towards flood
Emergency Area as 84 percent of residents management system in Kelantan River
of Kelantan State were affected and a lot Basins at the three stages.
destruction of basic facilities such as roads Evaluation of residents satisfaction
and hospitals (Low, 1983; Sham, 1973). includes items such as response on the
To control flood, there are two warning system, efficiency in warning
approaches used by the government system delivery, response time, reminders
namely the structured and non-structured and cooperation of relevant authorities. As
The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System in Kelantan, Malaysia
for the during flood stage, the following level and 23 times at dangerous level (Tuan
aspects are taken into consideration namely Pah Rokiah, 2010). The same situation also
rescue equipment such as boat and safety/life exists for other sub-basin regions such as
jackets, safety during transfer or evacuation Lebir, Galas, and Pergau which recorded
process, cooperation of rescue team, increasing flood frequency and magnitude.
cleanliness of evacuation centers temporary This scenario also illustrates higher flood
shelter, foodstuff supply, evacuation centers risk tendency if relevant parties do not
temporary shelter surroundings, service take prudent mitigation measures including
and assistance distribution. For the after flood management system especially for
flood stage, among the questions raised the three stages of before, during, and after
are distribution of flood assistance, health flood occurrence. If proper measures are
control, public amenities repairs and public implemented, unwarranted events such as
complaints. loss of properties, lives, and spreading of
The occurrence of flood is synonymous infectious diseases can certainly be avoided.
to the state of Kelantan due its significant In Malaysia, flood management
frequency in that state. The flood occurrence normally employs structural engineering
also cause losses and damages to properties approach. However, this approach is found
and many lives. One of the main reasons for to be less effective in tackling human
the high incident of flood in the state is due related flood issues or problems (Chan,
to large-scale land clearing activities for 1995). According to Chan (2009), since
commercial agricultural purposes such as flood problem is closely related to human
for rubber and oil palm estates (Tuan Pah factor, therefore, the best approaches to
Rokiah, 2010). The total area of land use solving flood problem should also be
such as forest, rubber and oil palm indicates non-structural (humanity-based). The
that there is a big annual change as most importance of this non-structural approach
lands are utilsed for commercial agricultural must be reemphasized through the concept
activities (Table 1). of environmental humanities (Chan, 2010).
For instance, during the year 1961 Also, according to Levy et al. (2005) the
to 2006, Kelantan River Basins has proposal for Disaster Support Systems (DSS)
experienced flooding for a total of 275 times is a non-structural approach introduced to
at early warning level, 92 times at warning improve the planning and effectiveness
TABLE 1
Landuse Changes by Year 1984, 1997 and 2004
Landuse Types 1984 Area (ha) 1997 Area (ha) 2004 Area (ha) Average
Forest 10454677597.83 801154.92 710073.92 3485396276
Rubber 116835.97 163510.79 142170.10 140839
Oil Palm 20656.6 65835.01 87974.12 58155.2
Source: Kementerian Pertanian Malaysia 2004
of flood management. Among the vital Kelantan state area consisting eight districts
elements of DSS are communication, namely Kota Bharu, Pasir Mas, Tumpat,
knowledge transfer, skill improvement in Tanah Merah, Machang, Kuala Krai, Jeli
forecasting ability and the transparency of and Gua Musang.
strategic flood decision management. In The selection of the respondents is
addition, the study by Vari (2002) at Lower based on the worst flood-hit area and the
Tisza found that the forms of flood control most frequent occurrence of flood for each
is not necessarily needed to be informed but of the districts involved. For example, Kuala
it is vital that the public be informed of the Krai district in the Manek Urai area, has
level of risks associated with flood so as not been chosen to represent the district because
to create a panic situation in the community. the area was worse-hit by flood for each and
Study in Vietnam found that the effects every year. Based on the same principle, the
of doi moi policy really provide much of districts that were involved in the selection
awareness to the community in order to of respondents are Kota Bharu, Pasir Mas,
face the flood disaster by building more Tumpat, Tanah Merah, Machang, Kuala
durable housing, building home in stages Krai, Jeli and Gua Musang with a total
using better resistant building materials. Up respondent of 160 people.
to the year 2005, there was 17 percent of The design of this study is quantitative
houses built using more durable materials, in nature where questionnaires were
65 percent using semi durable materials distributed to 160 respondents. There are
and 18 percent still using less durable 4 sections in the questionnaire namely
materials (Tran et al. 2009). According to demographic, flood management system
Warner (2008), efficient flood management at before, current and after flood stage.
system requires a close cooperation by each To measure the respondents level of
level of the community, private sector and satisfaction toward the flood management
local leaders. These groups should not be system by the government, Likerts Scale
left out in facing major flood disaster but is used ranging from 1 (not satisfied) to
they should act an army to help the flood 4 (strongly satisfied). Respondents were
victims. selected from flood victims relocated to each
district relocation centers. This study uses
STUDY AREAS AND RESEARCH stratified cluster simple one-stage sampling
METHODS technique as used by Xie et al. (2008). A
The study coveredKelantan River Basins total of 20 respondents were selected using
which is divided into several sub-basins the said technique for each district which
namely Sungai Kelantan, Sungai Galas, cumulatively totaled to 160 respondents.
Sungai Lebir and Sungai Pergau (Fig.1). The According to Carver and Nash (2005) and
total area of this Kelantan River Basins is Mohd. Majid (1990), sample size of 30
about 13,100 square km or 85 percent of the is adequate for the purpose of inferential
statistics. However Mohd. Majid (1990), were analyzed using the inferential statistics
added that sample size of 100 is better to such as mean comparison, one-way ANOVA
provide more representation of respondents and correlation. The selection of these
of various background. statistical techniques is deemed appropriate
In this study, respondents are required considering the types of data collected and
to fill out questionnaire forms after the flood hypotheses formulated, for instance, the
and the respondents are the same persons application of mean comparison and one-
for the 3 situation of before, current and way ANOVA techniques to demonstrate
after the flood occurrence. However, for the the level of residents satisfaction amongst
district of Pasir Mas, the responses are only the districts towards the current flood
for the before and after flood occurrence as management system as frequently used by
there were no flood victims being relocated Abd. Rahim (1999, 2009). Mean comparison
to relocation center. Therefore, this study analysis is applied to obtain the overall views
validates that the sample size is adequate, of a particular phenomena and standard
suitable and acceptable for statistical deviation statistic is used to detect variation
analysis purposes. in perception among all the respondents. On
Since the study is quantitative in nature, the other hand, one-way ANOVA method
all the data collected from the questionnaires is utilized to detect the level of significant
Legend
Sg.Lebir N
Sg.Galas
Sg.Pergau
Sg.Kelantan
Sg.Pergau
146004.77
km.sq.
Sg.Lebir
Sg. Kelantan
358952.25
740688.74
km.sq.
km.sq.
161221.75
km.sq.
Sg.Galas
Fig.1: Sub-basins of the Kelantan River Basin

(Source: Tuan Pah Rokiah, 2010)
in perception differentiation among the comparison method is used. Evaluation

respondents consisting of three or more of residents satisfaction at before flood
groups (among the districts). occurrence stage includes warning system,
efficiency in warning system delivery,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION response time, reminders and cooperation of
The efficiency of flood management system relevant authorities to the residents involved.
is essentially important because it influences Based on mean value for the before flood
two vital components; the safety of human stage, the study found that Gua Musang and
lives and property damages and losses. If Tumpat District recorded the highest mean
the government is practicing proper and value of 3.46 each and standard deviations
efficient flood management system (before, of 0.3697 for Gua Musang District and
during, and after flood occurrence), the 0.3346 for Tumpat District respectively.
extent of loss or damages of human lives and This scenario illustrates that the level
properties can certainly be incrementally of satisfaction is high among the residents
reduced (Vari, 2002). in these two districts towards the flood
The efficiency of flood management management system at the before flood
system can be evaluated through various occurrence stage as compared to other
approaches, one of which is through districts. For Tanah Merah and Kuala Krai
measuring the level of satisfaction among District, the results show the lowest mean
the residents who live within the study area. scores of 3.04 and 3.30 respectively with
This level of satisfaction can be evaluated corresponding standard deviations of 0.3700
from several aspects, for instance, efficiency and 0.3898. This clearly demonstrates
and effectiveness level, or cooperation and that residents in these two districts have
assistance provided by the government. a rather low level of satisfaction towards
Hence, two types of analysis are carried out the efficiency in flood management system
namely the mean comparison and one-way in their districts. The difference in higher
ANOVA to rationalize the study hypothesis or lower mean value is dependable on the
that there exist significant differences or level of cooperation among the government
discrimination of residents perceptions agencies of corresponding districts in
among the districts towards the efficiency delivering flood information before the
of flood management system delivery. occurrence of flood. For the other districts,
mean recordings are almost similar with
Mean Comparison readings ranging from 3.33 to 3.39. This also
indicates that the residents in these districts
To detail out the study hypothesis that there
within the Kelantan River Basins are
exists significant differences of residents
generally satisfied with flood management
perceptions among the districts towards
system at the before flood occurrence.
the efficiency of flood management system
Furthermore, to illustrate the level
delivery (before, during, and after), mean
of satisfaction among the flood victims that for the during flood stage, there is a
during the flood occurrence, a number slight variation in the mean value where
of questions need to be addressed. These the scores for each districts decreased. This
include rescue equipment such as boat is an indication that the level of satisfaction
and safety jacket, safety during transfer among the residents involved for these
or evacuation process, and cooperation districts are generally low especially for
of rescue team, cleanliness of evacuation Tanah Merah District with mean score of
center/temporary shelter, foodstuff supply, 2.95 and for Jeli District is 3.07. Standard
evacuation center/temporary shelter deviations for these two districts are 0.3201
surroundings, and service and assistance and 0.1753 respectively (Table 2). The
distribution. The study outcomes show difference in standard deviations for each
TABLE 2
Mean value for the level of residents satisfaction towards flood management system by districts
Stage Districts (Jajahan) Overall Mean SD

Level of Satisfaction Towards Flood Management Gua Musang 3.46 .36970
System BEFORE Flood Occurrence Jeli 3.35 .28756
Kota Bharu 3.33 .35145
Kuala Krai 3.30 .38984
Machang 3.33 .41413
Pasir Mas 3.39 .36109
Tanah Merah 3.04 .37009
Tumpat 3.46 .33467
System DURING Flood Occurrence Jeli 3.07 .17531
Machang 3.16 .17548
Pasir Mas* - -
Tumpat 3.21 .13650
System AFTER Flood Occurrence Jeli 2.27 .11180
Machang 2.11 .24839
Pasir Mas 2.30 .08719
Tumpat 2.28 .10949
Includes All Districts except Pasir Mas- No data DURING flood (N= 140)
(Source: Tuan Pah Rokiah, 2010)
of the districts demonstrates that there are more frequent and severe flooding due to
significant variations with regards to the the overflows from Golok River (i.e. Pekan
level of residents satisfaction towards the Rantau Panjang).
services being provided to them during the The trend in mean value also shows
flood occurrence. that the level of residents satisfaction is
This situation reveals that flood declining for the after flood occurrence
victims from both districts are rather stage. Among the questions that need to be
less satisfied with the flood management addressed include the distribution of flood
system implemented by the government. assistance, health control, public amenities
The districts that recorded highest mean repairs, and public/residents complaints.
value (3.21) are Kuala Krai and Tumpat. Tanah Merah district recorded the lowest
However, this highest mean value is for mean value of 2.02 with standard deviation
the during flood occurrence stage. When of 0.2113 and this is followed by Machang
compared with the mean value at the before district with mean value of 2.11 (standard
flood occurrence stage, the value is actually deviation of 0.2483). On the other hand,
lower (i.e. for Tumpat, the mean value of Kota Bahru and Pasir Mas districts recorded
before flood occurrence stage is 3.46). This the highest mean value of 2.30. The mean
situation indicates a reduction in mean value for other districts ranges from 2.26 to
value of the during flood occurrence stage 2.28. This situation may be caused by urgent
as compared to the mean value at the before needs by the residents of Pasir Mas dan Kota
flood occurrence stage. Besides, there is one Bharu districts as compared to Tanah Merah
district (Pasir Mas) with no data during flood and Machang districts after the flood such
stage due to possibly the non-existence of as complaints on road or bridge damages
flood victims being relocated or relocating by the flood.
to relatives house. Based on this study, mean value for the
This district was actually one of the worst level of flood victims satisfaction toward
flood hit districts around the year 1970s to the efficiency of flood management is
1980s (Tuan Pah Rokiah, 2010). However, declining from the time before, during, and
after a number of flood mitigation measures after flood occurrence. Furthermore, the
were built along Kelantan River including level of flood victims satisfaction in Tanah
the construction of higher concrete levees Merah district is generally unacceptable.
and pump houses, the intensity of flooding This is because in the three stages of flood,
in this area was reduced to about 0.5 meter. the mean value recorded for this district is
This has resulted in a lesser number of flood the lowest (before 3.04, during 2.95 and
victims needing relocation to temporary after 2.02). This scenario exhibits that the
shelter. The opposite is happening to the flood management in Tanah Merah district
residents who live in the district of Pasir Mas needs to be given priority for improvement
on the Thailand border which experiences as compared to the other districts such
as Kota Bharu and Pasir Mas districts. In safety and flood danger has resulted in
addition, Tanah Merah district is one of the the existence of differences of opinions
districts in Kelantan that experiences higher among them with regards to the safety
frequency of flooding during the rainy reminders/warnings issued by the authority.
monsoon season. Hence, prudent monitoring In addition, the lassie faire attitude among
on the part of government must definitely the residents also contributed to the wrong
be undertaken in order to improve the level and loose interpretation on safety issues.
of flood victims level of satisfaction in that On the question of patrol/surveillance
area. Overall, there exist differences in the undertaken by the authority of respective
level of satisfaction among the communities districts, the mean value recorded is
towards the efficiency of flood management 3.36 and the significant level is at 0.05
system in the Kelantan River Basins. with P=0.011. Differences in residents
perception regarding patrol and surveillance
One-Way ANOVA by authority of respective districts are based
Meanwhile, to detail out the study that there on frequency of patrol, competency and
exist significant differences in perceptions other factors. For the question on general
among residents from the various districts, views of the overall flood management
discussion can be divided into before, during system before flood occurrence, the mean
and after flood occurrences. value is 3.21 and the significant level is at
0.10 with P=0.061.
Before Flood Occurrence In addition, there are four questions
that do not show significant differences
To examine the level of residents satisfaction
in residents perceptions in satisfaction
toward the efficiency of flood management
towards before flood stage management
system for each district, a total of eight
system. These include questions related
questions were presented. However, based
to the efficiency of warning system, time
on study outcomes, only four out of eight
intervals given to residents to act after
questions achieved significant level. For the
warnings have been issued, time intervals of
question on the delivery method of flood
flood reports disseminated to residents, and
warning system, the mean value is 3.34
cooperation given by the authority.
and the significant level is at 0.05 where
P=0.014. This demonstrates that there are
During Flood Occurrence
variations in residents perceptions in each
district within the study area. One-way ANOVA analysis for during
On the question regarding the advise/ flood occurrence indicates an increase in
reminders on safety and flood danger, the the number of questions with significant
mean value is 3.43 and the significant level level at 0.05. This shows an increase of the
is at 0.05 with P=0.009. The residents number of residents with different opinions
norms of not giving much attention to the regarding the level of satisfaction towards
the efficiency of flood management system makes the total number of respondents to be
during the flood. To evaluate the level 140 for all the seven districts.
of satisfaction during flood, a total of 19 As a whole, the residents of Kelantan
questions were presented. Based the study River Basins hold different views among
results, a total of 17 questions indicates the districts in relation to the management
differences in opinions among the districts system during flood. On the level of
at the significant level of 0.05 (Table 3). For satisfaction, a total of eight questions
an evaluation of satisfaction level among the recorded mean value from 2.21 to 2.89 and
respondents within various districts, there is this certainly indicates a low satisfaction
one district with no data for the during flood level, thus it can be concluded that the
stage. The district is Pasir Mas where there efficiency of management system is weak.
were no flood victims being evacuated. This This means that in general, the residents in
TABLE 3
One-way ANOVA for the level of respondents satisfaction during flood occurrence for all districts
Level of Satisfaction for Flood Management DURING Flood Mean F Sig.

Competency in terms time taken in rendering rescue assistance 2.21 5.626 .000
Safety emphasis during victims evacuation activities 3.46 4.277 .001
Safety surveillance of victims houses and properties left behind 3.53 4.407 .000
Cooperation & consideration of rescue team. 3.53 3.783 .002
Cleanliness of evacuation center/ shelter, toilet, sleeping space, 2.34 4.419 .000
and food preparation place
Adequate food preparation and healthy diet 2.84 6.225 .000
Cleanliness of evacuation center/ shelter surroundings from 2.40 7.041 .000
garbage, food wastages, or liquid wastes
Maintenance of cleanliness during food and beverage 2.57 2.847 .012
preparation
Provision of clothing, blankets, and diapers to flood victims 3.02 9.352 .000
Spare-time activities for adults at evacuation center/ shelter 2.89 7.379 .000
Spare-time activities for children at evacuation center/ shelter 2.77 3.682 .002
Health monitoring at evacuation center especially for senior 3.64 3.576 .003
citizens and children
Monitoring of safety by the authority 3.78 3.010 .009
Assistance distribution at evacuation center/ shelter 3.72 4.081 .001
Service of workers/staff at evacuation center/ shelter to flood 3.75 2.860 .012
victims
Existing flood conditions report for flood victims at evacuation 3.73 1.995 .071
center/ shelter
Cooperation from authority to solve problems during stay at 3.73 3.619 .002
evacuation center/ shelter
All districts except Pasir Mas - No data (N= 140)
Source: Tuan Pah Rokiah, 2010
the study area possess somewhat identical questions related to assistance to flood
views towards the flood management victims, control of infectious diseases, and
system during flood in their areas. There complaints where each questions recorded
were however, significant differences of the mean value of 2.76, 2.63 and 1.98
views among residents of different districts respectively at significance level of 0.05
within the study area toward the efficiency with corresponding P=0.000, 0.000 and
of management during flood as implemented 0.022 (Table 4). However, if these mean
by the government. values are further examined, there seems to
be a tendency of respondents to have a low
After Flood Occurrence satisfaction level for management system
To examine the level of residents after flood. For instance, the mean values
satisfaction towards management system just recorded low scores ranging from
after flood, there were six questions 2.01 to 2.76 which show situation of less
presented. These include those related satisfactory. Furthermore, there were values
to assistance, controlling of infectious recorded lower than 2.0 such as 1.98 which
diseases, public amenities repairs, public clearly indicates total dissatisfaction of the
complaints and others. The study results management system.
show that three out of six questions achieved As a whole, these situations illustrate
significant level at 0.05. On the other hand, the level of efficiency of management after
the rest of the questions indicate that there flood is considered low. An example is from
are no differences in views among the the point of views of rendering assistance,
respondents of all the districts. This includes controlling of infectious diseases after
questions on public amenities repairs, safety flood (cholera, dengue) and actions for
surveillance of authority and general views each resident compliant. Hence this study
of respondents after flood occurrence. found that there were significant differences
The questions that recorded significant with regards to the residents satisfaction
differences in opinions amongst the on government management system for
respondents of various districts are situations of before, during and after flood
among the districts in Kelantan.
TABLE 4
one-way anova for satisfaction level after flood for all districts
Question No. Satisfaction level AFTER flood Mean F Sig.

1. Assistance to flood victims 2.76 35.038 .000
2. Control of infectious diseases AFTER flood 2.63 7.419 .000
5. Immediate actions taken for any public 1.98 3.353 .022
complaints or problems
All Districts (N= 160)
Source: Tuan Pah Rokiah, 2010
CONCLUSION disater announcement and time interval for

Systematic planning in flood management actions. And for the period after flood, the
system reflects proactive cooperation government should be sensitive to the timely
among relevant parties in preparation repairs public faclilities and improvement
for flood disaster. Thus, government has on safety and security monitoring.
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Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family

Strengths (AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia
Zarinah Arshat* and Rozumah Baharudin
Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Faculty of Human Ecology,
ABSTRACT
This study examines the psychometric properties of Australian Inventory of Family
Strengths (AIFS) in a sample of 200 rural Malay families in Malaysia. The exploratory
factor analysis of AIFS revealed 3-factor solution and were labelled as Shared Values,
Togetherness and Respectful Communication. The overall scale had a high degree of
internal consistency ( = 0.96). Results indicate that the three factors were moderately
correlated. The validity of AIFS was also satisfying in terms of the actual data matching
the expected correlation between family strengths measure and the variables of childrens
social competence and self-esteem. The results of this study imply that the construct
of family strength and its measurement from the West can be helpful and applicable in
understanding the characteristics of family strength of rural Malay families in Malaysia.
Keywords: Family strengths, factor structure, psychometric properties, respectful communication, shared
values, commitment
INTRODUCTION and capabilities of families from their

Family strengths have been a key of own perspectives using a standardized
interest among helping professionals who assessment tool of family strengths. Family
provide family interventions, programs, and strengths are conceptualized as those forces
support services. Thus, it is important to and dynamic factorswhich encourage the
gather information about the competencies development of the personal resources and
potentials of members of the family and
ARTICLE INFO which make family life deeply satisfying
Article history: and fulfilling to family members (Otto,
Received: 20 February 2012
Accepted: 6 March 2013 1975, p.16). Comprehensively, family
E-mail addresses: strengths are defined as the relationship
zarinah_upm@upm.edu.my (Zarinah Arshat),
rozumah@upm.edu.my (Rozumah Baharudin) patterns, intrapersonal and interpersonal

skills and competencies, and social and It has been noted that a more reliable
psychological characteristics which create measurement in any assessment is to use
a sense of positive family identity, promote multiple dimensions so that the measurement
satisfying and fulfilling interaction among will produce consistent outcomes. The six
family members, encourage development dimensions in AIFS are sharing life together,
of the potential of the family group and caring for each other, communicating
individual family members, contribute effectively with each other, valuing each
to the familys ability to deal effectively other, connecting spirituality for well-being
with stress and crisis (Stinnett, Chesser, & and growing together through challenges.
DeFrain, 1979; Williams, Lingren, Rowe, Factor analysis of the 85 items of AIFS
Van Zandt & Stinnett, 1985; Schlesinger, resulted in the emergence of four factors,
1998; Moore, Chalk, Scarpa, & Vandivere, namely, Togetherness (Factor 1), Respectful
2002). Along the lines of these conceptual Communication (Factor 2), Shared Values
frameworks, several self-report instruments (Factor 3), and A Sense of Belonging (Factor
have been developed to assess family 4). However, the reliability and validity of
strengths, for example Family Strengths the AIFS were not reported (source).
Inventory (Stinnett & DeFrain, 1985), In the present study, the variables of
Family Strengths Scale (Olson, Larsen, social competence and self-esteem are to
& McCubbin, 1983), Family Functioning be used as the predictive validity indicators
Style Scale (Deal, Trivette, & Dunst, 1988). of AIFS in order to further understand its
These instruments have been proven to be potential for cross-cultural application in
reliable and valid in the West, and in turn the Malaysian culture. Children social
have helped researchers further clarify the competence and self-esteem are chosen
construct of family strengths on the one as predictive validity because these two
hand, and on the other hand, have provided variables have been consistently related to
practical tools for practitioners to find various psychological outcomes (source,
ways of intervention to enhance the family based on study). For example, children with
strengths in the real-life environment. higher levels of social competence tend to
The Australian Inventory of Family elicit positive responses from others and
Strengths (AIFS) (Geggie, DeFarin, are skillful in forming close and supportive
Hitchcock, & Silberberg, 2000) was chosen relationship (Mendez, McDermott, &
to assess Malaysians family strengths in Fantuzzo, 2002). On the other hand, children
this study because it has broad conceptual who have high level of self-esteem tend to
base which covers a multiple dimensions of be emotionally stable (Judge, Erez, Bono,
family strengths where this measurement & Thoresen, 2002), attain higher academic
has six dimensions that strong families achievement (Trautwein, Ldtke, Kller,
across the world have in common (Stinnett & Baumert, 2006), and possess low level
& DeFrain, 1985; Stern, Yuen & He, 2004). of depression (Watson, Suls, & Haig,
Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths (AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia
2002). The aims of the present study were had completed an average of 10.2 years
to explore the factor structure of the AIFS education and had duration of marriage
and to examine its reliability and validity between 7 to 27 years. The average monthly
among Malaysian people, in order to further household incomes of the respondents were
understand its potential for cross-cultural RM932.40.
application in the Malaysian culture. The average number of children was
3.7. There were slightly more males (58%)
METHOD than females of the focal child.
Sample
Measures
The respondents were 200 Malay families
and selected from ten Federal Land Australian Inventory of Family
Development Authority (Felda) schemes in Strengths (AIFS)
Negeri Sembilan (Felda Bukit Jalor, Felda The original AIFS instrument contained 85
Bukit Rokan, Felda Pasir Besar and Felda items (Geggie et al., 2000). The scale items
Sg. Kelamah) and Pahang (Felda Bukit preceded by the phrase In our family.
Kepayang, Felda Bukit Mendi, Felda Lurah Respondents were asked to rate the items
Bilut, Felda Bukit Puchong, Felda Mayam on 6-point scales that ranged from definitely
and Felda Cemomoi). The selection of study agree to definitely disagree. In this study
respondents was based on married second only 79 items were used. Six items were
generation had to have (and live with) at deleted from the original scale due to what
least one child between the ages of 7 and 12. the researcher and the faculty members of
Negeri Sembilan and Pahang are purposively Department of Human Development and
selected as the location of the study based Family Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia
on the following considerations: (1) the thought were issues of contextual and
availability of second generation Felda cultural relevance. The six items that were
families that would facilitate the selection deleted are : 1) We like to hug each other,
of respondents based on the discussion 2) We allow each other to be ourselves, 3)
with Feldas Director of Community We wait for each other without complaining,
Development in Kuala Lumpur (2) the 4) We feel connected with nature and the
availability of study resources (finance, world around us, 5) We often says, Shell
manpower), and (3) the accessibility of be alright, mate, and 6) We give each
the respondents. Respondents that fit the other enough time to complete necessary
criteria of the study were selected using task. This study also made some selected
simple random sampling from a sampling wording edits on three items to make it
frame. The age of the respondents involved more appropriate for the sample study. Item
in this study range between 24 to 66 years 7 on the original AIFS was reworded from
old with an average of 36.6 years. Most We feel a strong connection with our land
of the respondents were male (51.5%), to We feel a strong connection with our
land development. Item 9 on the original Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES).

AIFS was changed from We enjoy hearing he 10-item RSES (Rosenberg, 1965) is one
our grandparents stories about the past to of the most widely used scales for measuring
We enjoy hearing past family experience. global self-esteem with responses ranged
The new statement of the item 9 is more from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly
universal for the sample study because agree). The negative items were reversed
some of the respondents might not have scored in order to obtained a higher scale
grandparents any more due to death. Item indicated a higher level of self-esteem. The
80 on the original AIFS scale was reworded respondents were asked how they perceive
from Our personal religious and moral their childrens self-esteem. The coefficient
beliefs are compatible with each other to alpha values were 0.79 and above for the
Our personal religious practice is strong. English version (Mayhew & Lempers, 1998;
This item was reworded based on the fact Thomas & Gadbois, 2007), and 0.63 for the
that religious and moral beliefs among Malay version (Anjli Panalal, 2004). The
Malay families tend to highly homogeneous concurrent, predictive and construct validity
but in terms of religious practice may differ of the scale also was well established
for family members. (Fischer & Corcoran, 1994; Lightsey, Burke,
Ervin, Henderson, & Yee, 2006).
Social Competence Scale (SCS).
The 12-item SCS (Corrigan, 2002) was used Procedures
to measure childrens social competence. Each respondent was interviewed face-to-
The SCS assesses a childs prosocial and face using the adapted questionnaire at their
emotional skills. Each item on the scale homes. This method permits the collection
states a behavior that a child may display of the most extensive data on each person
in a social setting. Responses are coded questioned (Tan, 2004; Brenner, Brown,
on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 0 & Canter, 1985). Prior to the interview, a
(Not at all) to 4 (Very Well). A higher scale briefing on the objectives of the study was
showed a higher perception of childs social given. The willingness of the respondents
competence. Dennis, Brotman, Huang and to participate in the study were asked. After
Gouley (2007) report that the SCS had a the respondents agreed to participate in the
good internal consistency (alpha coefficient study the interviews were proceed by using
= 0.87) and test-retest reliability showed survey questionnaire. On completion of the
correlations of .52 and .69. The concurrent questionnaire, the respondents were given a
and construct validity of the scale also well token in appreciation of their participation
established (Dennis et al., 2007). in the survey.
RESULTS factor loading ranged from .69 to .42. Shared

Exploratory Factor Analysis of the Values describing that family members have
Malaysian Version of AIFS a sense of greater good or power in life,
A similar method used by Geggie et al. a spirituality or set of values and beliefs
(2002) i.e., principle component analysis that gives strength, perspective, purpose,
with a varimax rotation was performed and guidelines for living, which gives the
on the data to explore the possible factor family a sense of belonging or togetherness
structure of the AIFS with Malaysian (Stern, Yuen, & He, 2004; Geggie et al.,
families. Criteria for identifying the factors 2000). Family members express their shared
were as follows: (1) each factors had to values and beliefs by practicing religious
have an eigenvalues greater than one and and cultural rituals, extending themselves
noticeable change in the slopes and (2) items to others, and volunteering and caring for
were retained when the loading was equal their community.
and greater than 0.30 (Lewis-Beck, 1994; The second factor of 27 items was
Kline, 1994; Hair, Anderson, Tantham, & labeled as Togetherness, explaining 11.68%
Black, 1998; Geggie et al., 2002). of total item variance and the factor loading
The results show eighteen factors ranged from .69 to .33. Togetherness is
had eigen values greater than one, which the invisible glue that bonds the family
accounted for 73.13% of the variance. and gives the family members a sense of
However, based on the inspection of scree belonging (Geggie et al., 2000). Family
plot the solution with three factors was members express togetherness in many
examined for interpretability. According ways, such as by rearranging schedules to
to Zwick and Velicer (1982), on the whole, spend time with family, keeping promises
scree plots tend to be the most accurate and being dependable, setting goals together,
for determining the number of factors to building family memories, as well as used
retain in factor analysis. Through a varimax togetherness as a coping strategy when faced
rotation, four items that had factor loading with adversity and crisis.
less than .30 were eliminated. Therefore The last factor was primarily loaded
only 75 items were retained for further by 21 items was named as Respectful
analysis. Communication which was accounted
As shown in Table 1, the three-factor for 11.38% of the variance and the factor
solution accounted for 38.34% of the loading ranged from .69 to .34. Respectful
variance of the data seems to be more communication represents that family
meaningful to Malaysian families. Upon members are open and honest with one
scrutinizing each item that was loaded in a another, and they are willing to listen to
factor, the first factor was labeled as Shared other members view (Geggie et al., 2000).
Values, contained 27 items which was Families with communication patterns
accounted for 15.28% of the variance and its that convey support and caring often find
TABLE 1
Exploratory Factor Analysis Results for the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths Autralian Sample
Item Item Statement Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4

24 We feel close to each other .74 .32 .15 .11
21 We feel strongly connected to each other .71 .22 .18 .13
10 We love one another .69 .10 .17 -
8 We feel comfortable with each other .68 .29 - -
20 We like to show affection to each other .66 .27 .17 .13
3 We like to have fun together .66 - .15 .29
23 We have lots of good times together .65 .21 .26 .22
40 We enjoy the times we share together .64 .34 .31 -
32 We like to hug each other .62 .21 .18 .16
28 We often laugh with each other .59 .30 .25 -
22 Hanging out together builds strong relationships .59 .21 .17 .22
45 We have a strong sense of belonging .59 .30 .37 -
50 We really care for each other .58 .33 .31 -
4 We like to share our feelings with each other .57 .33 - .36
48 We share jokes together .56 .21 .39 -
15 We like talking openly with each other .55 .38 - .27
73 We grow stronger because we love each other .51 .29 .50 -
11 We are able to forgive each other .51 .37 .12 -
57 We value each other .49 .46 .28 -
14 We enjoy simple, inexpensive family activities .46 .23 .19 .30
33 Our home feels like a sanctuary for all of us .45 .21 .27 .16
62 There is a feeling of safety and security .41 .35 .40 -
83 We enjoy having unplanned, spontaneous activities .36 .16 .30 .11
together
16 We like having a place we call home .32 - .17 .12
37 We give each other a chance to explain ourselves .36 .67 .11 .13
31 Everyone gets their say in making decisions .15 .64 - .20
55 We respect the roles each of us play in the family .26 .63 .23 -
51 Putdowns are rare .18 .62 - -
53 We have reasonable expectations of each other .24 .59 .17 .12
42 We wait for each other without complaining .14 .59 - .20
25 We wait for each other without complaining .38 .59 - .21
44 We can work together to solve very difficult family .31 .57 .23 .11
problems
85 We accept that each of us has different ways of doing .11 .56 .31 -
things
19 We like keeping our promises to each other .33 .56 .10 .14
43 We enjoy our family discussions .33 .54 .15 .22
38 Our communication is effective .42 .54 - .13
69 We like to support each other .47 .53 .32 -
TABLE 1 (continued)

34 Individuals are allowed to make their own choices .13 .53 - .14
17 We listen to each other .47 .53 - -
39 We allow each other to be ourselves .37 .53 .18 -
36 We enjoy being thoughtful of each other .46 .53 .23 .13
56 We are honest with each other .37 .53 .17 -
82 We give each other enough time to complete .13 .52 .33 -
necessary tasks
18 We find solutions to our problems when we talk about .34 .52 - .15
them
64 It is easy to share our values and ideas with each other .48 .51 .28 .15
12 We enjoy helping each other .42 .51 - .17
65 There is a sense of peace .35 .50 .37 .11
47 We find it easy to trust each other .47 .50 .15 -
27 Talking through issues is important to us .43 .50 - .18
60 We find it easy to make plans and then carry them out .15 .47 .25 .23
58 Sarcasm is not generally used - .47 .15 .18
75 We can make changes in our plans to meet changing .22 .47 .45 -
circumstances
13 It is easy to cue into each others feelings .40 .45 - .27
68 We are able to face daily issues confidently .24 .44 .31 .16
30 We have a hopeful attitude towards life .20 .39 .29 .17
52 We like to do things for each other than make us feel .32 .38 .32 -
good about ourselves
79 We feel it is important to accept the things we cannot - .38 .36 .13
change
29 We try to change the things we can .32 .33 .18 .19
84 We have strong spiritual connections that enhance our .20 - .62 .16
well-being
72 We always find something good comes from a crisis - .28 .61 .19
76 We benefit in many ways from our belief in a higher .13 - .56 -
being
71 A crisis makes us stick closer together .17 .35 .52 -
78 We look at challenges as opportunities for growth - .34 .51 .20
74 We believe love is a powerful force that keeps us .43 .14 .50 .12
together
49 A crisis helps make our relationships strong .21 .26 .47 .19
77 We have the courage to take risks that will improve .14 .28 .46 .12
things for our family
35 Observing family rituals and customs is important to .15 - .44 .22
us
67 We enjoy sharing our memories with each other .29 .22 .40 .29
80 Our personal religious and moral beliefs are .24 - .36 .11
compatible with each other
TABLE 1 (continued)

70 Our friends are there when we need them - .23 .34 .20
2 We have a number of common interests .23 .15 .34 .29
7 We feel a strong connection with the land - - .14 .64
61 We feel strong connections with our ancestors - - .35 .56
2 We have a number of common interests .38 .17 - .51
63 We feel connected with nature and the world around - .10 .35 .49
us
9 We enjoy hearing our grandparents stories about the - .17 .11 .48
past
59 We enjoy looking at our family history .15 .12 .33 .46
66 We often say, Shell be right, Mate - .15 .20 .38
6 Responsibilities are shared fairly .14 .31 - .36
1 We like to give each other a chance to do new things .25 .28 - .34
Note:- indicate loading less than .10
solutions to meet everyday challenges Inter-dimensional Relationships

and prevent or recover from adversity, The correlations between the scores on the
building their resiliency along the way three dimensions and the total score of AIFS
(McCubin, McCubin, Thompson, Young are shown in Table 2. Results indicate that
Han, & Allen, 1997). By listening carefully there were moderate a significant relationship
and not criticizing each other, family b et w e en th e d i ff er e n t d ime n s io n s :
members express respect, increasing their Shared Values and Togetherness (r = .57,
understanding of each other, and strengthen p < .01), Togetherness and Respectful
their relationships (Stern, Yuen, & He, Communication (r = .55, p < .01), and Shared
2004). Values and Respectful Communication (r =
.68, p < .01). The findings also indicate
Internal Consistency that all three dimensions had correlation of
The coefficient alpha of the Malaysian at least 0.84 with the total score of AIFS.
version of the AIFS was 0.96. The internal These set of findings demonstrates that
consistency alpha values of the 3 factors the different dimensions of family strength
were 0.94 for Factor 1, 0.90 for Factor 2, are interrelated providing support for the
and 0.89 for Factor 3. Collectively, these contention that each dimension represents
statistics may be taken as evidence that the a unique set of family strength.
AIFS version for Malaysian families sample
is an internally consistent instrument. Predictive Validity
The results of the study found that the total
score of AIFS was positively correlated
with childrens social competence (r = .24,
TABLE 2
Exploratory Factor Analysis Results for the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths Malaysian Sample
Item Item Statement Shared Values Togetherness Respectful

In our family Communication
59 There is a feeling of safety and security. .69 .17 -
76 All things considered we are strong family. .68 - .11
68 We grow stronger because we love each other. .68 .15 .26
54 We value each other. .68 .14 .27
35 We enjoy being thoughtful of each other. .64 .12 .18
78 We have strong spiritual connections that enhance .64 - -
our well-being.
69 We believe love is powerful force that keeps us .63 - .27
together.
73 We look at challenges as opportunities for .63 .11 -
growth.
60 It is easy to share our values and ideas with each .62 .29 -
other.
75 Our religious practice is strong. .62 - .18
49 We like to do things for each other that makes us .60 .37 .12
feel good about ourselves.
47 We really care for each other. .60 .22 .12
53 We are honest with each other. .60 .14 .19
39 Life in our family is satisfying to us. .57 .21 -
52 We respect the roles each of us play in the family. .56 .26 .35
21 We feel strongly connected to each other. .54 .12 .26
43 We are happy as a family. .54 - .30
24 We feel close to each other. .53 .23 .35
48 Put downs are rare. .51 .19 .23
63 We are able to face daily issues confidently. .47 .37 -
61 There is a sense of peace. .46 .22 .34
36 We give each other a chance to explain ourselves. .46 .23 .39
32 Our homes feels like a sanctuary for all of us. .44 - .44
30 We have a hopeful attitude towards life. .42 - .41
71 We benefit in many ways from our belief in a .42 - .26
higher being.
25 We respect each others point of view. .47 - .36
46 A crisis helps make our relationships strong. - .69 .14
67 We always find something good comes from a .24 .66 -.27
crisis.
66 A crisis make us stick closer together. .16 .64 -.17
5 A crisis has helped us to grow closer together. - .62 -
74 We feel it is important to accept the things we -.20 .60 -
cannot change.
50 We have reasonable expectations of each other. .41 .57 -
TABLE 2 (continued)

51 We have a high regard for each other. - .56 .28
44 We find it easy to trust each other. .34 .55 .14
57 We find it easy to make plans and then to carry .14 .55 .10
them out.
19 We like keeping our promises to each other. .14 .52 .35
62 We enjoy sharing our memories with each other. - .51 .33
23 We have lots of good times together. - .51 .44
58 We feel strong connections with our ancestors. .19 .51 -
28 We often laugh with each other. - .50 .26
70 We can make changes in our plans to meet .43 .46 -.15
changing circumstances.
56 We enjoy looking at our family history. .11 .46 .29
18 We find solutions to our problems when we talk .26 .45 .24
about them.
27 Talking through issues is important to us. .38 .44 -.17
2 We have a number of commomn interests.. - .43 .19
9 We enjoy hearing our past family experiences .21 .40 .32
42 We have a strong sense of belonging. - .40 .38
72 We have the courage to take risks that will .32 .39 -
improve things for our family.
41 We can work together to solve very difficult .29 .39 .32
family problems.
65 Our friend are there when we need them. - .38 .19
34 Observing family rituals and customs is important .28 .35 -
to us.
22 Hanging out together builds strong relationships. .26 .33 .33
55 Sarcasm is not generally used. .17 .33 -
7 We feel a strong connection with this land. - - .69
16 We like having a place we call `home. .19 -.13 .69
8 We feel comfortable with each other. .23 .15 .67
6 Responsibilities are shared fairly. .22 .14 .62
14 We enjoy simple, inexpensive family activities. .18 .14 .59
12 We enjoy helping each other. .30 - .58
11 We are able to forgive each other. .51 - .53
15 We like talking openly with each other. .14 .29 .50
20 We like to show affection to each other. -.14 - .48
45 We share jokes together. .15 .39 .47
37 Our communication is effective. .32 .14 .45
3 We like to have fun together. .15 .22 .45
1 We like to give each other a chance to do new .26 .11 .45
things.
TABLE 2 (continued)

26 We like to be kind to each other. .40 - .44
13 It is easy to cue into each others feeling. - .41 .42
33 Individuals are allowed to make their own .13 .25 .42
choices.
31 Everyone gets their say in making decisions. .33 - .41
38 We enjoy the times we share together. .31 .29 .41
64 We like to support each other. .27 .36 .39
40 We enjoy our family discussions. .36 .32 .39
4 We like to share our feelings with each other. .16 .34 .34
Note: - indicates loading less than .10
TABLE 3
Inter-correlations Dimensions and Total Score of AIFS
Variables Shared Values Togetherness Respectful Total Score of

Communication AIFS
1. Shared Values 1.00 .57** .68** .86**
2. Togetherness .55** .86**
3. Respectful Communication .84**
**p < .01
p < .01) and self-esteem (r = .24, p <.01). study provided an evidence of the need for
The correlation pattern provides convincing cross-cultural comparison of an imported
evidence for the validity of the Malaysian construct and its measurement from the
version of the AIFS among Malaysian West to the East, by showing that the family
families. strength construct may have somewhat
different implications in Australian and
DISCUSSION Malaysian cultures. The exploratory factor
Cross-cultural family scientists are analysis on the data failed to replicate the
particularly concerned with such issues Australian 4-factor structure of family
as whether family strength dimension is strength. Results in this study disclosed
universal or cultural-specific (Stinnet & 3-factor solution which seems to be more
DeFrain, 1985; DeFrain, 1999; Olson & meaningful to Malaysian families. The items
DeFrain, 2000). Structure equivalence loading in factor 1 (Shared Values), factor
thus becomes one of the most important 2 (Togetherness and factor 3 (Respectful
psychometric indicators to examine cross- Communication) in this study do not come
culturally the adaptability of family strength from any single factor of the original
construct and its measurement. The present structure, rather they are quite mixture. The
differences in terms of number of factor AIFS using sample of Malaysian families,

structure and items loading occurred could including its factor structure, reliability
be due to idiosyncrasies of some trivial and validity. The sound psychometric
characteristics of population (Gorsuch, properties of the AIFS suggest that the
1997). The respondents who involved in scale could be used as a quick screening
this study comprised entirely of Malay, tool of family strengths in family practice
rural based, had moderate education, lower especially in Malaysian families context.
income families that were not pre-screened Family members can be invited to complete
as being self-identified strong families. the measure individually and this can
While in Australian, the sample group who enable family counsellors to review the
completed the inventory generally come differences in perception of family strengths
from white Australian, middle class, well among family members. The findings
educated, varied family structures (e.g., also have implications for parents, policy
blended family, nuclear family, and sole makers, service providers, practitioners
parent family) and all respondents perceived and community leaders seeking to increase
their family unit as strong (Geggie et al., the level of family strengths. It is necessary
2000) for family members to understand that
Results of the current of study provide the competencies and the capabilities in
previously unavailable information the family influence the childs social
regarding the reliability and validity of the competence and self-esteem. Therefore
AIFS in a sample of Malaysian families. In family professionals should communicate
the current sample, the internal consistencies to families that the strengths exist in the
of three factors as well as the total score of family are an extremely important context
AIFS were all acceptable (>.77) suggesting for fostering social competence and self-
that participants responded consistently esteem of children.
across items. Intercorrelations between While the present study adds
each factor and the total score of the AIFS further evidence to the literature on the
were also high (>.74) demonstrate that each psychometric properties of the AIFS,
dimension represents a unique set of family there are several limitations. First, the
strengths. The correlations between the three demographic characteristics (e.g., rural area
factors were modest (.55 to .68), suggesting in Negeri Sembilan and Pahang) of this
that, although related, they represent three sample may limit the generalizability of
distinct constructs of the AIFS. In addition, these findings to families from other regions
predictive validity was demonstrated by the and communities. Second the study assessed
positive correlation between AIFS with SCS only perceived family strength of parents,
and RSES. but not those of their children. Third since
The results of this study adds further the assessment of family strength was based
support to the psychometric properties of the on self-report measures, there are might
be bias among insiders. Therefore, the fac/conferences/Family%20Strengths%20

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Psychometric Properties of the Malay Version of the Job

Satisfaction Survey among Malaysian Military Personnel
Ang Chin-Siang1*, Mansor Abu Talib1, Rumaya Juhari2 and Zainal Madon1
1
Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Faculty of Human Ecology,
2
Family, Adolescent and Child Research Centre (FACE), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Job satisfaction is directly related to a number of positive outcomes at work and in certain
other aspects of life. In the past few years, job satisfaction among the armed forces has
received much attention, but the results of research have been contradictory, in view of the
lack of psychometrically robust instrument. Due to its multidimensional orientation, Job
Satisfaction Survey has been widely used to assess job satisfaction across different types of
job. Although JSS is a promising measure, it has never been validated in the armed forces
context. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the
Malay version of the Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1965) using data from Malaysian
military personnel . With this is mind, a group of male navy personnel from selected navy
bases were recruited to be respondents. Through exploratory factor analyses (EFA), results
yielded a five-subscale model with 28 items, namely: recognition, affection, fairness,
expectation, and workload. In addition, the validity and stability of the five-dimensional
structure of the scale were evident in this study using confirmatory factor analyses (CFA).
In summary, this study confirmed the psychometric properties of the scale and can further
be used to measure job satisfaction in the armed force setting.
Keywords: Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Exploratory Factor Analysis, Internal Consistency, Job Satisfaction
Survey, Military Personnel
ARTICLE INFO INTRODUCTION

Article history:
Received: 1 March 2012 Career development is one of the imperative
tasks that all individuals need to go through
E-mail addresses:
austin_ang119@hotmail.com (Ang Chin-Siang), when they step into adulthood (Landy &
mansorat@upm.edu.my (Mansor Abu Talib),
rumayajuhari@gmail.com (Rumaya Juhari), Conte, 2004). Throughout an adults career
zainalm@upm.edu.my (Zainal Madon)

Ang Chin-Siang, Mansor Abu Talib, Rumaya Juhari and Zainal Madon
development, job satisfaction is an important lead to a decrease in productive behavior,

indicator to determine the levels of career which in turn increased absenteeism and
success and accomplishment (Sidek, 2002). turnover intentions (Griffeth et al., 2000;
Spector (2008) in his review, pointed that Dupr & Day, 2007; Podsakoff et al., 2007;
job satisfaction is a construct which was Spector, 1985). Clearly, job satisfaction
frequently studied across different types has a meaningful impact on employees
of jobs. As a result, job satisfaction is well-being and organizational functioning.
conceptualized in different ways by different For that reason, most organizations today
researchers. For the last few decades, Locke prefer to take account of employees job
(1976, p.1304) has defined job satisfaction satisfaction as a yardstick for them to
as a pleasurable or positive emotional state manage, train, and retain valuable employees
resulting from the appraisal of ones job or (Liu et al., 2004). Some organizations even
job experiences. In similar vein, Spector use it to gauge work morale and diagnose
(1997) considered job satisfaction as the potential problems among workers.
extent of individuals likes (satisfaction) In fact, studies have shown that positive
and dislikes (dissatisfaction) towards and negative feelings about jobs can be
their job facets as well as general work traceable to many potential factors relating
atmosphere. to jobs (Spector, 1997). A literature search
In reviewing the literature, a great deal in organization psychology postulated
of attention has been given to a variety of that factors such as pay, promotion, job
outcomes resulting from job satisfaction. conditions, relationship with supervisor
Majority of the research has consistently and/ or colleagues, and employees welfare
found numerous positive outcomes as a are critical for evaluation leading to the
result of positive appraisal toward overall response of job satisfaction (Spector, 1997,
and/ or facets of job satisfaction such as high 2008). For some employees, a positive
organizational commitment (Rayton, 2006), reinforcement including higher wages
less occupational stress (Fairbrother & and promotion prospects can lead to a
Warn, 2003), internal work locus of control high level of job satisfaction. Some other
(Tillman et al., 2010), high motivation, factors encompassing work obligation,
mental health and life satisfaction (Sanchez operating procedure, workload, and
et al., 2004). Additionally, previous research additional responsibilities that are associated
literature also found that job satisfaction with given roles within the job could
correlates positively to overall individual influence employees satisfaction levels.
well-being (Nassab, 2008), as well as Not surprisingly, job satisfaction can be
employees retention (Gazioglu & Tansel, seen as a multidimensional concept, in
2002). which multiple items are needed to express
In contrary, researchers have shown the different aspects of job satisfaction in a
that low levels of job satisfaction can questionnaire (Spector, 1997).
Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction Survey
In this study, job satisfaction among personnel reported majority of respondents

military personnel is of particular interest as (62.5%) were moderately satisfied with
this population has rarely been researched. their jobs. According to the research, only
Thus, empirical research to date about job 7.5% of respondents experienced job
satisfaction of military personnel is still dissatisfaction due to the issues of wages,
lacking. More importantly, there is no fringe benefits, recognition, and policies,
measure specifically designed for measuring and recent statistics indicated that 17.5% (n=
military-related job satisfaction either in 120) of these navy personnel reported poor
local or western contexts. Ironically, the job satisfaction (Liyana & Mansor, 2010).
study of military job satisfaction is essential Liyana and Mansor (2010) suggested that
because military workforce is seen as a the results of previous empirical research
severely challenging occupation. The milieu have been inconsistent because of the
of military setting has been regarded as one administration of different instruments for
that upholds discipline and obedience in measuring job satisfaction.
the extreme. The nature of this type of job E v i d e n t l y, t h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s
demands a great deal of time and energy assessment tools that are available in
of managing multiple responsibilities and Western countries to gather information
duties, whereby all armed forces staff about global job satisfaction and/ or specific
must unremittingly maintain physical and job satisfaction dimensions such as Index of
psychological fitness through rigid training Job Satisfaction (Brayfield & Rothe, 1951),
in order to perform their job duties well Quality of Employment Survey (Quinn
(Sanchez et al., 2004). Moreover, being & Staines, 1978), The Job Descriptive
military personnel can make one overly- Index (Smith et al., 1969), Job Diagnostic
sensitive because one feels pressured to Survey (Hackman & Oldham, 1974), Job
perform all tasks correctly at all times. in General Scale (Ironson et al., 1989),
Sometimes, the introduction of new army and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
policy, reassignment to a new department, (Weiss et al., 1967). Of the existing scales,
and limited job scope may lead them to the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) has in fact
experience poor job satisfaction. Evidently, been described as the most extensively used
this explained why military personnel were inventory for measuring job satisfaction (Liu
more likely to have lower job satisfaction et al., 2004). This scale focused primarily on
compared to their civilian counterparts identifying various facets of satisfaction
(Alpass et al., 1997; Sanchez et al., 2004). that are either satisfying or dissatisfying for
In contrast, other investigations found individuals in their workplace. Development
that the British military documented a of the JSS began in early 1985 and was first
neutral job satisfaction (Limbert, 2004). noted in the publication of Spector (1985).
In relation to the local context, Liyana and Although the scale was originally designed
Mansor (2009) in a research on 40 male navy to be used in human service organizations, it
is also applicable to different organizational the Navy bases. Study 2 was to provide
sectors from different cultures (Giri & an initial psychometric assessment of the
Kumar, 2010; Liu et al., 2004). Thus, the Malay version JSS.
instrument has been translated into eleven
different languages and validated with data Study 1
collected in a few countries such as United
The purpose of this first study was to adapt
States, United Kingdom, Taiwan, Turkish,
JSS to Malay language so that it can be
and Pakistan. All these studies showed
used in Malaysia especially on military
that it was remarkably reliable and valid
personnel. In this study, we aimed to confirm
in detecting satisfaction of employees in
its factor structure, analyze its construct
different job contexts. However, we have
validity, and internal consistency.
not been able to locate any study that has
validated the scale in the armed forces
METHOD
setting. This prevents the practicality of the
instrument to identify these personnels job Sample
satisfaction. A total of 800 navy personnel were
Therefore, this study has the following targeted as respondents from six regions
goals: (a) to translate the original scale and that subsumed South, Klang Valley, East,
adapt it to the armed forces population, North, Sabah/ Sarawak, and Lumut areas
(b) to examine the factor structure of the that were approved by the Malaysian
JSS in a sample of male Navy personnel Ministry of Defense. Unlike other types
by means of confirmatory factor analysis of occupation, the composition of males in
and exploratory factor analysis (c) to military workforce still remains dominant.
evaluate scale reliability. This study aimed Thus, only male Navy personnel were
to provide evidence on the validity of the involved in filling in the questionnaires in
JSS on identifying the nature of military the study. At the same time, the study sample
personnel and thus help researchers to better was randomly selected from different
understand the nature of job satisfaction branches (engineering, seaman and supply)
among armed organizations. and different job categorization (warrant
officer, petty officer, and rate) according to
Overview of the present study definition of Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN).
The present study reports on two studies
designed to adapt the Job Satisfaction Measurement
Survey (JSS) which includes nine job- The questionnaire consisted of measures of
related satisfaction subscales in the context job satisfaction and personal information.
of military. The purpose of Study 1 was The 36-item JSS (Spector, 1985) was
to adapt JSS to Malay and its validity was used to measure employee attitudes about
examined using participants enrolled at the job and aspects of the job using nine
separate facets including pay, promotion, stated willingness to participate in the

supervision, fringe benefits, contingent study. Participants received a survey packet
rewards, operating procedures, co-workers, containing informed consent sheet and
nature of work, and communication. Each questionnaire. Upon agreement, participants
facet contains four items. Responses were completed the Malay version of the JSS,
rated on Six- points Likert-scale ranging along with a measure of demographic
from 1= Strongly disagree to 6= Strongly variables. All questionnaires were collected
agree according to their feeling on various in anonymous and confidential manner
aspects of their job. Items are written in both right after they had completed them. All
directions, so about half need to be reverse- participants and relevant authorities were
scored. The reversed items that include items then verbally thanked for their time and
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, cooperation.
26, 29, 31, 32, 34, and 36 were transformed
to positive items before analysis. Next, Translation process
we computed a total score from all items To facilitate answering and to accurately
(after reverse-coding was done) with a capture the construct of job satisfaction
continuum from low (dissatisfied) to high by respondents, the scale was translated
(satisfied) score. An example item is Saya to Malay language using Brislins method
berasa kerja yang saya lakukan tidak (Willgerodt et al., 2005). Malay language
dihargai. Personal information was also is Malaysias official language and is
obtained through items on the participants widely used in the military workplace in
age, marital status, race, years of service, the country. In translation process, five
monthly income, and education level. steps, that encompassed forward translation,
assessment of forward translation, backward
Procedure translation, assessment of backward
The recruitment of sample was accorded translation, and local meeting with
with the standard protocols of Ministry professionals, were performed. Experts of
of Defense as well as ethical procedures. both languages (English and Malay) were
After obtaining permission from relevant invited to participate in the translation
authorities, the participants were approached process. With the help of these professionals,
in a meeting room with the help of the the adapted version was constructed
officer in-charge, and then they were briefed with correct grammar and content. Upon
about the purpose of the present research completion, the survey instrument was pre-
and were assured that data will purely be tested on 30 military personnel in Lumut.
used for research purpose and their identities The face validity was then conducted with
would not be revealed. Informed consent all the respondents for items revision in
was taken from the respondents through terms of readability, ambiguity, precision
consent forms after each respondent had and content. Every suggestion with respect
to wording and concept of the scale had been ranged from RM650-RM6750 (M = 2224.7,
taken into account. SD = 860.1). Of the total sample, the ethnic
composition of the sample was as follows:
Data Analysis 95.2% Malay, 3.8% other ethnic groups,
In this study, Confirmatory Factor Analysis .7% Indian, and .3% Chinese. Regarding
(CFA) was applied using Analysis of education level, most respondents were
Moment Structures (AMOS) software to SPM/ SPM (V) (78.1%) holders, followed
determine if the Bahasa Malaysia version by Diploma (10.1%), Bachelors degree
of JSS possessed a goodness-of-fit while (6.0%), STPM (5.4%), Masters degree
replicated on a sample of Malaysian navy (.4), and remaining .40% not reported.
personnel. To assess the degree of model As for marital status, most respondents
fit, Bryne (2001) suggested the use of chi- were married (70.7%), followed by single
square test statistics (), Comparative Fit (28.6%), and divorced (.7%). Table 1
Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), and presents demographic characteristics of
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation respondents.
(RMSEA). Insignificant (set at .05) chi-
square test statistics signified model fit. Reliability Analysis
The value of above .90 would indicate In the second section of our findings,
model fit for GFI, CFI, and TLI, while Cronbachs alpha was calculated to assess
a value of less than .08 would signify the estimates of internal consistency of
reasonable model fit for RMSEA (Hu & the scale and its nine sub-scales. Table
Bentler, 1998). Exploratory Factor Analysis 2 shows the internal consistency of the
(EFA), on the other hand, was performed nine sub-scales and the overall scale.
to examine the valid factor structure of the A value of .86 was obtained for overall
scale according to the data obtained from the scale that is above the satisfactory value
Malaysian participants in order to test the of .70 (Nunnaly, 1978), indicating a high
construct validity. Reliability of this scale degree of internal consistency of the scale.
was determined using internal consistency Assessments of the internal consistency
by looking at Cronbachs alpha values. of nine separated sub-scales, however,
indicated that a relatively lower Cronbachs
RESULTS alpha reading as compared with previous
Demographic Characteristics studies (Spector, 1997). As shown in Table
2, reliability of each dimension and total
In total, data was collected from 703
scale was then presented.
male Navy personnel who volunteered to
participate in the study (age range = 20-50,
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
M = 29.3 years, SD = 5.6). Years of service
ranged from One to 30 years (M = 9.5, SD Thereafter, a confirmatory factor analysis
= 5.4). The gross income of participants was conducted to determine the goodness-
TABLE 1
Respondents demographic characteristics (N= 703)
Variable n (%) M (SD) Min-Max

Age 29.3 (5.6) 20-50
Years of service 9.5 (5.4) 1-30
Gross Income 2224.7 (860.1) 650-6750
Race Malay 669 (95.2)

Chinese 2 (.3)
Indian 5 (.7)
Others 27 (3.8)
Education Level SPM/ SPM (V) 549 (78.1)
STPM 38 (5.4)
Diploma 71 (10.1)
Bachelors degree 42 (6.0)
Master's degree 3 (.4)
Missing Data 3 (.4)
Marital Status Single 201 (28.6)
Married 496 (70.7)
Divorced 5 (.7)
Missing Data 1 (.1)
Job Classification Warrant officer 86 (12.2)
Petty officer 207 (29.4)
Rate 404 (57.5)
Missing Data 6 (.9)
Branch Engineering 198 (28.2)
Seaman 228 (32.4)
Supply 269 (38.3)
Missing Data 8 (1.1)
Note: SPM/ SPM (V) = Completed high school;
STPM = Completed high school + 2 years of pre-university
n = frequency, M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation, Min = Minimum, Max = Maximum
of-fit between priori model and the sample each of the four observed indicators was
data. Data were analyzed by applying anticipated to load onto respective latent
maximum likelihood to check how well factors as suggested by Spector (1985). The
the sample data fit with hypothesized goodness-of-fit results indicated nine-factor
nine-factor structure model consisting model was a poor fit to the data (2 (558) =
of pay, promotion, supervision, fringe 2746.434, p< .001, 2/df = 4.922, CFI= .671,
benefits, contingent rewards, operating TLI= .628, RMSEA= .075 [.072, .078])
procedures, co-workers, nature of work, (see Table 3). Both CFI and TLI were less
and communication. With regards to this, from the threshold of .90 (Hu & Bentler,
TABLE 2
Internal consistency of the instrument
Total Cronbachs Cronbachs

Scale in JSS Description
items alpha a alpha b
Pay 4 .59 .75 Pay and remuneration
Promotion 4 .50 .73 Promotion opportunities
Supervision 4 .69 .82 Immediate supervisor
Fringe benefits 4 .51 .73 Monetary and non-monetary fringe benefits
Contingent Rewards 4 .71 .76 Appreciation, recognition, and rewards for
good work
Operating procedures 4 .22 .62 Operating policies and procedures
Co-workers 4 .35 .60 People you work with
Nature of work 4 .60 .78 Job tasks themselves
Communication 4 .58 .71 Communication within the organization
Total scale 36 .86 .91 Total of all facets
a
Based on a sample of 703 (present study)
b
Based on a sample of 2870 (Spector, 1997)
1998). Meanwhile, the large value of 2 on modification indices and standardized

with significant p-value implied mismatch residuals. Nevertheless, we still failed to
between observed and expected metrics. obtain an acceptable model. Consequently,
The value of 2/df also showed greater we decided to further explore the underlying
general convention of 3.0 which indicated factor structures of Malay JSS using
inadequate model fit (Hu & Bentler, 1998). exploratory factor analysis (Suhr, 2003).
We next examined the factor loadings The overall fit of the nine-factor model
for JSS items and the results showed is summarized in Table 3 and graphical
that the items were unevenly distributed, representation is displayed in Fig.1.
ranging from -.20 to .74. In addition,
after associations with squared multiple Exploratory Factor Analysis
correlations, each observed variables We further analyzed factorability of data
yielded value ranged from 0.04 to .55 in by using exploratory factor analysis. A
explaining the variance. Obviously, some principal component factor (PCA) analysis
items were poorly loaded onto latent factors. was adopted on the 36 items of the JSS
As such, we concluded that the original without specifying number of factors in
nine-factor model with 36 items did not the first run. Analysis of Kaiser-Meyer-
correspond to Malaysian militarys job Olkin measure of sampling adequacy and
satisfaction dimension as it did not meet Barletts test of sphericity were used to
the acceptable standard of validity and explore the correlation pattern and test the
reliability analysis. It is worthwhile to note null hypothesis of identity matrix on the
that we tried to re-specify the model based correlation between variables respectively
TABLE 3
Measure of goodness-of-fit for the nine-factor model of Malay version job satisfaction survey
CFA fit indices:

2 2746.434 CFI .671
df 558 TLI .628
2/df (p) 4.922 (.000) RMSEA .075
Factor/ Item Factor loadings Squared multiple correlation

Pay
1 .57 .33
10 .31 .09
19 .58 .34
28 .61 .38
Promotion
2 .26 .07
11 .50 .25
20 .39 .15
33 .64 .41
Supervision
3 .52 .27
12 .70 .48
21 .65 .42
30 .52 .26
Fringe benefits
4 .33 .11
13 .42 .18
22 .65 .42
29 .44 .20
Contingent rewards
5 .44 .20
14 .70 .50
23 .66 .44
32 .73 .53
Operating procedure
6 .47 .21
15 -.20 .04
24 .66 .43
31 .37 .14
Co-worker
7 .25 .06
16 .31 .09
25 .30 .09
34 .56 .31
TABLE 3 (continued)
Factor/ Item Factor loadings Squared multiple correlation

Nature of work
8 .25 .06
17 .63 .39
27 .74 .55
35 .70 .49
Communication
9 .41 .17
18 .58 .33
26 .55 .30
36 .52 .27
Note: CFA= confirmatory factor analysis; 2= chi square; df= degree of freedom;
CFI= comparative-fit index; TLI= Tucker Lewis index; CFI= comparative fit index;
RMSEA= root mean square error of approximation.
(Hair et al., 2010). Results yielded KMO at scree plot (Cattell, 1978). A diagnose
statistics value of .90 which is above Scree Plot (refer Fig.2) demonstrated the
acceptable value and falls in the group of inflexion at first four or five factors solution
being superb (Hutcheson & Sofroniou, before it begins to straighten out, suggesting
1999). Also, the significant value of Barletts it is able to generate four or five factors.
test measure produced a chi-square of 12990 Hence, the second time, we tried several
(2 (630) = 7144; p< .001) that connoted the different models (three, four, five, and six
items shared common factors. In light of factor solutions) before deciding on the
this, it was considered as suitable to factor final model using varimax rotation or direct
analysis with all 36 items. oblimin rotations.
Wi t h P C A e x t r a c t i o n m e t h o d , Direct oblimin rotation supports that
components with Eigenvalue over 1.0 were the final model was a five-factor solution
retained (Hair et al., 2010). The output because it provides the best interpretability.
successfully extracted nine components that A total of eight items were removed from
accounted for 55.408% of total variance original measure on the basis of primary
(Table 4). Nevertheless, the Eigenvalues factor loading of at least .40 or cross-
rule in this study was challenged as this scale factor loading greater than .30 (Bryant,
consists of 36 variables, and communalities & Yarnold, 1995; Wang et al., 2009).
after extraction were less than .70. Based on Specifically, the items Terdapat imbuhan
Field (2005), Eigenvalues rule is proper to yang sepatutnya kami terima tidak diberikan
apply when there are less than 30 variables oleh organisasi ini, Kehendak birokrasi
and communalities are more than .70 after dalam organisasi jarang menghalang usaha
extraction. In regard to this, we then looked saya untuk melakukan kerja dengan baik,
Note: Pro= promotion, Sup= supervision, Fri= fringe benefits, Con= contingent reward,
Ope= operating procedure, Cow= Co-worker, Nat= nature of work, Com = communication
Item 1- Item 36 represent observed variables, e1-e36 represent error variances, double headed arrows
depict correlations among factors, and single headed arrows from factors depict factor loadings.
Fig.1: Measurement model for original nine-factor model
Saya suka bekerja dengan pihak atasan After elimination, data showed that 11
saya, Pihak atasan saya agak cekap items loaded on first factor, five items for
dalam mengendalikan kerja mereka, second factor, five items for third factor,
Saya berpuas hati dengan peluang four items for fourth factor, and finally
kenaikan pangkat saya, Perhubungan three items for fifth factor. Then, each
(interpersonal) dalam organisasi ini agak factor was interpreted through assessment
bagus, Peluang kenaikan pangkat di sini of item content. Items loading on first factor
adalah sama seperti di pasukan keselamatan were assessing need for appreciation and
lain, and Imbuhan yang diterima recognition in workplace. Therefore we
adalah sepertimana yang ditawarkan oleh labeled this factor as recognition. Items
kebanyakan pasukan keselamatan lain loading on second factor were relating to
were dropped from the scale. aspects of fondness to work, which was
TABLE 4
PCA extraction method on Malay version job satisfaction survey
Item/ Component I II III IV V VI VII VIII VIIII

b_32 : Saya berasa usaha saya tidak
.713
dihargai seperti yang sepatutnya.
b_14 : Saya berasa kerja yang saya
.697
lakukan tidak dihargai.
b_12 : Pihak pengurusan atasan tidak
.679
berlaku adil terhadap saya.
b_23 : Kurang penghargaan kepada
.653
anggota di sini.
b_21 : Pihak pengurusan atasan kurang
memberikan perhatian terhadap anggota .637
bawahan mereka.
b_19 : Saya berasa kurang dihargai oleh
.609 -.331
organisasi berdasarkan skala gaji saya.
b_3 : Pihak atasan saya agak cekap dalam
.534 .318 -.425
mengendalikan kerja mereka.
b_30 : Saya suka bekerja dengan pihak
.534 .341
atasan saya.
b_8 : Kadangkala berasa kerja saya tidak
.526
bermakna.
b_34 : Terlalu perselisihan faham di
.525 -.304
tempat kerja saya.
b_18 : Saya masih kurang faham
.513
mengenai matlamat organisasi.
b_5 : Saya mendapat penghargaan yang
sewajarnya apabila melakukan kerja .492 .338
dengan baik.
b_36 : Tugasan yang diamanahkan kepada
.482
saya tidak diterangkan dengan sempurna.
b_28 : Saya berpuas hati dengan kenaikan
.469 .347 .309
gaji.
b_26 : Saya sering tidak tahu mengenai
.462 -.392
perkembangan organisasi.
b_1 : Skim emolumen yang diberikan
adalah setimpal dengan tanggungjawab/
peranan (pengalaman/kepakaran, .460 .363
kelayakan akademik, tempoh
perkhidmatan) sebagai seorang tentera.
b_9 : Perhubungan (interpersonal) dalam
.439 .349 -.331
organisasi ini agak bagus.
b_29 : Terdapat imbuhan yang sepatutnya
kami terima tidak diberikan oleh .437 -.333
organisasi ini.
b_35 : Saya berpuas hati dengan kerja
.417 .364 -.397 .334
saya.
TABLE 4 (continued)
Item/ Component I II III IV V VI VII VIII VIIII

b_4 : Saya tidak berpuas hati dengan
.386
faedah/ kemudahan disedia.
b_7 : Saya suka bekerja dengan orang
.429 -.318
yang bekerja bersama saya.
b_24 : Terlalu banyak kerja yang perlu
-.386 .358 .349 .374
dilakukan di tempat kerja.
b_17 : Saya suka kepakaran saya. .381 -.375 .360
b_11 : Peluang kenaikan pangkat diberi
kepada mereka yang melakukan kerja .333 .352 -.321
dengan baik.
b_13 : Imbuhan yang diterima adalah
sepertimana yang ditawarkan oleh
.368 .512
kebanyakan pasukan keselamatan lain.
organisasi lain
b_22 : Pakej imbuhan yang diterima
.402 .318 .506
adalah adil.
b_27 : Saya berasa bangga dengan kerja
.345 .455 -.481
yang saya lakukan.
b_25 : Saya selesa dengan rakan
.382 -.403
sepasukan saya.
b_2 : Terdapat ruang dan peluang yang
.320 .451
terhad untuk peningkatan kerjaya.
b_31 : Saya mempunyai terlalu banyak
-.354 .584
kerja-kerja dokumentasi.
b_15 : Kehendak birokrasi dalam
organisasi jarang menghalang usaha saya .612
untuk melakukan kerja dengan baik.
b_16 : Saya perlu bekerja lebih keras
-.356 -.373
kerana ketidakcekapan rakan.
b_33 : Saya berpuas hati dengan peluang
.382 .311 .352 -.417
kenaikan pangkat saya.
b_6 : Saya sukar untuk melakukan
kerja dengan baik kerana terlalu banyak .389 -.359 .393 .308
peraturan dan prosedur organisasi.
b_20 : Peluang kenaikan pangkat di
sini adalah sama seperti di pasukan -.542
keselamatan lain.
b_10 : Perbezaan gaji adalah terlalu ketara
.316 -.337 .309 -.344
dengan organisasi kerajaan yang lain.
Note: only factor loadings greater than .30 are shown.
Fig.2: Screen Plot for Malay Version Job Satisfaction Survey
labeled as affection. In addition, the third METHOD

factor was labeled fairness as the items Three hundred and twenty-nine male navy
loading were assessing even-handedness personnel aged from 20 to 50 (M = 29.9
and competent ability within workforce. The years, SD = 6.1), completed the 28-item
labeling of fourth factor (expectation) is JSS for study 2. Majority of the respondents
attributed to the content of anticipation for were Malay (93.8%), married (71.3%), and
pay, promotion, and belief. The final factor SPM/ SPM (V) (74.5%) holders. In terms
contained items that reflected the amount of years of service, respondents ranged
of work at the workplace, was labeled as from 1 to 30 years (M = 10.3, SD = 5.8).
workload. Cumulatively, the EFA was The gross income of participants ranged
drawn from 28 items to form a five-factor from RM1000-RM6300 (M = 2354.8, SD
model comprising recognition, attachment, = 901.9).
fairness, expectation, and workload which
accounted for 42.91% of the share variance RESULTS
in the administrative group. The final
Reliability Analyses
solution is presented in Table 5.
As seen in Table 6, the total coefficient value
for final version was .86, maintaining the
Study 2
high internal consistency. The reliability
In the second study, we further examined estimates of the five sub-scales also reported
the validity of the five-factor model of JSS values which ranged from .50 to .86. The
scores. Participants were recruited from the values did not increase if deletion of any
Lumut naval base which is the biggest naval item was performed.
base in Malaysia.
TABLE 5
Direct oblimin rotation on Malay version job satisfaction survey
Item/ Component I II III IV V

b_21 : Pihak pengurusan atasan kurang memberikan perhatian
.680
terhadap anggota bawahan mereka.
b_18 : Saya masih kurang faham mengenai matlamat organisasi. .667
b_12 : Pihak pengurusan atasan tidak berlaku adil terhadap saya. .621
b_14 : Saya berasa kerja yang saya lakukan tidak dihargai. .610
b_26 : Saya sering tidak tahu mengenai perkembangan
.586
organisasi.
b_19 : Saya berasa kurang dihargai oleh organisasi berdasarkan
.581
skala gaji saya.
b_32 : Saya berasa usaha saya tidak dihargai seperti yang
.559
sepatutnya.
b_23 : Kurang penghargaan kepada anggota di sini. .550
b_3 : Pihak atasan saya agak cekap dalam mengendalikan kerja
.487 .421 -.337
mereka.
b_34 : Terlalu perselisihan faham di tempat kerja saya. .481
b_36 : Tugasan yang diamanahkan kepada saya tidak
.480
diterangkan dengan sempurna.
b_8 : Kadangkala berasa kerja saya tidak bermakna. .467
b_30 : Saya suka bekerja dengan pihak atasan saya. .392
b_9 : Perhubungan (interpersonal) dalam organisasi ini agak
.366
bagus.
b_27 : Saya berasa bangga dengan kerja yang saya lakukan. .745
b_17 : Saya suka kepakaran saya. .742
b_35 : Saya berpuas hati dengan kerja saya. .667
b_25 : Saya selesa dengan rakan sepasukan saya. .614
b_7 : Saya suka bekerja dengan orang yang bekerja bersama
.420
saya.
b_22 : Pakej imbuhan yang diterima adalah adil. .707
b_13 : Imbuhan yang diterima adalah sepertimana yang
.402 .672
ditawarkan oleh kebanyakan pasukan keselamatan lain.
b_1: Skim emolumen yang diberikan adalah setimpal dengan
tanggungjawab/peranan (pengalaman/kepakaran, kelayakan .589
akademik, tempoh perkhidmatan) sebagai seorang tentera.
b_28 : Saya berpuas hati dengan kenaikan gaji. .578
b_5 : Saya mendapat penghargaan yang sewajarnya apabila
.564
melakukan kerja dengan baik.
b_11 : Peluang kenaikan pangkat diberi kepada mereka yang
.535
melakukan kerja dengan baik.
b_20 : Peluang kenaikan pangkat di sini adalah sama seperti di
.389
pasukan keselamatan lain.
b_29 : Terdapat imbuhan yang sepatutnya kami terima tidak
.309
diberikan oleh organisasi ini.
TABLE 5 (continued)
Item/ Component I II III IV V

b_2 : Terdapat ruang dan peluang yang terhad untuk
.646
peningkatan kerjaya.
b_4 : Saya tidak berpuas hati dengan faedah/ kemudahan
.523
disedia.
b_33 : Saya berpuas hati dengan peluang kenaikan pangkat saya. .406 .433
b_10 : Perbezaan gaji adalah terlalu ketara dengan organisasi
.431
kerajaan yang lain.
b_6 : Saya sukar untuk melakukan kerja dengan baik kerana
.423
terlalu banyak peraturan dan prosedur organisasi.
b_31 : Saya mempunyai terlalu banyak kerja-kerja dokumentasi. .802
b_24 : Terlalu banyak kerja yang perlu dilakukan di tempat
.597
kerja.
b_16 : Saya perlu bekerja lebih keras kerana ketidakcekapan
.501
rakan.
b_15 : Kehendak birokrasi dalam organisasi jarang menghalang
usaha saya untuk melakukan kerja dengan baik.
Eigenvalue 5.887 3.247 4.090 2.471 2.375
Percentage of variance explained 19.438 9.786 6.135 3.991 3.56
Cumulative percentage of variance explained 19.438 29.224 35.359 39.35 42.910
Note: I - Recognition, II- Affection, III- Fairness, IV- Expectation, and V- Workload
TABLE 6
Reliability analyses for the five-factor model (N=321)
Factor No of item
Recognition 11 .86
Affection 5 .75
Fairness 5 .73
Expectation 4 .58
Workload 3 .50
Total 28 .86
= composite reliability
Confirmatory factor Analyses workload was represented by items 31, 24,

The five-factor model with 28 items and 16) was analyzed. Fit indices for the
(recognition was represented by items 21, five-factor model exhibited significantly
18, 12, 14, 26, 19, 32, 23, 34, 36, and 8; better fit than nine-factor model (2 (336)
affection was represented by items 27, 17, = 632.852, p< .001, 2/df = 1.861, CFI=
35, 25, and 7; fairness was represented by .877, TLI= .864, RMSEA= .52 [CI= .046,
items 22, 1, 28, 5, and 11; expectation was .058]). The modification indices indicated
represented by items 2, 4, 10, and 6; and re-specification might still be possible
Note: F1= Recognition, F2= Affection, F3= Fairness, F4= Expectation, F5= Workload.
Rectangles represent observed variables, Circles represent error variances, double headed arrows depict
correlations among factors, and single headed arrows from factors depict factor loadings.
Fig.3: Measurement model for five-factor model
by allowing some residual error terms which indicated adequate model fit (Hu &
that co-varied each other. The goodness Bentler, 1998).
of fit of revised model showed adequate
and much better fit (2 (336) = 554.184, DISCUSSION
p< .001, 2/df = 1.649, CFI= .909, TLI= Up to now, available documented studies
.897, RMSEA= .45 [CI= .038, .052]) (see concerning issue of military job satisfaction
Fig.3). CFI was successfully met while in Malaysian context is still scarce (Liyana &
TLI marginally reached the threshold of Mansor, 2009; 2010). Thus, the current study
.90 (Hu & Bentler, 1998). Although the was undertaken on account of researchers
result yielded significant p-value, this could interest to provide evidence of initial
be attributed to the large sample size. The reliability and validity of Job Satisfaction
value of 2/df was also less than value of 3.0 Survey on assessing job satisfaction among
Malaysian military members. Initially, Analysis and followed by direct oblimin

the study used the comprehensive Job rotation to elucidate dimensionality for
Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1985) which military job satisfaction. Based on factor
was translated to Malay language to loadings, the best model in the present study
determine its psychometric appropriateness was a five-factor solution for assessing
in evaluating military job satisfaction in military job satisfaction. Inspection of
Malaysia. In our empirical analysis, the the Scree Plot also revealed a five-factor
original nine-factor solutions on the basis of solution to be appropriate for military
facets: pay, promotion, supervision, fringe personnel, particularly Malaysian Navy.
benefits, contingent rewards, operating As a result, a five-subscale model with 28
procedures, co-workers, nature of work, items was produced. The subscales were
and communication (Spector, 1985) were renamed as recognition, affection, fairness,
tested. Statistically, the results of the expectation, and workload. All the sub-
confirmatory factor analysis for nine- scales accumulative denoted variation was
factor solution showed a poor model fit. at 42.91%.
Additionally, results regarding the internal In our solution, the first factor,
consistency for the model demonstrated recognition is characterized by the perception
poor to moderate levels as Cronbach alpha of being acknowledged by others on effort
values were of .22 to .71. In the light of our devoted by the personnel. The sample item
findings, we contended that military jobs and includes Pihak pengurusan atasan kurang
workplace are significantly different from memberikan perhatian terhadap anggota
that of other types of organizations due to bawahan mereka. Recalling Sanchez and
its work nature in hardship and challenging his colleagues (2004) study, both physical
environments (Sanchez et al., 2004). Not and mental training among armed forces
surprisingly, the findings indicated that the staff are not easy to endure, thus they really
nine-factor first-order model is not suitable need to retain a certain degree of adulation
to assess Malaysian military personnel and recognition. Like any normal human
job satisfaction. Seemingly most previous being, they too, hope for appreciation by
studies administered this instrument in others for the efforts they make and the
English (Spector, 1985; 1997, 2008). pride they hold in their jobs. Consequently,
However the current study which made use appreciation given to those who perform
of the same instrument in Malay language well in their jobs could lead to enhanced
yielded conflicting findings. self-confidence in military duties (Liyana
Evidently, the poor statistical fit of & Mansor, 2009). Hence, recognition
previous theoretical model illustrated that should be placed as top priority to retain
the testing of underlying factor structure was the soldiers to continually serve the nation.
required. Therefore, items were reexamined The second factor, affection highlights the
using the Principal Components factor degree to which an individual feels loved,
meaningful, and enjoyable with the nature Item Terdapat ruang dan peluang yang
of the job itself. Previous research suggests terhad untuk peningkatan kerjaya was
that higher levels of supportive work included in the fourth factor, expectation
environment are associated with greater because it assesses belief of personal
levels of happiness and satisfaction (Spector, expectations from the job in gaining extrinsic
1997). As aforementioned, the military objects. The fifth factor, workload subsumes
places strong emphasis on teamwork item Saya mempunyai terlalu banyak
and commitment. Employees who have kerja-kerja dokumentasi that assesses
strong desires towards work are effectively amount and quantity of work or tasks to be
connected to organization and display completed. Usually, heavy workload could
willing to perform job responsibilities. be a part of job satisfaction determinants as
An example of this item is Saya berasa some military personnel reported that too
bangga dengan kerja yang saya lakukan. much paperwork jeopardized their levels
The third factor, fairness is characterized of satisfaction (Liyana & Mansor, 2009).
as the emotional reactions to jobs regarding Nevertheless, high workload tends to occur
the levels of justice in workforce. Hence, among military personnel as personnel need
the item that related to this situation was to handle a great amount of military-related
for example, Pakej imbuhan yang diterima tasks arising from factors such as to be on
adalah adil. Logically, employees want call 24 hours, the need for outstation work
to experience that they receive reasonable and frequent changing of department or
treatment in the workplace. The same squads, besides undergoing heavy army
condition applied to military personnel training. Hence, it reflected some job facets
who have a right to focus on adequate that had significant roles in explaining job
justifications and concern whether they satisfaction among military personnel.
were being fairly treated by the organization We then tested the revised scale on
such as on matters pertaining to pay, a new sample. Using data from the new
promotion opportunity, and incentives. collected sample, the statistical analysis
Understandably, military organizations was able to produce a model which was a
are big institutions which can encompass good fit to the data. The confirmatory factor
millions of employees. Without question, analysis revealed that the final model with
military personnel highly emphasized the 28 items had a good fit as all the goodness-
importance of fairness and equity to ensure of-fit indices support the model fit (Byrne,
their levels of job satisfaction (Liyana 2001). The internal consistency analysis
& Mansor, 2009).When organizations also suggested that the final revised model
make decisions about staffs welfare and of the Malay version JSS exhibited a reliable
remuneration, it is tremendously vital that measure that could be used in the future to
the decisions taken are seen to be fair and identify level of job satisfaction and facets
equally commensurate with each staffs associated to it among military personnel. In
expertise and skills. short, analyses of internal consistency and
validity on our proposed factors indicated of JSS to five-factor model while assessing
that the five factors JSS is more reliable military job satisfaction. Concerning this,
to be used by researchers in determining it is recommended that multinational or
job satisfaction of military personnel in intercultural validation studies should be
Malaysia. undertaken to assess its practicality and
investigate measurement properties of the
IMPLICATION AND FUTURE scale as well. Second, this scale is specified
DIRECTION to military personnel, thus further studies
As its objectives, this research has translated need to be cautioned of this fact so as not to
and validated Malay JSS. Using a large generalize the current findings to different
sample of subjects whose service in armed job contexts. We strongly encourage future
forces organizations, this paper provides efforts to consider longitudinal design to
preliminary reliability and validity evidence identify ongoing assessment job satisfaction
for the Malay JSS that captures job of navy personnel at different times. We also
satisfaction among military personnel. As encourage more studies that can expand
discussed earlier, armed forces are specific upon the present findings. In summary,
service areas as compared to other types this study was beneficial as it helped
of occupation. These distinctions result identify varying degrees to which military
in a more parsimonious five-factor model personnel are experiencing job satisfaction
was produced that more relevant and or otherwise.
applicable to armed forces personnel. With
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Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE

and Teamwork in a Malaysian Semiconductor Firm
Poh Kiat Ng1*, Kian Siong Jee1, Jian Ai Yeow2 and Masyitah Mahadi3
1
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Multimedia University, Jalan Ayer Keroh Lama, Bukit Beruang,
75450 Melaka, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Business and Law, Multimedia University, Jalan Ayer Keroh Lama, Bukit Beruang,
75450 Melaka, Malaysia
3
Social Science and Communication Department, Centre for Foundation Studies and Extension Education,
Multimedia University, Jalan Ayer Keroh Lama, Bukit Beruang, 75450 Melaka, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The rapid change in technology among organizations motivates the need for researchers
and practitioners to form new practices by understanding, re-examining and integrating
the key determinants of obsolete practices. In the same way, this study aims to compositely
examine the role of leadership, concurrent engineering (CE) and teamwork in a Malaysian
semiconductor manufacturing firm. A total of 226 survey responses were collected back
from the 2100 surveys distributed and analysed using correlation and multiple linear
regression analyses. The results showed that the relationship between leadership-CE-
teamwork and engineering performance was stronger than that of the other individually-
tested relationships. Though best practices in leadership are important for achieving a teams
goal, a more flexible and cooperative leadership may be formed with the integration of CE,
teamwork and leadership. Top management should consider exploring more opportunities
in all these components for improved engineering performance and synergy among
engineering teams. Tactical strategies based on various leadership styles, team member
competencies and CE approaches should also be formulated to strengthen the flexibility
of current leadership styles. The results can be potentially used as general guidelines for
the engineering management practice and research in engineering firms.
ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Leadership, Concurrent engineering,

Article history: Teamwork, Engineering performance
E-mail addresses: INTRODUCTION

pkng@mmu.edu.my (Poh Kiat Ng),
ksjee@mmu.edu.my (Kian Siong Jee),
jayeow@mmu.edu.my (Jian Ai Yeow),
There are many different definitions of
masyitah@mmu.edu.my (Masyitah Mahadi) leadership. However, the three major
components of leadership applied in firms
are perhaps team leadership, influential selected for study here are important basis
leadership and goal-based leadership. for organizational and technological success
Leadership is the process in which an (Abrunhosa & Sa, 2008; Chang, 2009; Ebert
individual influences team members towards & Man, 2008; Valle & Avella, 2003; Valle
the attainment of team or organizational & Vazquez-Bustelo, 2009). Thus, the aim
goals (Sethi, Smith & Park, 2001). of this study is to determine the effects of
The success of a team can depend on the leadership, concurrent engineering (CE) and
leadership style that suits the team. Different teamwork on engineering performance in a
teams may consist of members with different Malaysian engineering firm.
capabilities working on various tasks under
multiple circumstances. From a theoretical LEADERSHIP
viewpoint, Fiedlers contingency model Leadership is the behaviour associated with
shows that in high and low favourable the activity of leading and represents one of
situations, task-oriented leadership is the great problem areas both for the student
linked with high performance and team of management and for the practising
success (Chong, 2006; Sethi, 2000). Besides manager (Kanji, 2008). It is not only a key
that, in moderately favourable situations, enabler for research, but also a practical
relationship-oriented leadership styles are skill used by managers to adapt in various
most effective for teams to succeed (Chong, functions (Lo & Osman, 2008).
2006; Sethi, 2000; Valle & Avella, 2003). In management theory, there generally
Despite the aforementioned evidence a few classifications of leadership theories
on the capabilities of various leadership which include theories on classic leadership
styles, many engineering firms today fall (autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire)
short in the management and leadership and theories on leadership for change
of their engineering project resources (transformational leadership) (Lakshman,
(Cleland, 1995; Cleland & Ireland, 2007; 2006). The responsibility of a leader can
Qureshi, Warraich & Hijazi, 2009). be segregated in various ways throughout a
More often than not, engineering firms firm (Galbraith, 1973).
disregard the importance in evaluating Leadership often appears to be the key
engineering performance and merely focus component for a firms success as their roles
on meeting the cost and time requirements influence, motivate and direct employees to
of manufacturing projects (Qureshi et al., achieve company performance. According to
2009). Obholzer (1997), a good leadership practice
The preceding assertion points out in a firm allows work to be completed
that there is an evident and dire need for effectively and efficiently through positive
firms to continuously evaluate engineering teamwork.
performance and the factors that are linked to In addition, capable leaders can generate
it. Literature has shown that the components a strong shared mission and vision for a
Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE and Teamwork
company that relates to its workers overall emotions, red tapes and heated debates
effectiveness (Ancona & Caldwell, 1992; (Wang, Chou & Jiang, 2005).
Boyle, Kumar and Kumar, 2006; Mohrman, Greaves (2000) suggests that teamwork
Cohen and Mohrman, 1995). Also, leaders requires an appropriate organizational
who are practicing various traits, principles, environment and full cooperation from
attitudes and behaviours may give rise both the leader and members to meet or
to successful long-term organizational exceed team objectives. One of the key
performance (Lakshman, 2006). determinants in teamwork is the power to
In addition, Kolb (1995) believes that synergize, where if applied appropriately,
leadership is significantly related with may result in positive outcomes that exceeds
organizational performance and also plays the input to the teamwork (Keller, 2001;
a main role in enhancing engineering Larson & Gobeli, 1989).
performance. However, serious commitment Team leadership which is critical
on the part of engineering leaders to quality in all team environments appears to be
can be sometimes inconsistent, weak highly collaborative and peer-like (Drath,
or in worst cases, missing. Complaints McCauley, Palus, Velsor, OConnor &
about engineering managements lack of McGuire, 2008; Wang et al., 2005). It
support and refusal to change appear to be appears that in engineering companies,
increasingly common among employees the project managers delegate tasks to
(Kaynak, 2003). The aforementioned team leaders who will then motivate and
predicaments make it difficult to nurture the coach the performance of their respective
hidden talents or potentials of younger and members. This action allows leaders to
aspiring engineering leaders. Therefore, the build strong trusts among employees and
first hypothesis is proposed as: promotes their impetus to perform (Shea &
Howell, 1999).
H1: Leadership correlates with
Te a m w o r k , h o w e v e r, d o e s n o t
engineering performance in a
always bring forth positive effects to a
Malaysian manufacturing firm
firm. According to Nurmi et al. (1989),
although teamwork sounds simple, but
TEAMWORK
it requires high acknowledgment among
Teamwork is defined as the collaboration peers, active leadership, active listening,
of co-located individuals from various acceptance of different views and effective
knowledge and skill areas grouped in one or communication. Lack of assertiveness and
more problem-solving projects (Jassawalla action from team players and conflicting
& Sashittal, 2000). Effective teamwork performance may bring about negative
requires team members to possess not only outcomes as far as teamwork performance
people management skills, but also skills is concerned (Jassawalla & Sashittal, 2000).
such as the ability to manage pressure, Hence, the second hypothesis is proposed
as:
H 2 : Te a m w o r k c o r r e l a t e s w i t h H3: CE correlates with engineering

engineering performance in a performance in a Malaysian
Malaysian manufacturing firm manufacturing firm
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING (CE) ENGINEERING PERFORMANCE

CE is a systematic approach to the integrated, Engineering Performance is the overall
simultaneous design of products and their achievement of preset targets of engineering
related processes, including manufacture projects/tasks. The exceptionality that
and support (Jassawalla & Sashittal, impinges on engineering performance is of
2000). It also refers to interdisciplinary a simple form, whereby the epigrammatic
collaborations and corresponding efforts link between engineering performance
to achieve universal targets in NPD, and some characteristics that influences
production, marketing and sales (Kusar, it is often demonstrated in a research
Duhovnik, Grum & Starbek, 2004). (Cho, Hong & Hyun, 2009). Engineering
A major initiative in putting CE into performance includes the monitoring and
practice is the effective concurrent teams, management of components such as time,
which implement development through cost, superiority, creativity and product
organizational and information management development performance.
processes (Abdalla, 1999). Concurrent Time. Once a decision on a project is
teams are teams that deal with hi-tech made, the execution time should be kept
processes and sustain teamwork throughout as brief as it could, as time is an aspect
development phases (Ma, Chen & Thimm, of success in engineering performance
2008). that provides additional timelines for the
On the other hand, Chen and Li (2002) dealings leading to the decision (Thiry,
argue that problems arising from CE 2002).
approaches are very complex due to the Cost. Projects that are delayed will
uncertainties from design to process stages. cost more money and dissatisfy customers,
This finding shows that it is sometimes causing difficulties in financial support and
difficult to adopt CE in processes that have further slippages in project timelines to
previously been treated separately. transpire (Kaliba, Muya & Mumba, 2009;
Zheng, Wang and Yan (2005) also Kamrul Ahsan & Gunawan, 2009).
stress that if downstream design workflow S u p e r i o r i t y. I n m a n u f a c t u r i n g ,
launches prematurely, it is doubtful to product superiority signifies distributing
obtain absolute design outcomes from the distinguished products that provides
upstream design workflow. Consequently, exceptional benefits and quality features to
they hypothesize that there is a likelihood customers (Cooper, 1996).
of higher design mistake rates and more Creativity. Creativity is an essential
design rework. Thus, the third hypothesis aspect of engineering performance as
is proposed as: it involves creative idea generation and
innovation that is exceptionally useful for RESEARCH METHOD

the conceptual stages in manufacturing The firm chosen for this study was founded
projects (Garcia & Calantone, 2002; in 1999 in Malacca, Malaysia. There are
Leenders, Engelen & Kratzer, 2002). approximately 5600 workers employed in
Product development performance. this firm. This firm also has about 43,000
Many firms also need to effectively employees worldwide, with 6000 of them
understand and manage risks associated involved in research and development.
with developing new products since there Other than in Malaysia, this firm also
is a persistently high probability of new operates in Germany, Austria, France,
product failure and large financial loss Taiwan, Singapore and China.
(Schmidt, Sarangee & Montoya, 2009). Eight out of the world top 20
In this study, engineering performance semiconductor manufacturers are known
is considered on the whole as a dependant to operate in Malaysia and the company
variable. From the combination of the discussed in this study is one of them
previous sections, the fourth and final (Ford, 2011). The others are Intel, Texas
hypothesis is proposed as: Instruments (TI), Toshiba, Renesas
Electronics, STMicroelectronics (STM),
H4: Leadership, CE and teamwork
Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and
influence engineering performance
Freescale Semiconductor. The particular
in a Malaysian manufacturing firm
company chosen for this study reflects the
Fig.1 presents the research framework leadership, CE and teamwork practices
of this study. In this framework, the roles in the other seven, namely through their
of leadership, CE and teamwork in the TQM practices. By extension then this
firm will act as the independent variables study could be seen as a study on the eight
tested against engineering performance in semiconductor manufacturers in Malaysia.
a quantitative manner. Based on figures provided by this
firm on projects in the last 2 years (since
H1
LEADERSHIP
H2 H4 ENGINEERING
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING PERFORMANCE
H3
TEAMWORK
Fig.1: The Research Framework
2009), the firm had 3000 projects in total. leadership and engineering performance is
Due to high turnover rates, transfers and 0.632 with a p value of 0.000. Therefore,
resignation of managers, some projects the relationship between leadership and
were discontinued. The survey items of engineering performance is positive and
the questionnaire are tabulated in Table A significant. Hence, H1 is not rejected.
of the Appendix in this paper. The items
were adopted from the research of Jung and TABLE 1
Leadership Engineering Performance Correlation
Wang (2006), Prajogo and Sohal (2006),
Valle and Vazquez-Bustelo (2009), Tan and Test Output Interpretation
Vonderembse (2006) and (Fuentes-Fuentes, Pearsons Correlation 0.632*** Positive
Correlation
Albacete-Saez, & Llorens-Montes, 2004).
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 Significant
A total of 2100 survey forms were handed
*significant at p < 0.05 level,
out to all the engineering managers and **significant at p< 0.01 level,
engineers in the Malaysian firm. ***significant at p < 0.001 level
As such, the unit of analysis for this
study was the respective projects of these Table 2 presents the correlation
managers and engineers in the firm. Within analysis used to evaluate H2: Teamwork
6 weeks, the data were gathered. A total of correlates with engineering performance
226 survey responses were collected back in a Malaysian manufacturing firm. The
out of the 2100 surveys that were handed Pearsons correlation between teamwork
out, which produced a response rate of and engineering performance is 0.632 with a
11%. The data was analyzed using SPSS p value of 0.000. Therefore, the relationship
18, a statistical software application used between teamwork and engineering
for multivariate analyses, data reduction and performance is positive and significant.
data management. The statistical methods Hence, H2 is not rejected.
employed were Pearsons correlations analysis and
multiple linear regression. TABLE 2
Teamwork Engineering Performance Correlation
RESULTS Test Output Interpretation

Pearsons Correlation 0.632*** Positive
Pearsons correlation analysis is used to Correlation
evaluate H1, H2 and H3. The following Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 Significant
tables present the results on the relationships *significant at p < 0.05 level,
among leadership, CE, teamwork and **significant at p< 0.01 level,
***significant at p < 0.001 level
engineering performance. Table 1 presents
the correlation analysis used to evaluate H1:
Table 3 presents the correlation analysis
Leadership correlates with engineering
used to evaluate H3: CE correlates with
performance in a Malaysian manufacturing
engineering performance in a Malaysian
firm. The Pearsons correlation between
manufacturing firm. The Pearsons was three (Leadership, CE and teamwork)

correlation between CE and engineering for H4. Using the formula provided by
performance is 0.662 with a p value of Tabachnick and Fidell (2001), the minimum
0.000. Therefore, the relationship between sample size required in this study was 50
CE and engineering performance is positive + (8 3) or 74 respondents. As such, the
and significant. Hence, H3 is not rejected. sample size criterion was met for this study.
Regression formulae are based on the
TABLE 3 assumption that residuals are normally
CE Engineering Performance Correlation
distributed around the predicted dependent
Test Output Interpretation variable scores. For this study, normal
Pearsons Correlation 0.662*** Positive probability plots were generated to test this.
Correlation
In the normal probability plots in Fig.2,
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 Significant
since the points were in a reasonably straight
*significant at p< 0.05 level, **significant at p <
0.01 level, ***significant at p < 0.001 level diagonal line from bottom left to top right, it
can be confirmed that there were no major
A multiple linear regression using the deviations from normality (Pallant, 2005;
stepwise method was conducted to evaluate Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996).
H4: Leadership, CE and teamwork For the normality test, the measure
influence engineering performance in a of kurtosis and skewness values for the
Malaysian manufacturing firm. The total variables tested was within the prescribed
amount of independent variables tested | 1 . 0 | r a n g e ( Ta b a c h n i c k & F i d e l l ,
Fig.2: Normal Probability Plots of Regression Standardized Residual
1996). Having satisfied the assumptions leadership and teamwork initiatives often go
for regression analysis, all of the four hand-in-hand in engineering projects.
independent variables were regressed Leaders have to be actively involved
against creative product development and in the management of engineering
the results are summarized in Table 4. processes and members are also required to
The results in Table 4 indicate that up demonstrate a certain degree of leadership
to 49.6% of the variance in engineering and coordination skills in their team.
performance is explained by leadership, Furthermore, leaders with high levels of
CE and teamwork. A correlation coefficient self-esteem and enthusiasm can often gain
(R=0.704) was also obtained for this their team members respect, thus enabling
relationship. In addition to that, the model better cooperation in the team (Chong, 2006;
is significant as indicated by the ANOVA Sethi, 2000; Sethi et al., 2001).
results of F (3, 222) = 72.775, p<0.001. Both components of leadership and
Thus, the fourth and final hypothesis, H4, teamwork are of equal importance in a team.
is supported. Teams strive on cohesiveness and synergy to
tap on its members abilities. A leader will
DISCUSSION normally be nominated to delegate tasks,
From the results of H1, H2, H3 and H4, it monitor work performance and provide
is evident that leadership, CE and teamwork the right direction to the team members.
positively and significantly influence Therefore, both teamwork and leadership can
engineering performance. When H4 was result in improved engineering performance.
evaluated, an even stronger relationship Moreover, according to Kolb (1995), both
(R=0.704) was obtained as compared to that leaders and members should actively play
of H1, H2 and H3s relationships. the role of a leader and be open to new ideas
For the individual tests on H1, H2 in their team.
and H3, it was found that leadership Furthermore, the leadership component
correlates with engineering performance in this study is not only referring to the
at the same strength with that of teamwork leadership ability of the team leader, but
and engineering performance (R=0.632). also each team members leadership ability.
These relationships occur possibly because Since the leader is mostly a working
TABLE 4
Multiple Linear Regression for the Effects of Leadership, CE and Teamwork on Engineering Performance
Predictor Std. Error t Kurtosis Skewness F R R2

(Constant) 1.472 0.193 7.633***
Leadership 0.121 0.059 2.040* 0.172 0.855
72.775*** 0.704 0.496
CE 0.261 0.063 3.344*** 0.035 0.797
Teamwork 0.245 0.073 5.287** 0.020 0.644
(Notes: *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001; N=226; Durbin Watson = 1.493)
member of the team as well, his/her role is principles may have the extra competitive
to generally initiate and sustain the teams edge that elevates the teams performance
momentum. After the major tasks have been to a whole new level.
allocated, the team leader may take on a In the analysis of H4 which involved
more dormant role as a team member. all three variables (Leadership, Teamwork,
The team members would also perform CE) and engineering performance, the
their assigned tasks individually but more correlation coefficient was found to be
often through discussions and knowledge even higher compared to that of all the
sharing with other team members. Basically, individually tested relationships (R=0.704).
in almost any discussion that involves a Principally, each of the 3 variables will exist
minimum number of 2 individuals, there at some degree in each team. For example,
would surely be a dominator that leads the CE and knowledge sharing exists in a small
discussion. Hence the leadership component role, which is through group discussions
still co-exists within team discussions and or brain storming sessions during the
brainstorming sessions. teammeetings. However, the combined
CE on the other hand, has the highest effect of all 3variables would relatively
correlation with engineering performance be more significant than their individual
(R=0.662). This is because CE involves evaluations.
initiatives to shorten lead time to According to Galbraith (1973), there is
manufacture and market, which eventually no best, near-to-best or uniformly effective
affects the overall cost, duration and product way to manage an organization. From the
development performance of the project. It regression model developed, it is therefore
also involves cross-functional teamwork and proven that engineering performance can
the use of computer-aided design tools for be improved when not just one, but all
better designing and information sharing. the key determinants (Leadership, CE and
These aspects in CE enhance product teamwork) interact as a whole in developing
superiority and team creativity in projects. engineering performance. Through this form
Therefore, it directly affects engineering of transformational leadership, leaders can
performance as a whole. be less or more directive in their leadership
CE also involves regular knowledge style depending on the competency of their
sharing activities among cross-functional teams (Chong, 2006; Sethi, 2000).
teams. Compared to the leadership and
teamwork components, knowledge sharing CONCLUSION
practices would give an added advantage to In summary, although good leadership is
a team over traditional methods. Although important for coaching and achieving a
a team may produce good resultswith teams goal, a more flexible and cooperative
effectiveleadership and teamwork, a leadership may be formed with the
team that practices the knowledge sharing integration of CE, teamwork and leadership.
Although this study supports the theories method of conducting the study within a
discussed in the previous section, this study single firm. It is proposed that this study can
does contain some limitations. be further extended to other manufacturing
The main limitation is the sampling firms in Malaysia to evaluate the practice of
method employed which limits the leadership, CE and teamwork. This would
generalisability of this study beyond allow for greater generalisability of the
the context of this firm. Due to time as findings.
well as budgetary constraints, this study Another suggestion is to conduct in-
was conducted in only one Malaysian depth qualitative studies in every technology
semiconductor manufacturing firm. cluster or business unit of this studied firm
Apart from that, a concurrent modelling to further understand its organizational
analysis in this study may not possible context to explain in more depth the role
since the framework was developed in of leadership, CE and teamwork in various
a way where the variables cannot be firms. Also, observational techniques
simultaneously tested against each other. could be employed to shed more light on
This limits the possibility of discovering this phenomenon. In addition, instead of
more relationships and effects among the using respondent-reported leadership, CE,
dependent and independent variables. teamwork and engineering performance
Despite the main sampling limitation, scales, it would be better if researchers are
this study stresses on the applied mechanism able to use empirical data from the firms
of leadership, CE and teamwork in a records e.g. sales performance, customer
semiconductor manufacturing firm with satisfaction, development cost etc.
an emphasis on engineering performance. Also, a structural equation modelling
This study would still be useful for other (SEM) approach using a combination
semiconductor firms since the findings of statistical data and qualitative causal
can be generally used as guidelines in assumptions can be used in order to test
their efforts to recognize the integration of and estimate causal relationships. One of
leadership, CE and teamwork as a new and the available software that can be utilized
enhanced practice in the marketplace. In a for this analysis is called AMOS. Using
practical viewpoint, for example, this study this approach, the variables for this study
can guide effective leadership on deciding are capable of being tested simultaneously
when to coach team members and when to altogether instead of the conventional
be directive. This decision may depend on method where they are linearly tested with
the teams ability or competency and the only one variable against another. At the
task structure level. same time, an addition of several leadership
A few suggestions are proposed to styles such as transformational leadership
further improve the study and findings. and charismatic leadership can also be
The first suggestion is related to the survey included as part of the study in order to
discover more relationships in the model Chen, L., & Li, S. (2002). A computerized team
that can possibly induce team productivity approach for concurrent product and process
design optimization. Computer-Aided Design,
and engineering performance.
34(1), 57-69.
Due to the support of theories and
research together with possible practical Cho, K., Hong, T., & Hyun, C. (2009). Effect of
project characteristics on project performance in
implications, it is evident that leadership, CE
construction projects based on structural equation
and teamwork are indeed not only important
model. Expert Systems with Applications, 36(7),
for team functioning, but also as drivers for 10461-10470.
improved engineering performance. Though
Chong, A. Y. L. (2006). Case study on the
leadership may fundamentally be about
implementation of RosettaNet standards in
doing the right things, it is still important for Infineon Technologies Malaysia. Proceedings
engineering leaders to take into account the of the International Conference on Network and
various functions, situations and members in Mobile Technologies, August 2006.
their team. With different competencies and Cleland, D. I. (1995). Leadership and the project
personalities among team members, there management body of knowledge. International
is a necessity to have leaders who have a Journal of Project Management, 13(2), 83-88.
variety of skills and styles so that they can Cleland, D. I., & Ireland, L. R. (2007). Project
choose the best leadership style to a variety Management: Strategic Design and
of situational factors. Implementation (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-
Hill Publication.
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APPENDIX
Table A
Survey Items of Questionnaire
Component Survey Items Sources

Leadership Lead_1. Our top management is committed to quality. (Jung & Wang, 2006)
Lead_2. There is a clear existence of vision and strategy.
Lead_3. Organization-wide quality culture is practiced.
Lead_4. We have objectives for quality performance.
Lead_5. Seniors share same beliefs on firms future direction. (Prajogo & Sohal, 2006)
Lead_6. Managers encourage change and implement a culture
of improvement, learning and innovation towards excellence.
Lead_7. Employees have the opportunity to share in.
Lead_8. Employees encouraged to help implement changes.
Lead_9.There is unity of purpose in our company.
Lead_10.Barriers among people and sections are eliminated.
Concurrent CE_1. Product designs and production process are developed (Valle & Vazquez-
Engineering simultaneously by a group of employees. Bustelo, 2009; Tan &
CE_2. Product development employees work as a team. Vonderembse, 2006)
CE_3. Product development group members represent a variety
of disciplines.
CE_4. Product development group members share information.
CE_5. Much of process designs are done concurrently with
product designs.
CE_6. Product and process development designs are developed
concurrently by a group of employees from various disciplines.
CE_7. Manufacturing is involved in the early stages of product
development.
CE_8. Process engineers are involved from the early stages of
product development.
CE_9. Various disciplines are involved from the early stages of
product development.
Teamwork Teamwork_1. Managers emphasize activities that lead to lack (Fuentes-Fuentes,
of cooperation between the firm and suppliers. Albacete-Saez &
Teamwork_2. Management encourage use of few suppliers Llorens-Montes, 2004)
based on quality rather than price.
Teamwork_3. Managers and employees from different
departments work independently to achieve own goals.
Teamwork_4. Teamwork is a commonplace.
Teamwork_5. Everyone participates in improvement.
Teamwork_6. Staff see whole picture in decisions.
Teamwork_7. Employees are hesitant to voice their opinions,
make suggestions or inquire about firm activities.
Teamwork_8. Senior executives insist on accuracy and
reliability of all information and communications in firm.

Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private

Higher Learning Education in Klang Valley
Afdzal Aizat Ramli1*, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin1, Zaifudin Zainol1 and
Turiman Suandi2
1
College of Business and Accounting, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah Campus,
26700 Bandar Muadzam Shah, Pahang, Malaysia
2
Youth Social Health and Wellbeing Laboratory, Institute for Social Science Studies,
ABSTRACT
Academics are seen as guardians of knowledge, disseminators of knowledge and creators
of new knowledge. However, due to the expectation of Malaysia to be a regional hub for
international higher education, it consequently burdens the academics especially in private
higher learning education. Stress occurs among academics and stimulates them to leave.
This situation is dangerous as it impacts on the institution and the student itself directly
and indirectly. Therefore, this study attempts to investigate turnover intention from the
perspective of job demand, job control and social support. 201 academics from private
HLE were participated in this research and the empirical tests revealed that job control
determine the level of turnover intention as well as social support on turnover intention.
The regression estimation shows that social support was significantly reflected in turnover
intention among academics.
Keywords: Turnover intention, private HLE, academics, job demand, job control, social support
INTRODUCTION
In todays context, knowledge-based
economy is viewed as a crucial contributor
to the nations economic growth and
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
wealth creation. To succeed in this rapid
Accepted: 7 May 2012
development environment, it is vital for the
E-mail addresses:
nation to discover knowledge, generate new
aaizat@uniten.edu.my (Afdzal Aizat Ramli), ideas and encourage innovation especially
shahruln@uniten.edu.my (Shahrul Nizam Salahudin),
zaifudin@uniten.edu.my (Zaifudin Zainol), among the undergraduates who are potential
tj@upm.edu.my (Turiman Suandi)
* Corresponding author leaders for the future. However, the growth

Afdzal Aizat Ramli, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin, Zaifudin Zainol and Turiman Suandi
and wealth is dependent on the capability compared to public HLE, it is prone to get
and capacity of the nation in developing caught in serious crisis of enrollment and
and applying new technologies. Therefore, financial. Therefore, to get off from the
to achieve it, starting in the middle of stress, academics are willing to leave their
1990s, the government of Malaysia urged current job and looking forward for a new
the higher learning education (HLE) to job (Karasek, 1997; Mohd Kamel, 2009).
generate a pool of well-educated and skilled In addition, besides focusing on
professionals as a preparation for economic teaching, academics are also responsible
growth and sustain (Sohail & Saeed, 2002). to participate actively in research work and
There are two types of entities of HLE innovation as well as community services.
in Malaysia, which are public and private. With such demands placed on the shoulder,
Public HLE is partly subsidized by the academics need to deliver their core duties
government while private HLE typically plus being responsible for non-academic
owned by private organization and most work such as marketing and administrative
are profit oriented. However, the mission work (Azman et al., 2010). Thus, these
of both HLE is still the same, ultimately to stimulate stress among academics and
produce a good quality of graduates which the consequences of stress then lead to
beneficial the nation. Moreover, derived cynicism towards work, poor organizational
from the theory of resource, the process of commitment, low job satisfaction (Taris et
learning and personal development of the al., 2001) and finally induce the sense of
graduates is depending to the amount of turnover.
ratio of student-academics (Astin, 1984). This study attempts to investigate
The person who becomes the backbone of whether job demand, job control and
the mission is pointed to the academics, social support determine turnover intention
who are responsible as guardians of current among academics especially in private
knowledge, disseminators of knowledge and HLE. It is viewed that turnover intention
creators of new knowledge (Maimunah & among academics could result in negative
Lawrence, 2007). consequences to the institution and student
Due to the liberalization, deregulation itself (Ehrenberg et al., 1990). Researches
and privatization of HLE, have resulted a in private HLE particularly on turnover
very dynamic and rapid expansion, such intention are very limited. Thus, the needs
as innovative educational programs and of understanding the factors that lead
changing educational policies. The sudden to turnover intention among academics
changes plus the target to be regional hub are crucial and necessary in improving
for international higher education tend to institution performance and producing
stimulate stress to the HLEs employee competent human capital for the nation.
especially the academics. Suffered with
the limitation of capacity and capability
Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private Higher Learning Education in Klang Valley
Turnover Intention investment on faculty members promotion,

Intent to stay or to leave the organization training and sabbatical leave and it also ruins
can be classified as a final stage in the the aim in gaining and sustaining a quality of
psychological decision-making process of human capital and workforce. Aligned with
a person before leaving (Mobley, 1977). It Bowen and Schuster (1986), which stated
describes as forerunner to actual turnover that The excellence of higher education
behavior in many turnover models. In is a function of the kind of people it is able
addition according to few theorists, they to enlist and retain on its faculty. The
portrayed that turnover intention as the problem of academic staff turnover or is also
most substantial predictor of actual turnover termed, Brain Drain, still continues in our
(Mobley, 1982; Mowday et al., 1982; Smart, Malaysian local universities (Khoo, 1981).
1990; Steers & Mowday, 1981; Vandenberg However, turnover can also be seen as
& Scarpello, 1990). movements of labor in and out and able to
Employee turnover can be an generate income for economy growth for
unfortunate and costly aspect of human both organization and individual. Indeed,
resource management in most organizations. it provides new opportunity in vacancy,
In classic studies, it showed that most of knowledge and skills transferred from one
turnovers typically will results negative organization to another by both parties.
consequences (Mobley et al., 1979). In facts, as suggested by Mobley (1982),
Therefore, the consequences faced by turnover phenomenon is able to stimulate
organizations in employee turnover can be positive changes through creation the
divided into two aspects which comprise promotion opportunities, reorganization
direct cost and indirect cost. According to and restructuring. While in individual
Wood and Macaulay (1989), direct cost perspective, the decision to quit is positively
is the organizations consumption of time associated with individuals career
and money in finding, hiring and training objectives, or with the movement away
new employees. While for indirect cost, it from a stressful situation. It is supported by
occurred during the process of finding new the studies done in Japan (Yadori & Kato,
employees that the organizations experience 2007) and United States (Kacmar et al.,
declining productivity especially in service 2006; Shaw et al., 2005) which stated that
caused by understaffing and also by the the voluntary turnover ratio has negatively
inexperience of new employees. related to labor productivity.
In the context of HLE, the investment on In the academic context, turnover
searching and hiring process by universities among academics can be considered as a
can be considered as high, however, the natural part of professional advancement. In
return is rather poor compared with earlier Browns (1967) study, the author suggested
investment. It depicts that the institution is that the mobility of academics is accepted
not capable to get a positive return from the and approved by the profession because
loyalty to discipline transcends loyalty to Job Control

school and because teaching and research Job control is defined as the ability of
skills are readily transferable among employees to set organizational goals and
schools. Moreover, human capital theorists to structure the organization to maximize
also believed that personal endowment such professional concerns (Price, 1997). In
as ability and education could translate into details, it is a freedom of academics in
returns in the marketplace. choosing and pursuing ones own agenda
and being trusted to manage the pattern
Job Demand ones own working life and priorities
Job demands is defined as job that associates (Henkel, 2005). Moreover, freedom is
with physical, psychological, social, or a function of academic control of the
organizational features that require an effort professional arena of teaching and research
from the physical and/or psychological and is viewed as a necessary condition for
from an employee (Bakker et al., 2003; work and identity. Turner and Lawrence
Bakker et al., 2005). To meet the expectation (1965) found that autonomous in work may
of the organization, the employee must satisfy higher-order needs for achievement
perform accordingly to the objective and and accomplishment, which in turn
goal as well as pursue the needs of the job. generate positive regard for the employing
However, pursuing career in an established organization and higher levels of intent to
organization correlates negatively to stay.
turnover intention (Latif & Grillo, 2001). Meanwhile, skill discretion is the
In other words, job demand is not harmful degree of creative and skill that employee
in itself. could implement it in performing well in
Heavy workloads, large number students job. Florida and Goodnight highlighted
to teach, may generate hostility towards that the creative person as an arsenal of
the organization and diminish levels of creative thinkers whose ideas can be turned
academics commitment to the organization. into valuable products and services (2005
Xu (2008) found that those academics ). Therefore, freedom in implementing
who spent too much time in research and the academic task such as teaching,
committee work, tend to leave. Winefield administrative and research with creative
(2000) proved in his meta-analysis that those execution will lead to the satisfaction and
academics with high level of stress were subsequently decrease turnover intention.
associated with high level of workloads and It leads to the feeling of appreciation from
low level of rewards. In empirical study on organization regarding the skills which
workload, past researches indicated that cultivate an eager and interesting attitude
workload is one of the most stressful aspects in acquiring new skills and experiences in
of academics careers (Barnes et al., 1998; order to take new and more challenging
Witt & Lovrich, 1998). position (Moore, 1983; Moore & Twombly
1990; Sagaria & Hohnsrud, 1992; Scott, METHODOLOGY

1978). Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework for this study were
Social Support
derived from the previous literature review
Social support is viewed as stress and strain on occupational contents which were named
aid. Thoits (1983) stated that the availability as job demand, job control and social support
of support from colleagues provides towards turnover intention as proposed by
individuals with positive feelings, such as Durrishah et al. (2009). The model for this
a sense of self-worth and confidence that study, which is a conceptual framework
help them to avoid negative experiences. In of linking job demand, job control, social
academia, Neumann and Finaly-Neumann support and turnover intention, will be
(1990) found that support from colleagues presented (see Fig.1) and 3 hypotheses were
and supervisors able to make research developed in order to test the conceptual
work easier among faculty, which increase framework as stated below:
research performance. Moreover, it is
Hypothesis 1: There is a relationship
importance to create a supportive thinking
between job demand and
environment with colleagues concerning
turnover intention.
other academics issues (Van Staden et al.,
2001). For examples, research assistants, Hypothesis 2: There is a relationship
co-authors and students were considered as between job control and
significant sources of motivation to remain turnover intention.
firm during difficult times. Hypothesis 3: There is a relationship
However, although social support between social support and
has proved its roles in handling stress, turnover intention.
past literature has shown that academics
report not receiving enough support from Procedures
their colleagues. For instance, in a recent
This study mainly employed the quantitative
study on satisfaction among academics and
method in order to probe and understand
administrative staff in Turkish universities,
the turnover intention among academics in
Kusku (2003) disclosed that most of the
the private HLE. Generally, in quantitative
academics were not content with their
research, the common type approaches
colleagues with respect to cooperation
is self-report survey (Shaughnessy &
and interest in their academic activities.
Zechmeister, 1997). The primary data
This situation portrayed that each of the
collection was through the distribution
academics were experiencing perceived
of a survey questionnaire to the sample
competition from each of their colleagues
particularly from private HLEs in Klang
instead of cooperation.
Valley.
Fig.1: Research Framework: Job Demand, Job Control, Social Support and Turnover Intention
Population and Sampling 400 questionnaires were distributed

A list of private HLEs was obtained from to the respective respondent via email. A
the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). total of 215 academics responded to the
Based on the year of 2011, there are 242 of questionnaire. The overall response rate
private HLE in the Klang Valley (Selangor was 53.75% and it is more than minimum
and Kuala Lumpur). The targetted population rate which are 30% and is considered as
for this present study were academics who acceptable (Sekaran, 2003). However,
work in private institution of higher learning only 196 questionnaires were valid to use
in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur. after deleting 19 set of questionnaires with
A simple random sampling procedure missing data.
was adopted to determine an appropriate
sample for the study. Sekaran (2000) The Instrument and Measurement
suggested simple random sampling offers For independent variables, all 31 questions
great generalizability and has the least bias. for job demand, job control and social
Based on MOHE, there are 14,199 numbers support were adopted from Job Content
of academics which been employed in Questionnaire (JCQ) developed by Karasek
private university and college university (1985) while for dependent variable, the
and according to Krejcie and Morgan (1970) instrument was adopted from ODriscoll
and Cohen (1969), when the population of and Beehrs, (1994) and it consists of three
sample more 10,000 and capped at 15,000, questions.
the appropriate number of sample size are In Part 1, seven sections covered
375. However, to minimize the sample error, 34 questions which are skill discretion
the sample number was up to 400. and decision authority (9 questions),
psychological workload and physical the dependent variable was represented the
exertion (14 questions) supervisor and co- value of reliability at 0.915.
worker support (8 questions) and turnover An exploratory factor analysis (EFA)
intention (3 questions). Meanwhile, in with Varimax rotation was conducted on
Part 2, seven questions on demographic the items from independent and dependent
information of participants. These variable. This study adopted the convention
demographic variables were treated as advocated by Nunnally (1978) which stated
control variables in this study. Six-point that factors are generally named based on
Likert scale will be use for each variable loading greater than or equal to 0.4. Hence,
in the questionnaire which anchors being by using this criterion, only items with factor
(1) strongly disagree to (6) strongly agree. loadings of at least 0.4 were retained.
Therefore, for the variables, the higher score Two items with factor loadings below
for variables indicating higher job demand, 0.4 were identified in job control and social
higher job control, higher social support and support. However, previously in reliability
higher turnover intention. test, two items which from job demand and
job control were already removed in order
Reliability and Validity Analysis to achieve higher internal consistency and
Cronbachs Alpha test was employed in this removal of any additional questions from
study and according to Sekaran (2003), it the tool would result in loss of valuable
is a reliability coefficient test that points information that are significant to this
out how well the items in a set which study. A Varimax rotated analysis suggested
are positively correlated to one another. that existence of three significant factors
To consider the variables as reliable, the with Eigenvalues greater than one which
Cronbachs Alpha value was set to 0.7 and explained 58.637% of the total variance.
above (Pallant, 2001). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure
In job demand, for overall 14 questions, of sampling adequacy was at 0.766, which
the reliability analysis is 0.691. To imply a greater than a minimum acceptance value
relatively high internal consistency, item of 0.5. The Bartlett Test of Sphericity
number four in psychological workload showed at Chi Square value of 3056.566
was deleted and the reliability have slightly with the significant level lesser than 0.001.
improved to 0.716. While in job control, Therefore, these three factors were named
nine items showed internal consistency at Job Demand (thirteen items), Job Control
0.645. Therefore, the researcher decided to (eight items) and Social Support (eight
exclude item number eight and reliability items) are seemed tolerable to represent the
slightly improved to 0.737. For social independent variables.
support, it showed at 0.869 and all eight While for turnover intention, a single
items in social support exhibits internal factor solution with Eigenvalues of 2.575
consistency and reliability. Meanwhile, which is explaining 85.833% of the variance
has emerged. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Hypotheses Testing

(KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was Hypotheses were tested using the Pearson
0.723 whereby Bartletts Test of Sphericity Product-Moment Correlation. In line with
was significant with Chi Square value of conservative approach, two-tailed test of
457.429 with the significant value stands significance set at 0.05 level was used
lesser than 0.01. Therefore, this single factor although if the hypothesized relationship
is named as turnover intention. is directional (Polit & Beck, 2004). Table
2 showed the summary of correlations
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION between independent variables and
Descriptive Analysis dependent variable.
According to Table 1, there were moderate
job demand which were represented by Hypothesis 1
calculated mean at 3.33 and standard The results indicated that p = 0.242 and r
deviation at 0.67. While for job control, = 0.083. Since p-value is bigger than 0.05,
the calculated mean and standard deviation it is showed that the results was fail to
showed at 4.91 and 0.65. These showed reject the null hypothesis. Therefore, there
that academics experienced high level of is no significant relationship between job
job control. For social support, the level demand and turnover intention. The findings
was high which was represented by mean is align with research done by Latif and
and standard deviation at 4.49 and 0.87. As Grillo (2001) which stated that job demand
for turnover intention, the level is moderate is not harmful especially when pursuing
which mean and standard deviation at 2.64 in established organization particularly
and 1.56. in HLEs in Malaysia. On the other hand,
TABLE 1
Mean and standard deviations for each independent and dependent variable
Variable Mean Standard Deviation

Independent Job Demand 3.33 0.67
Job Control 4.91 0.65
Social Support 4.49 0.87
Dependent Turnover Intention 2.64 1.56
TABLE 2
Summary of correlation between independent and dependent variable
Variable 1 2 3 4
1. Turnover Intention --
2. Job Demand 0.083 --
3. Job Control -0.175 0.217** --
4. Social Support -0.275** 0.065 0.443** --
Note: **Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
the results is contrary with past researches Hypothesis 3

which stated job demand will lead to stress The results was showed that p < 0.05 and
which eventually lead them to stimulate r = -0.275. Since the p-value is lesser than
turnover intention (Barnes et al., 1998; Witt 0.05, and the null hypothesis were rejected.
& Lovrich, 1998; Winefield, 2000; Taris et Therefore, there is a significant relationship
al., 2001; Xu, 2008; Azman et al., 2010). between job control and turnover intention.
Meanwhile, for the magnitude of correlation,
Hypothesis 2 it depicted a low correlation (Guilford,
The results was stated that p < 0.05 and 1956) and the direction was negative. It
r = -0.175. Since p-value was lesser than showed that the level of social support is
0.05, the null hypothesis were rejected. high and able to eliminate the turnover
Therefore, there is a significant relationship intention among academics (Thoits, 1983;
between job control and turnover intention. Neumann & Finaly-Neumann, 1990) and it
Meanwhile, the magnitude of the correlation is contrary with previous research done by
is almost negligible relationship (Guilford, Kusku (2003).
1956) and the directional is negative which
is when academics perceived high job Explanation of Variance
control, it lead to eliminate the turnover In order to understand the explanation
intention. This result depicted that job of variance between these variables, job
control experienced by academics in private control and social support were entered
HLEs towards turnover intention are align simultaneously as predictors in a multiple
with previous researches done by Turner and regression analysis. Table 3 depicted the
Lawrence (1965). results of explained variance and Table 4
showed the analysis of variance derived
TABLE 3
Explained variance (job control and social support towards turnover intention)
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 0.281(a) 0.079 0.07 1.5081
Predictors: (Constant), Job Control, Social Support
TABLE 4
Analysis of variance
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 38.697 2 19.348 8.507 0.000 (a)
Residual 450.326 198 2.274
Total 489.023 200
from the test of regression while Table 5 and vice versa. Therefore, the equation of
revealed the predictor of turnover intention. the model above can be written as follows:
According to the result, it is showed Turnover Intention
that job control and social support explained = 5.396 0.159(Job Control)
only 8 percents in turnover intention among 0.441(Social Support) + e
academics in private HLEs and the strength
Where the e is error.
of the relationship is considered as low
relationship (R = 0.281). However, the estimated coefficient
The results revealed that both for job control (as the other independent
independent variables (job control and predictor) was not significant statistically.
social support) have significant relationships This indicated by its computed t-statistic
with turnover intention among academics and p-value more than 0.05. Thus, the best
in private HLEs. The p-value obtained was predictor for the turnover intention is social
0.000 which was lesser than 0.05 with the support.
corresponding F-value of 8.507. This means
that the regression model which consists of CONCLUSION
job control and social support and turnover The overall mean for turnover intention
intention was significant. among academics in private HLEs can be
The results showed that social support considered as moderate with the means
was a significant predictor for turnover value of 2.64 and generally the issue of
intention. The value of -0.441 and p-value turnover intention can be summarized
of 0.001 indicates that it is a moderate as not a serious problem. This finding
significant predictor of turnover intention. It aligns with public HLE (Morris et al.,
is viewed that social support has a negative 2004) although the contexts (private
effect on turnover intention as the estimated versus public) are different due to several
coefficient were negative. In other words, factors such as accountability to different
an increase in social support would reduce stakeholders, sources of funding, profit
turnover intention. For instance, if social orientation, bureaucratic, regulatory costs
support increases by one unit, then turnover and obligations to the public (Triantafillou,
intention would decrease by 0.441 units 2004).
TABLE 5
Regression Coefficients among job control and social support
Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients

Model t Sig.
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 5.396 0.844 6.395 0.000
Job Control -0.159 0.184 -0.066 -0.862 0.390
Social Support -0.441 0.136 -0.246 -3.234 0.001
Dependent variable: Turnover Intention
Since this study replicated the model Azman, I., Amy, Y., Elizabeth, Y., Kong, L.-K., &
from the study done by Durrishah et al. Ju, S.-Y. (2010). Occupational stress features,
emotional intelligence and job satisfaction: An
(2009), the researcher found out that the
empirical study in private institutions of higher
model which stated that occupational
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Science Teaching Styles and Student Intrinsic Motivation:

Validating a Structural Model
Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan* and Mohamed Rajab
Institute of Education (INSTED), International Islamic University of Malaysia. Jalan Gombak,
53300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This present study seeked to investigate the teaching styles adopted by the science teachers
and their student intrinsic motivation in order to be persistence in learning the subject.
Using the response from student experiences, the 5Es instructional model by Bybee (1996)
has been adopted for the theoretical framework in the study. The purpose of the study was
to validate the 5Es model and intrinsic motivation. 452 samples from selected secondary
school students in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia have been collected to provide the responses
for self constructed questionnaires in the structural equation modeling analysis. The
findings provide the implications toward empirical evidence of theory, teaching practice
and appropriate interventions that can be addressed for future research.
Keywords: Science teaching, instructional technology, constructivist learning, instructional design model
INTRODUCTION year of secondary school and even in the

Direct instruction has been dominating university. Powell (2003) asserts on the
science teaching for many years. Teachers overused of the direct teaching pedagogical
put the emphasis on content knowledge approach which drives only selected students
which requires students to remember and to sustain and succeed in learning. Further,
recall facts. The lack of diversities in the teachers may find difficulties to implement
teaching styles has led many students to constructivist approach where students
withdraw from taking the subject in final active participation, discovery learning,
project based learning are integrated in the
ARTICLE INFO teaching process. Despite constructivist
Article history: approach contributes to effective teaching
Accepted: 14 August 2012 and learning and high motivation (Piaget,
E-mail addresses: 1972), there is lack of evidence on the extent
Sariah1199@yahoo.com (Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan),
eddyroja@yahoo.co.uk (Mohamed Rajab) of this approach is materialized in schools.

Previous researches have addressed Osman, Lilia Halim & Mohd Meerah,
teaching strategies of Engagement 2006); investigating teachers experience
theory in ICT learning environment in teaching mathematics and science in
(Kearsley & Schneiderman, 1998) and English (Lan & Tan, 2008) and inventory
learning styles accommodating multiple of science teachers needs (Zurub & Rubba,
intelligence (Gardner, 1993). Kearsley 1983); and in-service needs assessment of
and Schneiderman (1998) have focused science teachers (Lilia Halim, Kamisah
on project based, problem based and Osman & Mohd Meerah, 2006). However,
collaboration approach in science teaching. these previous researches were lacking to
However, it is difficult to distinctly assess promote models of teaching or empirically
both problem and project based learning show the evidence of student intrinsic
as they relate to group and collaboration motivation and teacher style of teaching.
work. On the other hand, Gardner (1993) Thus, this research utilized a self constructed
has used the sensory modality to look into instrument to measure 5Es model in the
visual-spatial intelligence which draws context of science teaching. The research
the attention of images and graphics and has been designed quantitatively with a
bodily kinesthetic intelligence facilitating purpose to reveal the extent of 5Es model
physical manipulations and interactions. is presently practiced in science teaching
This leads to the integration of Information in Malaysian schools. Specifically, the
Communication Technology (ICT) in findings were focused on the validation of
science teaching which can promote student the structural model and the estimation of
learning through stimulations, graphics the relationships of 5Es and student intrinsic
and multimedia presentation. Two other motivation. This research has been guided
related intelligences are intrapersonal with a theoretical framework from the
and interpersonal which the prior relates instructional design model namely 5Es by
to interaction with others while the later Bybee (1997), intrinsic motivation and other
emphasizes on self concept or meta- related literatures of pedagogical approach
cognition. Thus, teaching strategies must in learning.
address different learning styles which are
dominated by different types of multiple THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
intelligences. As a result, when students are Bybee (1997) has introduced the 5Es model
provided with individualized learning, they in a structured sequence and designed in
are able to think critically and aware of their practical manner that can be considered easy
mental capabilities. to implement the constructivist theory. This
Other related researches of science model is rooted from constructivist views
education in the context of Malaysian forwarded by Piaget in 1960. The model also
have focused on the need to improve promotes experiential learning by engaging
science teaching instruction (Kamisah students in higher-order thinking learning
Science Teaching Styles and Student Intrinsic Motivation: Validating a Structural Model
activities. Despite Ergin, Kanli and Unsal test hypotheses and explore their own ideas
(2008) have shown the evidence that 5Es to relate with the topics. However, teachers
model can directly promote curiosity and are more inclined towards teaching for
active learning, they have raised the issue exams that laboratory work may not be
of which event or attitude that can promote an important learning activity at present.
motivation is still remain unclear. However, Exploration can also be referred to inquiry
Ritchie (2001); and McRobbie and Tobin based learning activities. Inquiry based
(1995) indicate on the interaction involves learning leads to critical thinking skills,
will contribute students to think in critical, positive attitudes and curiosity toward
reflective and analytical way. science and high achievement in science
The 5Es model relates to 5 phases (Hall & McCudy, 1990)
which is cyclic in nature namely; Explanation is crucial in teaching
Engagement, Exploration, Explanation, which can be from the teacher or students
Elaboration and Evaluation. Engagement participation to present their ideas,
has become the main phase of any learning explanation of concepts or summarizing the
theories and instructional design which topic they have learnt. However, Swanage
include Gagne nine events of instruction, and Lane (1999) further emphasize that the
intrinsic motivation by Brophy (1997) explanation must be clearly linked to earlier
and Engagement theory (Kearsley and activities of engagement and exploration.
Sheneiderman, 1998). The most important Te a c h e r s m u s t p r o v i d e s u p p o r t i v e
phase namely engagement involves teachers environment by allowing students to explain
to grab student attention and interest (Bybee, and take part in teaching and learning.
1997) and capture childrens imagination However, this activity may not be allowed
(Swanage & Lane, 1999). Engagement can when teachers are more inclined towards
lead to inquire and learn (Bybee, 1997), traditional teaching style.
motivation (Gagne, 1995) as well as to be Elaboration involves students to
persistent in learning (Skinner & Belmont, extend their knowledge of concepts to
1998). other contexts. Piaget (1972) refers one as
Bybee (1997) further includes intelligent when he or she is able to extend
Exploration or Expansion as to ensure knowledge and apply to other context. Thus,
students to develop concepts and skills by students can elaborate by finding similarities
having common, practical experiences, in different context (Swanage & Lane,
It can be achieved through introducing 1999) but with a condition that teachers
scientific concepts in preceding steps that is provide problem solving environment
easy for students to digest and comprehend (Boddy, Watson and Aubusson, (2003).
the scientific theories. In the context of These activities will promote students to be
science teaching in schools, students are intrinsically motivated.
allowed to carry out experiments in groups,
The last component namely evaluation Hypotheses

involves formal assessment namely Based on the 5Es instructional model
formative and summative. However, and intrinsic motivation, the following
reflections can also be part of evaluation hypotheses have been postulated. Fig.1
as constructivist theory includes evaluation provides the hypothesized model.
as part of the learning component.
H1: engagement influences student
Learning activities can include comparing,
intrinsic motivation
contrasting, provide values and carry out
experiments on their own. H2: exploration influences student
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY H3: explanation influences student
This research has been designed intrinsic motivation
quantitatively with a targeted population H4: elaboration influences student
of secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur, intrinsic motivation
Malaysia. 500 samples have been selected
H5: evaluation influences intrinsic
randomly from the science class (general
motivation
science, biology, chemistry and physics)
in five schools comprising students from H6: 5Es are five- factor model
all Forms (one, two, three, four and five).
However, only 452 samples responded. ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
The Statistical Package for Social Science
Instrument (SPSS) was used to compute the descriptive
A total of 46 questions with demographic statistics and to perform reliability. Analysis
information has been designed and of moment structures (AMOS) with
constructed based on the 5E definitions by Maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) was
Bybee (1997) and other literatures related used to perform confirmatory factor analyses
to intrinsic motivation. The reliability (CFA) and covariance structure analyses or
of the instrument has been tested for the structural equation model (SEM). A selection
Cronbachs alpha. The instrument was of variables were based on the CFA where
further validated through confirmatory only loadings of 0.5 and above were taken
factor analysis. A 5-Likert scale of strongly for final analysis of SEM. All violations
disagree to strongly agree have been used to have been addressed (error variances >0.8)
identify students experience on their science with model fit indices were in the threshold
teaching styles and intrinsic motivation. point (RMSEA<0.08,CFI-comparative fit
The structural model has been tested to index>0.9,Tucker Lewis fit index- TLI>0.9,
provide information of the model fitness GFI-goodness fit index>0.9). However, p
that explains the relationships of 5Es and was ignored due to chi-square statistic is
intrinsic motivation . sensitive with the big sample size (>250) as
guided by Kline (2001).
engage
expand
explain
elaborate
evaluate
Fig.1: hypothesized model of teaching style and student intrinsic motivation
RESULTS The paths which were not significant were

There were 452 (274 males and 178 females) deleted from the model. The item loadings
respondents from the five selected schools. of greater than 0.5 were selected. However,
The breakdown of age group is revealed in the researcher firstly addressed the model
Table 1. Majority of the respondents came fit by finding the estimate model of fit
from the age group of 14-16. indices values as outlined by Kline (1998)
and Byrne (2001). The results show that
TABLE 1 the hypothesized model was to be rejected
Number of students based on age where two paths have contributed to non
Age Frequency Percentage
significant values (CR<1.96) and the model
8-10 41 9.1 did not fit the data. Thus, the researcher
11-13 161 35.6 further re-specified the model by deleting
14-16 229 50.7 the non-significant paths.
17-19 21 4.6 The final findings have shown a fit model
Total 452 100.0 (RMSEA=0.60; CFI=0.919; TLI=0.906;
GFI=0.901). (see Table 2 and Table 3).
The structural model was analyzed Only elaborate (=0.403) and engage (=
by addressing all paths to be significant 0.3903) influenced significantly on intrinsic
at Critical ratio (CR) of more than 1.96. motivation. The five- factor model of 5Es
was significantly correlated to each other encourages students to ask many questions
ranging from 0.338 to 0.738 indicating the and grabs their attention before starting the
factors were distinct and fulfill the divergent lesson (engage) have affected the way they
validity. Fig.2 provides the re-specified feel towards science (intrinsic motivation).
structural model. These include their effort to refer to the
Internet even when teacher does not ask,
TABLE 2 work hard to get good results for this subject,
Standardized Regression Weights for direct path
happy with the teaching method used by
Direct paths Factors Estimate teacher, enjoy learning science subject and
intrinsic motivation elaborate .403 look forward for the next class. On the
intrinsic motivation engage .393 other hand, when questions prompted after
experiment are resolved through teacher
Further investigation of the items reveals elaboration, connects other related concepts
that when teachers formulate activities to the real world, teacher allows students to
which stimulate student involvement, build their own understanding and expands
e1 e4 e5
TFASI1 .55
TESAQ4
.67 .60
TGAS5
engage
e6 e8 e9 e10
TQSC6 .88
TCRL8
.67 .74 TGPS9
.60 .63
TSIR10
expand
.71
.39
.62
.57
.41
e16 TALTT19 .64 explain
.73
e15 TELBL20
.60 .72
e14 TELBL21 e35 IAOHIA42
.72
e13 .59 TUEAP22 e34 IENLSCS43 .84
.75 .81
e33 ISWTMU44
.40
.83 intrinsic motivation
.57 .77
e32 IWHGRTS45
elaborate e37 ILTWTT47
.60 .73 .77 .63 e36
.70
TEEUC24
TTABU25
TCCRW26
QIDRTE27 p=.000
.66 rmsea=.060
e26 e25 e24 e23 cfi=.919
tli=.906
gfi=.901
evaluation
.54 .83 .79
.68
TASFFW35
TPPWAL34
TITQAEB33
TDEQBT32
e30 e29 e28 e27
.34
Fig.2: Re-specified model
TABLE 3
Standardized regression weight for items to factors
Factor loadings of items to factors

formulate activities which stimulate our involvement engage .551
encourages students to ask many questions engage .671
grabs our attention before we start our lesson engage .601
involves us in defining and resolving the problem expand .671
relates the contents with the real life examples expand .744
gives problem to solve in groups expand .604
uses Internet resources to include in the teaching materials expand .634
add explanation after presentation of the student explain .719
explains further when we dont understand the concept explain .727
grabs our attention before we start our lesson engage .601
involves us in defining and resolving the problem expand .671
relates the contents with the real life examples expand .744
gives problem to solve in groups expand .604
uses Internet resources to include in the teaching materials expand .634
add explanation after presentation of the student explain .719
explains further when we dont understand the concept explain .727
explains on what to learn in the beginning of the lesson explain .643
uses appropriate language to teach explain .409
questions prompted after experiment are resolved through teacher elaboration elaborate .633
connects other related concepts to the real world elaborate .703
teaching allows me to build my own understanding elaborate .773
elaboration expands our understanding of the concept elaborate .729
designed exam questions based on teaching evaluation .788
includes test questions according to examination standard evaluation .833
provides practical work assessment in the laboratory evaluation .680
comes to students to check their work evaluation .542
refer to the Internet even when teacher does not ask intrinsic .830
motivation
work hard to get good results for this subject intrinsic .808
motivation
am happy with the teaching method used by teacher intrinsic .842
motivation
enjoy learning science subject intrinsic .723
motivation
look forward for the next class intrinsic .769
motivation
their understanding of the concept, these is not strong enough to promote them to
will further impact on intrinsic motivation. enjoy, be persistence in learning and to show
It can be concluded that explore, explain interest in the science classroom. Further,
and evaluation were not prevalent and evaluation was not a strong factor for
strong enough to influence student intrinsic students to get interested in science learning.
motivation. This could be due to teachers They are bonded with exams that diminish
effort in making the class related to further their enjoyment in learning (Deci, Koestner
application in different context (explore), & Ryan, 1999). Evaluation in problem and
evaluate students, and explaining did not project based learning involves ill structured
promote further on students effort to be problems where students can solve problems
persistence in learning. These results have and teachers monitor their students thinking
shown that science teaching at selected (Torp & Sage,2002). This kind of assessment
secondary schools in in Kuala Lumpur are may not exist in the structured, centralized
still lacking of constructivist approach. and exam oriented curriculum. In the
explanation, only the teacher i nvolved in the
DISCUSSION AND process which included, add explanation
RECOMMENDATIONS after presentation of the student, explains
The findings of this study are parallel with further when we dont understand the
Boddy, Watson and Aubusson, (2003); concept, explains on what to learn in the
and Swanage, and Lane (1999) where beginning of the lesson. The items which
engaging students and elaboration on the involved students to summarize, explain,
science concepts will trigger students to be demonstrates were not detected in the
intrinsically motivated in learning. Teachers analysis. This has proven that the selected
were successful in engaging students to schools in Malaysia still adopt teacher
learn, grab their attention and interest. centered rather than student centered
The students were also able to be actively learning in science.
involved in extending their knowledge to This research has shown the selected
other context as well to have freedom to schools in Kuala Lumpur have adopted
solve problems given. the 5Es instructional strategies. However,
However, the other three strategies more effort is needed in inculcating further
namely explain, explore and evaluation were on the effective exploration, explanation
not prevalent. Students were more inclined and evaluation teaching strategies to the
towards active participation where they can students. Teachers must involve students to
carry out experiments, test hypotheses and be active in participating to explore scientific
explore their own ideas to relate with the concepts further in real world context. Thus,
topics in the exploration or expansion. This students must be able to plan, develop and
is supported by the results of high loadings execute the laboratory work. Teacher must
in the factor of exploration. However, it be able to play the role as a facilitator by
assisting students in the experiments. On 627668

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Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study

in a Malaysian University
Liew Chin Ying*1, Foo Kien Kheng2, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong1 and Elinda Lee Ai Lim1
1
Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Kota Samarahan Campus,
Jalan Meranek, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.
2
Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Negeri Sembilan Campus,
72000 Beting, Negeri Sembilan Darul Khusus, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Do systems thinking facilitate the acquisition of important skills in solving ill-defined
problems? This exploratory study seeks to investigate whether an association exists
between problem-solving and informal systems-thinking skills. A survey methodology that
included a paper and pencil test was used to gather data. Four performance tasks designed
and adapted to local context were employed to measure both sets of skills. Following that,
the performance of each respondent was scored based on an analytical scoring rubric.
Both descriptive and inferential data analysis involving comparisons of the populations
and checking for correlations were carried out. Findings indicated that the respondents
performed poorly in all the tasks. The mean score for systems thinking was found to be
lower than that of problem solving. These skills were analysed according to three pre-
selected demographics. Interestingly, the data indicated that there was a positive but
moderate association between problem-solving and systems-thinking skills. The limitations
and some general recommendations for future research were also discussed.
Keywords: academic achievement, gender, higher education, problem solving, systems thinking
INTRODUCTION
Education systems throughout the world
ARTICLE INFO in the last decade has come under intense
Article history: scrutiny where its outcomes are doubted
Accepted: 2 August 2012 to commensurate with the billions of dollars
E-mail addresses: expended (Reilly, 2000; Senge, 1998;
cyliew@sarawak.uitm.edu.my (Liew Chin Ying),
kkfoo@ns.uitm.edu.my (Foo Kien Kheng), Finn & Ravitch, 1996; Forrester, 1994;
kelvin@sarawak.uitm.edu.my (Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong),
elinda@sarawak.uitm.edu.my (Elinda Lee Ai Lim) Morrison, 1991). As pointed out by Johnson

Liew Chin Ying, Foo Kien Kheng, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong and Elinda Lee Ai Lim
& Duffett (2003), For five consecutive disciplines of study to form a better and
years between 1998 and 2002, majorities more holistic understanding that can lead
of employers and professors have been to effective and long lasting actions (Kay
reporting profound dissatisfaction with the & Foster, 1999).
skills of recent public school graduates (p. In an effort to identify and promote the
20). The education systems is said to fall 21st century skills, the Partnership for 21st
short of producing workforce that is capable Century Skills Organization, P21 (2011)
of dealing with todays society which is has put forward a Framework for 21 st
characterized as dynamic, uncertain and Century Learning where critical thinking
complex. and problem solving are emphasized as
Realizing this discrepancy, educators important learning and innovation skills
have since been emphasizing the teaching every learner should master to succeed
for problem solving as a major educational in work and life in todays society. While
objective (Mayer, 2002). Problem solving elaborating the elements that constitute
is stipulated explicitly in the educational successful critical thinking and problem
objectives, blueprints, planning, strategies solving, this framework explicitly suggests
outlined by educational institutions the use of systems thinking as one of the
worldwide in their endeavour to produce approaches in solving problems. It is clearly
quality workforce for the society. The main stated by the framework that systems
focus of our education curriculum has been thinking enable one to analyze how parts of
learning how to solve problems. However, a whole interact with each other to produce
the traditional approach to problem solving overall outcomes in complex systems (p.
referred as reductionist approach fails 4).
to perform well on complex, ill-defined Systems thinkers consider systems-
problems and when parts of a more complex thinking approach as highly relevant in
problem are all independently optimized problem solving and decision making
(Douglas, Middleton, Antony & Coleman, in a world that exhibits characteristics
2009). This dominant problem-solving of interconnectedness, uncertainties and
approach is said to work better for simple complexities (Bellinger, 2004; Haines,
and well-defined problems. Ultimately 2000; Senge, 1990; Kauffman, 1990).
some systemic theories and models were Studies have also conclusively shown the
developed in response to this issue. One advantages of using systems approach to
approach that particularly stands out from enhance problem solving especially non-
the rest is the systems-thinking approach routine and poorly defined problems which
(Flood, 1999). Systems-thinking approach to many are especially difficult and require
is not just about how to analyse a situation multi-skills to solve them (Resnick &
from the disciplinary perspective but how to Wilensky, 1998; Resnick, 1996). Wilensky
synthesize the ideas gained from different (1996) commented that one of the more
Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a Malaysian University
promising prospects is by integrating the skills in problem solving is scarce (Maani &
system approach in all problem-solving Maharaj, 2004; Sweeney & Sterman, 2000;
activities. Klieme & Maichle, 1991, 1994 as cited in
Systemic approach that refers to Ossimitz, 1997; Ossimitz, 1997).
systems thinking is regarded as one of
Many claims have been made
the main approaches to problem solving
concerning the ability of systems
(Douglas et al., 2009). They viewed
thinking interventions to change the
positively this approach as one that helps
nature and quality of thought about
to understand problems holistically and is
complex systems. Yet, despite the
able to address many weaknesses of the
increasing number of interventions
reductionist approach. Goh and Xie (2004)
being conducted in both educational
had suggested the incorporation of systemic
and corporate settings, important
approach in problem solving to enhance the
questions about the relationship
ability to tackle more complex and dynamic
between systems thinking and
situations.
basic cognitive processes such
Problems should be regarded as
as problem solving, decision
systems. Components that form these
makes, remain unanswered.
systems could be identified. The interrelated
(Doyle, 1997, p. 253)
of these components could then be analysed.
Subsequently problems observed in the
interrelatedness of these components A study was carried out to look at the
are identified and tackled. In contrast relationship between problem solving and
to traditional problem solving, systems systems thinking. For that purpose, two
thinking as a systemic approach has the different scoring rubrics were constructed
advantage over traditional problem solving to quantify problem-solving and systems-
in terms of the effort spent in understanding thinking skills. This paper focuses on the
the interrelatedness, complexity and findings related to the overall problem-
wholeness (big picture) of components of solving and systems-thinking skills of
systems and the specific relationships to one the population of interest as well as the
another (Banathy & Jenlink (2004) as cited influences of three demographics factors
in Johnson, 2008). gender, program of study and academic
Introducing systems-thinking skills performance. It also reports the association
into the activities of problem solving is between problem-solving and systems-
believed to have some effects on the task thinking skills.
of solving problem (Resnick & Wilensky,
1998; Resnick, 1996; Wilensky, 1996). PROBLEM SOLVING
Unfortunately, literature on the assessment The definition of problem solving owes
of the effectiveness of systems-thinking its origin to the work of Dewey (1910).
He had presented the analysis of an act of and grade level, technology courses,
thought that relates problem solving as a felt mathematics and science grades, gender,
difficulty where the problem solver needs to personality preferences, and problem
analyse the situation and makes suggestions solving styles affect their problem-solving
of possible hypotheses of which the problem abilities (Custer, Valesey & Burke, 2001).
solver then acts on them and carries out Gender-related differences in ability to
an experiment to determine whether to solve mathematics problem, specifically,
accept or reject the solution. The central and in problem solving generally, is an
notion of problem solving is the goal, either actively researched topic and these studies
explicitly or implicitly stated in the problem, produced mixed results. Some studies
where not knowing how to reach this goal have found statistically significant gender-
without generating new information is what related differences in mathematics ability,
makes it a problem (Jonassen, 2002). One especially in solving general (routine) type
interesting phenomenon one can observe of problem, in favour of female (Lau, Hwa,
in the problem-solving models offered by Lau, & Limok, 2003; Mason, 2003; Zambo
the experts of the field is that the activity & Follman, 1993). In his study, Mason
of problem solving is never a top-down or (2003) found that females, more than males,
bottom-up or linear kind of task. This view excel in problem solving because they
is clearly put forth by Fernandez, Hadaway believe in the importance of understanding
and Wilson (1994), in their interpretation of why a particular procedure or algorithm
the problem-solving processes (see Fig.1). works and not only relying on memorization
Many studies into problem solving have for problem solving. Therefore, the former
focused on how different characteristics is not only less likely to fail but is also
of learners from different socioeconomic able to attained better grades than the later.
backgrounds, preferences, and ability levels, Custer et al. (2001) on the other hand found
in particular their academic performance that generally gender does not influence
Fig.1: Problem-solving processes (Fernandez et al., 1994)
problem-solving skills. view the system of relationships that link

Another factor of interest to problem- the component parts (Richmond, 1997c, p.
solving researchers concerns the question 6); 4) operational thinking that helps ones
of the relationship between academic to identify how behaviour is generated and
performance of the learner and problem- not merely in terms of cause and affect; 5)
solving skills. Bay (2000) concluded that closed-loop thinking which enables one to
teaching problem solving and teaching via be aware that an effect usually feeds back
problem solving improve students problem to change one or more of the causes, and
solving, skills, and concepts. It is no doubt the causes themselves will have effects on
that when problem solving is emphasized, each other; 6) quantitative thinking that helps
the learners show improvement in their one to quantify what is thought to be difficult
achievement. However, he was doubtful to measure accurately but contribute a lot
about the true nature of this relationship. to the success or failure of a system; and 7)
Logically, the learner with good academic scientific thinking that is used to make sure
performance is always assumed and that the model developed is able to play its
perceived by others, to be good at problem expected role for the purpose of improving
solving. However, research has shown that its performance (Richmond, 2000). These
learners who perform well academically seven skills have, since then, served as the
are not necessarily good problem solvers. operational guide to systems thinking.
Studies show that learners, who are reported Richmond (1997a) stressed emphatically
as the best or bright students in mathematics, that the numbering and the sequencing of
are unable to solve unfamiliar, be it the non- the seven thinking skills reflects the notion
routine or routine, problems correctly and that each skill builds on the previous one.
successfully (Lau et al., 2003; Davis, 1987; As hypothesized, performance in
Schoenfeld, 1985). systems thinking can be influenced by
the demographic characteristics of the
SYSTEMS THINKING respondents. Research on gender-related
Richmond (1993) had discussed seven issues in the study of systems thinking is
basic systems-thinking skills. He (1997a) rather scarce. A study by Ossimitz (2002)
later classified them as 1) dynamic thinking was carried out to determine gender-related
which helps one to see behaviour that influence on the respondents ability to
unfolds over time and deduce behaviour discern between stocks and flows, a crucial
pattern rather than focus on events; 2) systems-thinking skill. He reported that
system-as-cause thinking which helps one to females scored significantly poorer than
view systems behaviour pattern as the result the males in this respect. Another study by
of interrelatedness of elements within the Sweeney and Sterman (2000) was carried
system; 3) forest thinking that gives us out on subjects where most of them were
the ability to rise above functional silos and enrolled in post-graduate programs. They
intended to assess particular systems- exhibit systems-thinking characteristics

thinking concepts and the demographic (Gigerenzer, Todd, & ABC Research Group,
variables on their performance scores. Their 1999; Frensch & Funke, 1995; Richmond,
findings showed some marginal gender effect 1993). Many researchers are convinced that
with the males performing slightly better instruction in the setting of problem solving
than the females on all their performance with the integration of systems thinking
tasks although they reiterated that the effect does facilitate the cultivations of important
was only marginally significant. thinking skills (Microworlds Inc. Brochure,
Sweeney and Sterman (2000) also 1997 as cited in Sweeney & Sterman,
reported that when their subjects academic 2000). Systems thinking is said to be a more
background on the performance tasks scientific problem-solving approach than
were taken into account, some of the the rational thinking approach (Shibata,
questions in those tasks showed significant 1998). Furthermore, he stressed that systems
differences though no consistent pattern thinking is a very clear and useful method
could be detected. The subjects academic to solve problems.
background in terms of their prior academic Maani and Maharaj (2004) mentioned
field and highest prior degree was significant that there exists one apparent characteristic
and marginally significant for one of their amongst good and poor performers of the
performance tasks. The subjects with respondents in their research. The good
technical backgrounds were found to do performer reflects the characteristics of
better than those in the Social Sciences systems thinking while those that do not
and Humanities in this particular task. The perform well often exhibit the behaviour
effect of the program of studies in which of linear thinking, the direct opposite of
their subjects were presently enrolled systems thinking. Richmond (1997b)
was not significant in any of the tasks. To referred to this counterpart of systems
quote Sweeney and Sterman (2000), The thinking as linear thinking or static thinking.
results provide only limited support for the This is supported by Drner (1980) whose
hypothesis that prior training in the sciences study found out that most people would not
helps performance. It is possible that there bother to seriously consider the existent
simply is insufficient variation in the subject trends and developmental tendencies of
pool to detect any effects (p. 278). complex tasks in advance to solving them;
in contrast, they are more interested in the
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN status quo. This explains the scarcity of
SYSTEMS THINKING AND systems-thinking trait in the traditional
PROBLEM SOLVING
thinking of people who subscribe to linear
It is possible to integrate problem-solving thinking. Hence, it is not surprising that
and systems-thinking skills as traditional any individual, who displays the attributes
problem solving activities already of system thinking, even though they are
ignorant to systems thinking, do perform the category of Science and Technology

better on complex decision-making task (Diploma in Science, Diploma in Computer
(Maani & Maharaj, 2004). The behaviour Science, Diploma in Sports Science and
of the more superior performers reflects the Recreation, Diploma in Civil Engineering,
attributes of systems thinking. Maani and Diploma in Electrical Engineering and
Maharaj (2004) concluded in their research Diploma in Estate Management), four
that systems thinking when blended with programs from the category of Business
the problem-solving strategies, manifests and Management (Diploma in Banking,
the characteristics of heuristics competence, Diploma in Business Studies, Diploma
as it involves understanding of the system in Office Management and Diploma in
structure, developing strategies, making Accounting) and one program from the
decisions and carefully assessing the category of Social Sciences and Humanities
outcomes (p. 45). This result strongly (Diploma in Public Administration). For
indicates that systems thinking is highly the academic performance, the respondents
correlated with problem solving. were grouped, based on their cumulative
grade point aggregate (CGPA), as Poor
METHODOLOGY (CGPA 2.00 2.49), Average (CGPA 2.50
The following section describes participants, 3.49) and Good (CGPA 3.50 4.00).
instruments and procedures involved in this Proportionate stratified sampling design
study. was employed to select a sample size of 233
out of a total of 524 students. From the total
Participants number of respondents from each program,
20% was selected from the Good group,
The population of this study consisted
60% from the Average group and 20% from
of all undergraduates of eleven diploma
the Poor group and where possible, equal
programs of studies in one of the campuses
numbers of male and female representatives
of a Malaysian public university. The
were selected from each group. Simple
respondents were categorized according
random sampling technique was then used
to programs of studies, gender and their
to select the respondents after the numbers
academic performance. To strengthen the
from each group based on gender and CGPA
university academic programs among
were determined.
faculties and within the faculty, this public
university has grouped the students into
Instrument
three main categories of programs of
studies, namely, Science and Technology, The initial instrument had six performance
Business and Management, and Social tasks, namely The Water Jug Problem
Sciences and Humanities. The eleven (Task 1), Achilles Challenge (Task 2), The
diploma programs of studies identified for Hilu Tribe (Task 3), Causal Loop Diagram
this study consisted of six programs from (Task 4), The Alps Hotel Tourists (Task 5)
and The Federal Budget of Fantasia (Task interesting and innovative and represented
6) to elicit eight systems-thinking skills: a good set of systems-thinking questions.
wholistic thinking, continuum thinking, Ossimitz (communication through email,
thinking in models, leverage point thinking, 2004) advised the researchers to take out
structural thinking, closed-loop thinking, the Causal loop diagram task because this
systems-as-cause thinking and dynamic performance task was based only on causal
thinking. This initial instrument was first loop diagrams and did not take into account
validated using student focus group and the difference between stocks and flows
then lecturer focus group. Changes made and therefore would be subjected to more
to the performance tasks based on the debate and argument. Ossimitz further
feedback obtained from both of the focus suggested that some of the questions be
groups include taking out Task 1 as this rephrased. These comments were taken into
was more for categorizing problem-solving considerations and the instrument was then
styles instead of systems-thinking skills, finalized and used in this study.
taking out Task 2 as almost all of the focus This instrument consisted of one set
group members were not able to solve it, of questions which was divided into two
customizing Task 6 to Family Monthly parts. Part A consisted of six questions to
Expenditure which was more applicable gather demographic information whereas
to respondents from different categories of Part B consisted of five questions. The
program of studies, reducing eight systems- first question in Part B was to test the
thinking skills to five, namely dynamic respondents understanding in graphs as
thinking skill, system-as-cause thinking the ability to understand graphs correctly
skills, forest thinking skill, operational skill could suggest the proficiency of problem-
and closed-loop thinking skill, as there were solving and systems-thinking skills of a
too many sub-skills involved, re-adjusting respondent. The other four questions were
time given to answer the performance tasks the performance tasks used to determine the
and increasing clarity of instruction given problem-solving and systems-thinking skills
to answer the performance tasks. of the respondents. The four performance
The revised instrument was later tasks namely Graphs of Behaviour over
sent to two external experts in the field Time, The Hilu Tribe, The Alps Hotel
for validation. They were Professor Dr. Resort and Family Monthly Expenditure,
Kambiz Maani from the University of adapted from the works of Ossimitz (2002)
Auckland, New Zealand and Associate and Robertson (2001) were used to elicit
Professor Dr. Guenther Ossimitz from the the problem-solving and systems-thinking
University of Klangenfurt, Austria. Maani skills from the respondents. (Please refer to
(communication through email, 2004) Appendix 1 for an example of performance
commented that the instrument developed task.)
was good at gauging systems-thinking skills
and the performance tasks developed were
PROCEDURES of Richmond (1997a, 1997b & 1997c),

Scoring of problem-solving skills Ossimitz (2002) and Maani and Maharaj
(2004). The focus here was on the first five
Assessing cognitive processes is a
of the seven essential systems-thinking
complicated and difficult task. It is not
skills. The last two skills are more relevant
easily measured through tests, quizzes, or
to system dynamics modelling efforts
teacher observation. Assessing the outcomes
(Maani & Maharaj, 2004). Each of these
from well-designed performance tasks
essential systems-thinking skills was then
would be a simpler and more objective
divided into sub-skills. Skills and sub-
alternative. This approach has found support
skills were carefully worded in the explicit
with Mcguire (2001). Many versions of the
form to reduce subjectivity on the part of
problem-solving model are proposed to suit
the evaluators. These were reviewed by an
the different contexts and environments
expert with extensive knowledge of systems
where it is applied (Fernandez et al., 1994;
thinking. With the guidance afforded by
Holton, 1993; Artzt & Armour-Thomas,
this framework, the construction of a
1992; Evans, 1992; DZurilla & Goldfried,
scoring rubric or marking scheme was then
1971; Simon, 1960; Dewey, 1910). Thus,
constructed.
the approach to measuring problem-solving
An analytic rubric was used here as
skills can range from simple but less effective
the categories of skills and sub-skills that
method to highly complex techniques.
were to be graded were clear-cut. The sub-
This study chose to use a simple but
skills of the five essential systems-thinking
less comprehensive measurement of the
skills were carefully worded for all the
problem-solving skills. The rationale here
four performance tasks. For each correct
was that since systems-thinking skills at
sub-skill, a certain point was given to it.
this moment could only be assessed with
This point-allocated sub-skill was found
a simple point-allocated scoring rubric,
to be very useful in determining whether
then problem solving should be gauged
specific criteria had been met for each of the
using the same level of assessment so that
systems-thinking skills in each performance
the comparison between the two skills is
task. (Please refer to Appendix 2 for the
meaningful. Following this line of argument,
systems-thinking skills and sub-skills
a simple point-allocated scoring rubric was
mentioned here.)
created to measure the problem-solving
skills of the respondents.
Pilot survey
Scoring of systems-thinking skills Thirty students from eleven diploma

programs were selected to answer the
The framework for measuring systems
performance tasks for the pilot survey. The
thinking in this research was based mainly
pilot survey was carried out to evaluate
on the literature review of the works
the suitability of the instrument and also
the effectiveness of the procedures. The Data collection

students were given one hour and 45 The data was collected through two paper-
minutes to answer all questions in Part and-pencil test sessions. Respondents who
A and Part B. From the result of the pilot could not make it for the first session came
survey, some amendments were made to for the second session. The respondents
the questionnaire which include taking were gathered in a lecture theatre to answer
out CGPA score of 0.00 1.99 because both sets of questions. The respondents were
there were too few students falling under given one hour 20 minutes to complete the
this category. The time allowed to answer questions in Part A and Part B. A total of 237
the questions was then reduced to 1 hour students turned up for the actual survey. The
20 minutes as this duration was found first session was attended by 160 students
sufficient for the students to answer all of whereas the second session was attended
the questions.
TABLE 1
Comparing statistical significance between problem-solving scores and systems-thinking scores
95% Confidential
Mean Score Standard Deviation Statistical test result
Interval of Mean
Problem- Systems- Problem- Systems- Problem- Systems- Problem- Systems-
solving thinking solving thinking solving thinking solving thinking
skills skills skills skills skills skills skills skills
Gender
Male 26.26 23.65 24.06- 21.74- 11.21 9.77
t = -0.684, t = 0.202,
(n = 103) 28.45 25.56
p = 0.495 p = 0.840
Female 27.22 23.41 25.43- 22.02- 10.35 8.02
(n = 130) 29.02 24.80
Program of studies
Science and 28.92 25.87 26.53- 23.98- 10.88 8.59
Technology 31.32 27.76
(n = 82)
Social 26.16 22.23 22.32- 19.13- 10.10 8.14 F = 4.500,
F = 2.543,
sciences and 30.00 25.33 p=
p = 0.081
humanities (n 0.012*
= 29)
Business 25.52 22.31 23.60- 20.71- 10.66 8.86
management 27.44 23.91
(n = 121)
Academic achievements (CGPA)
2.00 2.49 23.43 21.24 20.36- 18.62- 10.22 8.72
(n = 45) 26.50 23.86
F = 6.096, F = 5.554,
2.50 3.49 26.72 23.29 25.10- 21.92- 10.25 8.65 p = 0.003* p = 0.004*
(n = 156) 28.34 24.66
3.50 4.00 31.90 27.81 27.58- 24.74- 11.97 8.52
(n = 32) 36.21 30.89
by 77 students. Four sets of answers were Mean scores of problem-solving skills

discarded due to missing values. between groups based on gender,
program of studies and Cumulative Grade
Points Aggregate (CGPA) (academic
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION performance) scores
The following section reports the findings As presented in Table 1, the performance
of this study regarding the problem-solving of the female respondents in solving the
skills and the systems-thinking skills performance tasks was slightly better than
exhibited by the respondents and the the male respondents. Nevertheless, this
relationship between these two skills. difference was not statistically significant
(t = -0.684, p = 0.495).
Problem-solving Skills and Systems- Among the various programs of studies,
thinking Skills
it was found that the respondents from
Data collected was keyed-in by the Science and Technology programs had
researchers. Exploratory data analysis was the highest mean score (28.9%) followed
subsequently run to detect errors in the by respondents from Social Sciences
keying-in process as well as observe for and Humanities program (26.2%) and
outliers. The mean scores were calculated respondents from the Business and
for the different categories of skills based Management programs (25.5%). After
on the three selected demographic factors. considering all the assumptions, the
The average score for each set of skills ANOVA analysis showed that there was
was calculated using the arithmetic mean. In no statistically significant difference in the
the analysis, each respondent was awarded mean score for problem-solving skills (F =
two scores one for problem solving and 2.543, p = 0.081).
another one for systems thinking. Take When academic performance
for example in deriving the mean score of background of the respondents was taken
problem solving for the male cohort, an into account, the result showed that the
average score of 26.20 was calculated based performance of the respondents with
on a sample of 103 male respondents. The higher CGPA were better than those in the
same calculation was carried out for the lower CGPA. The respondents with CGPA
system thinking scores. The table below 3.50-4.00 reported the highest mean score
contains the mean scores based on the three (31.9%) followed by those with CGPA 2.50-
demographic factors. 3.49 (26.7%) and CGPA 2.00-2.49 (23.4%).
Further analysis using ANOVA showed
that there exist a statistically significant
difference in their problem-solving skills
mean score (F = 6.096, p = 0.003). Due to
unequal sample sizes of these three CGPA
groups, Scheff post-hoc test was then
carried out. It was found that there was no the mean scores of systems-thinking skills
statistically significant difference in the for respondents from the Science and
mean scores obtained by respondents with Technology programs and the respondents
CGPA 2.00-2.49 and 2.50-3.49. However, from the Business Management programs.
there exist statistically significant difference When the academic performance in
in the mean scores obtained by respondents terms of CGPA of the respondents was
with CGPA 2.00-2.49 and CGPA 3.50-4.00. used as the basis for comparisons, the
result showed that respondents with higher
Mean scores of systems-thinking skills CGPA were able to obtain better scores. The
between groups based on gender, respondents with CGPA 3.50-4.00 obtained
program of studies and Cumulative Grade
mean scores of 27.8%, whereas the mean
Points Aggregate (CGPA) (academic
performance) scores scores for respondents with CGPA 2.50-3.49
and CGPA 2.00-2.49 were 23.3% and 21.2%
As presented in Table 1, the mean scores
respectively.
for systems-thinking skills of the female
After verifying the normality and
respondents (23.6%) did not show much
homogeneity of variance for the data set,
difference with their counterpart (23.4%).
analysis using one way ANOVA showed
This was further proven by the t-test result
that there was a statistically significant
which showed that there was no statistically
difference between the mean scores obtained
significant difference between the means
by respondents with different CGPA (F =
scores obtained (t = 0.202, p = 0.840).
5.554, p = 0.004). Further analysis using
When the program of studies of the
Scheff post-hoc test found that there was
respondents was used as the basis for
a statistically significant difference between
comparison, the result showed that the
the mean scores obtained by respondents
respondents for the programs of Science
with CGPA 2.00-2.50 and those with CGPA
and Technology scored the highest (25.9%).
3.50-4.00. Similarly, the difference was
The mean scores of systems-thinking skills
also statistically significant for those with
obtained by respondents for the programs
CGPA 2.50-3.49 and CGPA 3.50-4.00.
of Social Sciences and Humanities and
However, the test showed no statistically
programs of Business Management were
significant difference between mean scores
similar 22.2% and 22.3% respectively.
of respondents with CGPA 2.00-2.49 and
After considering the normality of the
CGPA 2.50-3.49.
data set and the homogeneity of variances
(p = 0.879), the ANOVA analysis showed
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
that there was a statistically significant PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS AND
difference in the mean scores obtained (F SYSTEMS-THINKING SKILLS
=4.500, p =0.012). Further analysis using EXHIBITED
Scheff post-hoc test found that there was The scatter plot in Fig.2 clearly depicts
a statistically significant difference between a linear, positive and moderately strong
Fig.2: Scatter plot of scores for problem-solving skills and systems-thinking skills
correlation. The result was supported by the Findings from the study indicated that
Pearson Product Moment Correlation, with r the targeted population of diploma students
= 0.776 and p = 0.0001. This implies that if performed poorly for both problem solving
the respondents have good problem-solving and systems thinking in the four performance
skills, they also have good systems-thinking tasks. The mean score for systems-thinking
skills and vice versa. skills was found to be lower than that of
problem solving. The low mean scores were
CONCLUSION expected as the four performance tasks were
O n e m a jor a re a of c once rn i n our non-routine problems and the structure of
present education system is the students the tasks were new to the respondents.
problem-solving ability (Robertson, In addition, analyses were performed to
2001; Schoenfeld, 1999; Resnick, 1996; determine if the three selected demographic
Duncker, 1945). Problem solving, a generic factors affected the skills studied. It was
employability skill, is an indispensable skill found that problem solving was not affected
one must possess to function effectively in by gender and program of studies whereas
the workplace. To facilitate the acquisition CGPA did influence problem solving ability.
of this skill, it is hypothesized that systems On the other hand, systems-thinking skills
thinking can play a leading role in the showed no dependency with respect to
attainment of this potentially invaluable gender but systems-thinking skills were
ability. This study aimed to determine if affected by program of studies and CGPA.
such an association exists between problem The influence of these factors on both
solving and systems thinking. systems thinking and problem solving is
inconclusive as similar results were reported This study has one clear limitation,
in other studies attempting to determine that is, no causal relationship could be
whether gender, academic achievement determined using the present research
and program of studies influences the design. In other words, the exact nature of
acquisition of these skills (Lau et al., 2003; the relationship between problem-solving
Mason, 2003; Custer et al., 2001; Bay 2000; skills and systems-thinking skills was not
Ossimitz, 1997; Zambo & Follman, 1993; determined. Once this fact is established,
Davis, 1987; Schoenfeld, 1985). only then can we move on to look at a
This study also identified an association paradigm shift by situating a meaningful
between problem solving and systems- and successful problem-solving learning
thinking skills with a Pearson Product environment within a systems-thinking
Moment Correlation of 0.776. This index framework. Although this study had not
implies that those who exhibited good addressed the objectives comprehensively,
problem-solving skills, also possessed good it certainly is a good start in the right
system-thinking skills. direction towards determining a causal
This finding should be of major interest relationship between problem solving and
to the education fraternity at large because systems thinking. There is much work to be
this study actually found evidence to support done in exploring further the nature, impact
the contention that systems thinking is and efficacy of systems thinking in solving
associated with problem solving. This non-routine, knowledge-lean and complex
link has been espoused by many systems problems.
thinkers but no empirical evidence was
given to support their claims (Maani & ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Maharaj, 2004; Kieff, 2000; Resnick & The research was funded by Universti
Wilensky, 1998; Doyle, 1997; Resnick, Teknologi MARA. We thank Assoc. Prof.
1996; Wilensky, 1996). The significance of Dr. Paul Lau Ngee Kiong for valuable
this finding lies in exploring new approaches comments on the draft of this paper. We
to the teaching of problem solving in the are thankful to Associate Professor Dr.
classroom. As Jonassen (2002) explained a Guenther Ossimitz and Professor Dr.
problem solver faces obstacles when he/she Kambiz Maani for their constructive reviews
fail to generate new information from the of the instrument used in this study.
information at hand. A good systems thinker
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APPENDIX 1
EXAMPLES OF PERFORMANCE TASKS AND SYSTEMS-THINKING SKILLS
Graphs of Behaviour over Time
Direction: The graphs below illustrate the behaviour of a certain population over a period of time.
These behaviours are described in the stories found in the answer booklet. Firstly, match the stories
with the appropriate graphs. In addition, label the x-axis and the y-axis of the graphs in the space
provided. For example the x-axis in the graph below stands for time, you could label the x-axis as
year or month depending on the story. If you do not understand the graphs , write dont know.
Match the stories with the graphs given.
2.1 The Story :
The Giant Tortoises of the Galapagos Islands live for well over 100 years. A female can lay 4-5
batches per season, usually between June and December. The eggs hatch 4-5 months later. A group
of botanists was studying the population growth for 2 years. Assuming there is no death for the whole
duration of the study, which graph accurately shows the population growth of these tortoises?
ANSWER:
GRAPH ___________________
x-axis : ___________________
y-axis : ___________________
2.2 The Story:
THE ELEPHANTS OF AFRICA live in vastly varying environments of the continent, from the rain
forests of the Congo Basin to the savannahs of Namibia. On one occasion, a viral infection spread
rapidly among a group of African elephants. The virus caused a rapidly progressing and severe disease
which finally results in death of the animal within weeks. Assuming there is no birth during the period
of infection, which graph shows what happened to the population of this group of elephants?
ANSWER:
GRAPH ___________________
x-axis : ___________________
y-axis : ___________________
APPENDIX 2
LIST OF SYSTEMS-THINKING SKILLS AND SUB-SKILLS
Systems-thinking Skill Sub-skills
a. Dynamic See changes over time as being non-linear.
To be aware of stock and flow variables.
To understand and be aware of time delays.
Able to use the correct time units ( in min / hour / day / month / year).
To see time continuities within the web of interdependencies.
b. System-as-cause To identify the boundary of the system under study.
To identify which variables are completely/partially under control.
To determine the possible explanations for the behavior identified.
c. Forest To see the links that connect the different elements of the system.
To identify the causal links that may exist between its members.
To determine the breadth and depth of the systems boundary.
To identify new properties emerging from the interactions of its
components.
To filter through all the variables and keeping only the most essentials.
To identify what structures/ infrastructures that are causing the behavior.
To seach for similarities in a heap of elements that might be seemingly
unrelated and distinct.
d. Operational To determine how behavior is generated through interdependency.
To identify causality and not only correlation/ influence.
To identify the stock and flow infrastructures.
To maintain units of measure integrity in a system.
e. Closed-Loop To link the different variables of interest to form feedback loops.
To be aware of both intended and unintended consequences.

Stigma as Part of Identity Development of Gay Men in Penang

A Qualitative Study
Felix, M. S.
AIDS Action & Research Group, Bangunan C09 Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Background: The sexual identity of gay men is placed as the polar opposite of
heterosexuality and as such is studied as a deviance from the norm. This study is focused on
the experience of stigma by gay men in Penang as part of identity development. Method:
A total of 33 gay men were identified using the snowballing method. Qualitative data via
in-depth interviewing was the method of data collection. Respondents signed a consent
form approved by the Ethics Committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.
Each respondent was then given a pseudonym to ensure confidentiality of the respondents
identity.. Each respondent was interviewed separately at a date, time and venue of their
convenience and were asked identical open ended questions. Each interview was audio
recorded, transcribed and analysed using content analysis matrix. Results: Stigma had
positively or negatively affected the sexual identity of the respondents interviewed. At
best stigma brought respondents strength and courage and at its worst, it has brought out
fear and recrimination. The common types of stigma reported by respondents were name-
calling, the creation of in-group and out-group situations, bullying (being ridiculed) and
religious prejudice. The stigma faced by the respondents had not resulted in activism and to
an extent forced some of the respondents to conform (at least when in public) to societys
expectations. Conclusion: Stigma had assisted in the development of sexual identity of
the respondents. Sadly, it is stigma and not a more positive experience of socio-cultural
interaction that had assisted in the development of sexual identity.
Keywords: Bullying, Gay Men, In-group, Out-group, Sexual Identity, Stigma.
INTRODUCTION
ARTICLE INFO Gay men continuously face stigma
Article history:
Received: 9 April 2012 (DAugelli, 2003; Duran et al. 2007;
Accepted: 15 May 2012
Herek et al. 2010; Savin-Williams et
E-mail address:
markstephan77@yahoo.com (Felix, M. S.) al., 2010; TreatAsia, 2006). Incidents

Felix, M. S.
of such stigmatization have been rarely cultures. With this, gay men may experience
recorded in the Malaysian context although sexual identities that either confirms this
homonegativity exists within the Malaysian polar opposite of heteronormativity or
culture (Baba, 1995, 2001, 2002, 2006; construct sexual identities that display
Scoville, 2004). This study is focused on the heteronormative behaviours verbally and
experience of stigma by gay men in Penang non-verbally in order to avoid stigmatization
as part of sexual identity development. (Sylva et al., 2010).
Sexual identity is understood here as the Stigmatization comes from non-
development of the individual gay men acceptance of feminine traits and/or
based on the understanding that his same- behaviours in men, simply meaning that
sex sexual attraction differentiates him from men who exhibit effeminate behaviour
most of his peers (Dowsett, 1996). Sexual or caring and nurturing characteristics
identity encapsulates eroticism, fantasy, will face stigmatization (Parrot, Adams &
affection and attraction for members of Zeichner, 2002). With such expectations
the same sex. Sexual identity also includes of heteronormativity comes homophobia,
the development of a personal frame of the irrational fear of homosexuality.
reference and how the self is viewed through Homophobia can also construct the sexual
this personal frame of reference. This in turn identity of gay men via in and out
leads to feelings of self-worth, confidence group positions based on social, cultural and
and self-acceptance or the opposite of these religious expectations (Duran et al., 2007;
qualities (Sylva et al., 2010). This narrative Savin-Williams et al., 2010). Homophobia,
would add further understanding to the whether internal, interpersonal or
socio-cultural experience of this part of the institutional can lead to isolation, bullying,
Malaysian population. violence and lack of access to support lead
to depression, lack of impulse control and
LITERATURE REVIEW despair (Dyson et al., 2003).
Dowsett (1993, 1996) states that the sexual TreatAsia (2006) notes that in almost all
identity of gay men is placed as the polar countries in Asia and the Pacific, male-male
opposite of heterosexuality and as such is sex and gay sexual identity is still heavily
studied as a deviance from the norm. Glick stigmatized even in the countries where
et al. (2007) saw effeminate gay identities as consensual sex between adult men in non-
threats to heterosexuality (while masculine public places has been decriminalized as in
gay identities were not viewed as much as a Australia, Hong Kong, and New Zealand.
threat). Wilkerson, Ross and Brooks (2009) Many countries, particularly former British
note that heteronormativity also constructs colonies, including Bangladesh, India,
the sexual identity of gay men as it gives Malaysia, Pakistan and Singapore, still have
a polar opposite to what is considered laws that criminalizing same sex sexual
acceptable sexual identity in many activity. Other countries, including China
Stigma as Part of Identity Development of Gay Men in Penang A Qualitative Study
and Japan, never had laws criminalizing (in its entire spectrum) has roots in social
homosexuality. norms and gender roles (as well as the
Regardless of whether same sex sexual roles of women); and can have various
relations are criminalized or not, socio- manifestations, e.g. physical, verbal or
cultural and religious mores support the attitudinal.
condemnation of, and the discrimination DAugelli (1998) has found that antigay
and prejudice against homosexuality. attacks include being called names, not
For example the practice of Islam in having a person to open up to and being
Bangladesh and Indonesia, Catholicism found out as being homosexual. Antigay
in the Philippines, Christianity in New attacks can also happen within families and
Zealand and cultural traditions and norms these take the form of ridicule, rejection, loss
in China Hong Kong and India all appear of physical and monetary support, verbal
to be contributing to the marginalized and physical violence. Antigay attacks also
status of gay men (TreatAsia, 2006). The take the form of hate crimes (Franklin,
gist of the information above is that gay 1998) such as being chased or followed,
identities in Asia and the Pacific have a objects thrown at victims, physical assault,
historic and cultural significance. These gay vandalism, being spat on and assault with
identities have played out into the present a weapon. Jenkins (2004) makes the point
day as gender, sexual identity and sexual that homophobic violence also has become
preference are part of human sexuality. a kind of performative masculinity, almost a
However, acceptance of this is not wide rite of passage, with most such acts carried
in many societies and often stigma of and out by young men in groups. This frequently
discrimination against gay sexual identity happens in nations where gay activism is
takes shape in the form of homophobia. escalated and that Malaysia is one nation in
Homophobia is defined as explicit which homophobic events have taken place
hostility or prejudice toward gay men and (Jenkins, 2004).
women (Herek, 1986), irrational fear or Sexual identities and behaviours attract
intolerance of homosexuality or homosexual a great deal of attention in Malaysia, and
persons (Herek, 1986), and a pathological sexually normative behaviour is expected
fear of homosexuality and a fear of HIV in a conservative Asian society. As such gay
which causes AIDS (Bouton et al., 1987). men face definite challenges in Malaysia
According to Schwanberg (1993) the dread as gays exist in Malaysia even though at
of being in close proximity to homosexuals present they are not socially and politically
brings out highly aggressive feelings in accepted (Baba, 2001, 2002). Historically
heterosexual men. Ryan (2003) as well as however, male-male sexual identity and
Kessel and Knowlton (2005) concur with sexual behaviour have existed in Malayo-
these findings and also note that many Polynesian culture. According to Dr Farish
writers have affirmed that homophobia Noor of Nanyang Polytechnic University,
Felix, M. S.
Singapore, the ancient stories of Prince defined in derogatory terms, Malaysian

Panji (circa 13th to 17th century AD) prove men who admit to a gay sexual identity
that same-sex relationships existed in and engage in same-sex sexual activity in
the region (Lee, 2008). Even as recent Malaysia face not only societal disapproval
as the 1950s, transsexuals were accepted but also legal persecution. Legal persecution
as Mak Andam (wedding organizers), can be pursued via use of Section 377A of
joget dancers, cooks and artistes (Teh, the Penal Code which prohibits sodomy
2002). However, the return of Malaysia to (anal intercourse) and gross indecency
the fundamentals of Islam have changed with punishments including up to twenty
acceptance of Malaysians of alternative years in prison (The Commissioner of Law
sexualities, forcing them into hiding and Revision Malaysia, 2006; Scoville, 2004).
facing persecution. In general Malaysia has Clearly, gay sexual identity is not easily
not been very positive to responding to gay accepted in Malaysia and gay men face
and lesbian related issues. stigmatization by whom?.
The present situation according to
Baba (2001) is that a lack of positive role RESEARCH QUESTION
models (socially, politically and in the Stigma is a social phenomenon that is
media), anxiety in identity portrayals and experienced. Being branded as
discrimination lead to discomfort with unacceptable often leaves gay men at
sexual identity among Malaysian gay men. odds with their social experience (Jenkins,
Stigmatization and rejection also lead to 2004, 2006). The question raised by this
discomfort with sexuality in the Malaysian study is: What has been the experience
gay male population. Baba (2002) adds that of stigma by gay men in Penang as part
(N)egative portrayals of homosexuality of identity development? As stigma is a
do not help gay men feel comfortable social phenomenon a narrative approach is
with their sexuality. Add to this that necessary to understanding the experience
non-representation and the banning of gay of stigma by gay men. As gay men fear
sexual identities in the Malaysian media in stigma and are hidden, a qualitative as
1994 has obliterated all references to gay opposed to quantitative approach is taken
sexuality (UNAIDS, 2004; West, 1997; to gaining data.
Winder, 2006) the present situation is one
where sexuality of gay men in Malaysia has METHODOLOGY
no point of reference.
A total of 33 self-identified gay men were
Terms for referring to the sexual identity
interviewed using the in-depth interviewing
of gay men in Malay are usually derogatory
method of data collection. By self-
and denote men who are effeminate
identified gay men, this research seeks
(bapok, kedi, pondan, darai) (Baba,
out men who only have sexual relations
2001). On top of having their sexual identity
with other men and who do not perceive reached as the information gained from
themselves as heterosexual, bisexual or the interviews had reached the point of
transsexual (Jenkins, 2004), whose sexual theoretical saturation. All respondents met
attraction is only directed to other men the criteria of being gay men (Hewitt, 1988;
(The Naz Foundation (India) Trust, 2001) Jenkins, 2004; The Naz Foundation (India)
and who are categorized as Type 1 Open Trust, 2001) who are Malaysian citizens who
Preferential Homosexuals by Hewitt (1998). reside in Penang. All respondents have been
The respondents were gained via the sexually active within the past 12 months. All
snowballing method. All respondents respondents only reported having sex with
were given pseudonyms to protect their men. The respondents ranged from 21 years
identity and signed a consent form to secure of age to 55 years of age. Of the respondents,
their participation. Each respondent was fifteen were Chinese Malaysian, ten were
posed with the question How has stigma Bumiputra Malaysian, four were Indian
affected your sexual behaviour? Interviews Malaysian, two were Eurasian Malaysian,
were audio recorded and transcribed to one was of Chinese-Thai descent and
form primary data. The primary data was one was of Kadazan-Murut descent. The
qualitative in format. Primary data was occupations of the respondents included
analysed using a content analysis matrix. university/college students, entrepreneurs
The content analysis matrix is a simple and professionals. Respondents were also
matrix of rows and columns where each employed as executives of various multi-
respondents responses were recorded and national corporations (MNC), hoteliers
then compared and contrasted for recurring and engineers. One of the respondents is
experiences and themes in an orderly retired from employment and two of the
fashion. The example of the content analysis respondents are involved in sex work. Of
matrix used can be found on the following the respondents, 30 lived on the island of
page. Penang and three lived in Seberang Perai,
location. The experiences narrated below
I. Content Analysis Matrix
are the most descriptive and vivid of the 33
Section: Stigma and identity interviews.
Question: Can you please describe the stigma Jack1 reported the stigma he faced as
you have experienced as a gay man.
Res Data Analysis Overall
being treated as an outcast, being called
1. names and not being accepted for who he is
by heterosexual peers and heteronormative
33 society. He was treated as the black sheep
of his family and this gave rise to many
RESEARCH FINDINGS 1
Pseudonyms are used for all respondents
A total of 33 respondents were interviewed in order to keep privacy, confidentiality and
for this research. The total number was security as per the Consent Form signed by all
respondents.
Felix, M. S.
tense situations within family discussions sex. He had managed to keep his identity
and gatherings where his sexuality became as a gay man hidden from his parents as he
the bone of contention, ridicule and family feared the rejection of his parents, which as
condemnation. He was considered a a person of Chinese descent is something
black sheep because he did not fulfil the he could not deal with. This was because as
obligation of a Chinese son to get married a son in a Chinese family he was expected
to a woman who would give birth to sons to marry into a respectable family and
who would perpetuate the family name. produce male offspring who would carry
He was called names such as queer by on the family name. When he was in college
his peers and this also created many tense pursuing a degree he was bullied, laughed at
situations for him as he was considered an and jeered at due to his flamboyant fashion
outsider by many of his contemporaries choices. This caused him to tone down
who went so far as to ostracize him from his choice of flamboyant clothes (singlets,
social gatherings and extra-curricular tight-fitting jeans, bright coloured t-shirts
activities. Non-acceptance by a society with and bright pieces of jewellery). However,
heteronormative expectations made him he found that even when he toned down
fearful of repercussions such as the verbal his choice in flamboyant clothes his identity
abuse of name calling and continued ridicule as a gay man became stronger as his sexual
by his family. However, this non-acceptance identity became more internalized and less
by family members and peers also urged him expressed externally.
to look at things from a different perspective Anwar was stigmatised by name
and to see these experiences as challenges calling and jeering by his heterosexual
to better himself as an individual. This contemporaries. He was often called
strengthened his identity as a gay man. bapok and pondan by them (provide
Ivan experienced stigma in the form of similar English language synonyms). He
gay men being equated with HIV/AIDS by had learned not to care about the name
heteronormative society. This equation was calling and he developed a tougher stance
made in his presence, sometimes by his of believing that his gay sexual identity
family but most often by his peers in school, was a valid expression of himself as an
college and the working environment. He individual and that he did not have to take
found that when he was suspected of being the name calling and jeering seriously at all.
gay by his peers in secondary school, he As a soft-spoken man he often feared that
became the butt of jokes and the object the name calling and jeering would take
of ridicule. His peers often called him on a physically hostile dimension (such as
names such as Ah Qua (homosexual in beatings) but had thus far not experienced
the Cantonese Language) and would make any sort of physical abuse. He made it a
snide remarks about his buttocks and how point to avoid being in groups that were
often it had been used for penetrative anal comprised fully of heterosexual men as
he feared that as an outsider he would Muhammad S.A.W. (in-group). He was

potentially face not just rejection but also also told that men who have a gay sexual
physical abuse. As a Muslim he also felt identity are not part of the correct way
pressure to conform to Muslim societys of life thus further consolidating the in-
expectations that homosexuality was a sin group and out-group situation. Despite
and he should therefore make efforts to this he had not allowed his sexual identity
develop heterosexual sexual attractions. As as a gay man to be affected negatively. He
such, to avoid stigma within Muslim society did not believe that he had to conform to
he made it a point to not draw attention the expectation of others in order for him
to himself, preferring to keep to his small to accept himself or to have a productive
circle of friends and to remain silent and and happy life.
acquiescent in formal gatherings of Muslim Azam had been called names like
men. Still, he felt that as a gay man being faggot (a derogatory term for men with
part of the out group helped him further a gay sexual identity) and gay. He found
define his sexual identity. that stigma began for him after he came
According to Ahmad, when his peers out to some of his classmates in Secondary
and contemporaries found out about his School. His school mates began calling him
identity as a gay man, they distanced the derogatory names previously mentioned
themselves. They distanced themselves on and began to keep a distance from him.
the basis that they did not approve of him At the time of the interview he had not
having same-sex sexual partners. His peers faced any physical abuse. Facing all these
believed that to be a true man he ought to instances of stigma made him braver in his
have an interest in the opposite sex and his gay sexual identity.
sexual interest in other men relegated him
to the position of an outsider. This in- Hafiz faced stigma in the form of being
group and out-group situation caused made a fool of. He used the terms kena
Ahmad sadness, but he felt that he had to kantoi (being made the butt of practical
be true to himself and thus had to accept jokes) and disindir (belittle) to describe
the loss of his friends. Being part of the out in general his experiences of stigma. He felt
group helped him solidify his identity as hurt when he experienced all of this but the
a gay man, that being true to himself was instances of stigma have buoyed his belief in
more important than the shallow acceptance himself as a gay man. He felt that his sexual
of his peers. identity as a gay man became more valid to
Kamal faced stigma from his community himself after these experiences of stigma.
that is based on religious conviction. The Iskandar does not feel that he cannot
religious conviction is that those who have belong to any group of people and has tried
a gay sexual identity (out-group) are to be friends with heterosexual men but they
not considered the people of the Prophet rejected his overtures of friendship on the
Felix, M. S.
basis of his gay sexual identity. They could Being in the out-group did hurt the
not accept him as a gay man and rebuffed gay sexual identity of Tan and he was called
all attempts at friendship. The main form of abnormal to his face. This led him to being
stigma he faced was the distancing of friends very careful whom he told about his same-
who did not want to be thought of as gay sex sexual attractions. He found that stigma
by association. However he found that this negatively affected his sexual identity as it
stigma had not affected his sexual identity had made him afraid of being attacked and
in that it did not dissuade him from being labelled negatively by society. He felt it was
honest with his same-sex sexual attraction necessary for him to hide his sexual identity
and being true to his naluri (natural as a gay man from his family as his family
instinct). was traditional and old fashioned. Due to
Dennis reported that stigma is associated this he felt they would not understand nor
to homosexuality and considered as a taboo accept his homosexuality and identity as a
in Malaysia.. He experienced name calling gay man.
but this did not adversely affect his gay Stigma made the gay sexual identity
sexual identity. The most painful stigma he of Foo stronger in that it made him stand
had experienced was from his own family. up to people who had called him names or
When his parents (through invasion of the ridiculed him for being a gay man. He has
privacy of his private journal) found out he told people who are homophobic that they
was gay his mother lamented that he was had better hope their own sons or grandsons
not a filial son. His father caustically said do not turn out to be gay and be subjected to
that if he was gay he would end up selling what he had been subjected to. For Foo, his
his backside (engage in sex work where sexual identity is not only about his same-
he was the receptive partner in penetrative sex sexual attractions but also being able to
anal sex) and ultimately die of AIDS-related stand up to lifes challenges as an individual
complications. Dennis shared that because and as a man.
of this experience he worked hard to be Kenny found it hurtful when stigma
successful in secondary school, university took the form of jokes against gay men. He
and ultimately in his career to prove his did not understand why it was unacceptable
parents wrong. He also shared that now to make jokes based on race and religion
he cared for his parents materially and but it was acceptable to make jokes based
emotionally (thus proving his filial piety) on sexual identity. As a gay man he felt that
and that his successful career did not require when he heard these jokes it hurt him, but
him to resort to sex work. He noted that his it would not deter him from being who he
relationship with his parents was stable and is as a gay man. He noted that despite such
his sexual identity was no longer an issue challenges he would continue to be honest
of contention in fact it was the catalyst with himself, even if it had strained the
for open communication within the family relationship between him and his father.
communication dynamic.
The stigma of illegality of homosexuality Joe reported that stigma for him took the
in Malaysia affected Wong personally and form of gay men being viewed only for their
made him more careful at his workplace flamboyant facade. The intelligence, hard
to ensure that stigma did not affect his work and dedication of gay mens characters
career. He did not want to be passed over are overshadowed by this view. He himself
for promotions, travel opportunities and had not experienced any verbal or physical
escalating remuneration because of the manifestations of stigma, therefore for
stereotypes and stigma of society towards him the negative side of stigma was the
gay men. As a gay man he found that stigma stereotyping of gay men as previously
towards gay men made him uncomfortable mentioned.
and it made him want to hide his identity. Peter had faced blatant stigma,
Stereotypes of men with gay sexual where although he graduated at the top
identity affected Rama as it caused people to of his undergraduate class he was denied
look down on him. He found that society in employment at a firm he admired due to
general tended to stereotype him and box his gay sexual identity (this was reported
him into effeminate behaviour and also that to him by a friend who worked at the same
as a gay men he would sexually prey on firm). This pushed him to prove that he
unsuspecting heterosexual men. He disliked was excellent as a professional. He shared
the suspicions that people had about him just that his various professional successes and
because he was a gay man. He shared that no triumphs at a competing organization was
matter the amount or type of stigma that was his attempt to prove the former organization
levelled at him he could not change who he wrong about their assumptions and unjust
was; so despite the stigma he faced he had treatment of him. His sexual identity in this
accepted his identity as a gay man. sense made him feel like an outsider (out
Mike reacted offensively toward stigma, group) but had spurred him on to reach a
and since the stigma levelled against him high level of professional success.
was verbal his offensive was also verbal in George reported being bullied, molested
nature. For example if he was called names and propositioned for oral sex while in
he would turn to the person who called secondary school. This stigma made him
him names and scold the person. He would want to be a better and stronger person so
also if necessary use a louder volume in his he could put those who stigmatized him
verbal offensive and if necessary make a in their place. He often did this by telling
show of physical strength such as pushing those who bullied or molested him that he
away a chair or any other objects within his was not a cheap sex worker and they were
reach. Instances of such stigma made him wrong to assume such things about him
more daring when his gay sexual identity because he was gay.
was threatened.
Felix, M. S.
Rohan reported being taunted while Stigma had positively or negatively

in school by those who considered him an affected the sexual identity of the respondents
outsider. This drove him to have heterosexual interviewed. At best stigma brought out the
sexual attractions and not be considered as strength and courage in them, at worst it
an outsider. He wanted acceptance and has brought out fear and recrimination. The
compassion from his peers. Alex faced the most positive effects of stigma as narrated
same form of stigma as Rohan and this by the respondents had been being more sure
stigma caused him to exercise discretion and confident of their same-sex attractions
about his gay sexual identity in order to and sexual identity; being able to manage
gain societal acceptance and approbation. and defend themselves when faced with
Eric felt that his identity as a gay man was name-calling and bullying; succeeding
battered due to the stigma associated with professionally despite misgivings by family;
homosexuality. He felt that because of his and honesty with self that led to better self
identity as a gay man society looked down acceptance and peace of mind. The opposite
on him as an abnormal person. His religion of this are the negative effects such as self-
also considered his identity as a gay man a censorship; being fearful of being found out
curse or something that is not right and this in a professional setting; being subjected
added on to the negativity associated with to out-group behaviour; and feeling
his same-sex sexual attractions. pressured to conform based on cultural,
social and religious expectations.
DISCUSSION The common types of stigma reported
Stigma (homophobia) can construct sexual by the respondents range from name-calling
identity via in and out groups and (DAugelli, 1998) to the creation of in-
religious prejudice (Duran et al., 2007; group and out-group situations (Duran
Savin-Williams et al., 2010) while also et al., 2007; Savin-Williams et al., 2010).
causing gay men to develop heteronormative The in-group and out-group as posited
social behaviours in order to avoid stigma by Duran et al. (2007) and Savin-Williams
(Sylva et al., 2010). Stigmatization causes et al. (2010) was evident as well as in some
activism which forms sexual identity reported cases religious prejudice. These
(Asthana & Oostvogels, 2001). As Duran have (negatively or positively) constructed
et al. (2007) stated, stigma does cause an the sexual identity of the respondents
in-group and out-group situation. The interviewed in this sample. There is also
experience of stigma and how stigma shaped experience of being in the out group
the sexual identity of respondents from an (Meyer & Dean, 1998) according to the
in-group and out-group perspective add respondents. The stigma faced by the
to the understanding of the sexual identity respondents had not however resulted in
of gay men. activism (Asthana & Oostvogels, 2001).
The stigma reported by the respondents more than just the recognition of stigma; it
takes different forms (bullying, being will require the joint voices of gay men to
laughed at, name-calling). But what is push society to listen to them.
evident is that in the experience of gay
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Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysians Worship of

Datuk Gong
Chin Yee Mun1 and Lee Yok Fee2*
1
Faculty of Creative Studies, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, No 3, Jalan 13/6, 46200 Petaling Jaya, Selangor,
Malaysia
2
Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
When the Chinese migrated to Malaya en masse in the 19th century, they brought along
with them their religious belief. Many aspects of the Chinese Religion are still maintained
and practiced by the Chinese in Malaysia today. However, after years of interaction with
people from other ethnic origins in Malaysia, the Chinese has synthesized local elements
into their belief system. Empirically, the worship of Datuk Gong is one of them. The worship
originated from the Datuk Keramat cult, which was popular among the Malays in Malaysia.
This paper attempts to explain why the Chinese in Malaysia accepted local elements such
as the worship of Datuk Keramat into their religion and the meaning of such acceptance.
When the Chinese Malaysian transfigured certain elements found in their religion to accept
the concept of Datuk Keramat, it shows their long-term commitment to make Malaysia
their home. In order to achieve these objectives, observations and interviews at ten Datuk
Gong temples in Peninsular Malaysia were made to collect relevant data. Data gathered
shows the Chinese have transfigured their religious practice to facilitate their adaptation
to live in a country, which was once foreign to them.
Keywords: Datuk Gong, Chinese Religion, Syncretism, Shenism, Pragmatism.
INTRODUCTION
Chinese immigrants started to converge in
Southeast Asia en masse in the 19th century
ARTICLE INFO in search of better opportunities (Freedman,
Article history:
Received: 18 April 2012 1979, p. 5) which also saw an influx of their
Accepted: 22 March 2013
religious beliefs and practices. As a result,
E-mail addresses:
chinym@utar.com (Chin Yee Mun),
their religious beliefs and practices are felt
leeyokfee@upm.edu.my (Lee Yok Fee) in many parts of Southeast Asian countries.
In the context of contemporary Chinese
Malaysian, many aspects of their religiosity Chinese Malaysian does not commonly
are inherited from their immigrant ancestors practice this feature. Such contradiction
(Tan, 1983). In other words, the religious could be an outcome of adapting the design
practices of the Chinese Malaysian are quite of the Chinese Malaysian temples to the
similar to the practices of their ancestors needs of the Chinese immigrants. Probably,
in China. It also means that there are some in the 19th century, the Chinese in Malaya
developments within the Chinese Malaysian did not see the need to build an ancestor
religion. When the Chinese landed on hall to worship their ancestors since they
Southeast Asia, they faced numerous only perceived this country as a stepping-
difficulties in adapting to the new social stone to accumulate wealth. Once they have
environment. The adaptation process has acquired sufficient wealth, they would not
caused them to adjust some of their cultural hesitate to return to their homeland in China,
practices. Some of the adjustments required where the ancestral hall had already been
them to change certain aspects of their built. Furthermore, their socio-economic
traditional practices, which included their condition did not permit them to do so. The
religious practices. The adjustments caused difference between the Chinese temples in
the Chinese Malaysian religion to develop Malaysia and China reflects the pragmatic
into an interesting and unique form, and changes of the Chinese immigrants had
most probably, some of these practices can taken place to suit their needs.
only be found in Malaysia or its neighboring The alterations made by the Chinese
countries where the Chinese population Malaysian on their temples may not be
formed a significant mass. This paper refers significant enough to highlight how they
their religion as Chinese Religion. This have altered their religion to suit their
terminology was introduced by Tan Chee needs and identity in Malaysia. It will be
Beng (1983) to reflect that the fact that significant if they have transfigured certain
the diverse nature of Chinese Malaysian aspects of the nature of their ancestral
traditional religious practices should be religiosity. Judging from the present state of
understood as a whole system instead of the Chinese Malaysian religious practices,
being classified into Buddhism, Taoism or the transfiguration is obvious when they have
Confucianism, included local elements into their religious
Certain aspects of the Chinese Religion belief especially in the worship of Datuk
in Malaysia are outcomes of alterations, Gong. Many Chinese Malaysians worship
which were made to make end meets. Datuk Gong and this is evident when
According to Kok (1993, p.119), in many one observes the landscape of a Chinese
Chinese Malaysian Buddhist temples, a majority housing area in this country. In
special space is allocated to house ancestral most of the Chinese Malaysian homes, there
tablets. This feature is not common in the will be a shrine which they use to worship
temples in China. In China, the ancestral tian gong (God of Heaven). But for the
tablets are placed in ancestral hall and Chinese who worship Datuk Gong, there is
Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysians Worship of Datuk Gong
an extra mini shrine. This shrine is different the link between their needs and the Datuk
from the tian gong shrine in terms of its Gong worship, a Chinese way of settling
design. While, the tian gong shrine is either down spiritually.
supported by a pillar or hung on a wall, the
Datuk Gong shrine is normally built on soil. METHODOLOGY
Some are built on stilts that resemble the One of the characteristics of Chinese Religion
design of a traditional Malay house. The is that the religion unifies human microcosm
shrine houses the Datuk Gong. A closer look and divine macrocosm (Ackerman, 2001,
at the idol of Datuk Gong will certainly raise p. 293). The Chinese believes man, nature
many questions especially those who do and divinity form a unified cosmos (Adler,
not understand the Chinese Religion. The 2002, p. 113). This belief indicates the role
miniature resembles the feature of a Malay of meaning in the Chinese Religion. The
man. Clearly, this worship is something that relationship between human and divinity
is unique and is not practiced in China, the is actively determined by individuals. Each
land of Chinese Malaysian forefathers. The individual has his or her own interpretation
Chinese Malaysian is worshipping a deity of how the relationship should be managed.
which is not worshipped by their ancestors. Based on this characteristic, it is important
This paper intends to relate the worship to understand how the Chinese Malaysian
of Datuk Gong to the Chinese Malaysian interpret Datuk Gong and how the
needs when settling down in this country. The interpretation is expressed when they settled
worship is an outcome of the transfiguration down in this country.
of certain aspects of the Chinese religiosity. In order to find out the identity and
However, it will not emerge unless the history of Datuk Gong, the rituals and
Chinese has already developed similar offering in the worship, the methods of
concept much earlier. It will also not interview and observation were employed.
emerge if the Chinese Malaysian and Data collection was carried from April
their immigrant forefathers do not see the 2010 till June 2010. Interviewees are the
necessity to worship Datuk Gong. Besides committee members of the Datuk Gong
these two conditions, the worship of Datuk temples visited and also the worshippers met
Gong would not be possible if the worship in the temples. A few Datuk Gong temples,
is not supported by principles found within located in several states in Peninsular
the Chinese Religion. The principles have Malaysia, namely Penang, Perak, Selangor
provided ample rooms for the Chinese and Kuala Lumpur were visited for the
Malaysian to alter their ancestral religious purpose of the study. Before discussing
practices. In order to discuss the above, this the worship of Datuk Gong, the writing in
paper will elaborate the nature of Chinese the following section attempt to provide a
Religion and Datuk Gong worship in background understanding on the nature of
Malaysia. The spiritual needs of the Chinese Chinese Religion in Malaysia.
Malaysian will also be discussed to establish
THE SYNCRETIC NATURE OF Chinese Religion is the syncretic nature of

CHINESE RELIGION the Chinese Religion. DeBernardi (2009),
It is incomprehensible to observe a Chinese Goh, (2009), Tan (1983) and Sakai (1997)
worships a Malay man who is also a Muslim believe the worship of Datuk Gong is an
without understanding the nature of Chinese outcome of the syncretic nature of Chinese
Religion. Those who do not understand the Religion.
nature of Chinese Religion will certainly According to Tan (1983, p. 220), most
question such worship. However, it may not Chinese Malaysian refers to their religion as
be so if the worship is understood from the bai shen or bai fo. The former refers to the
worshippers point of view. Generally, as worship of deities and their interpretation
immigrants, it was natural for the Chinese to of deities refer to all deities found in
build their relationship with the local people. Chinese religious system, including those
The Datuk Gong worship represents the from Buddhist origin. The latter refers to
Chineses intention to establish a spiritual the worship of Buddhas or Bodhisattvas.
relationship with Malaya and its people. However, in actual practice, they may
Goh (2009, p. 121) linked the worship include all deities, including those from
of Datuk Gong to the anxiety which the early Taoist origin. Due to such circumstances, Tan
Chinese immigrants had when they arrived labeled the Chinese Malaysian religion as
in Malaya. The early Chinese immigrants Chinese Religion. Generally, most Chinese
needed a local force to safeguard their well- Malaysian worship Buddha and Taoist
being in a foreign land. Datuk Keramat was deities simultaneously. It is common in the
seen as suitable to play the role of the local Chinese Malaysians home to find Buddha
force. Their worries then were many. Being being positioned next to Taoist deities in
immigrants, they were worried of dangers the altar. Such sight is also common in most
such as illness. The popularity of Datuk Chinese temples. These features indicate
Keramat among the Malays as healers had the inability of the Chinese Malaysian to
then caused the Chinese to worship Datuk separate or differentiate Buddhism and
Keramat as Datuk Gong. Taoism. For them, both religions carry the
But the Chinese Malaysian would not same sacred significance. In other words, the
be able to accept a foreign element into Chinese have amalgamated Buddhism and
their religion if their religion is exclusive. Taoism and such practice had caused Tan to
The worship of Datuk Gong by the Chinese label the religion of the Chinese Malaysian
Malaysian must have originated from as Chinese Religion. In his opinion, it
certain characteristics of the Chinese is erroneous to associate the majority
Religion which caused the religion to be of the Chinese Malaysian to Buddhism,
inclusive. As a result the Chinese Malaysian Confucianism or Taoism. The Chinese
are able to worship Datuk Keramat as their Malaysia traditional religious beliefs have
deity. The key to the inclusiveness of the to be viewed as a whole system.
The Chinese does not only amalgamate system allows them to do so? Scholars (Goh
Buddhism and Taoism. To a certain extent 2009; Tan 1983; Bernardi 2009) attributed
Confucianism has also been integrated into the amalgamation to the syncretic nature of
their religion (Adler, 2002, pp. 91-94). In Chinese Religion. The syncretic nature of
Adlers view, Confucianism reinforced Chinese Religion is not a recent development.
the elements of mysticism within Chinese The idea of worshipping gods of different
Religion by bringing in concepts such religions or sects has always been a part
as Tian Li (principle of Heaven). There of Chinese religious practice. Twinems
are also elements of other religions in (1925) study exhibited the syncretic nature
Chinese Religion. DeBernardis (2009) of Chinese Religion in Shanghai, China.
findings show the Chinese Malaysian has His study described the syncretic nature of
not only worshipped Buddha and Tao Wu Shan She (Apprehension of Goodness
deities. According to DeBernardi, elements Society) which combined five religions
of other religions such as Christianity Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism,
and Hinduism are also found in Chinese Mohammedanism (Islam) and Christianity.
Religion. The mixtures of many religious The society preached good deeds as their
elements are further complicated by the central principal.
worship of deified men. Yang (1961) Similar combination can be found in
elaborated on the existence of ethnopolitical Malaysia. The Che Ru Kor Moral Uplifting
cult or popular religion among the Chinese. Society in Endau, Johor unites five religions,
Normally, these cults exist within certain i.e. Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Taoism
locality but there are also some cults which and Confucianism into a single belief. As
became popular and are now worshipped by an extension of Dejiao, a Chinese religious
Chinese all over the world. The cult of Guan movements started in early 20 th century
Di is one of such cult. The ethnopolitical (Goh, 2009), the society promotes good
cults have also emerged in Malaysia. Early deeds and moral virtues through its ten
Chinese immigrants deified their leaders. virtues and eight rules, developed through
When a respected leader died, the leader the amalgamation of Confucianism and
was worship, deified. One of such cult Taoism principles. Members of the society
is the Si Shi-Yeh cult in Rasah, Negeri believed in one supreme deity who is similar
Sembilan. He was a Chinese triad leader in to the concept of the belief in one God of the
the 19th century. When he was murdered, Christians and Muslims. The only difference
his followers deified him and built a temple is that the society supreme deity is Guan
for him. Di-yeh who succeeded the throne of heaven
What allows Buddhism, Confucianism, after the abdication of the Jade Emperor
Taoism and other religions supernatural (Goh, 2009, p. 115).
elements to be amalgamated as the Chinese The syncretic nature of Chinese Religion
Religion? Which aspect of Chinese Religion allows different sects or religions to take part
in forming Chineses religious ideologies In Elliots observation, Chinese worship

and practices. The unity of different religious many shen with pragmatic purposes. The
elements constructs new ideologies that shens have different tasks to perform and
add dynamism to Chinese Religion. The hence worshipped according to their task.
dynamism portrays the openness of Chinese Da Bo Gong for example is worshipped to
Religion in incorporating elements that the bring wealth as well as protection since he is
Chinese perceive as important and benefit the local god of soil. Guan Shi Yin (Goddess
them. Just like Wu Shan She, Che Ru Kor of Mercy) is worshipped for salvation from
Moral Uplifting Society place good deeds negative karma. Summarily, the deities are
and behaviors as the central principles that worshipped because the Chinese hopes to
have to be followed by its members. These use their magical power to fulfill their desire.
principles are derived from the teaching of Therefore, in Gohs (2009, p. 112) view,
the five religions. In other words, members shen is an almost-empty concept. It is up
of the society believe all religions have to a person to interpret the concept and as
the same objective. The society unifies such shen may differ according to the person
the teachings of the five religions and needs at different point of time and place.
derives principles that benefit human kind. Consequently, the syncretic nature of
This conclusion confirms Ackermans Chinese Religion is probably an outcome
(2001) observation. Syncretism has allowed of the pragmatic needs of the Chinese. Their
different religions or sects worship by the needs are intertwined with their religiosity.
Chinese to maintain their respective identity The intertwinement is a consequent of the
while contributing to the development of Chinese belief that the divine, human and
new ideologies and perhaps new practices nature are elements of cosmos. As a result
too. of such belief, the Chinese believe their
Up to this stage, this article has explained relationship with the divine or should be
the reason for the mixture of religions found mutually benefitting. The divine will assist
in the Chinese Religion. It is due to the them by fulfilling their needs and in return
syncretic nature of the Chinese Religion; the the divine will be worshipped. Since the
religion has absorbed multiple religions and divine or shen is an almost-empty concept,
transforms them into the religious practices there is no boundary to stop the Chinese
of the Chinese. But, what caused Chinese from including divine elements of other
Religion to be syncretic in the first place? religions as their shen. In the context
To answer this question, Elliot (1955, p. of Chinese Malaysian, their cosmos are
27) introduced the concept of shenism. The very much confined to the physical and
concept is derived from the term bai shen. social environment of Malaysia. Their
Bai means to pray or worship while shen needs have been pre-determined by their
means powerful spiritual beings which must intention to settle down in this country
be worshipped to secure human well being. either temporarily or permanently. In order
to fulfill their needs, the Chinese seek the implication derived from such needs is the
assistance from the divine found within their acceptance of Datuk Keramat as the Du Di
interpretation of Malaysian cosmos. Gong of the Chinese Malaysian; a clear-cut
Hitherto, the syncretic nature of Chinese transfiguration of elements found in Chinese
Religion has devised an open system within Religion to fulfill the needs of the Chinese
the Chinese cultural system (Lee, 1986, Malaysian.
p. 199). It enables the Chinese to accept As mentioned earlier, the Datuk Gong
and absorb whatever that they perceive as worship in Malaysia originated from the
beneficial and useful to them. This pragmatic concept of Datuk Keramat. Besides Goh
approach has allowed Chinese Religion to (2009), Cheu (1992) had also related Datuk
be inclusive. The inclusiveness of Chinese Gong to the worship of Datuk Keramat. The
Religion has enabled it to transfigure; to incorporation of Datuk Gong worship into
accept elements found in other religion Chinese Malaysian religion transfigures
or cultural practices and this include the Chinese Religion by bringing in local
worship of Datuk Gong in Malaysia. elements into the complex cosmos of
Chinese Religion. The worship of Datuk
THE CONCEPT OF DATUK GONG Keramat is by itself an outcome of Islamic
In relation to the acceptance of Datuk mysticism. It is a Malay cult which worships
Gong as a shen, the Chinese Malaysian saints. These saints or Keramat were pious
(either the 19th century immigrants or their men, preachers of Islam and leader of
descendents) needed a local divine force to Islamic movements and were believed to
protect them from the harm that they may have semi-divine power. Datuk Keramat
encounter in this country. Besides warding worship is no longer popular among the
off harm, the Chinese Malaysian are also Malays today. Due to the revival of Islam
hoping the local divine force would be able which started since the 1970s, the worships
to provide them opportunities to amass are now done privately (Lee, 1988, p. 402).
wealth and prosperity. Traditionally, within Although the Malays have almost
the Chinese Religion, these needs are deserted the Datuk Keramat worship, the
provided by Du Di Gong (god of the soil). Chinese have sort of preserved it, albeit
In the Chinese language, Du Di carries the within the context of Chinese Religion.
meaning of local soil. Thus, Du Di Gong is The interactions between the Chinese and
the local deity whose role is to protect and the Malay in Malaysia have provided a
assist the people who live in a particular platform for the Datuk Keramat worship
locality. Datuk Gong has been accepted to be accepted by the Chinese Malaysian.
by the Chinese Malaysian as their Du Di The Datuk Keramat concept is accepted
Gong (Sakai, 1997). The Chinese Malaysian and was later pronounced as Datuk Gong
worshipped Datuk Gong for protection, by the Chinese. The Datuk in the Datuk
wealth, health and multiple other needs. The Gong concept is the Datuk Keramat. Gong
is an honorific title attached to Chinese Gongs were crafted as a Malay man wearing
deities. Therefore the Datuk Gong concept Baju Melayu (traditional Malay clothing).
maintains the identity of Datuk Keramat, a The Datuk Gongs ethnic origins
feature of the syncretic nature of Chinese observed in the Malay Datuk Gong temples
Religion. were also reflected through their names. In
Lian Hup temple in Kelang, Selangor, the
DATUK GONG WORSHIP: RITUAL Datuk Gongs of this temple were named as
AND IDENTITY Datuk Haji Keramat and Datuk Mustafa.
The authors visited ten Datuk Gong temples The worshippers got to know the Datuk
and numerous Datuk Gong shrines to learn Gongs names from through a trance session
more about the Datuk Gong worship. held by a medium. The authors also visited
Surprisingly, in the visits, they discovered temples where the Datuk Gongs names
temples which worship non-Malay Datuk were based on colors. In such temples, the
Gong. Such discovery contradicts their Datuk Gongs were referred to as Datuk
earlier assumption that all Datuk Gong Hijau (Green Datuk), Datuk Hitam (Black
are Malay Datuk Gongs since the belief Datuk), Datuk Merah (Red Datuk), Datuk
originated from the worship of Datuk Kuning (Yellow Datuk) and Datuk Biru
Keramat. In this section, the authors will (Blue Datuk). According to Cheu Hock
explain Chinese Malaysian Datuk Gong Tong (1992, p. 387), the colors represent
worship and their interpretations concerning the different functions of the Datuk Gongs.
the worship. For example, the Yellow Datuk is supposed
to take care of the general well-being of
Malay Datuk Gongs the people living in a particular locality
Seven out of the ten temples visited by meanwhile the Green Datuk is to take care of
the authors worship Malay Datuk Gongs. the flora and fauna. A Keris (Malay dagger)
In these temples, the authors observed was also found in all the Malay Datuk Gong
that the Datuk Gongs ethnic origin were temples. In some of the temples, the authors
clearly represented by the appearance of the noticed that the keris was placed at the
figurines. In these temples, the Malay Datuk Datuk Gong altar. In some other temples,
Gongs were positioned in the center altar, a the keris was inserted into Datuk Gong
feature to indicate their status as the resident figurines palm. The keris strengthened
deity of the temple. Their figurines were Malay ethnic identity of the Datuk Gongs.
crafted to resemble the feature of a Malay The fact that the Datuk Gong is a
man wearing either a songkok (a black Malay man and worshipped by the Chinese
headgear) a kopiah (a white headgear) or a Malaysian is certainly an interesting
tengkolok (a traditional Malay headgear). phenomenon to be studied. Questions such
The other indicator observed would be the as do the Chinese worshippers know that
Datuk Gongs clothing. The Malay Datuk they are worshipping a Malay deity, and if
they know, why do they still want to worship would be a Muslim. Therefore, it should not
it? These questions were posted to several be viewed as strange. He further explained
Datuk Gong worshippers. that, there was nothing wrong to worship a
All the worshippers interviewed in Muslim. In fact, he believed that the Malay
the Malay Datuk Gong temples knew that and Muslim identity were the reasons to
they were worshipping a Malay deity. The worship a Malay Datuk Gong. According to
members of Bagan Sekinchan Datuk Gong him, If the Datuk Gong is not representing
Temple Committee said that they knew the feature of local force, the ling is absent
about it and they were not surprised. They and the Datuk is not a powerful one.
explained that the Datuk Gong must be a The rituals of Datuk Gong worships
Malay since the term originated from the and the design of the Malay Datuk Gong
Malay language. According to them, a temples or shrines visited by the authors
Malay Datuk would be helpful in solving had also exhibited the Malayness of Datuk
their local daily issues. In another interview Gong. In the visits, the authors observed that
session, the interviewee, Mr. Ng, former some of the temples were very expressive
chairman of Teluk Intan Datuk Gong in reflecting the Malayness of the temples
temples committee concurred that the Datuk Gongs. For instance, Lian Hup Datuk
Datuk must be a local person, recognized for Gong Temple has a dome as its roof. A
his contribution to the local community and dome is a symbol of a Malay mosque. Such
as such the local person must be a Malay. design had caused uneasiness among the
The worshippers were also asked local Malay people. There were attempts to
whether the Datuk Gong worship would demolish the temple but were unsuccessful
be a strange practice since worshipping (Lee, 1988, p. 412). According to Mr. Soh,
a Malay Datuk Gong would mean they the medium cum caretaker of the temple,
were worshipping a Muslim. One of the the dome design should not be an issue.
worshippers at Kampung Sawa Datuk Gong He said, The dome merely represents the
Temple, Mr. Lau expressed that there should identity of the Datuk Gong, a Malay deity
not be anything strange about it. To him, a and we have no intention to offend another
Datuks religious identity and ethnic origin religion. In other words, the design of the
should not be the focus of the worship. The temple is merely showing the identity of a
focus of the worship should be on the Datuk Chinese deity who is a Malay man and also
Dongs ling (magical power). According a Muslim. The cultural expression of Datuk
to him the Chinese worshippers needed a Gongs Malay identity was also found in the
local divine force with ling to assist them design of Datuk Gong shrines. Most shrines
to resolve local issues that affect their well- visited in Bagan Sekinchan, a fishing village
being. That force should be represented exhibited the design of traditional Malay
by the Malay who knew and were familiar house.
with local surroundings who coincidentally
Besides the architectural aspects, the as the resident deity. In their visit to this
Malayness of the Datuk Gong had also temple, the authors analyzed newspaper
been observed in the rituals practised by reports found in newspapers cuttings that
the worshippers. In a Datuk Gong Dan were pasted on the notice board of the
(festival to celebrate Datuk Gongs birthday) temple. The newspaper cuttings illustrated
organized by Desa Aman Puri Datuk Gong the origin of the temple. The temple was
Temple Committee, the worshippers were established due to a local legend. According
cautious in selecting their offerings to the to the legend, the Datuk Gong of the temple
temples Datuk. Since Islam forbid pork, provided protection to the villagers who
the worshippers did not serve any pork to were facing persecution of Japanese Army
the temples Datuk Gong during the festival. during the Second World War. The Datuk
Instead of serving pork, the worshippers Gong hid the villagers via its supernatural
served chicken curry and mutton curry to power. As a result, the Japanese armies
the Datuk Gong. Other food offered to the failed to find them. Such legends had caused
Datuk Gongs were Kopi-O (coffee without the worshippers to believe that the Datuk
milk), betel leaves, native cigarettes and Gong of this temple has ling. As a result,
nasi pulut kuning (yellow glutinous rice). this temple became highly popular among
All these offerings were made to suit Datuk Gong worshippers. The temple is one
diet of the Malay Datuk Gong they were of the most popular Datuk Gong temples in
worshipping. In another Datuk Gong Dan, Malaysia. Based on the newspaper reports,
held by Kampung Datuk Sawa worshippers, hundreds of tourists and worshippers would
they sacrificed two goats as offering to the visit the temple during weekend and Chinese
temples resident Datuk Gong. The temple festival. According to the temple care taker,
committee hired two Malays to slaughter Mr. Soon, due to temples popularity and
the goats to adhere to the Islamic method large number of worshippers, the temple
of slaughtering. Such action was taken to managed to accumulate big sum of donation
ensure that the mutton would be halal every year. The money was used for charity.
(permissible according to Muslim beliefs Every month, the temples committee would
and values) and safe to be consumed by spend nearly RM30, 000 for charity causes.
the Datuk Gong. Through conversation with Mr. Soon, the
authors had also discovered that since the
Non-Malay Datuk Gongs Datuk Gong of this temple originated from
As discussed earlier, the Datuk Gong the Orang Asli ethnic origin, food offering
worshippers also worship non-Malay made by the worshippers differ slightly
Datuk Gongs. In Broga, Selangor, the from Malay Datuk Gong food offerings.
authors visited Shi Natuk (Stone Datuk) The worshippers served pork and liquor.
Temple in which an Orang Asli (aborigine Other than that, the architectural design of
of Malaysia) Datuk Gong was worshipped the temple also did not reflect any Malay or
Islamic influence.
Besides the Orang Asli Datuk Gongs, acknowledged the importance of worshipping
there are also Datuk Gongs from other the local divine force to safeguard their well-
ethnic groups origin. For instance, the being. This explains why most Datuk Gongs
authors discovered four Datuk Gongs of are Malays. However the interpretation of
different ethnic origins worshipped in the local divine force is not confined to the
Kampung Sawa Datuk Gong Temple. The Malays. As discussed earlier, some Datuk
resident Datuk Gong of the temple was Gong worshippers worship Siamese Datuk
Datuk Kassim, a Malay Datuk Gong and Gong and also Datuk Gongs of other ethnic
other Datuk Gongs were Datuk Che Pu origins. Whether or not the Datuk Gongs
Long (Siamese), Datuk Ah Chong (Chinese) ethnic origin are Malays or from other ethnic
and Datuk Mutu (Indian). According to origins, the fact that can be established here
Mr. Soh Huat (temples medium) Datuk is that Chinese Malaysian has transfigured
Ah Chong was deified as a Datuk Gong the concept of Du Di Gong or Earth God
due to his contribution in developing the by replacing it with what they interpret
temple. Meanwhile, Datuk Mutu was as the local divine. The holistic nature
worshipped as a Datuk Gong after a nearby (unifying human, divine and nature in one
Indian community worshipped him as their cosmos) of Chinese Religion has permitted
deity. Mr. Soh Huat further elaborated that the Chinese to be pragmatic. Under such
although Datuk Kassim was the resident holistic nature too, the Chinese are permitted
Datuk of the temple, his rank was lower to worship any divine elements which they
than Datuk Che Pu Long, a Siamese Datuk. consider as worth worshipping. The Chinese
He explained that such hierarchy was Malaysian have chosen to worship Datuk
created because in the past, Gerik was Gong because they believe that the local
under the patronage of the Siamese rulers. divine force that will be able to assist them.
Similar temple was found in Taiping, Perak. Being immigrants, the Chinese Malaysian
The temple was built by the villagers of forefathers sought the blessing of Datuk
Kampung Penglong and house four Datuk Gong to assist them to adapt to a foreign
Gongs of different ethnic origin. Based on environment. They needed a force that was
the information provided by Mr. Ng (former able to provide them security as well as
medium and caretaker of the temple), the opportunities to prosper. By worshipping
Datuk Gongs were from Malay, Chinese, Datuk Gong, they assumed their needs were
Indian and Sikh origins and as such the taken care of by a local divine force.
temple was named as Datuk Empat Keramat Chinese believe that human, divinity
Temple. and nature form a unified cosmos. The
non-dualistic nature of Chinese Religion
DATUK GONG AND CHINESE allows human and the divine to correspond
MALAYSIAN INTERPRETATION (Adler, 2002, pp. 112-113) to maintain the
Based on the above findings, the Chinese harmony of the cosmos. The non-dualistic
immigrants and their descendants have nature has also caused Chinese Religion to
be syncretic, pragmatic and inclusive. In the divine is not restricted by cultural or

Malaysia, the Chinese need a local divine physical boundaries. It goes beyond these
power to correspond with to safeguard boundaries and very often what constitute
their well-being. Datuk Keramat which shen is dictated by the needs of the Chinese.
was worshipped by the Malays for more or As a result, the Chinese Religion is able to
less the same reason was then selected and accept and to a certain extent amalgamate
included in the system of Chinese Malaysian element found in other religions and beliefs.
Religion. However, as time passed by, Their descendents continued the worship
the Chinese enlarged their interpretations with similar interpretations. The worship
of local divine power. Thus, Datuk Gong provided them the spiritual link which
worship is not confined to Malay Datuk connects them to a place and enables them
Gong worship. The worship of other Datuk to make a living in a place that later they
Gong of non-Malay origin proved that call home.
the Datuk Gong may not necessarily be a
Malay. As the Chinese interact with people CONCLUSION
of other ethnicities, they started to visualize Based on the above discussion, the worship
the others as forces to be reckoned with too. of Datuk Gong by the Chinese Malaysian is
This development has been described by not incomprehensible after all. The nature of
Goh (2009) as the hybridization process of Datuk Gong worship will naturally invites
Chinese religious practices in Malaysia as questions especially from the Malays since
well as Singapore. Due to interaction with the worship involves them. But if studied,
other cultural systems, the Chinese hybridize Datuk Gong worship is merely an outcome
their religious practices by including and reflections of the nature of Chinese
elements found in other cultures into their religious system. The syncretic, pragmatic
religious system. Such hybridization as and inclusive nature of Chinese Religion has
shown in the Datuk Gong worship reflect allowed the Chinese Malaysian to transfigure
the syncretic nature of Chinese Religion. their Du Di Gong concept and localized it
Underlying the syncretic nature, is the in Malaysia in the form of Datuk Gong. If
Chinese Malaysian pragmatic approach to Geertzs (1975) definition of religion is to be
contextualize and interpret the Malaysian used here, then to a large extent the worship
social and physical surrounding. of Datuk Gong has illustrated the culture of
Their needs have motivated them to the Chinese Malaysian. According to Geertz
search for a local divine power that will be (1975, pp. 87-125), religion is a system of
able to solve their problem or assist them symbols which provide the motivation for
to achieve their desire and the search is human to build the general order of living.
not confined to the traditional elements As immigrants and now descendants of the
found within the Chinese Religion. As immigrants, the Chinese in Malaysia are
discussed above, the meaning of shen or always aware of the necessity to interact
and to respect people of other ethnicities Freedman, M. (1973). The Study of Chinese Society.
who live in this country. The interaction and Standford: Standford University Press.
respect will develop harmonious relationship Kok, H. J. (1997). Chinese Malaysian Folk Religion
which is prioritized by the Chinese culture. with Special Reference to Weizhen Gong in
The worship of Datuk Gong is the Chinese Kuala Lumpur. (pp103-142) in. Cheu, H.T. (ed).
Chinese Beliefs and practices in Southeast Asia.
Malaysian way of adjusting and to live in a
Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk.
country which was once foreign to them. It
is a spiritual approach used by the Chinese Lee, R. (1986). Continuity and Change in Chinese
Spirit Mediumship in Urban Malaysia. Bijdragen
Malaysian to settle down in Malaysia.
tot de Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde. 142, 198-214.
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Ackerman, S.E. (2001). Divine Contracts: Chinese
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37, 107-137.

Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving

among Matriculation Students in Penang
Ong, H. C.* and Lim, J. S.
School of Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Mathematics is recognized as an important subject in the school curriculum in Malaysia. It
is a compulsory subject for many courses in matriculation, private colleges and universities.
The purpose of this study is to identify the factors that influence the matriculation students
in mathematical problem solving. Bayesian Network, a data mining technique, is used in
this study to analyse the causal relationships. Bayesian network is a probabilistic graphical
model which converts variables and their dependent relationships into nodes and arcs
respectively. We compare the resultant networks using the different constraint and score
based algorithms to identify the main factors affecting students in problem solving of
mathematics. We found that students in Penang Matriculation College faced problem
solving in mathematics owing to their problem with mathematical symbols. Hence, the
students have no confidence in answering mathematics problems especially in questions
related to their understanding of mathematical symbols.
Keywords: Bayesian Network, Learning Algorithms, Network Scores, Causal Relationship, Graphical Model,
Mathematics Education, Data Mining.
INTRODUCTION kindergarten, right up to their matriculation

Mathematics is recognized as an important studies. In private colleges and universities,
subject in the school curriculum in Malaysia. mathematics is a compulsory subject in
In the Malaysian education system, many courses. Students can apply for
students have to learn mathematics from admission to matriculation courses which
are coordinated and carried out by the
ARTICLE INFO
Ministry of Education (MOE) (Hong et al,
Article history:
Received: 14 June 2012 2009). In the application, mathematics and
additional mathematics are two important
E-mail addresses:
hcong@cs.usm.my (Ong, H. C.), subjects that are considered for admission
luckjs80@yahoo.com (Lim, J. S.)
* Corresponding author into the matriculation programme. Most of

the selected applicants have good grades in G, encodes the probabilistic dependencies
these two subjects. However, the majority in the data and the presence of an edge
of the matriculation students under the between two variables means that there
1 year programme still face difficulties exists a direct dependency between
on problem solving in mathematics. This them. This set S contains the parameter
study uses a questionnaire survey to gather xi | i = PS ( xi | i ) for each realization x i of
information needed from the students in X i conditioned on i , the parents of x i in
Penang Matriculation College session G. Thus, S can be defined as a unique joint
2010/2011. We then use Bayesian Network probability distribution n
over X,n written as
to analyze the causal relationships of the PS ( X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n ) =
PS ( X i | i ) =
X | where
i i
=i 1 =i 1
students on problem solving in Mathematics. i represents the causes (parents) of variable

The Objectives of this study are to explore X i . Bayesian Network is an approach to
the mathematics problems faced by students detect causal structures in data (Pearl,
in the Penang Matriculation College and to 2000). We know that Bayesian Network is
use Bayesian Network to identify the most a graphical representation of a probabilistic
significant mathematics problem faced by distribution on a set of random variables.
students in the matriculation programme. Tchangani (2002) stated that Bayesian
Bayesian network is used in this study Network has a graphical representation of
in place of other statistical methods like causality relationship between a cause and
regression because it does not fix or its effect. The nodes are linked by directed
assume the variables to be dependent or arcs that create a Directed Acyclic Graph
independent. Instead, the structural learning (DAG) and the DAG shows no route or path
in Bayesian network explores the structural from one node connecting back to itself or
dependencies among the variables. else it will be a cyclic graph. However, the
A Bayesian Network is a probabilistic arcs represent the conditional independent
graphical model that encodes variables and relationships between the nodes. Assume
their dependent relationships into nodes that an arc from node R to node Q shows
and arcs respectively (Heckerman, 1995; that the probability specification for node Q
Pearl, 1986). In general, Bayesian Network is directly dependent on the values in node
can be defined as follows: Assume that R. In this case, R is called a parent of node
S = { G, } be a joint probability distribution Q and node Q is called a child of node R.
of a set of n random variables = {X1, X2, Fig.1 shows the relationship between the
, X n } and is specified by a directed nodes R and Q.
acyclic graph G with a set of conditional
probability functions parameterized by
(Pearl, 1988). According to Cao and Fang
(2010), the Bayesian Network structure, Fig.1: Connection from node R to Q
Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving among Matriculation Students in Penang
The direction of the arrow shows the understanding of concepts, principles and
state of information of the decision maker, mathematical relationship with the others
that is, whether the decision maker is subjects. Norah et al. (2009) also claimed
capable of expressing the probability as P that learning of mathematics is a dynamic
(QR). and complex process due to the interaction
between previously acquired levels of
LITERATURE REVIEW understanding, conceptualization and
In the early development of Bayesian incorporating of new materials. However,
Network, it is used to solve problems in mathematics is more challenging for
computational complexity and independence students. In matriculation, students often
assumptions (Ni et al., 2010). According to complained that mathematics is hard to
Tchangani (2002), Bayesian Networks derive learn and difficult to relate to in their
from convergence of statistical methods studies. According to Haron et al. (2000),
that allow one to go from information mathematics is the most difficult subject
(data) to knowledge (such as probability to understand among the students in the
laws and relationship between variables) matriculation programme of Universiti
and Artificial Intelligence (AI) that allow Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). In Mahmud
computers to deal with knowledge. Pearl (2003), the main reason for secondary
(1988) and Jensen (1996) both agree that school students difficulties in solving
Bayesian Networks (BNs) are among the mathematical problems was an inability
leading technologies to describe and derive to understand the problem. Hong (2004)
conditional independence relationship found that students had problems in solving
among the random variables. Bayesian non-routine mathematical problems even
Network has become a powerful tool though they could pass their mathematics
for causal relationship modelling and examinations. Aziz (2005) claimed that
probabilistic reasoning (Tang et al., 2010) mathematics is difficult to learn because
because researchers use Bayesian Network the concept in mathematics is abstract
to handle problems with much greater and hard to understand. Irvin and Norton
complexity. It has become advantageous in a (2007) claimed that students poor attitudes
variety of areas including medicine (Gevaert toward mathematics cause them to perceive
et al, 2006), environmental protection mathematics as a dry and static subject,
(Henriksen and Barlebo, 2007) and financial abstract and only involved calculation.
risk management (Neil et al., 2005). In this study, problem solving in
In Malaysia as in most countries, mathematics is an issue we focus on. In
mathematics is a compulsory subject the start of the 21st century, the Ministry of
for students. Aziz (2005) stated that in Education (MOE) in Malaysia emphasizes
learning mathematics, students always that problem solving is one of the various
encounter problems involving calculations, aspects in teaching and learning when
implementing the revised curriculum This instrument contains 12 questions.

(MOE, 2001). Chapman (2005) stated that They are from Q1 until Q12. All the
problem solving is important as a method questionnaires from Q1 to Q12 are available
for learning and teaching mathematics. in Appendix 1. The questionnaires are
Zakaria et al. (2009) said that solving a distributed to the students during their
problem is a task in which an individual lectures.
uses his/her existing knowledge, skills and
understanding to address an unfamiliar Structural Learning in Bayesian Network
situation. A problem solver also needs a rich, Structure Learning Algorithms which
connected understanding of mathematics, include Scored-based (Singh and Valtorta,
ability to see patterns of similarities and 1995; Margaritis, 2003) and constraint-
association, skills to carry out the solution based (Cooper, 1997; Margaritis, 2003)
and finally, check that the results make sense are two categories of structure learning
in context of the problem (Burkhardt and algorithms for Bayesian Network. The
Bell, 2007). score-based method uses a score metric
that measures how a structure reflects the
METHODOLOGY data and finds a Bayesian Network structure
The sample involves 1312 students with the highest score (Na and Yang, 2010).
from Penang Matriculation College in However, the DAG in constraint-based
the academic session 2010/2011. The method is based on a set of conditional
respondents are of the same age and independent statements and is recognized
similar educational background where all from some prior knowledge or on some
have passed their PSPM 1 (Peperiksaan calculation from the data (Margaritis, 2003).
Semester 1 Program Matrikulasi) semester
1 examination. In addition, the respondents Analysis in the Bayesian Network
will sit for their PSPM 2 soon. This study In this study, we use both score based methods
used a questionnaire that is similar to and constraint based methods to determine
Chong (2006) but is modified to cater for the major causes for students to be poor in
matriculation students. This questionnaire solving mathematics problems. In learning
consists of twelve items. All the twelve a large system, heuristic algorithms such as
items are given in five Likert scales, with 1 Hill Climbing (HC) are commonly used in
denoting Strongly Disagree, 2 denoting practice (Kojima et al., 2010). Kojima et al.
Disagree, 3 denoting Neutral, 4 (2010) also claimed that the Hill Climbing
denoting Agree and 5 denoting Strongly algorithm is used to find the local optima
Agree. This instrument is designed to see and upgraded versions of this algorithms
a causal relationship between the items and lead to improving the score and structure
all items are related to problem solving in of the results. Daly and Shen (2007) stated
mathematics. that the optimised implementation uses
score caching, score decomposability and other learning algorithms used constraint
finally score equivalence. These scores will based methods. A score based Bayesian
reduce the number of duplicated tests. Grow network structure search is used in Tamada
Shrink (GS) algorithm consists of two et al. (2011) to find the DAG structure
phases which are a grow phase and a shrink fitted to the observed data and the score
phase. The GS algorithm was proposed by function is used to measure the fitness of the
Margaritis (2003). In Tsamardinos et al. structure to the given data. Ge et al. (2010)
(2003), Incremental Association Markov stated that a score function Score (G, D)
Blanket ( IAMB ) algorithm is based on for learning a Bayesian network structure is
the Markov Blanket detection algorithm decomposable. It can be expressed m
as a sum
which consists of two phases: a forward of local scores. Score (G, D) = S ( Di , DGi )
i =1
phase and a backward phase. Interleaved where G is a directed acyclic graph (DAG)
Incremental Association Markov Blanket and D is a certain data set. There are several
(Inter- IAMB) is another variant of IAMB. scores proposed for learning Bayesian
It has two phases: growing phase and networks such as the Bayesian Dirichlet
shrinking phase. It used a forward stepwise equivalent or Bde (Heckerman et al., 1995),
selection which avoids false positives in the Bayesian Information Criterion or BIC
the Markov Blanket. (Tsamardinos et al., (Schwarz, 1978), the Akaike Information
2003 ; Ge et al., 2010). Fast Incremental Criterion or AIC (Akaike, 1974) and the
Association Markov Blanket (Fast- IAMB) greedy heuristic algorithm or K2 (Cooper
also contains two phases: growing phase and Herskovits, 1992). We calculate the
and shrinking phase (Yaramakala and score results based on networks obtained
Margaritis, 2005). It is similar to GS and from the seven learning algorithms, which
IAMB. An algorithm that is called max are Hill-Climbing (HC) , Grow- Shrink (GS),
min hill climbing (MMHC) proposed by Incremental Association Markov Blanket
Tsamardinos et al. (2006), combined an (IAMB), Fast Incremental Association
independence test (IT) approach with a Markov Blanket (Fast-IAMB), Interleaved
score based strategy where an undirected Incremental Association Markov Blanket
graph is constructed or built depending on (Inter-IAMB), Max - Min Hill Climbing
an IT approach and a constrained greedy (MMHC) and Restricted Maximization
hill climbing search which returns a local (RSMAX2). These score functions are
optimum of the score function. Restricted used to estimate the network fit for these
Maximization (RSMAX2) is a more general algorithms. Score-based methods produce a
implementation of the Max-Min Hill- series of candidate Bayesian networks from
Climbing, which can use any combination of the learning algorithms; calculate a score
constraint-based and score-based algorithms for each candidate and return a candidate
(Scutari, 2010). Thus, HC and RSMAX2 of highest score (Jensen, 2009). Akaike
used the scored based method while the Information Criterion or AIC was developed
by Akaike (1977). Akaike (1973) used the (Yang et al., 2006). The log-likelihood
AIC to select the model that minimizes the (loglik) score is equivalent to the entropy
negative likelihood penalized by the number measure used in Weka (Witten and Frank,
of parameters as specified in the equation (1). 2005). The maximized likelihood P ( D G )
AIC = - 2 log p (L) +2p (1) decomposed by the network structure
and for the decomposable scores is the
where L refers to the likelihood under
complexity penalty.
the fitted model and p is the number of
parameters in the model. It is used to find
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
the approximate model to the unknown true
data (Acquah, 2010). Another information Similar to Ge et al. (2010), the bnlearn
criterion that is widely used is BIC or package (R Team 2009) in R is used to run
Bayesian Information Criterion. BIC is the structural learning algorithms. From
derived within a Bayesian framework as the structural learning algorithms, there
an estimate of the Bayes factor for two are seven different networks outcomes
competing models (Schwarz, 1978; Jensen, which are noncyclical. The arcs show
2009). The score for the BIC is defined as direct dependent relationships between
the connecting variables. However, the
BIC = - 2 log p (L) + log n (2) existence of conditional independence
where n is a sample size. The difference relationships is indicated by the absence
between AIC and BIC is based on the second of arcs (Ge et al. 2010). These diagrams
term which is the sample size (Acquah, also represent the logical cause and effect
2010). Heckerman et al. (1995) developed between the variables. Table 1 shows the
the Bde or Bayesian Dirichlet Equivalent numbers of edges and arcs for each pair of
score. This score uses Bayesian analysis the learned networks. The edges represent
to evaluate and estimate a given dataset the number of common links or edges (in
network. The idea of Bde is dependent on either direction) for each learning networks
the BD (Bayesian Dirichlet) metric which structure. However, the arcs represent the
is developed by Cooper and Herskovits number of common directed arcs between
(1992). The Dirichlet distribution is a the nodes in these learned networks. Table
multivariate distribution to describe the 1 also shows the number of common links
conditional probability of each variable and arcs that are obtained in each network in
in the network. The algorithm of K2 the diagonal section. From Table 1 a number
score is another posterior density which is of nodes that were constructed or built are
proposed by Cooper and Herskovits (1992). the same. The nodes with the common arcs
The K2- like greedy search method will for all models in these learned networks
incrementally add a node to a parent set and represent a strong relationship in between
find the best parent set to maximize the joint the connections in these nodes. The edges
probability of the structure and the database with strong relationships are Q1 to Q2, Q4
to Q5, Q5 to Q6 and finally Q11 to Q12. (after white list) in Fig.4. We also show the
Besides that, the other nodes that show the final result on the HC network in Fig.5.
weak relationships in between them are Q3, By running all the algorithms, the result
Q7, Q8, Q9 and Q10. Fig.2 shows all the of scores for the seven algorithms are
learned networks of the various algorithms. shown in Table 2. The obtained results are
The common arcs are shown in Fig.3. These important for comparing the network from
common arcs show that there is only one the algorithms. In this study, network scores
way direction to the consecutive nodes in are used because they select which network
all these learned networks. fitted the data best. Based on the results
For instance, node Q5 links to node Q6. shown in Table 2, we highlighted the highest
The connection of edges from Q5 to Q6 scores for the networks. Following the white
can be interpreted as students being sure of list of all the learned networks and having
which method to be used when encountering set the arcs, we found the Hill Climbing
a long mathematics question because they ( HC ) algorithm as having the best result
do not know what information is needed for this study from Table 2. The arc strength
to handle the mathematics question. This is used to evaluate the strength for all the
happens because they do not understand edges. Each edge will show the highest and
the question and fail to transform their the lowest score of the strength. The arc
idea into mathematics symbol. Fig.3 shows strength is used to measure the strength of the
the directly connected nodes. These links probabilistic relationships expressed by the
between the nodes represent common edges arcs of a Bayesian network and it uses model
to all of the learned networks. Following averaging to build a network containing only
this, we run again these seven learned the significant arcs (Scutari, 2010).
network algorithms and set the common In Fig.5, the thicker arcs represent the
edges using Fig.3 as a white list for each stronger relationships between the nodes.
learned networks. Then, we obtained the These arcs also represent the highest values
result for all the seven new learned networks in arc strength compared with the others.
TABLE 1
Number of common edges/arcs between each pair of the learned networks
Hc Gs Iamb Fast. iamb Inter. iamb Mmhc Rsmax2

Hc 11/11 8/1 6/1 6/2 6/1 5/3 8/8
Gs - 13/7 6/2 6/2 6/2 5/0 11/1
Iamb - - 12/9 10/6 10/9 10/2 6/1
Fast. iamb - - - 11/10 10/6 9/3 6/2
Inter. iamb - - - - 12/9 10/3 6/1
Mmhc - - - - - 10/10 5/3
Rsmax2 - - - - - - 11/11
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g)
Fig.2: Network structures learned by selected algorithms. (a) Hill Climbing; (b) Grow Shrink; (c)
Incremental Association Markov Blanket; (d) Fast Incremental Association Markov Blanket; (e) Interleaved
Incremental Association Markov Blanket; (f) Max Min Hill Climbing; (g) Restricted Maximization
Fig.3: Common edges of all the learned networks
TABLE 2
The results of scores of all learned networks for each algorithm
Aic Bic Bde Loglik K2

HC -20568.34 -21521.33 -21852.35 -20200.34 -20893.12
GS -21336.91 -24527.37 -23366.60 -20104.91 -21565.67
IAMB -22943.70 -31106.29 -24796.8 -19791.70 -22091.64
Fast-IAMB -20961.85 -22287.75 -22337.56 -20449.85 -21307.40
Inter-IAMB -22943.70 -31106.29 -24796.8 -19791.70 -22091.64
MMHC -20758.08 -21711.08 -21989.83 -20390.08 -21079.28
RSMAX 2 -20883.56 -21795.12 -22048.56 -20531.56 -21188.50
However, the thin lines that are shown in Table 3 is from the HC algorithm
the network are edges that represent the which gives the best scores among the
supplementary edges. Based on the Fig.5, seven learned networks except the log-
we displayed the stronger relationship and likelihood scores. IAMB and Inter- IAMB
the highest value of arc strength in the final both obtained the same highest score
result of the learned network in Table 3. compared with the others. Therefore, the
result from HC algorithm (from Fig.4(a)
TABLE 3 and in Fig.5) is the learned network from
The stronger relationship between the nodes and the which we select the final result of this study.
arc strength in the final result learned network
In Fig.5, the arc from node 2 to node 12
Edges Arc strength represents the strongest relationship among
Q2 to Q12 198.92559 the nodes. Based on the questionnaire, due to
Q4 to Q6 186.66152 students abilities in solving the mathematics
Q11 to Q12 113.60172 questions, they have difficulties with the
Q5 to Q6 102.7143 complicated mathematical symbols and this
causes students to have no confidence in
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g)
Fig.4: Network structures learned by selected algorithms after white list. (a) Hill Climbing; (b) Grow
Shrink; (c) Incremental Association Markov Blanket; (d) Fast Incremental Association Markov Blanket;
(e) Interleaved Incremental Association Markov Blanket; (f) Max Min Hill Climbing; (g) Restricted
Maximization
Fig.5: The final result of the score learned network using the Hill Climbing algorithm.
coming out with a neat and complete solution them to be not sure of which method to use
in solving the mathematics question. The if they are faced with a long mathematics
final result of learned network shows that question. Also in Ilany and Margolin (2010),
this is a major factor that causes students to language of symbols, concepts, definition
be poor in solving mathematics problems. and theorems are considered mathematical
Similarly in Kinzel (1999), students have language. They also mentioned that the
difficulties in understanding and interpreting mathematical language needs to be learned
the symbolic notation used in algebra. and it cannot be developed naturally like a
Capraro and Joffrion (2006) claimed that childs natural language. The arc from Node
middle-school students often demonstrated 11 to node 12 gives the third highest score
much stronger skills in solving formal and for the strength in Table 3. Students always
informal problems that require algebraic make careless mistakes in the process of
reasoning than in symbolizing equations. calculation during their attempt to solve
They also indicate those students abilities to the mathematics questions. The mistakes
solve simple word problems with arithmetic that they make will lead them to be weak
and should be connected to the formal and poor in coming out with a complete
algebraic symbolic notation. solution in solving mathematics problem.
Furthermore, the arc from node 4 to Students are unable to write the appropriate
node 6 shows the second major problem solution for the mathematics question
faced by students in this study. We found given because they do not plan well and
that students who lack understanding of organize in solving mathematics problem.
the mathematics question requirement, From Montague (1988), some students with
failed to transform the question needed learning disabilities may have learned and
into mathematical symbols which causes organized correct strategies and conceptual
knowledge to solve problems, but then fail mathematics symbol which causes them to
to carry out them as is required. be not confident in coming out with a neat
and complete mathematical solution. Having
CONCLUSION identified mathematics symbols as the root
The major problem solving in mathematics cause of the problem in mathematical
that are faced by students in Penang problem solving, future and subsequent
Matriculation College is due to their work can be carried to help students based
understanding of mathematical symbols on their understanding of the various types
that influence their abilities in solving of mathematics symbols.
mathematics problems. From the Bayesian
Network, this score is the highest in the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
final result of learned network. Owing to This work was supported in part by U.S.M.
the complicated and difficult mathematical Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
symbols, the students are unable to perform (FRGS) No. 203/PMATHS/6711319.
their solution well or in other words; they
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APPENDIX 1
The Questionnaire for Mathematics Problems Faced By Matriculation Students
This questionnaire is designed to collect data regarding mathematics problems faced by

matriculation students.
You are required to answer all the questions sincerely. There is no right or wrong answers.
Please circle your preference.
Guideline: 1 = Strongly Disagree

2 = Disagree
3 = Neutral
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly Agree
1. I am lacking in ability to solve the question given because I 12345

do not understand the words/ phrases in mathematics.
2. Complicated mathematics symbols in solving mathematics 12345
question reduces my ability.
3. Long and complicated / tough questions hinder me from 12345
solving the mathematics question.
4. I do not understand the question requirement and fail to 12345
transform to mathematics symbol.
5. I do not know/ am not sure what information is needed at 12345
tackling mathematics question.
6. I am not sure of which method to be used when faced with 12345
long mathematics question.
7. I cannot change to an alternative method when I am stuck 12345
half way with the method used to solve question.
8. I always make mistakes when solving mathematics question 12345
because I am not familiar with the basic operation of
mathematics (+, - , x , ).
9. I am nervous when faced with long mathematics question 12345
because I am unable to connect/ to link the theory that I have
learned.
10. I am always forget the symbol to be used to solve 12345
mathematics question.
11. I am always careless in the process of calculation when 12345
solving mathematics questions.
12. I have no confidence in coming out with a neat and complete 12345
mathematics solution.

Socioeconomic Status, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and

Sedentary Activity in 7-to 11-year-old Iranian Children
Samad Esmaeilzadeh
153 Nasim 1, part III of Sabalan, Ardabil, Iran. (Postal code: 5619888457)
ABSTRACT
This study aimed at Evaluating the socioeconomic status (SES), physical activity (PA),
physical fitness and sedentary activity in Iranian children aged 7-11 years. We analysed
the following cross-section data from a selected sample of children (N=766) aged 7 to 11
years: age, anthropometric characteristics, SES, PA, ten physical fitness tests and sedentary
activities. 29.4% and 31.3% of the children reported TV watching and video playing daily
time (TVVPT) higher than 3 and 4 hours/day, respectively. Fat mass (FM) was significantly
related to PA (r=-0.165; P<0.01), cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) (r=-0.793; P<0.01), and
TVVPT (r=0.200; P<0.01), after controlling for age and SES. Although, the children by
high-SES represented higher height, weight, body mass index, waist circumference, FM
and fat free mass than the children by mid-SES and low-SES, but the differences were
not significant among them. Although, PA was not different among the children by SES,
however, the children by high-SES represented significant higher TVVPT than the children
by mid-SES and low-SES (p<0.05); and had significant lower CRF than the children by
mid-SES (p<0.05). The results of this study indicated higher sedentary activities and lower
CRF in the children by high-SES in comparison to the children by mid-SES and low-SES.
Furthermore, regarding the relationship between FM with PA, CRF and sedentary activity,
increased PA and decreased sedentary behavior in children as much as possible should be
considered.
Keywords: Fat mass, body mass index, TV watching, cardiorespiratory fitness
INTRODUCTION
Regular physical activity (PA) is associated
ARTICLE INFO
with improved physical and psychosocial
Article history:
Received: 25 June 2012 well-being in children (Boreham and
Riddoch, 2001), while frequent television
E-mail address:
Esmaeilzadesamad@yahoo.com / samad.esmaeilzade@yahoo.com viewing appears detrimental (Bar-on, 2000).

Samad Esmaeilzadeh
The family is a potentially important source et al., 2007; Pavon et al., 2010 21; Mutunga
of influence on childrens PA and television et al., 2006) with contradictory results.
viewing (Ritchie et al., 2005). There is These studies concluded that studies from a
inconsistent evidence for an association widespread vision and including populations
between socioeconomic status (SES), from different countries (by different Social
the most commonly investigated aspect and cultural contexts) are required to
of family circumstance, and the physical facilitate a better understanding.
activity of preadolescent children. A 1999 Moreover, the prevalence of child
review (Sallis et al., 2000) of studies obesity is rapidly increasing worldwide
considering SES and PA associations in (World Health Organisation, 1998). The
412 year olds found positive, negative specific causes of overweight and obesity
and no associations were reported. On the are varied and complex but, at a population
balance of evidence the review concluded level, are consistent with sustained positive
there was no association. Even recent energy balance. Sedentary behavior and low
studies, using objective assessments of levels of PA may, in part, explain the rising
PA (e.g., accelerometer, pedometer) still prevalence of childhood overweight and
report equivocal results (Kelly et al., 2006; obesity (Wang and Lobstein, 2006).
Eisenmann and Wickel, 2009). A simultaneous assessment of weight
On the other hand, speed-agility, status, anthropometric variables, PA,
muscular fitness, and cardiorespiratory physical fitness and sedentary behavior
fitness (CRF) are considered important among children by different SES especially
health related markers already in youth in Iran is scanty. Therefore, the primary
(Pavon et al. 2010; Ortega et al., 2008b). aim of this study is to assess comparison
Genetics greatly determines physical fitness of anthropometric characteristics, physical
(Bray et al., 2009), but there is little doubt fitness tests, PA and sedentary behavior
that environmental factors also play an of the sample of 7-11 year old boys in
important role. Socioeconomic status is Ardabil, Iran by different SES. Furthermore,
associated with several health outcomes the secondary aim is to evaluate possible
(e.g., birth weight, obesity, diet, etc.) as relationship between adiposity with PA,
mentioned by Ramsay et al., (2008), and CRF and sedentary behavior in the selected
with mortality rate (Berkman, 2005). sample of children.
To better understand the specific role of
different indicators of socioeconomic METHODOLOGY
status on health-related fitness markers Participants
will enable a more efficient physical fitness
The present analyses included data from 766
promotion. In this regard, the association
school boys, aged 7 - 11 years (mean 9.2 3.4
between socioeconomic status and fitness
years), attending the 1th- 5th grade classes
was investigated in different areas (Freitas
of primary schools which were selected
Socioeconomic Status, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Sedentary Activity in 7-to 11-year-old Iranian Children
with stratified sampling in urban areas of Tricipital skin folds (TSF) and subscapular
Ardabils capital, North West of the Iran. skin folds (SESF) were measured three
Ardabils capital stands about 70km from times on the right side of the body using
the Caspian Sea with an area of 18011km, an adipometer (Lange, Beta Technology
and 537920 inhabitants. The nature and Incorporated, Cambridge, USA) and the
purpose of the study were explained to mean of all three measurements was used
parents before consent was obtained, and for analysis. Body adiposity was then
participation was on a voluntary basis. The estimated using the equation and sex-
measurements and the tests that the children specific reference values proposed by
underwent were carried out during regularly (Lohman, 1986; Lohman, 1987), based on
scheduled physical education classes. The summing the two skin-fold measurements.
age of the subject was determined from Body Fat percentage and then Fat mass
their date of birth in their school register. calculated according to the following
The age was rounded off to the nearest equations:
whole number. This study was approved Prepubescent white males:
by the Ethical Committee of the Ardabil %BF= 1.21(SS*) - .008(SS) 2 - 1.7
Department of Education, Iran (?). *
SS= Sum of triceps and subscapular
skinfolds
Anthropometric variables
Weight was measured in underwear and For a sum of triceps and subscapular
without shoes with an electronic scale (Type > 35mm
SECA 861) to the nearest 0.1 kg, and height All males: %BF= 0.783(SS) + 1.6
was measured barefoot in the Frankfort Fat mass (FM) = weight * fat
horizontal plane with a telescopic height percentage/100
measuring instrument (Type SECA 225)
to the nearest 0.1 cm. Body mass index TV watching and video playing daily time
(BMI) was calculated as body weight in (TVVPT)
kilograms divided by the square of height Children and their parent(s) were given a
in meters. Cut-off points for BMI defining, written questionnaire, which was filled out
underweight, normal weight, overweight by the parent(s) only if the child was aged
and obesity were identified by using the less than 8 years, and both parent and child
International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) together if the child was between the ages
BMI cut-off points (Cole et al., 2005; Cole of 8 and 11. If completed by parent and
et al., 2000). Waist (at the level of the child together, they were instructed to agree
umbilicus and the superior iliac crest) was on and record a single estimate of average
measured to the nearest centimeter using daily time spent watching TV (time spent
flexible tape rule, while the subject was watching TV, videotapes, or DVDs) and
standing erect. In order to fat% evaluation, playing video game (time spent on a home
Samad Esmaeilzadeh
computer or video game). Parent estimates PA of large and small populations at low
of child viewing and playing time have cost (Kowalski et al., 2007).
been shown to be reliable predictors of
child screen time (Anderson et al., 1985). Physical fitness measurements
In order to further ensure the validity of Physical fitness was determined using ten
TVVPT estimates, we verbally reviewed physical fitness tests which were completed
and confirmed the time estimate obtained during regularly scheduled physical
from the questionnaire during the clinical education classes. At the beginning of taking
interview with the parent(s) and, if aged over each test, the examiner explained the testing
8 years, the child. procedures to the participants in details.
1. Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF):
Physical activity (PA)
The 1-mile run test was used to assess
Physical activity for children was measured VO 2max (Welk and Meredith, 2008).
using the PA Questionnaire - Children The objective of the mile run was
(PAQ-C) (Kowalski et al., 1997). The to cover a mile in the shortest time
PAQ-C is used to assess the PA behaviors of possible. Students were encouraged
the participants at different times and places to run throughout the test and to take
(i.e., during school, after school, recess, walking breaks only as needed. Physical
weekend, etc.) during the previous seven education instructor also reminded
days. Scoring is based on a 5-point Likert children to avoid starting too fast to
type scale, with an overall PA score derived avoid premature fatigue. This test has
from the mean of each scored item. Greater shown to be valid and reliable for the
levels of PA are indicated by higher scores prediction of the VO2max in children
and vice versa. The PAQ-C has been tested (Welk and Meredith, 2008). The CRF
and re-tested and results have shown that is then calculated according to the
the instrument is reliable and valid measure following formula (Welk and Meredith,
of PA for children during the school year. 2008):
Kowalski et al. (1997) reported moderately
high validity coefficients for the PAQ-C VO2max = (0.21 * age * gender) (0.84
when compared to a variety of criterion * BMI) (8.41 * time) + (0.34 * time *
measures, including activity ratings, recall time) + 108.94
questionnaires, and activity monitors (r = Gender = 1 for males and 0 for females;
.39 to .63,). The test retest reliability for Time is in minutes
the PAQ-C ranged from r = 0.75 to 0.82 2. Sit ups: Maximum number of sit
and internal consistency reliability values ups achieved in 60 seconds. This test
(coefficient alpha) ranged from 0.81 to 0.86 measures the endurance of the abdominal
(Crocker et al., 1997). This instrument is muscles (Welk and Meredith, 2008).
widely used in research in order to assess
3. Modified pull ups: To measure upper Status (Hollingshead, 1975; Cirino et al.,
arm and shoulder girdle strength 2002). SES was calculated on the basis of
and muscular endurance (Welk and education and occupation levels. SES index
Meredith, 2008). values (range: 866) were categorized as
4. Pushups: This test measures upper arm high (values of 4866), moderate (values
and shoulder girdle strength/endurance of 2847), or low (values of 8 27) (Hassan
(Welk and Meredith, 2008). et al., 2006).
5. Sit and reach: Reaching as far as

Data Analysis
possible from a sitting position. This
test measures the flexibility of the Data were screened for problems of skew,
hamstrings, buttocks, and lower back kurtosis, and outliers. Descriptive statistics
(EUROFIT, 1988). were run on all variables. The primary
independent variable was socioeconomic
6. Standing long jump: Jumping for status defined as high-SES (values of 48
distance from a standing start. This test 66), mid-SES (values of 2847), and low-
measures explosive strength (EUROFIT, SES (values of 8 27) which was estimated
1988). by using the Hollingshead 4-Factor Index of
7. Hand grip: Squeezing a calibrated hand Social Status (Hollingshead, 1975; Cirino
dynamometer as forcefully as possible et al., 2002, Hassan et al., 2006). The
with the dominant hand. Static strength dependent variables were physical fitness
is assessed (EUROFIT, 1988). tests, PA, anthropometric variables, and
8. Vertical jump: The vertical difference TVVPT. Chi-square analyses were used to
in centimeters (cm) between the original detect differences of underweight, normal
trace (extension, standing on the toes), weight, overweight and obesity rates among
before jumping, and the trace after the the children by SES. One-way analyses of
jump. This test measures explosive variances (ANOVA) were carried out to
strength (EUROFIT, 1988). assess differences in the anthropometric
variables, TVVPT, physical fitness tests, and
9. 410m shuttle run test: Speed of
PA scores among the children by low-SES,
movement, agility and coordination
mid-SES, and high-SES of this study. The
assessment (Ortega et al., 2008a).
Scheffe correction was used for multiple
10. 30-meter sprint (from standing comparisons. Pearson correlation coefficient
position): This test measures speed. was used to assess the relationship between
fat mass and selected variables. For further
Socioeconomic status evaluation, Partial correlation coefficient
The socioeconomic status (SES) of the was used to assess relationship between fat
families was estimated by using the mass, VO2max, PA, and sedentary behavior by
Hollingshead 4-Factor Index of Social controlling for age and SES. All calculations
Samad Esmaeilzadeh
were performed using SPSS v.18.0 software difference for the anthropometric variables
for Windows. The significance level was set (height, weight, BMI, WC, FM and FFM)
at p< 0.05. (p>0.05). Nonetheless, the results showed
significant difference for the overweight/
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION obesity and underweight prevalence among
All variables approximated a normal the children by SES (see Table 1). By
distribution (skew: <3, kurtosis: <10). referring to Table 1 of this study it was
The Hollingshead Index indicated that showed that the rate of underweight in the
9.7% families were of high-SES, 66.4% children by low-SES and high-SES was 9%
of mid-SES, and 23.9% of low-SES (see and 1.9%, respectively; and in contrast the
Table 1). Table 1 shows the prevalence of rate of obesity in the children by low-SES and
underweight, normal weight, overweight high-SES was 0% and 9.7%, respectively.
and obesity according to SES. The results Tharkar and Viswanathan (2009) found
of this table show that the prevalence of that high-SES children had higher height,
underweight, normal weight, overweight weight and waist circumference than low-
and obesity is 10.7%, 71%, 14.1% and 4.2%, SES group. Furthermore, they reported
respectively. Chi-square analyses indicated that Prevalence of overweight and obesity
significant difference for the prevalence of was significantly higher among the high-
underweight, overweight and obesity among SES children. In contrast, McMurray et
the children by SES (P<0.05). al. (2000) and Poskitt et al. (1993) found
The primary aim of this study was to low-SES adolescents were more likely to be
evaluate anthropometric characteristics, overweight and obese than their high-SES
PA, physical fitness and sedentary activity counterparts. Wang (2002) reported that
in a sample of 7-11 year boys by different children by higher SES were more likely to
SES. Although the results (Table 2) showed be obese in China and Russia, but in the US
that the children by high-SES had higher low-SES children were at a higher risk. He
weight, FM, BMI and WC than the other concluded that prevalence of obesity varied
counterparts, however, ANOVA analyses remarkably across countries with different
indicated that there was no significant socioeconomic development levels.
TABLE 1
Prevalence of underweight, normal weight, overweight and obesity among the children by SES
Low-SES Mid-SES High-SES

(n=183) (n=509) (n=74)
Underweight (n=82) 9% (n=16.5) 14% (n=71.3) 1.9% (n=1.4)
Normal weight (544) 70% (n=128.1) 67.4% (n=343.1) 69.2% (n=51.2)
Overweight (n=108) 21% (n=38.4) 14.5% (n=73.8) 19.2% (n=14.2)
Obese (n=32) 0% (n=0) 4.1% (n=20.8) 9.7% (n=7.2)
TABLE 2
Comparison of various anthropometric variables among the children by different SES
Low-SES (1) Mid-SES (2) High-SES (3) F P

(n=183) (n=509) (n=74)
Height(cm) 131.58.8 132.88.8 132.16.3 1.06 NS

Weight(kg) 29.88.5 30.38 31.35.1 0.62 NS
BMI(kg/m 2) 16.92.7 172.9 17.92.6 2.8 NS
Fat Mass(kg) 7.84.9 7.74.9 8.43.8 0.5 NS
FFM(kg) 22.14.1 22.73.9 22.93 1.3 NS
Waist circumference (cm) 59.68.6 59.58.1 61.76.7 1.65 NS
Significance of differences was evaluated by ANOVA for all variables. *Significant at <0.05; **Significant at <0.01.
Numbers show groups: Low-SES (Group 1), Mid-SES (Group 2), High-SES (Group 3)
The present study results showed that run test), lower-body muscular strength
except VO 2max and sit ups all the other (standing long jump, squat jump, counter
physical fitness variables were not different movement jump, Abalakov jump) and one
among the children by different SES (see upper-body muscular strength test (bent
Table 3 and 4). The children by high-SES arm hang), while no associations for speed-
did significantly better sit ups than the agility (4 x 10 m shuttle run test) and other
children by low-SES (p<0.05); however, upper-body muscular strength (handgrip)
had lower VO 2max than the children by were found (Pavon et al., 2010). Mutunga
mid-SES (p<0.05). Contradictory results et al. (2006) reported higher CRF (20 m
between SES and physical fitness have been shuttle run test) in boys and girls with higher
reported (Freitas et al., 2007; Pavon et al., socioeconomic status compared to those
2010, p. 21; Mutunga et al., 2006). Freitas with lower socioeconomic status. Therefore,
et al. (2007) reported adverse relationship discrepancies among the studies might
between socioeconomic status and CRF be due to the specific social and cultural
(12 min walk-run) and muscular strength contexts of each country, together with
(standing long jump and bent arm hang); and the different methodologies used to assess
positive association between socioeconomic socioeconomic status and physical fitness.
status and speed-agility performance (5 x Furthermore, it should be stated that the
10 m shuttle run test) in boys. They also means of CRF among the children by SES
reported a higher upper-body muscular are close to each other, and the significant
strength (handgrip) in those boys with difference of CRF between the children by
medium socioeconomic status compared mid-SES and high-SES might be because of
to those with lower socioeconomic status high sample size.
(Freitas et al., 2007). Pavon et al. (2010) The results of this study found no
found positive associations between difference for PA among the children by
socioeconomic status and CRF (20 m shuttle SES (see Table 4). However the previous
Samad Esmaeilzadeh
TABLE 3
Comparison of physical fitness variables among the children by SES

(n=183) (n=509) (n=74)
One-mile(s) 664.8116 646.9111 667.3113 1.2 NS
Sit and reach(cm) 29.56.1 28.25.9 27.26.7 3 NS
Vertical jump(cm) 21.24.6 224.2 20.54.6 2.7 NS
Standing long jump(cm) 114.221.6 119.223.2 115.629.4 1.9 NS
Hand grip(kg) 196 19.26.2 18.14.5 0.8 NS
Time in run speed (s) 6.80.7 6.70.8 6.70.6 1.7 NS
Time in 410m shuttle run (s) 13.81 13.91.2 13.81.2 0.2 NS
Pull ups(n) 106 9.46.9 8.56.4 0.8 NS
Pushups(n) 13.110.1 13.210.2 9.56.9 2.95 NS
Sit ups(n) 17.39.3 19.210.7 21.811.5 3.2 13*
Numbers show groups: Low-SES (Group 1), Mid-SES (Group 2), High-SES (Group 3).
literatures have reported equivocal findings total energy expenditure was not higher in
concerning the relationship between SES higher SES youth, due to lower participation
and PA levels in children and adolescents in unstructured activities. Besides the
(Inchley et al., 2005; Kelly et al., 2006). often cited socio-environmental reasons,
Even recent studies, by using objective biological aspects have also been shown
assessments of PA (e.g., accelerometer, to influence habitual PA (Lightfoot, 2008).
pedometer) reported equivocal results The results of this study (see Table
(Eisenmann and Wickel, 2009). There are 4) showed that TVVPT of the high-SES
several possible reasons for differences in subjects was significantly higher than both
habitual PA to exist across socio-economic low-SES and mid-SES subjects (p<0.05).
backgrounds, including behavioral, socio- Furthermore, in our study, Ardabilian
cultural, and/or biological factors. For schoolboys reported higher TVVPT (29.4%
example, socio-environmental influences >3 h/day; and 31.3% >4 h/day) than
may include accessibility to sports/exercise adolescents from some developed countries,
facilities as well as safety (Lovasi et al., where a 24.7% of US (Eisenmann et al.,
2009). However, some studies have argued 2002) and 2224% Finnish (Tammelin et
that SES does not influence overall PA al., 2007); or less than some other countries
levels in children and adolescence despite such as 3638% of Welsh (Vereecken et al.,
a higher participation in formal sports in 2006) which reported watching TV >4 h/
children and adolescents with a higher SES day. In contrast to this study some studies
(Macintyre and Mutrie, 2004). For example, reported that children from a low SES show
Macintyre and Mutrie (2004) indicated that a trend of lower PA levels and spend more
TABLE 4
Comparison of TVVPT, physical activity and VO2max among the children by SES

(n=183) (n=509) (n=74)
TVVPT (min) 180.788 180.686.7 218.170.1 4.45 13*, 23*
Physical activity (score) 3.21.6 3.11.75 3.251.55 0.3 NS
VO2max (ml/kg/min) 46.33.2 46.53 45.13.6 3.7 23*
Numbers show groups: Low-SES (Group 1), Mid-SES (Group 2), High-SES (Group 3)
TABLE 5
Pearson correlation and Partial correlation (controlling for age and SES) between fat mass and selected
variables
Pearson correlation Partial correlation Partial correlation

Fat mass (controlling for age) (controlling for age and SES)
Fat mass Fat mass
Age (year) 0.397** ********* *********
Physical activity (score) -0.120** -0.130* -0.165**
VO2max (ml/kg/min) -0.700** -0.792** -0.793**
TVVPT (min) 0.162** 0.169** 0.200**
*Significant at <0.05; **Significant at <0.01.
time in sedentary behavior (TV viewing) when practiced regularly, PA reduces

than high SES children (Drenowatz et al., the risk for a range of chronic disease.
2010). Not also TV watching time, but It helps building strong bones, healthy
also, video playing daily time was taken joints, a strong heart, a good mental health
in this study. So, it is probable that higher and prevents todays major public health
accessibility for having video playing concern obesity (Ferreira et al., 2007;
instruments in the high-SES group might Strong et al., 2005). It has been reported that
be the cause of having higher cumulative Physical inactivity is a strong contributor
TVVPT than their mid-SES and low-SES to overweight. Sedentary activities such as
counterparts. Moreover, specific social and excessive television viewing, computer use,
cultural contexts of each country should video games, and telephone conversations
be considered. However, the results of this should be discouraged. Reducing sedentary
study showed significant direct relationship behaviors to <2 hours per day is important
between fat mass with TVVPT, and to increasing PA and to health (Strong et
adversely significant negative relationship al., 2005).
with PA and CRF, even after controlling Nonetheless, the main limitation of this
for age and SES (see Table 5). Physical study is its cross-sectional nature. Moreover,
activity (PA) is a health enhancing behavior: this study couldnt take subjects of both
Samad Esmaeilzadeh
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REFEREES FOR THE PERTANIKA
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
VOL. 22(1) MAR. 2014
The Editorial Board of the Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities wishes to thank the following:
Abd Haris Shamsuddin Chin Yee Whah Lilly Metom

(UiTM, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia) (UiTM, Malaysia)
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Pertanika accepts submission of mainly four types of manuscripts. Each manuscript is classified as regular or original articles,
short communications, reviews, and proposals for special issues. Articles must be in English and they must be competently
written and argued in clear and concise grammatical English. Acceptable English usage and syntax are expected. Do not use
slang, jargon, or obscure abbreviations or phrasing. Metric measurement is preferred; equivalent English measurement may
be included in parentheses. Always provide the complete form of an acronym/abbreviation the first time it is presented in the
text. Contributors are strongly recommended to have the manuscript checked by a colleague with ample experience in writing
English manuscripts or an English language editor.
Linguistically hopeless manuscripts will be rejected straightaway (e.g., when the language is so poor that one cannot be sure
of what the authors really mean). This process, taken by authors before submission, will greatly facilitate reviewing, and thus
publication if the content is acceptable.
The instructions for authors must be followed. Manuscripts not adhering to the instructions will be returned for revision without
review. Authors should prepare manuscripts according to the guidelines of Pertanika.
1. Regular article
Definition: Full-length original empirical investigations, consisting of introduction, materials and methods, results and discussion,
conclusions. Original work must provide references and an explanation on research findings that contain new and significant
findings.
Size: Should not exceed 5000 words or 8-10 printed pages (excluding the abstract, references, tables and/or figures). One
printed page is roughly equivalent to 3 type-written pages.
2. Short communications
Definition: Significant new information to readers of the Journal in a short but complete form. It is suitable for the publication of
technical advance, bioinformatics or insightful findings of plant and animal development and function.
Size: Should not exceed 2000 words or 4 printed pages, is intended for rapid publication. They are not intended for publishing
preliminary results or to be a reduced version of Regular Papers or Rapid Papers.
3. Review article
Definition: Critical evaluation of materials about current research that had already been published by organizing, integrating,
and evaluating previously published materials. Re-analyses as meta-analysis and systemic reviews are encouraged. Review
articles should aim to provide systemic overviews, evaluations and interpretations of research in a given field.
Size: Should not exceed 4000 words or 7-8 printed pages.
4. Special issues
Definition: Usually papers from research presented at a conference, seminar, congress or a symposium.
Size: Should not exceed 5000 words or 8-10 printed pages.
5. Others
Definition: Brief reports, case studies, comments, Letters to the Editor, and replies on previously published articles may be
considered.
Size: Should not exceed 2000 words or up to 4 printed pages.
With few exceptions, original manuscripts should not exceed the recommended length of 6 printed pages (about 18 typed pages,
double-spaced and in 12-point font, tables and figures included). Printing is expensive, and, for the Journal, postage doubles
when an issue exceeds 80 pages. You can understand then that there is little room for flexibility.
Long articles reduce the Journals possibility to accept other high-quality contributions because of its 80-page restriction. We
would like to publish as many good studies as possible, not only a few lengthy ones. (And, who reads overly long articles
anyway?) Therefore, in our competition, short and concise manuscripts have a definite advantage.
Format
The paper should be formatted in one column format with at least 4cm margins and 1.5 line spacing throughout. Authors are
advised to use Times New Roman 12-point font. Be especially careful when you are inserting special characters, as those
inserted in different fonts may be replaced by different characters when converted to PDF files. It is well known that will be
replaced by other characters when fonts such as Symbol or Mincho are used.
A maximum of eight keywords should be indicated below the abstract to describe the contents of the manuscript. Leave a blank
line between each paragraph and between each entry in the list of bibliographic references. Tables should preferably be placed
in the same electronic file as the text. Authors should consult a recent issue of the Journal for table layout.
Every page of the manuscript, including the title page, references, tables, etc. should be numbered. However, no reference
should be made to page numbers in the text; if necessary, one may refer to sections. Underline words that should be in italics,
and do not underline any other words.
We recommend that authors prepare the text as a Microsoft Word file.
1. Manuscripts in general should be organised in the following order:
o Page 1: Running title. (Not to exceed 60 characters, counting letters and spaces). This page should only
contain the running title of your paper. The running title is an abbreviated title used as the running head on
every page of the manuscript.
In addition, the Subject areas most relevant to the study must be indicated on this page. Select the
appropriate subject areas from the Scope of the Journals provided in the Manuscript Submission Guide.
o A list of number of black and white / colour figures and tables should also be indicated on this page.
Figures submitted in color will be printed in colour. See 5. Figures & Photographs for details.
o Page 2: Author(s) and Corresponding author information. This page should contain the full title of
your paper with name(s) of all the authors, institutions and corresponding authors name, institution and
full address (Street address, telephone number (including extension), hand phone number, fax number and
e-mail address) for editorial correspondence. The names of the authors must be abbreviated following the
international naming convention. e.g. Salleh, A.B., Tan, S.G., or Sapuan, S.M.
Authors addresses. Multiple authors with different addresses must indicate their respective addresses
separately by superscript numbers:
George Swan1 and Nayan Kanwal2
1
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
2
Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (R&I), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia.
o Page 3: This page should repeat the full title of your paper with only the Abstract (the abstract should be
less than 250 words for a Regular Paper and up to 100 words for a Short Communication). Keywords must
also be provided on this page (Not more than eight keywords in alphabetical order).
o Page 4 and subsequent pages: This page should begin with the Introduction of your article and the rest of
your paper should follow from page 5 onwards.
Abbreviations. Define alphabetically, other than abbreviations that can be used without definition. Words or
phrases that are abbreviated in the introduction and following text should be written out in full the first time that
they appear in the text, with each abbreviated form in parenthesis. Include the common name or scientific name,
or both, of animal and plant materials.
Footnotes. Current addresses of authors if different from heading.
2. Text. Regular Papers should be prepared with the headings Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results
and Discussion, Conclusions in this order. Short Communications should be prepared according to 8. Short
Communications. below.
3. Tables. All tables should be prepared in a form consistent with recent issues of Pertanika and should be numbered
consecutively with Arabic numerals. Explanatory material should be given in the table legends and footnotes. Each
table should be prepared on a separate page. (Note that when a manuscript is accepted for publication, tables must
be submitted as data - .doc, .rtf, Excel or PowerPoint file- because tables submitted as image data cannot be edited
for publication.)
4. Equations and Formulae. These must be set up clearly and should be typed triple spaced. Numbers identifying
equations should be in square brackets and placed on the right margin of the text.
5. Figures & Photographs. Submit an original figure or photograph. Line drawings must be clear, with high black and
white contrast. Each figure or photograph should be prepared on a separate sheet and numbered consecutively with
Arabic numerals. Appropriate sized numbers, letters and symbols should be used, no smaller than 2 mm in size after
reduction to single column width (85 mm), 1.5-column width (120 mm) or full 2-column width (175 mm). Failure to comply
with these specifications will require new figures and delay in publication. For electronic figures, create your figures
using applications that are capable of preparing high resolution TIFF files acceptable for publication. In general, we
require 300 dpi or higher resolution for coloured and half-tone artwork and 1200 dpi or higher for line drawings.
For review, you may attach low-resolution figures, which are still clear enough for reviewing, to keep the file of the
manuscript under 5 MB. Illustrations may be produced at extra cost in colour at the discretion of the Publisher; the
author could be charged Malaysian Ringgit 50 for each colour page.
6. References. Literature citations in the text should be made by name(s) of author(s) and year. For references with
more than two authors, the name of the first author followed by et al. should be used.
Swan and Kanwal (2007) reported that

The results have been interpreted (Kanwal et al., 2009).
o References should be listed in alphabetical order, by the authors last names. For the same author, or for the
same set of authors, references should be arranged chronologically. If there is more than one publication in
the same year for the same author(s), the letters a, b, etc., should be added to the year.
o When the authors are more than 11, list 5 authors and then et al.
o Do not use indentations in typing References. Use one line of space to separate each reference. The name
of the journal should be written in full. For example:
Mellers, B. A. (2006a). Choice and the relative pleasure of consequences. Psychological Bulletin,
126, 910-924.
Mellers, B. A. (2006b). Treatment for sexually abused children and adolescents. American
Psychologist, 55, 1040-1049.
Hawe, P. (2005). Capturing the meaning of community in community intervention evaluation: Some
contributions from community psychology. Health Promotion International, 9,199-210.
Braconier, H., & Ekholm, K. (2006). Swedish multinationals and competition from high and low wage
location. Review of International Economics, 8, 448-461.
o In case of citing an author(s) who has published more than one paper in the same year, the papers should be
distinguished by addition of a small letter as shown above, e.g. Jalaludin (1997a); Jalaludin (1997b).
o Unpublished data and personal communications should not be cited as literature citations, but given in the
text in parentheses. In press articles that have been accepted for publication may be cited in References.
Include in the citation the journal in which the in press article will appear and the publication date, if a date
is available.
7. Examples of other reference citations:
Monographs: Kalimapour, Y.R. (2004). Images of the U.S. Around the World: A Multicultural Perspective. Albany, NY:
State University of New York Press.
Chapter in Book: Bjork, R. A. (2007). Retrieval inhibition as an adaptive mechanism in human memory. In H. L. Roediger
III & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Varieties of memory & consciousness (pp. 309-330). Hull: Hull University Press.
o Proceedings: Amir Awang. (2006). Counseling, human resources development and counseling services. In
Sulaiman M. Yassin, Yahya Mat Hassan, Kamariah Abu Bakar, Esah Munji and Sabariah Mohd. Rashid (Eds.),
Proceedings of Asia Pacific Conference on Human Development (p. 243-246). Serdang: Universiti Putra
Malaysia.
8. Short Communications should include Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion, Conclusions
in this order. Headings should only be inserted for Materials and Methods. The abstract should be up to 100 words,
as stated above. Short Communications must be 5 printed pages or less, including all references, figures and tables.
References should be less than 30. A 5 page paper is usually approximately 3000 words plus four figures or tables (if
each figure or table is less than 1/4 page).
*Authors should state the total number of words (including the Abstract) in the cover letter. Manuscripts that do not fulfill
these criteria will be rejected as Short Communications without review.
STYLE OF THE MANUSCRIPT

Manuscripts should follow the style of the latest version of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association
(APA). The journal uses American or British spelling and authors may follow the latest edition of the Oxford Advanced Learners
Dictionary for British spellings.
SUBMISSION OF MANUSCRIPTS
All articles should be submitted electronically using the ScholarOne web-based system. ScholarOne, a Thomson Reuters product
provides comprehensive workflow management systems for scholarly journals. For more information, go to our web page and
click Online Submission.
Alternatively, you may submit the electronic files (cover letter, manuscript, and the Manuscript Submission Kit comprising
Declaration and Referral form) via email directly to the Executive Editor. If the files are too large to email, mail a CD containing
the files. The Manuscript Submission Guide and Submission Kit are available from the Pertanikas home page at http://www.
pertanika.upm.edu.my/home.php or from the Chief Executive Editors office upon request.
All articles submitted to the journal must comply with these instructions. Failure to do so will result in return of the manuscript
and possible delay in publication.
Please do not submit manuscripts to the editor-in-chief or to any other office directly. All manuscripts must be submitted through
the chief executive editors office to be properly acknowledged and rapidly processed at the address below:
Dr. Nayan KANWAL

Chief Executive Editor
Pertanika Journals, UPM Press
IDEA Tower II, UPM-MTDC Technology Centre
43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia
E-mail: nayan@upm.my; journal.officer@gmail.com tel: + 603-8947 1622
or visit our website at http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/ for further information.
Authors should retain copies of submitted manuscripts and correspondence, as materials can not be returned. Authors are required
to inform the Chief Executive Editor of any change of address which occurs whilst their papers are in the process of publication.
Cover letter
All submissions must be accompanied by a cover letter detailing what you are submitting. Papers are accepted for
publication in the journal on the understanding that the article is original and the content has not been published or
submitted for publication elsewhere. This must be stated in the cover letter.
The cover letter must also contain an acknowledgement that all authors have contributed significantly, and that all authors are
in agreement with the content of the manuscript.
The cover letter of the paper should contain (i) the title; (ii) the full names of the authors; (iii) the addresses of the institutions at
which the work was carried out together with (iv) the full postal and email address, plus facsimile and telephone numbers of the
author to whom correspondence about the manuscript should be sent. The present address of any author, if different from that
where the work was carried out, should be supplied in a footnote.
As articles are double-blind reviewed, material that might identify authorship of the paper should be placed on a cover sheet.
Peer review
Pertanika follows a double-blind peer-review process. Peer reviewers are experts chosen by journal editors to provide written
assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of written research, with the aim of improving the reporting of research and
identifying the most appropriate and highest quality material for the journal.
In the peer-review process, three referees independently evaluate the scientific quality of the submitted manuscripts. Authors
are encouraged to indicate in the Referral form using the Manuscript Submission Kit the names of three potential reviewers,
but the editors will make the final choice. The editors are not, however, bound by these suggestions..
Manuscripts should be written so that they are intelligible to the professional reader who is not a specialist in the particular field.
They should be written in a clear, concise, direct style. Where contributions are judged as acceptable for publication on the basis
of content, the Editor reserves the right to modify the typescripts to eliminate ambiguity and repetition, and improve communication
between author and reader. If extensive alterations are required, the manuscript will be returned to the author for revision.
The Journals review process

What happens to a manuscript once it is submitted to Pertanika? Typically, there are seven steps to the editorial review process:
1. The executive editor and the editorial board examine the paper to determine whether it is appropriate for the journal and
should be reviewed. If not appropriate, the manuscript is rejected outright and the author is informed.
2. The executive editor sends the article-identifying information having been removed, to three reviewers. Typically, one of
these is from the Journals editorial board. Others are specialists in the subject matter represented by the article. The
executive editor asks them to complete the review in three weeks and encloses two forms: (a) referral form B and (b)
reviewers comment form along with reviewers guidelines. Comments to authors are about the appropriateness and
adequacy of the theoretical or conceptual framework, literature review, method, results and discussion, and conclusions.
Reviewers often include suggestions for strengthening of the manuscript. Comments to the editor are in the nature of
the significance of the work and its potential contribution to the literature.
3. The executive editor, in consultation with the editor-in-chief, examines the reviews and decides whether to reject the
manuscript, invite the author(s) to revise and resubmit the manuscript, or seek additional reviews. Final acceptance or
rejection rests with the Editorial Board, who reserves the right to refuse any material for publication. In rare instances,
the manuscript is accepted with almost no revision. Almost without exception, reviewers comments (to the author)
are forwarded to the author. If a revision is indicated, the editor provides guidelines for attending to the reviewers
suggestions and perhaps additional advice about revising the manuscript.
4. The authors decide whether and how to address the reviewers comments and criticisms and the editors concerns.
The authors submit a revised version of the paper to the executive editor along with specific information describing how
they have answered the concerns of the reviewers and the editor.
5. The executive editor sends the revised paper out for review. Typically, at least one of the original reviewers will be
asked to examine the article.
6. When the reviewers have completed their work, the executive editor in consultation with the editorial board and the
editor-in-chief examine their comments and decide whether the paper is ready to be published, needs another round
of revisions, or should be rejected.
7. If the decision is to accept, the paper is sent to that Press and the article should appear in print in approximately three
months. The Publisher ensures that the paper adheres to the correct style (in-text citations, the reference list, and tables
are typical areas of concern, clarity, and grammar). The authors are asked to respond to any queries by the Publisher.
Following these corrections, page proofs are mailed to the corresponding authors for their final approval. At this point,
only essential changes are accepted. Finally, the article appears in the pages of the Journal and is posted on-line.
English language editing
Pertanika emphasizes on the linguistic accuracy of every manuscript published. Thus all authors are required to get their
manuscripts edited by professional English language editors. Author(s) must provide a certificate confirming that their
manuscripts have been adequately edited. A proof from a recognised editing service should be submitted together with the cover
letter at the time of submitting a manuscript to Pertanika. All costs will be borne by the author(s).
This step, taken by authors before submission, will greatly facilitate reviewing, and thus publication if the content is acceptable.
Author material archive policy

Authors who require the return of any submitted material that is rejected for publication in the journal should indicate on the
cover letter. If no indication is given, that authors material should be returned, the Editorial Office will dispose of all hardcopy
and electronic material.
Copyright
Authors publishing the Journal will be asked to sign a declaration form. In signing the form, it is assumed that authors have
obtained permission to use any copyrighted or previously published material. All authors must read and agree to the conditions
outlined inthe form, and must sign the form or agree that the corresponding author can sign on their behalf. Articles cannot be
published until a signed form has been received.
Lag time
A decision on acceptance or rejection of a manuscript is reached in 3 to 4 months (average 14 weeks). The elapsed time from
submission to publication for the articles averages 5-6 months.
Hardcopies of the Journals and off prints

Under the Journals open access initiative, authors can choose to download free material (via PDF link) from any of the journal
issues from Pertanikas website. Under Browse Journals you will see a link entitled Current Issues or Archives. Here you
will get access to all back-issues from 1978 onwards.
The corresponding author for all articles will receive one complimentary hardcopy of the journal in which his/her articles is
published. In addition, 20 off prints of the full text of their article will also be provided. Additional copies of the journals may be
purchased by writing to the executive editor.
Why should you publish in About the Journal
Pertanika? Pertanika is an international multidisciplinary peer-
reviewed leading journal in Malaysia which began
publication in 1978. The journal publishes in three
BENEFITS TO AUTHORS different areas Journal of Tropical Agricultural
Science (JTAS); Journal of Science and Technology (JST);
PROFILE: Our journals are circulated in large numbers all over and Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (JSSH).
Malaysia, and beyond in Southeast Asia. Our circulation covers
other overseas countries as well. We ensure that your work reaches JTAS is devoted to the publication of original papers
that serves as a forum for practical approaches to
the widest possible audience in print and online, through our wide
improving quality in issues pertaining to tropical
publicity campaigns held frequently, and through our constantly agricultural research- or related fields of study. It
developing electronic initiatives such as Web of Science Author is published four times a year in February, May,
Connect backed by Thomson Reuters. August and November.
QUALITY: Our journals reputation for quality is unsurpassed JST caters for science and engineering research-
or related fields of study. It is published twice a year in
ensuring that the originality, authority and accuracy of your work
January and July.
is fully recognised. Each manuscript submitted to Pertanika
undergoes a rigid originality check. Our double-blind peer refereeing JSSH deals in research or theories in social sciences and humanities research. It
procedures are fair and open, and we aim to help authors develop aims to develop as a flagship journal with a focus on emerging issues pertaining to
and improve their scientific work. Pertanika is now over 35 years the social and behavioural sciences as well as the humanities, particularly in the
Asia Pacific region. It is published four times a year in March, June, September and
old; this accumulated knowledge has resulted in our journals being
December.
indexed in SCOPUS (Elsevier), Thomson (ISI) Web of Knowledge
[BIOSIS & CAB Abstracts], EBSCO, DOAJ, Google Scholar,
AGRICOLA, ERA, ISC, Citefactor, Rubriq and MyAIS.
AUTHOR SERVICES: We provide a rapid response service to

Call for Papers 2014-15
all our authors, with dedicated support staff for each journal, and a
now accepting submmissions...
point of contact throughout the refereeing and production processes.
Our aim is to ensure that the production process is as smooth as Pertanika invites you to explore frontiers from all key areas of agriculture, science
possible, is borne out by the high number of authors who prefer to and technology to social sciences and humanities.
publish with us.
Original research and review articles are invited from scholars, scientists, professors,
post-docs, and university students who are seeking publishing opportunities for their
CODE OF ETHICS: Our Journal has adopted a Code of Ethics research papers through the Journals three titles; JTAS, JST & JSSH. Preference is given
to ensure that its commitment to integrity is recognized and adhered to the work on leading and innovative research approaches.
to by contributors, editors and reviewers. It warns against plagiarism
and self-plagiarism, and provides guidelines on authorship, Pertanika is a fast track peer-reviewed and open-access academic journal published
by Universiti Putra Malaysia. To date, Pertanika Journals have been indexed by many
copyright and submission, among others.
important databases. Authors may contribute their scientific work by publishing in
UPMs hallmark SCOPUS & ISI indexed journals.
PRESS RELEASES: Landmark academic papers that are
published in Pertanika journals are converted into press releases Our journals are open access - international journals. Researchers worldwide will have
as a unique strategy for increasing visibility of the journal as well full access to all the articles published online and be able to download them with zero
as to make major findings accessible to non-specialist readers. subscription fee.
These press releases are then featured in the universitys UK-based
Pertanika uses online article submission, review and tracking system for quality and
research portal, ResearchSEA, for the perusal of journalists all over
quick review processing backed by Thomson Reuters ScholarOne. Journals provide
the world. rapid publication of research articles through this system.
LAG TIME: The elapsed time from submission to publication for For details on the Guide to Online Submissions, visit
the articles averages 4 to 5 months. A decision on acceptance of a http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/guide_online_submission.php
manuscript is reached in 3 to 4 months (average 14 weeks).
Questions regarding submissions should only be directed to the Chief Executive Editor,
Pertanika Journals.
Remember, Pertanika is the resource to support you in strengthening research and

research management capacity.
An
Award-Winning
International-Malaysian Address your submissions to:
Journal The Chief Executive Editor
MAY 2014 Tel: +603 8947 1622
nayan@upm.my
Journals profile: www.pertanika.upm.edu.my

Science Teaching Styles and Student Intrinsic Motivation: Validating a 335
Structural Model
Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a 345

Malaysian University
Liew Chin Ying, Foo Kien Kheng, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong and
Elinda Lee Ai Lim
Stigma as Part of Identity Development of Gay Men in Penang 365

A Qualitative Study
Felix, M. S.
Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysians Worship of Datuk Gong 379

Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving among 393

Matriculation Students in Penang
Socioeconomic Status, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Sedentary 409

Activity in 7-to 11-year-old Iranian Children
Samad Esmaeilzadeh
Lifelong Learning Model: The Experiences of Malaysian School Teachers 147
Jin Kuan Kok
Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in Penang, Malaysia 165

Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools in 181

Mid-Western Nigeria
Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede and
Austine Itohan Ojugo
Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic 195

Speakers
Restorative Justice In Relation to Collectivism/Individualism, Shyness, and 217

Conflict Resolution Method Preference
Mohamad Taufik Mohamad and Azlinda Azman
Language and Identity: The Impact of a Multilingual Environment on 233

the Personal Identity among German Mother Tongue Speakers Living in
Malaysia
The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System in Kelantan, 257

Malaysia
Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and
Hamidi Ismail
Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths 271

(AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia
Psychometric Properties of the Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction 285

Survey among Malaysian Military Personnel
Ang Chin Siang, Mansor Abu Talib, Rumaya Juhari and
Zainal Madon
Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE and Teamwork 307

in a Malaysian Semiconductor Firm
Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private Higher 321

Learning Education in Klang Valley
Afdzal Aizat Ramli, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin, Zaifudin Zainol and
Turiman Suandi
Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
Vol. 22 (1) Mar. 2014
Contents
Foreword i
Nayan Deep S. Kanwal
Review Paper
1
in Malaysia and Challenges in Provision of Services
Short Communication
The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts Opinions on Developing a 19
Malaysian Garden Identity
Regular Articles
The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils Learning of the English 35
Language
A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid 57

Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and
Paramasivam Muthusamy
Political Cartoons in the First Decade of the Millennium 73
Faiz S. Abdullah
Diversifying the Input and the Outcome: A Case Study 85

Phuong thi Anh Le
The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil in the U.S. 95
Military Intervention in 2003
Exploring Lecturers Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and 119

Demographic Variables in Technical and Vocational Colleges
Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Idris
and Ramli Basri
137
Pertanika Editorial Office, Journal Division

1st Floor, IDEA Tower II
UPM-MTDC Technology Centre
43400 UPM Serdang ISSN 0128-7702
Selangor Darul Ehsan
Malaysia
http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
E-mail: executive_editor.pertanika@upm.my
Tel: +603 8947 1622 / 1619

JSSH Vol. 22 (1) Mar. 2014 (View Full Journal)

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VOL. 22 (1) MAR.

Pertanika is an international peer-reviewed journal devoted to the publication of original papers,

Aims and Scope

Journal Officers: English Language Studies and Applied Jayakaran Mukundan

A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid 57

Political Cartoons in the First Decade of the Millennium 73

Diversifying the Input and the Outcome: A Case Study 85

Exploring Lecturers Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and 119

The Effect of Exposure to Cartoons on Language Proficiency 137

Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in Penang, Malaysia 165

Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools in 181

Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic 195

Restorative Justice In Relation to Collectivism/Individualism, Shyness, and 217

Language and Identity: The Impact of a Multilingual Environment on 233

The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System in Kelantan, 257

Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths 271

Psychometric Properties of the Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction 285

Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE and Teamwork 307

Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private Higher 321

Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a 345

Stigma as Part of Identity Development of Gay Men in Penang 365

Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysians Worship of Datuk Gong 379

Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving among 393

Socioeconomic Status, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Sedentary 409

The research studies, on topics related to linguistics, education, management studies,

Chief Executive Editor

SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

A Review of Definitions and Identifications of Specific Learning

Keywords: Definition, learning disabilities, specific learning disabilities

INTRODUCTION to describe students who puzzled parents

In Malaysia, the Social Welfare The most commonly cited definition

2 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014)

varied conditions, fundamentally without With regards services, in many

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) 3

4 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) 5

6 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) 7

8 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014)

10 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014)

1998). It is of no surprise that special scientific database (Fonseca, 1996; Keogh,

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) 11

with SLD are mandated by the countrys Research on SLD

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Cho, S. S. (2005, July 7). My Son and the National

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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts Opinions on Developing

E-mail addresses: Keywords: Park, garden identity, garden development

ISSN: 0128-7702 Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

INTRODUCTION the future (Helmreich, 2002). According

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made to improve landscape developments Therefore, culture and the cultural

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Therefore, there is an economic potential Selecting Respondents

METHODOLOGY Sample Size

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